Topic 1 - The Design Process In this topic you will learn about the design process. You will be researching, developing ideas and preparing plans. This Topic will link into the next Topic: Evaluation and your internal investigation. Lesson 1 1.1 The Design Cycle Model and Design Process Designers use models to represent the design cycle and these design cycle models can be simple or complex. The IB Design Cycle Model (DCM) comprises of six stages:

• Identifying or clarifying a need or opportunity • Analyzing, researching and specifying the requirements • Generating ideas and solutions • Developing the chosen solution • Testing and evaluating the chosen solution

The IB Design Cycle Model STAGE 1 Identifying or clarifying a need or opportunity The context of the problem is described and a concise brief is stated. The design process can begin with a problem, an identified need, a market opportunity, a demand, a desire to add value to an existing product, or a response to opportunities presented by technological developments. The initial design problem is a loose collection of constraints, requirements and possibilities. From this, the designer has to make a coherent pattern. The design brief states the intended outcome and the major constraints within which it must be achieved. The Design Brief The design brief is the formal starting point for a new design. It is a statement of the expectations of the design. The brief does not provide the design solution, but is a statement that sets out:

• the design goal (for example, a working prototype to be evaluated in terms of its feasibility for volume production)

• the target market for the product (for example for children, disabled adults) • the major constraints (for example, should comply with new legislation, have fewer working

parts, be cheaper to manufacture) within which it must be achieved • the criteria by which a good design proposal may be achieved (for example, increased

value for money and/or cost-effectiveness for manufacturer). STAGE 2 Analyzing, researching and specifying the requirements Developing the specification from the brief is an evolving process beginning with an initial set of specifications and culminating in a final product specification (PDS) Design specification The design specification justifies the precise requirements of a design. The specification will include a full list of the criteria against which the specification can be evaluated. STAGE 3 Generating ideas and solutions Divergent thinking is used to consider ways in which a problem may be solved. The starting point for the generation of ideas should be the design specification, and proposals should be evaluated against this specification, with evidence of relevant research used to rate the idea in terms of their usefulness. A variety of approaches should be used and different possibilities explored and analysed, before deciding on the most suitable solution.

STAGE 4 Developing Solutions A final concept is developed taking into account the conflicting needs of the manufacturer and the user, and the requirement of the design as set out in the specifications. A complete proposal is developed based upon the research and the designer’s personal ideas. This stage involves detailed drawings (of a style relevant to the task). STAGE 5 Chosen Solution / Realizing the solution A final concept is developed taking into account the conflicting needs of the manufacturer and the user, and the requirement of the design as set out in the specifications. A complete proposal is developed based upon the research and the designer’s personal ideas. This stage involves detailed drawings (of a style relevant to the task). STAGE 6 Testing and Evaluation The final outcome is tested and evaluated against the requirements set out in the specification. Recommendations for modifications to the design are made. A reiteration process should now begin.

The Design Process - What is a design brief? The design brief is the formal starting point for the design of a new product. It is a statement of what the product is expected to do. The brief does not provide the design solution, but is a statement of the design problem and sets:

• the design goal • the target market • the major constraints • the criteria by which a good design proposal may be achieved

The design brief sets... Explanation the design goal

the target market

the major constraints

the criteria by which a good design proposal may be achieved

Examples of design briefs.

Look at the example design briefs and for each list the design goal, the target market, the major constraints and the criteria by which a good design proposal may be achieved

The design brief `North Face' is a company specialising in outdoor activities such as hill walking, trekking and climbing. You have been asked to designclothing suitable for these activities. The clothing must be suitable to be manufactured in quantity.

The design goal

The target market

The major constraints

The criteria by which a good design proposal may be achieved

The design brief Electronics are used extensively in the leisure industry and particularly in children's games. You have been asked to design, develop and make a prototype portable game for young children that is based on a popular movie.

The design goal

The target market

The major constraints

The criteria by which a gooddesign proposal may be achieved

r

The design brief Luxury style ice cream is becoming increasingly popular as a dessert or snack. Design and make an imaginative ice cream aimed at families which can be batch produced.

The design goal

The target market

The major constraints

The criteria by which a good design proposal may be achieved

Look at some case studies of designers working in real life situations. http://www.designmuseum.org/design/barber-osgerby http://www.foodforum.org.uk/ffiles/New_Product_Development_2-Inn+Pro+Man+Con-KS4+Post.shtml

Questions 1. Explain why the design cycle model is not a linear process. ______________________________________________________________________

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2. Describe the role of the designer in the design process. ______________________________________________________________________

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3. Describe how designers interact with other members of the design team. How does

the emphasis of the design model vary depending on the designer’s role? ______________________________________________________________________

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4. Explain why the importance of different elements of the design process may vary depending on the design context.

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Lesson 2 Incremental design: Small changes to the design of a product that seem trivial but the cumulative effect over a longer period can be very significant. These steps may have been influenced by changes in manufacturing technique or fashion and result in only superficial changes to the way a product looks or in how it performs. Radical design is where a completely new product is devised by going back to the roots of a problem and thinking about a solution in a different way. Note: Design work often combines incremental and radical thinking. For example, the use of a new material for a product may be a radical leap forward but the product may look very similar to previous products—a tennis racquet made from carbon fibre is a radical development but the shape and form are similar to previous designs.

Radical or incremental design?

Divergent thinking: using creative ability to produce a wide range of possible solutions to a problem. Convergent thinking: the ability to analyse information in order to select an answer from alternatives. Note: The elements of the DCM that reflect convergent and divergent thinking. Convergent thinking is analytical and solution focused, e.g. used at the research stage and during evaluation. Divergent thinking is conceptual and problem focused e.g. used at the ideas generating phase and during development. The design process is a balance between divergent thinking and convergent thinking at different stages in the design process and in different design contexts.

Watch the following video:

Better by Design 04 Shopping Trolley.mpg

While you watch it, look out for key points when the designers use divergent and convergent thinking. Use the table below to make notes as you watch; write down what the designers do, how they communicate and what each method achieves.

Divergent thinking: Convergent thinking:

When the video is over, discuss your observations. Complete the following:

1. At what stages of the design process are divergent and convergent thinking likely to be used? Explain your answer.

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2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method?

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3. How successful has each process been in designing a better shopping trolley? What would you suggest needs to be done next? How would you do it?

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Research ideas for an original bread product. You will be using this research to generate ideas.

Lesson 3

1.1 Generating Ideas

Designers use a wide variety of techniques and strategies to develop ideas during their designing activities. Attribute listing identifies the key attributes of a product or process then enables designers to think of ways to change, modify or improve each attribute. Constructive discontent involves analysing a situation which would benefit from re-design and working out a strategy for improving it. The relevance of constructive discontent for designers; Creative designers are frequently dissatisfied with what exists and want to make the situation better. Adaptation - an existing technology or solution to a problem in one field is used to provide a new idea for a solution in another. The relevance of adaptation for designers; if a problem is in a new context a solution may be found by finding something similar from another context and adapting it. Analogy - Drawing on a similar situation for solutions, e.g. an ultrasonic focusing system for cameras was based on how bats navigate in the dark. The relevance of analogies to designers; Odd, remote or strange analogies help to stimulate the mind in new ways, e.g. "cat's eyes" in the middle of the road or sonar based on communication between marine animals. Brainstorming - Participants use the ideas of others to spark off their own ideas and to build upon and combine ideas to produce new ones. No criticism is allowed, even of the most ridiculous ideas. Brainstorming maybe amongst a group of colleagues, experts or focus groups.

Morphological synthesis is an elaboration of attribute listing. After completing the list of attributes, list them along two sides of a 2D grid. Think creatively about how the attributes can be developed through new ideas in each of the cells to improve the design.

Attribute Listing and Morphological synthesis.

All products have ‘attributes’ or features that are necessary for them to function. Here is an example taken from

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCT_03.htm

‘To use (this) technique(s), firstly list the attributes of the product, service or strategy you are examining. Attributes are parts, properties, qualities or design elements of the thing being looked at. For example, attributes of a pencil would be shaft material, lead material, hardness of lead, width of lead, quality, color, weight, price, etc. A television plot would have attributes of characters, actions, locations, weather, etc. For a marketing strategy you might use attributes of markets open to you, uses of the product, skills you have available, etc.’

(http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCT_03.htm)

Task 1:

What are the attributes of a desk lamp? Don’t think too hard, just make a simple list of the most obvious ones:

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Task 2:

Have a look at the following link to

http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCT_03.htm

Read the page. Are the attributes you have chosen similar? You will see that these attributes have been used to carry out a morphological analysis. The attributes are listed as a row across the top and all the variations for that attributes are listed underneath in columns. This gives designers a means of coming up with new ideas. As the page says…

“Interesting combinations might be:

• Solar powered/battery, medium intensity, daylight bulb - possibly used in clothes shops to allow customers to see the true color of clothes.

• Large hand cranked arc lights - used in developing countries, or far from a mains power supply • A ceramic oil lamp in Roman style - used in themed restaurants, resurrecting the olive oil lamps of

2000 years ago • A normal table lamp designed to be painted, wallpapered or covered in fabric so that it matches

the style of a room perfectly

Some of these might be practical, novel ideas for the lighting manufacturer. Some might not. This is where the manufacturer's experience and market knowledge are important.”

(http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCT_03.htm)

Task 3: Using a product of your own choice or one given by your teacher, produce your own attribute analysis and produce a list of possible product ideas at the end. You could produce this as a spreadsheet.

Discuss why designers use a variety of techniques to develop ideas.

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Lesson 4 and 5

Freehand drawing: the spontaneous representation of ideas on paper without the use of technical aids. Designers use a range of freehand drawings in the early stages of developing ideas to explore shape and form (3D) and constructional details (2D). Annotating freehand drawings - Annotations explain the thinking behind the visual image represented by the drawing. They allow the designer to consider the implications of the ideas for further development.

Use freehand drawing techniques and annotation to you’re your ideas for __________________.

Orthographic drawing: a series of flat views of an object showing it exactly as it is in shape and size. An orthographic drawing usually includes a plan view and front and end elevations but may include additional or auxiliary views. Orthographic drawings are generally drawn in third angle (where the plan view appears at the top of the drawing) or first angle (where the plan is at the bottom).Orthographic drawings are produced at the final solution stage and are used as working drawings for the realization stage. They are often the only form of communication between a designer and a manufacturer. This is how they are produced:

All orthographic drawings show the object from at least three views; the Plan (top), the Front and the End. Sometimes, both ‘ends’ are drawn and the view from the underside is shown as well. This drawing of a house is ‘third angle’ orthographic because the plan is drawn above the front view and the right end is drawn on the right hand side of the page. They are always drawn to scale and must be perfectly aligned. They are often used to show a product in full detail before it is manufactured.

Image from www.tech.plym.ac.uk

If you want to find out more about orthographic drawing, the following site is very helpful:

http://www.technologystudent.com/designpro/ortho1.htm

Isometric drawing - A three-dimensional representation of an object drawn with the horizontal plane at 30°C to the vertical plane.

An isometric drawing depicts the proposed solution in 3D showing shape and form and can be read by anybody i.e. somebody without specialist training can access the information. Exploded isometric drawing – an isometric drawing of an object with more than one component, which depicts how the parts of assemblies fit together. The drawing is exploded to show particular features of the inside of the design or to explain aspects of a component's construction or assembly;

For more info. on exploded views, click here: http://technologystudent.com/despro2/pen2.html

Perspective drawing – is a type of three-dimensional drawing, which realistically represents an object by utilizing foreshortening and vanishing points (usually imaginary ones). The vanishing points generally lie on the horizon or eye line.

Perspective drawings produce a more visually accurate representation of an object and are often used to convey information to none technical people or to produce dramatic effects. Perspective drawings take into account spatial arrangements, e.g. foreshortening, while isometric drawings are constructed to a set angle (60° to the horizontal) they are easier to construct but can sometimes look distorted particularly on large drawings. Three main types of drawing used by the designer are: -

• Isometric / Perspective - For initial ideas and generating an image. • Orthographic - For true views and dimensions. (working Drawing) • Exploded - For hidden detail and assembly instruction. Computer aided design (CAD) the use of computers to aid the design process.

Computer modeling a computer program that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system. Example: Computer Modeling the Effect of Modifying Cake Ingredients.

Computer modeling a computer program that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system. Examples: The following diagram is a model of an electronic circuit. It has been produced using modeling software called ‘Crocodile Technology’. It allows the designer to check that the circuit will work correctly and meet its specification. If you click on the hyperlinks, you can see the circuit working and try adjusting how it performs: Timing circuit –Crocodile Clips. PCB Wizard is used to turn this circuit design into a real circuit board. It works out where each component should be placed , the dimensions of the circuit and the costs of materials and components: Timing circuit – PCB Wizard

Finally, ‘ProDesktop’ allows a product to be designed in virtiual reality. In other words, components can be designed assembled and tested efficiently. It is very useful for developing working drawings and three dimensional views rapidly. The product can be viewed from a variety of angles so the client can get a ‘feel’ for how the product may look in real life. The designer can also quickly change the colour, texture and dimensions of the product to meet the user’s requirements better. One of the major advantages of all forms of CADS is the ability to transfer files globally via the internet so designers, manufacturers and users no longer have to be in physical contact to make design decisions. Outline TWO advantages of using CAD over traditional drawing methods. ______________________________________________________________________

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Outline TWO disadvantages of using CAD over traditional drawing methods. ______________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 6 Algorithm. An algorithm is a set of instructions describing a sequence of events or actions. An example of using an algorithm to communicate a process is a labeled processing block diagram (PBD) sometimes refereed to as a schematic diagram may represent systems, processes and procedures. In functional block diagrams, each block represents a specific part of the system and the arrows on the lines joining the blocks show the direction of information transfer. The name inside the block describes its function. A block diagram is a form of flowchart for a system – useful for analysing complicated electronic systems (correct sequencing is important). Examples:

Flowcharts are a schematic representation of a process.

Draw a simple flow chart using symbols. The correct use of symbols to represent activities is important. Symbols for input / output, process and decision within a flow chart.

Terminator: Start (input) / stop (output)

Process: what needs to be done

Decision: a question with a yes or no answer

Draw a flowchart to show how to make the bread based product. Lesson 7 Models are representations of reality. Crash testing can be carried out safely using different designs and materials. Dangerous procedures can be simulated safely. Hedonic aspects (personal taste or preference) can be considered. Modeling is the working through of ideas or hypothesis by using materials to construct physical models (e.g. TVR car designer), or using computers to generate mathematical, graphical or statistical models. Computer models of 3-D structures mean changes can be made that can be viewed. Physical models and mathematical models. Physical models are made from raw materials and can be handled. Mathematical models use symbols that can be manipulated numerically. A physical or iconic model looks like the intended outcome e.g. concept of a new school built to scale. A mathematical or symbolic model is a 2D diagrammatic drawing or algebraic equation that can represent components or perform mathematical calculations e.g. force diagram for a bridge. Use the Nutrients software to model the nutritional content of the following food product: 100g brown rice 75g pork loin chop (lean + fat) and raw 50g onion (raw) 60g red pepper (raw)

Now modify the formulation of the food product to: o Increase the protein o Decrease the saturated fat o Increase the fibre Nutritionally model your final idea for the bread product.

The advantages and disadvantages of physical and mathematical models. Some advantages to the designer of using physical modeling in a design context are: - When designing a car, a model can help to establish proportions, judge people's reactions to the shape and be used for wind tunnel evaluations. It can also be used to establish the profiles for the pressing tools.

Some advantages to the designer of using mathematical modeling in a design context are: -

Circuit design for a new radio etc. can be established using internationally recognised components and its success can be clearly evaluated because of its standard format. • Time will be saved, as components will not have to be drawn as pictorial

views. • Computer modeling can cheaply model expensive processes such as crash

testing.

Some disadvantages of modeling are: - • The simplicity of a model can lead to aspects being overlooked. • The scale of a model can be misleading when the product is made larger or

smaller. • Mathematical modeling is only as good as the formula it relies on.

• Mathematical models rely on accurate data – "rubbish in rubbish out". • Computer modeling can create delusions of infallibility. Describe THREE advantages of using models as part of the design process. ______________________________________________________________________

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Describe THREE limitations of the use of models in the design process. ______________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 8

Next lesson you will make the bread product.

Key Vocabulary for Unit 1

o Design cycle model

o Design brief

o Design specification

o Incremental design

o Radical design

o Convergent thinking

o Divergent thinking

o Constructive discontent

o Adaptation

o Analogy

o Brainstorming

o Attribute listing

o Morphological synthesis

o Freehand drawing

o Orthographic drawing

o Isometric drawing

o Exploded isometric drawing

o Perspective drawing

o Computer aided design (CAD)

o Computer modeling

o Algorithm

o Flowchart

o Mathematic model

*** END OF TOPIC 1 ***

Checklist: This is what you should know at the end of this unit:

Topic 1: Design process (10 hours) This topic introduces the design cycle model------a fundamental concept underpinning the design process and central to a student understands of design activities. Each element of the design cycle represents how designers progress through the design process to refine the design solution in increasing detail. The topic then moves on to focus on the strategies that designers use to arrive at solutions to problems and the varied nature of the skills and knowledge they need to carry out their activities successfully. The skills identified in this topic should be reflected in the internal assessment (IA) and reinforced throughout the course. 1.1 The design cycle model and the design process 3 hours 1.1.1 Describe how designers use design cycle models to represent the design process. Design may be described in

a variety of ways and degrees of complexity. Some design cycle models are simple and some are more complex. The design process usually consists of successive stages that can be arranged as a systematic cyclical process that eventually converges to produce a solution to a problem.

1.1.2 List the stages in the IB design cyclemodel (DCM).

The DCM comprises six stages, as follows: • identifying or clarifying a need or opportunity • Analyzing, researching and specifying requirements • generating ideas and solutions • developing the chosen solution • realizing the chosen solution •Testing and evaluating the chosen solution.

1.1.3 Describe a design brief.

The design brief is the formal starting point for a new design. It is a statement of the expectations of the design. The brief does not provide the design solution, but is a statement that sets out:

• The design goal (for example, a working prototype to be evaluated in terms of its feasibility for volume production) • The target market for the product (for example, for children, disabled adults) • The major constraints (for example, should comply with new legislation, have fewer working parts, be cheaper to manufacture) within which it must be achieved • The criteria by which a good design proposal may be achieved (for example, increased value for money and/or cost-effectiveness for manufacturer).

1.1.4 Describe the identifying or clarifying a need or opportunity stage of the IB design cycle model. The context of

the problem is described and a concise brief stated. The design process can begin with a problem, an identified need, a market opportunity, a demand, a desire to add value to an existing product, or a response to opportunities presented by technological developments. The initial design problem is a loose collection of constraints, requirements and possibilities. From this, the designer has to make a coherent pattern. The design brief states the intended outcome and the major constraints within which it must be achieved.

1.1.5 Describe a design specification. The design specification justifies the precise requirements of a design. The

specification will include a full list of the criteria against which the specification can be evaluated. 1.1.6 Describe a design specification.- Describe the analyzing, researching and specifying requirements stage of the

IB design cycle model. Developing the specification from the brief is an evolving process beginning with an initial set of specifications and culminating in a final product design specification (PDS).

1.1.7 Describe the generating ideas and solutions stage of the IB design cycle model. Divergent thinking is used to

consider ways in which a problem may be solved. The starting point for the generation of ideas should be the design specification, and proposals should be evaluated against this specification, with evidence of relevant research used to rate the ideas in terms of their usefulness. A variety of approaches should be used and different possibilities explored and analyzed, before deciding on the most suitable solution.

1.1.8 Describe the developing the chosen solution stage of the IB design cycle model. A final concept is developed

taking into account the conflicting needs of the manufacturer and the user, and the requirement of the design as set out in the specifications. A complete proposal is developed based upon the research and the designer’s personal ideas. This stage involves detailed drawings (of a style relevant to the task).

1.1.9 Describe the testing and evaluating the chosen solution stage of the IB design cycle model. The final outcome is

tested and evaluated against the requirements set out in the specification. Recommendations for modifications to the design are made. A reiteration process should now begin.

1.1.10 Explain why the IB design cycle model is not linear and why it is iterative in practice, thus making it

representative of design thought and action. The model emphasizes that designing is not a linear process. Evaluation, for example, will take place at various stages of the process, not just at the end. Similarly, ideas for possible solutions are not only generated the “generating ideas” at stage; some good ideas may develop even as early as the “identifying needs” stage. In practice, it is impossible to separate the stages of the design process as clearly as the model suggests.

1.1.11 Explain the role of the designer in the design process. The designer’s role varies depending on the complexity of

the process and the intended outcome. 1.1.12 Describe how designers interact with others and how the emphasis of the design process varies depending on

the designer’s role. Designers often work as members of a team. Priorities will vary depending on the nature of the activity. For example, the information required by an architect will be different from that required by an engineer.

1.1.13 Explain why elements of the model may differ in importance according to the particular design context.

Depending upon the nature of the problem, not all elements of the cycle carry the same weight in terms of time

allocation and complexity. Points to consider include cost, resources, skills, time, original design specification and product modification.

1.1.14 Define incremental design, radical design, convergent thinking and divergent thinking. 1.1.15 Describe the relationship between incremental design and convergent thinking. 1.1.16 Describe the relationship between radical design and divergent thinking. 1.1.17 Explain how elements of the design model reflect convergent and divergent thinking. Convergent thinking is

analytical and solution focused, for example, during evaluation. Divergent thinking is conceptual and problem-focused, for example, used to generate ideas.

1.1.17 Explain how design work is often a combination of incremental and radical thinking. For example, the use of a

new material for a product may be a radical leap forwards but the product may look very similar to previous products: a tennis racquet made from carbon fibre is a radical development, but the shape and form are similar to previous designs.

1.2 Generating ideas 2 hours 1.2.1 Define constructive discontent. 1.2.2 Identify a design context where constructive discontent has been the primary generator of ideas. 1.2.3 Define adaptation. 1.2.4 Identify a design context where adaptation has been the primary generator of ideas. 1.2.5 Define analogy. 1.2.6 Identify a design context where analogy has been the primary generator of ideas. 1.2.7 Define brainstorming. 1.2.8 Identify a design context where brainstorming has been the primary generator of ideas. 1.2.9 Define attribute listing. 1.2.10 Identify a design context where attribute listing has been the primary generator of ideas. 1.2.11 Define morphological synthesis. 1.2.12 Identify a design context where morphological synthesis has been the primary generator of ideas. 1.2.13 Discuss why designers use a variety of techniques to develop ideas. Actual techniques selected depend upon:

personal choice, design context and time/resources available. 1.3 Communicating ideas 5 hours 1.3.1 Define freehand drawing.

1.3.2 Describe the importance of annotating freehand drawings. Annotations explain the thinking behind the visual image represented by the drawing. They allow the designer to consider the implications of the ideas for further development.

1.3.3 Explain the purpose of two- and three-dimensional (2D and 3D) freehand drawings. Designers use a range of

freehand drawings in the early stages of developing ideas to explore shape and form (3D) and constructional details (2D).

1.3.4 Define orthographic drawing. 1.3.5 Explain the purpose of an orthographic drawing. An orthographic drawing shows details and

dimensions and can be used as a production drawing. 1.3.5 Identify the stage of the design process where orthographic drawings are relevant. Orthographic drawings are

produced at the final solution stage and are used as working drawings in the realization stage. 1.3.6 Identify the stage of the design process where orthographic drawings are relevant. Orthographic drawings are

produced at the final solution stage and are used as working drawings in the realization stage. 1.3.7 Define isometric drawing. 1.3.8 Explain the purpose of an isometric drawing. An isometric drawing depicts the proposed solution in 3D showing

shape and form. 1.3.9 Define exploded isometric drawing. 1.3.10 Explain the purpose of an exploded isometric drawing. The drawing is exploded to show component parts of a

product and/or the sequence of assembly. 1.3.11 Define perspective drawing. 1.3.12 Explain the purpose of perspective drawing. Compare perspective drawings with isometric

drawings. Perspective drawings take into account spatial arrangements, for example, foreshortening, while isometric drawings are constructed to a set angle.

1.3.13 Define computer-aided design (CAD) and computer modeling. 1.3.14 Outline two advantages and two disadvantages of using CAD instead of traditional drawing methods.

Consider the skills required, storage, complexity and styles of the drawings, interfacing with other aspects of information and communication technology (ICT), time, cost and the purpose of the drawings.

1.3.15 Define algorithm. 1.3.16 Describe how an algorithm can be used to communicate a process. For example, consider the operation of a lift.

Correct sequencing is important, with input, process and feedback. 1.3.17 Define flow chart. 1.3.18 Draw a simple flow chart using symbols. 1.3.19 Describe how a flow chart can be used to communicate a process. 1.3.20 Explain the differences between flow charts and algorithms. 1.3.21 Describe models as representations of reality and representing selected features of a design. 1.3.22 Describe a range of physical models. Consider scale model, clay model and prototype.

Refer to a range of modelling materials, for example, clay, card, foam, board, balsa and wood. 1.3.23 Explain the purpose of the various models described in 1.3.22. 1.3.24 Define mathematical model. 1.3.25 Describe the role of spreadsheet software in the development of mathematical models. 1.3.26 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of graphical, physical and mathematical models.

1.3.27 Describe three advantages of using models as part of the design process. Communication with clients, communication with team members, and ability to manipulate ideas better than with drawings.

1.3.28 Describe three limitations of the use of models in the design process. Designers can easily make assumptions

about how accurately a model represents reality: it may not work like the final product or be made of the same material.