THE DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION OF

ENGINEERING

FOUNDATIONS EDlTED BY

The late F.D.C. Henry

BSe ( Eng). PhD. FICE. F AmSocCE FIStructE. FIM tmE. FGS

SECOND EDlTIO

London New York

CHAPMAN ANO HALL

Contributors Preface

CONTENTS

Site investigations aod preliminary considerations F.D.C. Henry

XV II

xix

Introduction l 1.1 Geological considerations 3

1.1.1 Chemical and physical stability of rocks 3 1.1.2 Structural geology in relation to engineering 7 1.1.3 Considerations relating to sedimentary rocks and stratigraphy 18 1.1.4 Rock mechanics 29

1.2 Site investigations 37 1.2.1 Fie/d operations in site investigations 39 1.2.2 Description and classification of rocks and soils 48 1.2.3 Site investigation plans and maps 65 1.2.4 Site p/ate bearing tests 69 1.2.5 Fie/d vane tests 78 1.2.6 Penetration or sounding tesrs 80 1.2.7 Pore-water pressure measurement 82 1.2.8 Pressuremeters 83

1.3 Potentially cowosive environments for foundation materials 85 1.4 SpeciaJ problems relating to particular site conditions 90

L4.1 Foundations on limestone 90 1.4.2 Collapsing and aggregated soils 98 1.4.3 Foundations o n permafrost l O l 1.4.4 Foundations on fil/ 104 1.4.5 Foundations on clays Ll4 1.4.6 Structures in the open sea 119

1.5 Selection of foundation types 123 1.5.1 Site conditions 124 1.5.2 Characteristics of superstructure 124 1.5.3 Methods of excavation and construction 130 1.5.4 Example of the selection of foundation types 13 1

1.6 Philosophical observations on fou ndation engineering 132

v

vi Contents

2 Deformation and groundwater problems in foundation engineering F.D.C. Henry

Introduction 2.1 Deformation characteristics of soi1s and rocks 2.2 Stresses in soi1s

2.2.1 Stresses beneath a poinl load 2.2.2 Calculation of stresses beneath distributed loads 2.2.3 Stress bulbs

2.3 Distribution of bearing stress 2.3.1 Observed and theoretical distributions of bearing stress 2.3.2 Linear distributions of bearing stress

2.4 Sett1ement of foundations on cohesive soi1s 2.4.1 Review of the problem of settlement and related laboratory

tests 2.4.2 Immediate settlement 2.4.3 Consolidation settlemellf 2.4.4 Secondary settlement 2.4.5 Settlement progression

2.5 Sett1ement of foundations on cohesion1ess soi 1s 2.5.1 The use of p/ate bearing tests for predicting settlemem 2.5.2 The use of penetration tests for predicting settlement

2.6 The effect of sett1ement o n su perstructures 2.6.1 The genera/ effects of settlement on superstructures 2.6.2 Classification of settlement effects 2.6.3 Methods of reducing differential settlement 2.6.4 Observations of settlement

2. 7 Fio w of water to exca vations and boreho1es 2.7.1 Permeability 2.7.2 Flow nets 2.7.3 Stability of the jloor of an excavation under the influence of

hydrodynamic pressure 2.7.4 Calculation of discharge of water to excavations and boreholes

3 Stability problems in foundation engineering F.D.C. Henry

lntroduction 3.1 Fai1ure characteristics of soi1s and rocks

3.1.1 Genera/ observations concerning failure of soils and rocks 3.1.2 Failure in cohesionless soils 3.1.3 Failure in cohesive soils 3.1.4 Anisotropy 3.1.5 Sensitivity 3.1.6 Organic content 3.1.7 Specimen size

141

141 142 147 147 150 151 156 156 161 165

165 171 177 181 181 203 203 204 208 208 211 213 214 215 215 2L8

220 227

246

246 247 247 250 252 254 254 257 257

Co11tents vii

3. 1.8 Rate of shearing 258 3. 1.9 Progressive failu re 258 3. l.l O Variation of shear srrengt h wit h depth 259 3. l. l l Further discussion of the properties of stiff jìssured clay!> 26 1

3.2 Ana1ysis of the stabi1i ty of hillsides and banks 264 3.2.1 The classijìcation of fa i/w·es in hillsides aiUI hanks of

coltesive soils 264 3.2.2 Stabilit y analyses 268 3.2.3 Assessment of the stability of s/opes by stability number and

stability coefjìcients 276 3.2.4 Stability of banks of cohesionless soil 280 3.2.5 The application of analytical techniques to the solution of

practical problems 280 3.2.6 Preventative and remedial measures 284

3.3 Bearing capacity of soils 287 3.3.1 Characteristics of bearing failure of soils 287 3.3.2 Estimation of bearing capacity based on the rupture zone

hypothesis 291 3.3.3 Bearing capacity of square and rectangular foundations 297 3.3.4 Bearing capacity of eccentrical/y loaded foundations 298 3.3.5 Bearing capacity of foundations subjected to inclined loads 300 3.3.6 The injluence of groundwater on bearing capacity 300 3.3.7 Additional comments on bearing capacity 303 3.3.8 The bearing capacity of cohesive soil in the undrained state

beneath an embankment 305 3.4 Loca1 overstressing beneath foundations and the bearing capacity

of foundations on a thin 1ayer of cohesive soi1 315 3.4.1 Overstressing in a thick bed of cohesive soil 315 3.4.2 The bearing capacity of a foundation on a thin /ayer of

cohesive so il 3 L 7 3.5 The design of bored piers and pi1es 320 3.6 Bearing capacity of rock 328 3.7 The investigation of fai1ures 330

3. 7.1 Failure of banks and hillsides 33 1 3.7.2 Failure of retaining wal/s 331 3.7.3 Bearing failures beneath foundations 336

4 lndependent foundations 343 A.W. Astili

4. L Generai notes 343 4.2 Transfer of 1oad from co1umn to foo ting 344

4.2.1 Reinforced concrete columns 344 4.2.2 Steel columns 345

4.3 Transfer of 1oad from footing to soil 352

viii Contents

4.3.1 Generai details 352 4.3.2 Eccentricicy abouc one axis 353 4.3.3 Foocings lolllled eccentrically in two directions 355

4.4 Design of reinforced concrete co lumn footings 356 4.4.1 Axial loading 356 4.4.2 Eccentric /oading 361

4.5 Plain concrete foundation blocks 368 4.6 Steel grillage design 370

4.6.1 Concrete encased grillages 370 4.6.2 V ncased grillages 370 4.6.3 Grillage /oaded axially 37 1 4.6.4 Grillages /oaded eccentrically along one axis 372

4.7 Construction of footings 377 4. 7.1 Generai no tes 377 4. 7.2 R einforced concrete 378 4. 7.3 Steel grillages 378

4.8 Cantilever foundations 379 4.9 Steel column bases 380

4.9.1 Generai notes 380 4.9.2 Gusseted bases 381 4.9.3 Slab bases 382

4.10 Steel pedestal bases 385 4.11 Deep foundations 386 4.12 Foundations subjected to overturning moments and uplift 387 4.13 Machine foundations 392

4.13.1 Generai notes 392 4.13.2 Criteria for design 392 4.13.3 The reduction of vibration emanating from machine

foundations 394 4.13.4 Theory of vibrations 397 4.13.5 Ana/ysis of oscillating systems 399

5 Combined foundations 405 A.P.S Selvadurai

Introduction 405 5.1 Generai considerations in the ana lysis of stabi lity and settlement of

combined found ations 406 5.1.1 Bearing capacity 408 5.1.2 Settlement 409

5.2 Idealized soil response for the interaction analysis of combined foundations 410 5.2.1 The Winkler mode/ 41 1 5.2.2 The elastic so/id mode/ 412 5.2.3 Two-parameter models 413

ConLent~ ix

5.2.4 Ine/astic llfl(/ time-dependent .soilmodels 419 5.2.5 Decermination of conscums describing the e/astic: soi/ mode/!; 421

5.3 Continuou s footings 425 5.3.1 Analysi!; of injìnirely lony bewm 426 5.3.2 Three-dimensiona/ ejfects in the infinite beam problem 431 5.3.3 Analysis of finite beams 435 5.3.4 Finite beams 0 11 a Win/.:ler medium 437 5.3.5 Finite beams on a two-paramecer elastic mediwn 451 5.3.6 Finite beams o n an e fa st i c soli d medium 455 5.3.7 Design of concinuous footings 462

5.4 Mat and raft foundations 468 5.4.1 P/ate theories 470 5.4.2 The analysis o.f the infinite p/ate 473 5.4.3 The analysis of finite p/ates 476 5.4.4 Design of ma t foundations 480 5.4.5 Design of raft foundations 483

5.5 Tank found ations 495

6 Earth retaioiog structures aod culverts 502 K. Starzewski

lntroduction 502 6.1 Evaluation of loads on earth retaining structures 502

6.1.1 'f'he of stress 'a t rese' and che concept of 'active' and 'passive' states of limiting equilibrium 503

6. 1.2 M ethods of evaluating /oads o n earth retaining structures due to the self weight of soil 506

6.1.3 Effects of movement and deformation of retaining structures o n total thrust and stress distribution 517

6. 1.4 Pore-water pressure and seepage effects (hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures) 524

6.1.5 Effec ts of surcharge /oads 529 6.1.6 Influence of special effects 532 6.1.7 Physical and mechanica/ properties of soils 534

6.2 Design and construction of retaining walls 536 6.2.1 Stability and serviceabi/icy considerations 537 6.2.2 Mass (gravity} retaining walls 542 6.2.3 R einforced concrete cantilever walls 543 6.2.4 R einforced concrete cotmterfort walls 547 6.2.5 R einforced concrete and mass retaining wa/ls with relieving

slabs 548 6.2.6 Precast reinforced concrete walls 553 6.2.7 Strutted excavations 557 6.2.8 Cantilever and anchored sheet pile walls 56 1

x Contents

6.3 Latera! stresses on the lining of shafts 6.4 Design and construction of culverts

6.4.1 Determination of /oads on culeerts 6.4.2 Design of box section culverrs

7 Cofferdams and caissons l. Greeves

lntroduction 7.1 General review of the type of foundation to be u ed in bad ground

or underwater 7.1.1 Pre/iminary investigation 7. 1.2 Choice of foundation 7.1.3 Cofferdams 7. 1.4 Caissons 7.1.5 Cylinders 7. 1.6 M onoliths

7.2 Types of cofferdam 7.2.1 Gravity typ.zs 7.2.2 Sheeted coferdams 7.2.3 Cofferdams of rock-filled cribs 7.2.4 Cellular cofferdams 7.2.5 Construction of cofferdams 7.2.6 Work carried out in tidal waters

7.3 Design of cofferdams 7.3.1 Genera/ design considerations fo r cofferdams 7.3.2 Cofferdam of one row of sheeting internally braced 7.3.3 Circular cofferdams 7.3.4 Worked example of cofferdam of double row of sheeting 7.3.5 Cofferdam of double row of sheeting with fi lling (Fig. 7.20) 7.3.6 Cellular cofferdams

7.4 Sheet piles 7.4.1 Driving of sheet piles 7.4.2 Water jetting 7.4.3 Cofferdam closure 7.4.4 Circular cofferdams 7.4.5 Extraction of piles 7.4.6 Cutting sheet steel piles 7.4.7 Silent pile driving

7.5 Open and pneumatic caissons 7.6 Construction of cylinders, etc.

7.6.1 Cylinders on land 7.6.2 Cylinder sinking by well sinking methods 7.6.3 Cylinder sinking over water

577 577 578 583

584

584

584 584 584 585 585 586 586 586 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 592 593 595 596 615 617 623 623 626 626 627 627 628 629 629 633 633 634 634

Contents xi

7.6.4 Sealing of caissons 638 7.6.5 Buoyant foundations 641 7.6.6 The construction of monolitlrs 641 7.6.7 The diving bel/ 643

7.7 Underwater concreting 644 7.7. 1 Concrete 644 7. 7.2 Preparation to receive concrete 644 7.7.3 Reinforcement 645 7.7.4 Methods of placing concrete 645 7.7.5 Use of che diving be/l for underwater concreting 647

7.8 The use of compressed ai r in excavation work 648 7.8.1 The effects of compression 11pon workmen 649 7.8.2 U se of compressed air pian t in relation to ground conditions and

safety 650

8 Bearing piles and piling 652 l.A. Rennie

lntroduction 652 8. 1 Types of pile 653 8.2 Displacement piles 657

8.2.1 1ìmber piles 657 8.2.2 Precast concrete piles 658 8.2.3 Prestressed concrete piles 664 8.2.4 Driven cast in p/ace pi/es 665 8.2.5 Steel bearing piles 672 8.2.6 Driving plant and hammers 676 8.2. 7 Pile driving by vibration 678

8.3 Replacement piles 679 8.3.1 Hand augered piles 679 8.3.2 Percussive bored piles 679 8.3.3 Auger bored piles 682

8.4 Bearing capacity and settlement of piles and pile groups 687 8.4.1 Bearing capacity of single piles 687 8.4.2 Dynamic methods of calculating bearing capacity using driving

equations 687 8.4.3 Static methods of calculating bearing capacity 692 8.4.4 Settlement of single piles 7 11 8.4.5 Bearing capacity of pile groups 713 8.4.6 Laterally /oaded piles and pile groups 718 8.4.7 Piles in fil/ and soft soils 720

8.5 Pile caps 722 8.6 Pile testing 727

8.6.1 Functions of a pile test 727

xii Co11tents

8.6.2 M ethods of tesr loading 8.6.3 Mer hods of measuring vertical displacement 8.6.4 T esting procedure 8.6.5 I nterpretation of results 8.6.6. Latera / load and vertical pulling pile tests 8.6.7 Non-destructive pile testing

~.7 afety precaut ions

9 Structures liable to the effects of mining subsidence G.S. Littlejohn

l ntroduction 9.1 Mechanjcs of mining subsidence

9.1.1 History 9.1 .2 Mining Methods 9.1.3 The subsidence diagram 9.1.4 Angle of draw 9.1.5 Criticai area of extraction (area of injluence) 9.1.6 Seam thickness (t ) 9.1.7 Width ofworking (W)

9.1.8 Stowage 9.1.9 Depth of working (D) 9.1.10 W idthfdepth ratio (W/ D) 9.1.11 Geology of the overburden 9.1.12 Old coal workings 9.1.13 Presence of faults 9. 1.14 Estimation of subsidence 9.1.15 Strains and displacements 9.1.16 Travelling or dynamic movements 9.1.17 Slope 9.1.18 Inclined seams 9.1.19 The time factor 9. 1.20 Conclusions

9.2 Surface damage 9.2.1 Generai aspects 9.2.2 Vertical settlemerzts 9.2.3 Horizontal displacements

9.3 Mining precautions against the effects of subsidence 9.3.1 Sterilization 9.3.2 Harmonious mining 9.3.3 Stowing

9.4 Structural precautions against the effects of subsidence 9.4.1 Design for vertical movements 9.4.2 Design for horizontal displacements

728 729 730 733 734 734 738 IO

739

739 740 740 741 742 742 743 744 744 745 746 746 747 748 748 748 75 1 755 757 757 759 763 764 764 765 769 771 77 1 772 775 776 776 787

Contents xiii

9.4.3 C onstructional considerat ions 800 9.5 Monitoring foundation movements 811

9.5.1 Layout of monitoring sw tio11s 812 9.5.2 Fie/d measureme111s 813

9.6 Generai conclusions 817

Bridge abutments aod piers 821

W.J. Walley and J.A. Purk iss

l ntroduction 821 IO. L Preliminary considerations 821

l 0.1.1 Generai considerations 821 10.1.2 Special considerations relating to river bridges 822 10.1.3 Special considerations relating to land bridges 823 l 0.1.4 A est hetic considerar ions 825

10.2 Scour at river bridges 827 10.3 Standard bridge loading 830

10.3.1 Forces common to ali bridges 833 10.3.2 Highway bridge live loading 838 10.3.3 Footway and cycle track live loading 840 10.3.4 Railway bridge live loading 841

10.4 Abutments for simply supported bridge decks 843 10.4.1 Generai considerations 843 10.4.2 Mass concrete, brick and masonry abutments 847 l 0.4.3 R einforced concrete cantilever abutments 847 10.4.4 Reinforced concrete counterfort abutments 849 L0.4.5 R einforced concrete strutted abutments 849 10.4.6 R einforced concrete U-shaped and T-shaped abutments 850 10.4.7 Skeleton abutments and bank seats 852 10.4.8 Counterbalanced and cellular abutments 853

10.5 Abutments for portai frame and arch bridges 854 l 0.5.1 Generai considerations 854 l 0.5.2 Portai frame abutments 855 10.5.3 Arch abutments 855

10.6 Bridge piers 858 10.6.1 T ypes of piers 858 10.6.2 Design considerations 859

10.7 Abutments and piers for moveable bridges 863 10.8 Bridge bearings and articulation systems 866

l 0.8. L I ntroduction 866 10.8.2 Bearing design and performance 869

10.9 Design example. Calculation of design moments and forces for a cantilever abutment 875 l 0.9.1 Basic specijìcation 875 l 0.9.2 Loading (characteristic fo rces per me tre width of abutment) 875

xiv ConleiiiS

10.9.3 Choice of overall proporrions 10.9.4 Adequacy of foundation 10.9.5 Decerminarion of design momencs and forces 10.9.6 Summary of design momencs and shears

876 877 R78

Il Mi cellaneou foundation prob1em K. Elson and D.A. Greenwood

885

ln troduction 885 11.1 De-watering 885 11 .2 Drainage and preloading 889 11 .3 Deep ground improvement by vibration and tamping 890

11.3.1 Vibratory sysrems 891 11.3.2 Soils responsive co vibrarory compacLion 895 11.3.3 Arrangement of vibrarory compacrions 897 11.3.4 Earthquake resistance 899 11.3.5 Design of grave/ columns and sand piles in cohesive soils 899 11.3.6 Application in heterogeneous serata 907 11.3.7 Pracrical constraints 907 11.3.8 Quality contro/ 908 11.3.9 Deep compaction by heavy camping 909 11.3.10 Vibration nuisance and damage to strucwres 915

11 .4 Grouting in geotechnics 916 11.4.1 I njection constraints 918 11.4.2 Site invesrigation 918 11.4.3 T echnique of repetition 919 11.4.4 Grour ho/es and stages 921 11.4.5 Hydrofracture and permeation techniques 923 11.4.6 Effects of consolidation ('bleetf) of particu/are grouts 926 11.4. 7 Filtration 926 11.4.8 Permeation with chemical grouts 927 11.4.9 Permeation limits 929 11.4.10 H ydrofracture 929 11.4.11 Squeeze grouting 931 11.4.12 Examples of grouting reclmiques 93 1 11.4. 13 H ydraulic disp/acement after injection 933 11.4.14 Permanence of grout treatment 934 11.4.15 Toxic ltazards 935 11.4.16 Structural design with groured soils 935 11.4.17 Quality contro/ tesrs 936 11.4.1 8 Grouting equipmenr 937 11.4.19 Mix-in-place methods 939 11.4.20 Grouting contract philosophy 940

11 .5 Diaphragm walls 940 l 1.6 Ground anchors 946

Cunte11LS

11 .6.1 Anchor design 11.6.2 Other design considerations

Il . 7 Pressure of concrete o n formwork l 1.8 Generai review of underpinning

11.8.1 U nderpinning mechods 11 .8.2 Examples of underpinning 11.8.3 Moving complete srruccures

Appendix The structural analysis of pile groups F.D.C. Henry

A. l Graphical analysis of pile groups A.l.l Hinged-ended piles A.l.2 Fixed-ended piles

A. 2 Numerica! analysis of pi le g roups A.2. 1 Bending stiffness neglecred A.2.2 Bending stiffness included

References lndex

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947 949 950 956 964 967 970

973

974 975 977 980 982 985

990 1065