the earliest complex human settlements. conceptual and linguistic foundations
TRANSCRIPT
The Earliest Complex The Earliest Complex Human SettlementsHuman Settlements
Conceptual and Linguistic Conceptual and Linguistic FoundationsFoundations
A Goal in UST606A Goal in UST606
►To explain the processes through which To explain the processes through which existing settlements have come about existing settlements have come about
►More specifically, we are interested in More specifically, we are interested in the processes underlying changes in the processes underlying changes in human settlements as they interact human settlements as they interact with their environments through long with their environments through long periods of timeperiods of time
““Changes”Changes”
► Sequences of events that evolve one out of Sequences of events that evolve one out of another over timeanother over time
► Inevitability of…….Inevitability of…….► Evolutionary changeEvolutionary change occurs through occurs through
progressive variations of ancestral forms progressive variations of ancestral forms interacting with their respective interacting with their respective environments (variation, interaction, environments (variation, interaction, selection)selection)
► Processes of change can be “explained” as Processes of change can be “explained” as such only insofar as they are systematic – such only insofar as they are systematic –
Explanation vs. InterpretationExplanation vs. Interpretation
The interpretivist “project” holds that:The interpretivist “project” holds that:(a) social practices, institutions, and (a) social practices, institutions, and behavior are intrinsically meaningful and behavior are intrinsically meaningful and that their meanings are constituted by the that their meanings are constituted by the meanings social actors give to themmeanings social actors give to them(b) social phenomenon can be understood (b) social phenomenon can be understood only by unraveling the meanings that only by unraveling the meanings that constitute themconstitute them(c) causal explanation, inductive (c) causal explanation, inductive generalization, and predictions have little or generalization, and predictions have little or no importance in social scienceno importance in social science
Scientific ExplanationScientific Explanation
►To scientifically explain an event is to To scientifically explain an event is to exhibit it as occupying its place in the exhibit it as occupying its place in the discernible patterns of the worlddiscernible patterns of the world
►““Causal” explanation looks for positive Causal” explanation looks for positive assertions of the form “X occurred, assertions of the form “X occurred, therefore Y had to occur” (positive)therefore Y had to occur” (positive)
►Cybernetic explanation answers why Cybernetic explanation answers why the observed outcome, rather than one the observed outcome, rather than one of the feasible alternatives, occurred of the feasible alternatives, occurred (negative)(negative)
Human Settlement as Human Settlement as SystemSystem
Human settlement
Demographic change
Political change
Economic change
Social change
Technological change
Environmental resources
Locally and historically contingent factors
Built environment
Land uses
Social ecology
Institutions
Artifacts
Inputs Outputs
Generic Structure of a System
Environmental Boundary
Process OutputsInputs
Feedback loop
Environment
Time
Some Systems Theoretic Some Systems Theoretic TermsTerms
►““Open system” – the environmental Open system” – the environmental boundary is permeableboundary is permeable
►““Closed system” – the environmental Closed system” – the environmental boundary is impermeableboundary is impermeable
►““Black box” – the process is unspecifiedBlack box” – the process is unspecified►““Cybernetics” – the study of control, Cybernetics” – the study of control,
organization, and communication of organization, and communication of systemssystems
►Note: According to most cybernetic thinking, Note: According to most cybernetic thinking, a system is an observer’s constructa system is an observer’s construct
““Organization”Organization”
►The system is organized in the sense The system is organized in the sense that it contains relations that define it that it contains relations that define it as a unity, and determine the as a unity, and determine the dynamics of interaction and dynamics of interaction and transformations which it may undergo transformations which it may undergo as such a unityas such a unity
►The relations that define a system The relations that define a system constitute the organization of that constitute the organization of that systemsystem
““Control”Control”►Control is exercised by selection of the Control is exercised by selection of the
mix or level of inputs to the system so mix or level of inputs to the system so as to make the state or outputs as to make the state or outputs change in (or close to) some desired change in (or close to) some desired wayway
►The controller possess a The controller possess a representation of the systemrepresentation of the system
►The representation yields informationThe representation yields information►The controller selects inputs so as to The controller selects inputs so as to
achieve a goalachieve a goal
““Representation”Representation”
► If something stands “in place of” or is If something stands “in place of” or is “chosen to substitute for” something “chosen to substitute for” something else, the former is considered a else, the former is considered a “representation” of the latter “representation” of the latter
►E.g., representation of constituencies E.g., representation of constituencies in government, linguistic in government, linguistic representation of an event using a representation of an event using a symbolsymbol
Selected Principles of Selected Principles of Evolutionary ChangeEvolutionary Change
► Change (progress in human society) is based on a Change (progress in human society) is based on a trial and error process of randomly produced trial and error process of randomly produced variation and “natural selection” of systems at all variation and “natural selection” of systems at all levels of complexitylevels of complexity
► Selection is “natural” in the sense that there is no Selection is “natural” in the sense that there is no actor or purposive system making the actor or purposive system making the selection….. there is no plan or design involvedselection….. there is no plan or design involved
► The "implicit goal" of the selection is The "implicit goal" of the selection is maintenance or reproduction of a configuration at maintenance or reproduction of a configuration at some level of abstraction some level of abstraction
► Higher levels of complexity are generated Higher levels of complexity are generated through processes in which control shifts from through processes in which control shifts from one level of organization to higher levelsone level of organization to higher levels
Changes in Levels of ControlChanges in Levels of Control
►control of position = movement control of position = movement ►control of movement = irritability control of movement = irritability
(simple reflex) (simple reflex) ►control of irritability = (complex) reflex control of irritability = (complex) reflex ►control of reflex = associating control of reflex = associating
(conditional reflex) (conditional reflex) ►control of associating = human thinking control of associating = human thinking ►control of human thinking = culture control of human thinking = culture
““Complex” SettlementsComplex” Settlements
► Complex settlements, by definition, are Complex settlements, by definition, are systems containing a multiplicity of different, systems containing a multiplicity of different, interdependent parts interdependent parts
► Parts may include artifacts, architecture, Parts may include artifacts, architecture, settlement layout, location, economic settlement layout, location, economic specializations, social strata, and so onspecializations, social strata, and so on
► To demonstrate the existence of a complex To demonstrate the existence of a complex settlement system, archeologists must be settlement system, archeologists must be able to (a) identify the parts, (b) demonstrate able to (a) identify the parts, (b) demonstrate that they are different (specialized), and (c) that they are different (specialized), and (c) show that they form an interconnected show that they form an interconnected systemsystem
Precursors to Complex Precursors to Complex Human SettlementsHuman Settlements
Lower PaleolithicLower Paleolithic
► ““Old Stone Age” found in Europe, Asia, and Old Stone Age” found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 700,000-40,000 years agoAfrica, 700,000-40,000 years ago
► First stages, individuals had only one type of First stages, individuals had only one type of tool, stone hand axe, primitive, crudely tool, stone hand axe, primitive, crudely shapedshaped
► Last stages, individuals had two distinct types Last stages, individuals had two distinct types of hand tools, pointers and scrapers, as well of hand tools, pointers and scrapers, as well as object made of bone and horn, and fire was as object made of bone and horn, and fire was universally useduniversally used
► Enormous increase in brain size over the Enormous increase in brain size over the periodperiod
Upper PaleolithicUpper Paleolithic
► 40,000 years ago, with the appearance of modern 40,000 years ago, with the appearance of modern man, man, Homo sapiensHomo sapiens
► At this point nature begins to invest its evolutionary At this point nature begins to invest its evolutionary energy in the culture of human society, not in the energy in the culture of human society, not in the biology of the human individualbiology of the human individual
► First stages, even more types of tools, blades, First stages, even more types of tools, blades, chisels, etc., sewing equipmentchisels, etc., sewing equipment
► In the later stages, throwing spears and other In the later stages, throwing spears and other combination tools appear, using stone and wood combination tools appear, using stone and wood together, shows new cognitive abilities in humans together, shows new cognitive abilities in humans
► Visual art appearedVisual art appeared
Neolithic RevolutionNeolithic Revolution
► About 7,000 year agoAbout 7,000 year ago► Different cultures started showing diversity Different cultures started showing diversity
and specializationand specialization► Great advances in clothing and constructionGreat advances in clothing and construction► Greatest change in transition from hunter-Greatest change in transition from hunter-
gatherers to livestock herding and farminggatherers to livestock herding and farming► Grew wheat, rye, oats and domesticated Grew wheat, rye, oats and domesticated
dogs, pigs, cattle, sheep, and goatsdogs, pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats
Age of MetalAge of Metal
►Started about 4,000 BC Started about 4,000 BC ►Characterized by use of metal in tools Characterized by use of metal in tools
and tool productionand tool production►Bronze, then iron, then various kinds of Bronze, then iron, then various kinds of
steelsteel►Eventually gave rise to other materials, Eventually gave rise to other materials,
like rubber, paper, glass, leather, so like rubber, paper, glass, leather, so sometimes called age of materialssometimes called age of materials
Somewhere Along the Way: Somewhere Along the Way: The Emergence of the The Emergence of the
Language of Relationships Language of Relationships
►Responses to complex phenomenon Responses to complex phenomenon demand the language of relationshipsdemand the language of relationships
►Language thus somehow developed Language thus somehow developed for describing world not as an for describing world not as an aggregate of objects that posses aggregate of objects that posses certain attributes, but rather as an certain attributes, but rather as an aggregate of objects that stand in aggregate of objects that stand in certain relations to one anothercertain relations to one another
Relational Language Enabled Relational Language Enabled Conscious ThoughtConscious Thought
► At any given time, humans are only able to access At any given time, humans are only able to access a certain number of representations to think about, a certain number of representations to think about, our consciousnessour consciousness
► This consciousness is usually regulated by us to This consciousness is usually regulated by us to adapt to our environment (e.g. prioritize stimuli)adapt to our environment (e.g. prioritize stimuli)
► ““Linguistic representation” occurs when we picture Linguistic representation” occurs when we picture a certain word, and bring it into our consciousnessa certain word, and bring it into our consciousness
► Thinking is a stream of linguistic representations in Thinking is a stream of linguistic representations in which associations are controlled which associations are controlled
► The crucial distinguishing feature in human thinking The crucial distinguishing feature in human thinking is the presence of control of associations, which is the presence of control of associations, which manifest itself above all as a capability for manifest itself above all as a capability for imagination imagination
From Primitive to Modern From Primitive to Modern ThinkingThinking
► Difference between primitive and modern Difference between primitive and modern thought -- primitive people explain the world thought -- primitive people explain the world through invisible phenomena, supernatural through invisible phenomena, supernatural beings, animism, in which mystics force beings, animism, in which mystics force existed between objects and their images or existed between objects and their images or namesnames
► The transition to modern thinking is The transition to modern thinking is characterized by an emergence of linguistic characterized by an emergence of linguistic activity directed to linguistic activityactivity directed to linguistic activity
► Modern thinking understands language as Modern thinking understands language as models and associations, and this allows not models and associations, and this allows not only observation, but also critical thinkingonly observation, but also critical thinking
Primitive ThinkingPrimitive Thinking
► Redirection of language toward itself creates Redirection of language toward itself creates a stairway effect: each level of logical a stairway effect: each level of logical (language) thinking, which has emerged as a (language) thinking, which has emerged as a result of analysis of logical thinking, becomes, result of analysis of logical thinking, becomes, in its turn, an object of logical analysisin its turn, an object of logical analysis
► Thus, some words (and combinations of Thus, some words (and combinations of words) may be deemed “meaningless” words) may be deemed “meaningless”
► Because primitive people were unable to Because primitive people were unable to make their representations an object of make their representations an object of analysis, thus they could not have analysis, thus they could not have meaningless words……..”meaningless words……..”
Mathematics: A Milestone in Mathematics: A Milestone in the the
Natural History of Homo Natural History of Homo sapiens sapiens
► Enables formal reasoning through Enables formal reasoning through relationshipsrelationships
► A necessary precondition for the A necessary precondition for the development of all coherent, systematic, development of all coherent, systematic, cognitively-significant organization of cognitively-significant organization of information in such a way as to guide information in such a way as to guide purposive interaction with the worldpurposive interaction with the world
► Without quantitative reasoning we could Without quantitative reasoning we could not have markets, industrial production, not have markets, industrial production, scientific knowledge, or any calculated scientific knowledge, or any calculated action which requires gathering, storing, action which requires gathering, storing, processing, and/or presenting information processing, and/or presenting information
Mathematics Before the Mathematics Before the Greeks Greeks
► Egyptians: developed capacity to count and Egyptians: developed capacity to count and measure measure
► Greeks: invented number notation in the 8th Greeks: invented number notation in the 8th century BCcentury BC
► Babylonians: specified a place-value systemBabylonians: specified a place-value system► These capacities enabled individuals to These capacities enabled individuals to
psychologically represent and fix the psychologically represent and fix the attributes of definite material objects through attributes of definite material objects through the systematic assignment of numerals to the systematic assignment of numerals to themthem
Thales to GThales to Göödeldel
► Thales: development of the idea of a geometric Thales: development of the idea of a geometric “proof”“proof”
► Descartes: laid the foundation for describing Descartes: laid the foundation for describing phenomena of reality by means of formalized phenomena of reality by means of formalized symbolic languagesymbolic language
► Bourbaki: defined “formal languages” and Bourbaki: defined “formal languages” and explained how to use formal languages to ensure explained how to use formal languages to ensure correct and reliable thought correct and reliable thought
► GGöödel: (incompleteness theorems) showed that it is del: (incompleteness theorems) showed that it is impossible to obtain a complete and consistent set impossible to obtain a complete and consistent set of axioms for mathematicsof axioms for mathematics
The Logic of Godel’s The Logic of Godel’s Theorems Theorems
► Someone introduces Godel to a Universal Truth Someone introduces Godel to a Universal Truth Machine (UTM), capable of truly answering any Machine (UTM), capable of truly answering any question at allquestion at all
► Godel asks for the program and the circuit design. It is Godel asks for the program and the circuit design. It is complicated, but finitely long. Call it P(UTM)complicated, but finitely long. Call it P(UTM)
► Godel writes out the following sentence: “P(UTM) will Godel writes out the following sentence: “P(UTM) will never say that this sentence is true.” Call this never say that this sentence is true.” Call this sentence G. Note that G is the same as “UTM will sentence G. Note that G is the same as “UTM will never say G is true”never say G is true”
► Godel says, “I know a truth that UTM can never utter” Godel says, “I know a truth that UTM can never utter” and he proceeds to ask UTM whether G is true or notand he proceeds to ask UTM whether G is true or not
► UTM will never say G is trueUTM will never say G is true► Therefore UTM is not truly universalTherefore UTM is not truly universal
Recent Developments in Recent Developments in MathematicsMathematics
►Help to understand our thoughts about Help to understand our thoughts about "non-existent" objects (e.g. linguistic "non-existent" objects (e.g. linguistic symbols and incorporeal intelligibles), symbols and incorporeal intelligibles), negatives, and imaginary numbersnegatives, and imaginary numbers
►Useful in collective decision-making Useful in collective decision-making (e.g. computer/human interface)(e.g. computer/human interface)
►Useful in anti-terrorism and other Useful in anti-terrorism and other operations research and management operations research and management science applicationsscience applications
The Linguistic Evolution of The Linguistic Evolution of ScienceScience
► The organization of matter is constantly The organization of matter is constantly growing more complexgrowing more complex
► Complex organization culminates in the Complex organization culminates in the human intellecthuman intellect
► Science is the highest level of the hierarchy Science is the highest level of the hierarchy in the organization of matterin the organization of matter
► The scientific method has enabled a The scientific method has enabled a “stairway effect” in the production of “stairway effect” in the production of knowledge (e.g. baby climbing the stairs -- knowledge (e.g. baby climbing the stairs -- once the baby is able to climb the first step, once the baby is able to climb the first step, it can climb them all)it can climb them all)
Scientific Control of Scientific Control of SocietySociety
► The problems of controlling science are now, The problems of controlling science are now, given the state of scientific knowledge, given the state of scientific knowledge, inseparable from the problems of controlling inseparable from the problems of controlling society as a wholesociety as a whole
► How, then, do we scientifically control society?How, then, do we scientifically control society?► NotNot by creating mechanisms for rigidly by creating mechanisms for rigidly
regulating the behavior of citizens by imposing regulating the behavior of citizens by imposing constraints upon them from withoutconstraints upon them from without
► Rather, by release of the human spiritual Rather, by release of the human spiritual potentialpotential
Integration and FreedomIntegration and Freedom
► Basic contradiction between the necessity of Basic contradiction between the necessity of including the human being in the social system as a including the human being in the social system as a product of biology and culture, one on hand, and product of biology and culture, one on hand, and the necessity of preserving the individual as a free, the necessity of preserving the individual as a free, creative personality on the othercreative personality on the other
► This contradiction has to be resolved in successive, This contradiction has to be resolved in successive, small stepssmall steps
► Achieved through the creation and application of Achieved through the creation and application of scientific knowledgescientific knowledge
► Guiding principle: Do not irreversibly cut off any Guiding principle: Do not irreversibly cut off any possibilitiespossibilities
Earliest Complex Earliest Complex SettlementsSettlements
Factors Contributing to The Factors Contributing to The First Complex SettlementsFirst Complex Settlements
► Population growth Population growth ► Appropriate factors in natural environment--Appropriate factors in natural environment--
topography, climate, natural resources topography, climate, natural resources ► Technology—rudimentary tools and techniques Technology—rudimentary tools and techniques ► Emergence of agricultureEmergence of agriculture► Organization--arrangement of population into Organization--arrangement of population into
functional institutions (e.g. religion, government) functional institutions (e.g. religion, government) ► TradeTrade► Division of labor (agricultural and non-agricultural Division of labor (agricultural and non-agricultural
specialists) specialists) ► Transportation technologies (wheels, domestic Transportation technologies (wheels, domestic
animals)animals)
Complex Settlements become Complex Settlements become “Urbanized” with the Advent “Urbanized” with the Advent
of……of……► Systems of writingSystems of writing► Urban planning (wells, drainage systems, grids)Urban planning (wells, drainage systems, grids)► Public architecturePublic architecture► Systems of weights and measuresSystems of weights and measures► Social stratificationSocial stratification► Political differentiation (the “state”)Political differentiation (the “state”)► Economic specializationEconomic specialization► Bureaucracies (including religious organizations)Bureaucracies (including religious organizations)► MilitariesMilitaries► Emergence of “central place hierarchies”Emergence of “central place hierarchies”
The “Central Place” Organization The “Central Place” Organization of an Urban Systemof an Urban System
A Hierarchical System of Central A Hierarchical System of Central PlacesPlaces
Earliest Traces of Earliest Traces of Civilization?Civilization?
► Mesopotamia: the land between the rivers Mesopotamia: the land between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates…a broad open plain Tigris and Euphrates…a broad open plain surrounded by deserts and, beyond the surrounded by deserts and, beyond the deserts, mountainsdeserts, mountains
► The earliest traces of civilization seem to The earliest traces of civilization seem to have appeared in the region of Sumner, in have appeared in the region of Sumner, in what is now southern Iraq… also possibly in what is now southern Iraq… also possibly in northeastern Syrianortheastern Syria
► 3800 – 3200 B.C. inventions included wheel 3800 – 3200 B.C. inventions included wheel and plow, planting of date, fig, and olive and plow, planting of date, fig, and olive orchards, development of metal casting, orchards, development of metal casting, cuneiform writing, cities with walls, temples, cuneiform writing, cities with walls, temples, kings, kings,
Which Settlements Urbanized Which Settlements Urbanized First?First?
►Could debate all day (to no practical Could debate all day (to no practical avail)avail)
►The Neolithic Revolution occurred, on The Neolithic Revolution occurred, on average, 9,000 – 10,000 years ago average, 9,000 – 10,000 years ago
►Urbanization arose first about 5,000 Urbanization arose first about 5,000 years ago in Mesopotamia and Egypt, years ago in Mesopotamia and Egypt, 4,000 – about 5,000 years ago in the 4,000 – about 5,000 years ago in the Far East, maybe 2,600 years ago in the Far East, maybe 2,600 years ago in the Indus ValleyIndus Valley
A Brief Look at Selected A Brief Look at Selected Early Far Eastern Early Far Eastern
SettlementsSettlements
Early Chinese Settlements Early Chinese Settlements
► Rice domesticated in Jiangxi province around Rice domesticated in Jiangxi province around 10,000 years ago10,000 years ago
► Yangshao and Longshan cultures started in Yangshao and Longshan cultures started in northern China between 6,000 and 7,000 years agonorthern China between 6,000 and 7,000 years ago
► 5,000 years ago people in north China and in 5,000 years ago people in north China and in Sichuan began to mine and smelt copper, tin, and Sichuan began to mine and smelt copper, tin, and other metals and to cast bronze objectsother metals and to cast bronze objects
► The first uncontested and clearly complex society is The first uncontested and clearly complex society is probably associated with the Xia dynasty, near the probably associated with the Xia dynasty, near the confluence of the Yellow and Wei Rivers, a bit over confluence of the Yellow and Wei Rivers, a bit over 4000 years ago4000 years ago
Early Korean SettlementsEarly Korean Settlements
► The earliest known Korean pottery dates The earliest known Korean pottery dates back to 8000 BC or beforeback to 8000 BC or before
► Rice was first cultivated in Korea somewhere Rice was first cultivated in Korea somewhere after 8000 BC after 8000 BC
► A number of settlements such as Amsa-dong A number of settlements such as Amsa-dong and Chitam-ni existed in west–central Korea and Chitam-ni existed in west–central Korea between 3500–2000 BCbetween 3500–2000 BC
► Agricultural societies and the earliest forms Agricultural societies and the earliest forms of social-political complexity emerged 1500–of social-political complexity emerged 1500–300 BC 300 BC
Early Japanese SettlementsEarly Japanese Settlements
► 7,500 B.C. - 250 B. C. (Jomon Period): from 5-6 to 7,500 B.C. - 250 B. C. (Jomon Period): from 5-6 to several dozen dwellings were grouped together in several dozen dwellings were grouped together in horseshoe-shaped settlements, with open, horseshoe-shaped settlements, with open, commons-space in center commons-space in center
► Larger settlements and tools for working soil Larger settlements and tools for working soil indicate crop cultivation toward the middle of this indicate crop cultivation toward the middle of this eraera
► 250 B.C. – 250 A.D. (Yayoi Period) Chinese and 250 B.C. – 250 A.D. (Yayoi Period) Chinese and Korean influences led to the beginnings of rice Korean influences led to the beginnings of rice cultivation, the development of a bronze industry, cultivation, the development of a bronze industry, and the establishment of complex settlementsand the establishment of complex settlements
Mesopotamian CivilizationMesopotamian Civilization
Map of Ancient Mesopotamia
NIPPUR - SACRED CITY OF ENLIL
SUPREME GOD OF SUMER AND AKKAD
Figure. 1 Map of ancient Mesopotamia.
Earliest Traces of Mesopotamian Earliest Traces of Mesopotamian CivilizationCivilization
► Mesopotamia: a broad open plain surrounded by Mesopotamia: a broad open plain surrounded by deserts and, beyond the deserts, mountainsdeserts and, beyond the deserts, mountains
► The earliest traces appeared in the region of The earliest traces appeared in the region of Sumner, in what is now southern Iraq… also Sumner, in what is now southern Iraq… also possibly in northeastern Syria (Tell Hamoukar)possibly in northeastern Syria (Tell Hamoukar)
► Numerous city-states emergedNumerous city-states emerged► Earliest buildings invariably temples (Ziggurats)Earliest buildings invariably temples (Ziggurats)► 3800 – 3200 B.C. inventions included wheel and 3800 – 3200 B.C. inventions included wheel and
plow, planting of date, fig, and olive orchards, plow, planting of date, fig, and olive orchards, development of metal casting, cuneiform writing, development of metal casting, cuneiform writing, cities with walls, temples, kings, cities with walls, temples, kings,
ZigguratsZiggurats
► Originally the temples at the center of each city-Originally the temples at the center of each city-state were built on a platform state were built on a platform
► Later these platform temples evolved into temple-Later these platform temples evolved into temple-towers called ziggurats towers called ziggurats
► The ziggurat was the first major building structure The ziggurat was the first major building structure of the Sumeriansof the Sumerians
► The ziggurat housed each city-state's patron god or The ziggurat housed each city-state's patron god or goddess (they were not places of worship)goddess (they were not places of worship)
► Only priests were permitted inside the zigguratOnly priests were permitted inside the ziggurat► There are 32 known ziggurats around Mesopotamia. There are 32 known ziggurats around Mesopotamia.
Four of them are in Iran, and the rest are mostly in Four of them are in Iran, and the rest are mostly in Iraq. Iraq.
An Ancient Mesopotamian Ziggurat
The Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur
Features of Early Features of Early Sumerian/Mesopotamian Sumerian/Mesopotamian
CultureCulture► People were polytheists: Gods and People were polytheists: Gods and
goddesses had supernatural powersgoddesses had supernatural powers► Religion was pessimistic and fatalistic and Religion was pessimistic and fatalistic and
had no ethical dimensions (Noble)had no ethical dimensions (Noble)► Individual forces of nature were invested Individual forces of nature were invested
with divine powerwith divine power► Laws, issued by priests, kings, and councils Laws, issued by priests, kings, and councils
of notables, were based upon principle that of notables, were based upon principle that all people are subject to law and that law, all people are subject to law and that law, not men, rulenot men, rule
Mesopotamian City-StatesMesopotamian City-States► At first, largely agricultural (wheat, barley, sheep, goats) At first, largely agricultural (wheat, barley, sheep, goats) ► Walled cities with populations of about 25,000 Walled cities with populations of about 25,000 ► Wheeled vehicles Wheeled vehicles ► Houses of dried or fired mud brick Houses of dried or fired mud brick ► Winding streets, narrow and unpaved Winding streets, narrow and unpaved ► Poor sanitation, refuse thrown into streets Poor sanitation, refuse thrown into streets ► Farmers lived just outside city walls within walking distance of Farmers lived just outside city walls within walking distance of
fields fields ► Poor lived at periphery but inside walls Poor lived at periphery but inside walls ► Merchants and craftsman closer to center Merchants and craftsman closer to center ► Nobility, priests, warriors lived at center Nobility, priests, warriors lived at center ► Fire, out of control cooking fires Fire, out of control cooking fires ► Disease, linked to poor sanitation Disease, linked to poor sanitation ► From 2800 – 2350 BC, cFrom 2800 – 2350 BC, constant threat of invasion by enemiesonstant threat of invasion by enemies
Mesopotamian CuneiformMesopotamian Cuneiform
►As city-states' wealth increased, As city-states' wealth increased, government officials realized that an government officials realized that an efficient method of keeping records had efficient method of keeping records had to be developed. to be developed.
►Evolved from simple pictographic Evolved from simple pictographic writing, cuneiform emerged as the writing, cuneiform emerged as the world's first writing system. world's first writing system.
►The term cuneiform means "wedge-The term cuneiform means "wedge-shaped" shaped"
The Code of HammurabiThe Code of Hammurabi
► About 1800 B.C. a city-states named About 1800 B.C. a city-states named Babylon was built, and it was ruled by a king Babylon was built, and it was ruled by a king named Hammurabinamed Hammurabi
► Hammurabi established and provided Hammurabi established and provided uniformity among the areas he conquered uniformity among the areas he conquered using a written code of lawsusing a written code of laws
► Among other things it codified interest rates, Among other things it codified interest rates, fines for 'wrong doing', inheritance rules, fines for 'wrong doing', inheritance rules, and laws concerning how private property is and laws concerning how private property is to be taxed or divided.to be taxed or divided.
► The code did not provide for an opportunity The code did not provide for an opportunity for explanation or justificationfor explanation or justification
Kudur-Lagmer Storming the Town of Canaan
Building the Temple of Warka in the Time of Urukh
Ancient Egyptian CivilizationAncient Egyptian Civilization
The Pyramids at Giza (constructed over 4500 years ago)
The “Gift of the Nile”: The “Gift of the Nile”: EgyptEgypt
► Developed along the banks of the Nile, about Developed along the banks of the Nile, about 750 miles long, but only 5 – 15 miles wide750 miles long, but only 5 – 15 miles wide
► Reported evidence of agriculture going back Reported evidence of agriculture going back as far as 7000 B.C. as far as 7000 B.C.
► As early as 5000 B.C. small agrarian As early as 5000 B.C. small agrarian communities began to drain marshes, irrigate, communities began to drain marshes, irrigate, and plant regular crops (mainly cereal grains)and plant regular crops (mainly cereal grains)
► The need to control irrigation seems to have The need to control irrigation seems to have led to a political unification of the communitiesled to a political unification of the communities
A Scene from the Nile (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
A Scene from the Nile (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
Egyptian Farmland (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
More Egyptian Farmland (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
Still More Egyptian Farmland (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
An Egyptian Village Scene (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
Another Egyptian Village Scene (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
An Egyptian House (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
Another Egyptian House (from the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
Predynastic Period (4500 – 3000 Predynastic Period (4500 – 3000 BC) BC)
► Settlements recorded in Upper EgyptSettlements recorded in Upper Egypt► Most well known: Hierakonpolis (population, Most well known: Hierakonpolis (population,
5000 – 10,000 in 3600 BC)5000 – 10,000 in 3600 BC)► Most settlements remained small and Most settlements remained small and
undifferentiatedundifferentiated► Largely oval huts and underground Largely oval huts and underground
dwellings occupied by people who ate cereal dwellings occupied by people who ate cereal as well as hunting and gatheringas well as hunting and gathering
► Ritual systems and political authority Ritual systems and political authority evolvedevolved
The “Old Kingdom”The “Old Kingdom”
►2695 – 2160 B.C.2695 – 2160 B.C.►The great “Pyramid Age” (symbolized The great “Pyramid Age” (symbolized
by the Great Pyramids and Gizeh)by the Great Pyramids and Gizeh)►An era of great vitality, security and An era of great vitality, security and
prosperity, untroubled by invadersprosperity, untroubled by invaders►A distinctive Egyptian kingship A distinctive Egyptian kingship
(“pharaoh”) arose(“pharaoh”) arose►Retained a largely non-urban Retained a largely non-urban
charactercharacter
An Ancient Egyptian Wall Painting (From the Egyptian Picture Gallery)
Man Kneels before Osiris, Tomb of Pashed
Queen Nefretete
The body was the link to a spiritual existence in the after life
The “Middle Kingdom”The “Middle Kingdom”
► 2025 – 1786 B.C.2025 – 1786 B.C.► Power disbursed somewhat to provincial Power disbursed somewhat to provincial
administrations administrations ► Emphasis moved from exclusive focus on Emphasis moved from exclusive focus on
royal dynasty to nobles and, at times, even royal dynasty to nobles and, at times, even ordinary peopleordinary people
► Temples and religious groups proliferatedTemples and religious groups proliferated► The concept of Ma’at (truth) appearedThe concept of Ma’at (truth) appeared► Around 1700 B.C., Semitic-speaking people Around 1700 B.C., Semitic-speaking people
from Palestine conquered Egypt from Palestine conquered Egypt
The “New Kingdom”The “New Kingdom”
► 1550 – 1075 B.C.1550 – 1075 B.C.► An army from Upper Egypt drove out the An army from Upper Egypt drove out the
conquerorsconquerors► Never wanting to be conquered again, Egypt Never wanting to be conquered again, Egypt
built an empire that extended into built an empire that extended into Mesopotamia and eastern MediterraneanMesopotamia and eastern Mediterranean
► This was a brilliant and cosmopolitan period This was a brilliant and cosmopolitan period which dazzled Greeks, Romans and other which dazzled Greeks, Romans and other visitors to Egyptvisitors to Egypt
Urbanization in the Indus Urbanization in the Indus ValleyValley
Harappan UrbanizationHarappan Urbanization
► Urban life emerged around 2,600 BC along Indus Urban life emerged around 2,600 BC along Indus River in what is now western Pakistan River in what is now western Pakistan
► Important cites included Harappa and Mohenjo-Important cites included Harappa and Mohenjo-DaroDaro
► Streets were straight and laid out in a gridiron Streets were straight and laid out in a gridiron pattern forming rectangular blocks (first cities to pattern forming rectangular blocks (first cities to show signs of planned development) show signs of planned development)
► Precincts/areas distinguished by specific economic Precincts/areas distinguished by specific economic activities activities
► Western edge of city was religious, political and Western edge of city was religious, political and educational center educational center
► Sophisticated, technically advanced culture with Sophisticated, technically advanced culture with high priority on hygiene (world’s first sanitation high priority on hygiene (world’s first sanitation systems for sewerage and trash)systems for sewerage and trash)
The Range of Indus Valley Civilization
Indus River at Mohenjo-daro
The Indus River and "lower town"
Farmlands to the west of Mohenjo-daro
Indus Valley CitiesIndus Valley Cities
► Each city had its own storage area for food. Each city had its own storage area for food. The people grew all kinds of different crops, The people grew all kinds of different crops, including wheat, peas, and dates; and they including wheat, peas, and dates; and they stored the food in the town granary stored the food in the town granary
► Mohenjo-Daro had its own central bath, with Mohenjo-Daro had its own central bath, with several surrounding buildings. This setup several surrounding buildings. This setup resembles the Roman bath, which came resembles the Roman bath, which came much latermuch later
► Most city dwellers appear to have been Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. defined neighborhoods.
Houses and streets in Mohenjo-DaroMohenjo-Daro
More houses and streets in Mohenjo-DaroMohenjo-Daro
Great Bath and Granary
Great Bath
Toilet
A Covered Drain
Harappan TradeHarappan Trade
► Bowls of bronze and silver have been found Bowls of bronze and silver have been found among the remains of these two great cities. among the remains of these two great cities. Neither of these metals was available Neither of these metals was available nearby. This suggests that the ancient nearby. This suggests that the ancient Indians traded with civilizations far away. Indians traded with civilizations far away.
► Trade was also in evidence by materials Trade was also in evidence by materials from distant regions used for constructing from distant regions used for constructing seals, beads and other objectsseals, beads and other objects
Some Essential Features of Some Essential Features of Harappan Culture Harappan Culture
► The houses were mostly the same in size and The houses were mostly the same in size and shape. Each one had walls surrounding a courtyard, shape. Each one had walls surrounding a courtyard, with its own well and bathroom. Pipes led to with its own well and bathroom. Pipes led to sewers. sewers.
► Although some houses were larger than others, all Although some houses were larger than others, all had access to water and drainage facilities had access to water and drainage facilities
► Remarkable for apparent egalitarianism and low Remarkable for apparent egalitarianism and low wealth concentrationwealth concentration
► Lastly, archaeologists have found absolutely no Lastly, archaeologists have found absolutely no evidence of an empire in this area. Other evidence of an empire in this area. Other civilizations at that time had kings and emperors civilizations at that time had kings and emperors (Mesopotamia and Egypt) (Mesopotamia and Egypt)
Questions for DiscussionQuestions for Discussion
► What is a “human settlement”?What is a “human settlement”?► Can principles of evolution explain the Can principles of evolution explain the
variety and extent of human settlements we variety and extent of human settlements we observe today?observe today?
► If so, is it possible that these are the same If so, is it possible that these are the same principles as are used to explain the variety principles as are used to explain the variety and extent of biological organisms we and extent of biological organisms we observe today?observe today?
► Under what conditions, if any, would human Under what conditions, if any, would human settlements fail to exist?settlements fail to exist?
► Why are not all human settlements the same Why are not all human settlements the same size?size?
► Do you think that the current human Do you think that the current human settlements will remain for the indefinite settlements will remain for the indefinite future? What would cause a major change in future? What would cause a major change in the extent of human urbanization?the extent of human urbanization?
► What impact do you expect the World Wide What impact do you expect the World Wide Web and other communications technologies Web and other communications technologies to have on the size of human settlements?to have on the size of human settlements?
► What trends or patterns do we see in the What trends or patterns do we see in the evolution of human settlements today?evolution of human settlements today?