the coverage of parapsychology in introductory psychology textbooks 1990-2002
TRANSCRIPT
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The coverage of parapsychology in introductory psychology textbooks: 1990-2002
Journal of Parapsychology, The, Spring, 2003 Vol. 67, p. 167-179
by James McClenon, Miguel Roig, Matthew D. Smith, Gillian Ferrier
ABSTRACT
Content analysis of 3 samples of introductory psychology textbooks published in the 1980s
(N= 64), in the 1990s (N= 32), and for fall 2002 (N= 57) revealed changes in coverage of ESP
and parapsychology Sixty-three percent of the 1980s sample, 54% of the 1990s sample, and
58% of the 2002 sample discussed ESP or parapsychology as a specific topic. The nature of
this coverage varied over time. Authors during the 1980s focused on Rhine's Zener card
research. During the 1990s, there was increased emphasis on ganzfeld research and
Honorton's claim to have developed a replicable experiment. Textbooks in 2002 focused on
skeptical themes, noting failures to replicate ganzfeld studies and criticizing parapsychological
research. In general, the 2002 coverage of parapsychology was inadequate because there was
no discussion of nonganzfeld experiments except when referring to fraud and methodological
inadequacy.
**********
Content analysis of introductory psychology texts provides insights into academic attitudes
toward parapsychology. This study compares findings derived from analyses of introductory
texts from three time periods: 1980-1989, 1990-1999, and 2000-2002. Findings reveal
changing patterns in the information that introductory psychology students learn about ESP
and parapsychology.
The typical introductory psychology student believes in, and is likely to have experienced,
ostensible psychic phenomena. More than half of the general public and about two thirds of
U.S. college students believe in ESP (Clarke, 1991; McClenon, 1994). The majority of people
in the United States report anomalous experiences such as apparitions, ESP, precognitive
dreams, and "contacts with the dead" (McClenon, 1994; Messer & Griggs, 1989). Although the
majority of scientists teaching at U.S. colleges or universities reported they believed ESP to be
a "fact" or a "likely possibility," psychologists and elite scientists tended to be more skeptical
than other scientists (McClenon, 1982, 1984; Wagner & Monnet, 1979).
Because of the prevalence of paranormal belief and experience, we would expect most
introductory psychology textbooks to discuss this topic. A sample of instructors of psychology
classes evaluated "ESP" as 30th in importance among 158 topics pertaining to consciousness
and 173rd among 286 topics pertaining to "sensation and perception" (Landrum, 1993).
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Previous surveys of the discussion of parapsychology in psychology textbooks include Rogo
(1980), Lamal (1989), Roig, Icochea, and Cuzzucoli (1991), and Cormack (1991). Rogo's
(1980) survey concluded that the treatment of parapsychology by authors of introductory
textbooks in the 1970s was poor. Lamal (1989) surveyed 28 introductory psychology
textbooks published between 1984 and 1988 and reported that only 8 texts (29%) included
some coverage of parapsychology. He described neither the quantity nor the quality of
treatment of the field in these texts. A larger review of 64 texts published between 1980 and
1989 revealed that 43 (67%) provided some discussion of parapsychology (Roig et al., 1991).
The marked discrepancy between these results led Roig et al. to reanalyze the 28 texts
surveyed by Lamal. They found that 14 of the textbooks (50%) actually included some
coverage of the topic, 6 more than reported by Lamal. Cormack (1991) reviewed 4 textbooks
published between 1989 and 1990 for their degree of skept icism toward controversial
subjects, including ESP, and found that 3 out of the 4 textbooks provided some coverage.
Cormack later examined 6 additional introductory textbooks and revealed that 3 of them also
provided coverage of ESP. Thus, based on his data, we can conclude that 60% of Cormack's
relatively small sample provided some coverage of parapsychology.
Roig et al. (1991) considered the quality of coverage given to parapsychology and concluded
that textbook coverage was overreliant on secondary sources, generally cursory, and
unrepresentative of parapsychological research. Child (1985) had earlier reported similar
findings noting that certain books written by psychologists, many of whom had taken a
skeptical approach toward parapsychology, had misrepresented the dream-ESP studies
conducted at the Maimonides Medical Center in New York in the 1970s. Other instances of
apparent misrepresentation of parapsychological research have been reported elsewhere (e.g.,
Hansen, 1991; Palmer, Honorton, & Utts, 1988). Because there has been some concern with
the quality of coverage in introductory textbooks of some controversial areas (e.g., Herzog,
1986; Letourneau & Lewis, 1999), including parapsychology (Roig et al., 1991), we believe
that an updated review of the coverage of parapsychology in introductory textbooks is
warranted.
The present study reports a two-part review of parapsychology coverage in introductory
psychology textbooks, building on the earlier analysis of Roig et al. (1991). The first review
consists of an examination of a sample of introductory psychology textbooks published
between 1990 and 1999; the second review consists of all listed introductory textbooks
available for use during the 2002 fall semester.
ANALYSIS STRATEGY
The 1990-1999 review was based on 52 full-length introductory psychology textbooks sent as
review copies to Roig, Smith, Ferrier, or their colleagues in their respective psychology
departments. For the second review, McClenon collected 57 texts based on Koenig and
Griggs's (2002) 58-book compendium of introductory texts available for the 2002 academic
year. Six books on this list were "out of print" during the summer of 2002 but five new
editions of introductory texts were available. As a result, the fall 2002 sample consisted of 57
introductory psychology textbooks.
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Content analysis of the 1990s and 2002 samples followed a procedure similar to that used by
Roig et al. (1991) for their 1980s sample. We searched the index of each text for the terms
ESP, extrasensory perception, paranormal, parapsychology, psychic, and psychical research to
locate relevant page numbers. Our classification criteria for coverage of parapsychology were
somewhat less inclusive than those used by Roigetal. (1991). We classified texts as providing
coverage of parapsychology if there was some substantive discussion of this subject in any
given chapter. If, on the other hand, there was a mere mention of the field or of an ostensible
paranormal process (e.g., telepathy) in a context other than a discussion of the field of
parapsychology or other parapsychological phenomena, then we classified such texts as not
providing coverage. We excluded other topics often classified under the paranormal, such as
astrology and near-death experiences.
In each case, we recorded the approximate number of pages discussing the subject, the
chapter in which it appeared, and the references used in the discussion. Following Roig et al.
(1991), we also estimated the quality of coverage by noting the types of issues discussed (e.g.,
use of terminology, research areas covered, and criticisms of parapsychological research).
RESULTS: EXTENT AND LOCATION OF COVERAGE
Roig et al. (1991) reported that 67% of the 1980s texts mentioned ESP/parapsychology.
During the 1990s, 54% of the texts, and in 2002, 58% of the texts, discussed
ESP/parapsychology. These percentages (Table 1) can be compared with the 50% of texts
Roig et al. found in Lamal's (1989) sample covering this topic.
Various processes may have contributed to the apparent drop in the coverage given to
parapsychology. One variable may be the less inclusive criteria for what constituted coverage
of parapsychology used in the 1990s and 2002 analyses. For example, one text (Eysenck,
1998) used the term parapsychology to refer to a short section that actually described a
mathematical stunt that magicians sometimes use to appear telepathic. Using the revised
standard, we did not consider this discussion as constituting coverage of parapsychology.
Indeed, Roig et al. (1991) coded two texts (i.e., Gazzaniga, 1980; Krech, Crutchfield, Livson,
Wilson, & Parducci, 1982) as providing coverage, even though they made only a passing
reference to parapsychological phenomena. In addition, the 1980s review included one brief
version (Goon, 1985) of a full-length text and one other earlier version of a full-length
textbook (Baron, Byrne, & Kantowitz, 1980). When we adjusted Roig et al.'s (1991) sample to
reflect the revised criteria used in the present study, the previously reported 67% of coverage
dropped to 63%. Therefore, the slightly different criteria do not fully account for the
differences in coverage over the years.
One possible explanation for these variations revolves around the skeptical quality of many
textbook discussions. Discussions in the 1990s tended to regard the topic of ESP as open;
ganzfeld experiments were described as possibly replicable. Skeptical authors and editors may
have chosen to ignore the topic rather than cover such a "controversial" topic. In recent years,
there has been a trend toward fewer introductory texts (Griggs, 1990), with the texts
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becoming more uniform. (This pattern is revealed by the smaller standard deviation of the
pages covering ESP/parapsychology in the 2002 sample; see Table 1.)
As Table 1 indicates, the average number of pages devoted to ESP/parapsychology was 1.91
in the 1980s, 2.73 in the 1990s, and 2.39 in the 2002 sample. As in the 1980s texts, most of
the 1990s textbooks covered ESP/parapsychology in sections tided "Sensation," "Perception,"
or "Sensation and Perception." In the 1990s sample, 82% of those discussing the topic did so
within those sections. In the 2002 sample, 88% of the ESP/parapsychology discussions were
within those sections.
The 2002 sample portrayed greater skepticism than the 1990s sample, illustrated by the texts
providing the most coverage. The most lengthy section in the 1990s sample was an 18-page
chapter titled "Sensation and Parapsychology" from a textbook that was part of the U.K.
sample (Hayes, 1998). This coverage appeared more balanced than many since
parapsychologists' arguments were presented. The most lengthy discussion in the 2002
sample was an 8-page chapter in Mynatt and Doherty's (2002) text titled "There Is No
Credible Evidence for Extrasensory Perception (Or Why Nobody Has Collected Randi's Million
Dollars)." No parapsychologists or authors publishing in parapsychological journals were cited.
RESEARCH AREAS AND CITATION COUNTS
Emphasis on J. B. Rhine's Zener cards declined during the 1990s but became a focus of
skeptical comments in the 2002 sample. Twenty-one of the 1980s textbooks (54% of those
covering parapsychology) discussed Rhine's Zener card research (see Table 2). Zener card
research was described in 8 of the 1990s texts (29% of the texts covering parapsychology)
and in 14 of the 2002 texts (42% of those covering parapsychology). Many discussions in the
2002 texts provided criticisms of Rhine's studies. For example, Coon (2001, p. 229) used
Alcock's (1990) false and misleading statements as a source:
some of Rhine's most dramatic early experiments used badly printed Zener cards that allowed
the symbols to show faintly on the back. It is also very easy to cheat, by marking cards with a
finger nail or by noting marks on the cards caused by normal use.
Although an early producer of Zener cards, designed for mass marketing, manufactured poorly
printed cards, Rhine never used these within formal experiments (Broughton, 1991, p.71).
The 2002 texts contain other equivalent inaccuracies based on skeptical misrepresentations,
implying that much parapsychological research is flawed because of incompetence or fraud.
Bern and Honorton's (1994) review of ganzfeld research in Psychological Bulletin, a flagship
journal of the American Psychological Association, seems a major factor in increasing
awareness of this body of research among psychologists. As Table 2 indicates, ganzfeld
studies were discussed by 3% of the 1980s texts, 82% of the 1990s texts, and 73% of the
2002 texts. This publication was the most frequently cited article in the l990s and 2002
samples. Daryl Bern was a coauthor of one of the most popular introductory psychology texts
in the 1990s and 2002 samples (Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith, Bern, & Nolen-Hockserna, 1996,
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2000). In addition, the author of another text sold in both the United States and Great Britain
(Steinberg, 1998) was the editor of Psychological Bulletin at the time the Bern and Honorton
paper was published. A common theme within the 1990s sample was that further independent
replications were required.
The 2002 texts tended to portray a more skeptical tone. Twenty-one texts cited Milton and
Wiseman's (1999) updated meta-analysis questioning the reliability of the ganzfeld evidence.
Many authors drew skeptical conclusions. For example, Kalat (2002, p. 38) wrote, "In short,
the ganzfeld phenomenon is nonreplicable, just like all previous claims of ESP." Although
parapsychologists argue that existing data indicate that the ganzfeld procedure is replicable
(Bern, Palmer, & Broughton, 2001; Storm & Ertel, 2001), these publications are too recent to
be mentioned in the 2002 texts.
Most introductory psychology texts provide little coverage of nonganzfeld parapsychological
research. For example, only 1 of the 1990s text mentions studies of remote viewing, and 4
refer to studies using random event generators. All together, 7 texts during the 1990s refer to
other research procedures besides Rhine's and Honorton's work. None of the 2002 texts
discuss remote viewing, PK effects on random event generators, or other parapsychological
research programs. The 2002 authors allocated slightly less space for discussion of
parapsychological research; their continuing focus on the ganzfeld controversy resulted in
neglect of other areas. Citation analysis portrays these changes in emphasis. In the 1980s
sample, J. B. Rhine was most frequently cited (Roig et al., 1991). As Rhine is typically
regarded as the pioneer of modem experimental parapsychology, this finding was not
unexpected. Four of the 1990s texts cited work by Rhine and an additional 6 mentioned his
name. The most cited reference in the 1990 s sample was Bern and Honorton's (1994) review
of the ganzfeld research-directly cited in 18 texts.
Table 3 lists the number of 2002 texts citing various authors. Bern and Honorton (1994) was
cited in the most books (24 texts), with 21 discussions citing Milton and Wiseman's (1999)
critical findings. In general, the 2002 texts were skeptical of paranormal claims, reflected by
an imbalance of citation sources. Authors providing evidence indicating the extensiveness of
psi belief and experience (Gallup & Newport, 1991; Messer & Griggs, 1989) were cited 10
times. Authors reviewing experimental evidence supporting of belief in psi (Bern & Honorton,
Honorton, McConnell, Rhine) were cited collectively 39 times. Authors skeptical of these claims
(Milton & Wiseman, Hyrnan, Randi, Blackmore, Hansel, Alcock, Marks, Swets & Bjork) were
cited collectively 94 times. Skeptical positions received roughly 2 times more coverage than
parapsychological claims.
Table 4 lists thejournals most often used as publication outlets by authors cited within the
2002 texts. Discussion of the ganzfeld controversy in Psychological Bulletin accounted for 63
citations. Authors publishing in the popular, nonrefereed Skeptical Inquirer were cited 58
times, whereas those publishing in the Journal of Parapsychology were cited only 22 times.
Frequent citation from the Skeptical Inquirer reveals political and rhe torical qualities within
scientific education because this nonreferred publication advocates particular skeptical
positions (Collins & Pinch, 1982; McClenon, 1984).
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USE OF TERMINOLOGY
Roig et al. (1991) noted that only 8 (19%) of the 1980s texts covering parapsychology
mentioned that psi was the term generally used to refer to the various phenomena studied by
parapsychologists. In the 1990s review, 8 (29%) of the sample texts mentioned psi. In the
2002 sample, 12 books (36%) referred to psi. Most texts identified the various forms of psi
(e.g., telepathy, clairvoyance) and explained that psi referred to processes of information or
energy transfer that were not currently explained in terms of known physical mechanisms. The
term was therefore used appropriately to cover all of the following: ESP, telepathy,
clairvoyance, precognition, and psychokinesis (PK). Authors of some textbooks, however, used
the term psi incorrectly. For example, the authors of one 199 Os text and one 2002 text
equated psi with ESP. One 1990s text incorrectly stated that ESP (and therefore psi)
experiences fell into four general categories: telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and out-of-
body experiences. Authors of two 1990s texts incorrectly stated that PK was a type of ESP.
CRITICISMS OF PARAPSYCHOLOGY
All textbooks discussed criticisms of parapsychological research. The 1990s texts most often
referred to Hyman's (1985, 1994) critiques when discussing ganzfeld research, commenting
that there was still debate over the adequacy of experimental control and replicability of the
findings. Twenty-one of the 2002 texts discussing parapsychology reviewed Milton and
Wiseman's (1999) analysis of failures to replicate ganzfeld experiments. Many authors drew
skeptical conclusions. For example, Wade and Tavris (2000, p. 182) stated, "The history of
research on psychic phenomena has been one of initial enthusiasm followed by disappointment
when research cannot be replicated, and the thousands of studies done since the 1940s have
failed to make a convincing case for ESP."
Texts often discussed fraud in reference to claims by self-proclaimed psychics. This feature
was central to many texts' discussions of psi. In the 1990s sample, 14 texts (44%) mentioned
fraud as a reason to be skeptical of parapsychological findings. Although 9 of the 2002 books
mentioned fraud by research subjects, these texts placed greater emphasis on psychic
performers rather than subjects within experiments. James Randi, who attempts to debunk
these individuals, was cited in 15 books (45% of the 2002 texts discussing parapsychology).
The general tone of these texts is troubling because they misrepresent the typical
parapsychological experiment Most modem parapsychological research has been carried out
with unselected participants under laboratory conditions where the probability of participant
fraud is low (see Hansen, 1990). Another implication of various texts is that parapsychological
researchers engage in fraud (5 books in the 2002 sample discussed fraud by experimenters).
For example, Santrock (2000, p. 143) reviewed Susan Blackmore's accusations of fraud
pertaining to Carl Sargent and noted that "no one has been able to replicate the high hit rates
in Sargent's experiments."
Textbook authors criticized parapsychological research for lack of methodological rigor,
improper statistical analyses, and inadequate randomization of stimulus materials. Four of the
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1990s texts and five of the 2002 texts discussed the "file-drawer problem," referring to the
possibility of publication bias in favor of positive findings and against negative findings. In the
1990s and 2002 samples, only Atkinson et al. (1996, 2000), Smith, Bem, and Nolen-
Hoeksema (2001), and Hayes (1998) countered these claims with reference to the role of
meta-analytic techniques in evaluating this problem. Some texts inferred that
parapsychologists might not be aware of this problem. For example, Baron and Kalsher (2002,
p. 116) stated, "While studies suggesting that psi exists may represent a small sample of all
research conducted on this topic, perhaps only the few experiments yielding positive results
find their way into print; perhaps the many 'failures' are simply not reported."
CONCLUSIONS
Although textbook authors are justifiably concerned that students might accept occult claims
uncritically, it is ironic that these texts place so little emphasis on studies regarding the
psychology of anomalous experience. Within the 2002 sample, 10 texts cite Gallup and
Newport (1991) and 5 texts cite Messer and Griggs (1989), studies indicating the prevalence
of psi experience and belief. Within these discussions, all texts suggest that ESP reports can
be attributed to coincidence and other "normal" processes such as flaws in human memory
and cognitive processing. It is doubtful that these superficial discussions will change beliefs
held by students who have had frequent anomalous experiences.
Two texts note that paranormal beliefs are associated with well-studied cognitive processes
such as confirmation bias and vividness problems (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 1997; Huffman,
Vernoy, & Vernoy, 1997). Yet belief also comes about through direct experience.
Psychologists have long been aware that experiences, in general, have powerful impacts on.
belief. Much evidence indicates that people from all societies during all eras have experienced
similar forms of anomalous perceptions; these experiences affect people's beliefs, shaping folk
traditions regarding the supernatural (Hufford, 1982; McCloenon, 1994). Those who perceive
frequent anomalous episodes tend to develop particularly robust beliefs in spirits, souls, life
after death, and magical abilities (McClenon, 2002). We believe that introductory psychology
textbooks should place greater emphasis on social-psychological studies pertaining to
anomalous experience.
Our data suggest that introductory textbook discussions of parapsychology became more
"balanced" during the 1990s but this tendency declined by 2002. We suspect that the poor
quality of coverage stems, in part, from authors' unfamiliarity with the field of parapsychology
and from a continued overreliance of secondary sources written by skeptical
nonparapsychologists. The relatively rapid change in emphasis after 1999 appears to be the
result of Milton and Wiseman's (1999) article.
The finding that recent introductory textbooks are focusing on only a small domain of
parapsychological research in a manner that supports skeptical conclusions coincides with
arguments from the sociology of science (Collins & Pinch, 1982; McClenon, 1984). Science is a
political and rhetorical process. Although parapsychologists may feel that the evidence they
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generate supports belief in psi, political and rhetorical factors affect the treatment that this
evidence receives.
TABLE 1
COVERAGE OF PARAPSYCHOLOGY IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY TEXTBOOKS
No. of No. (%) Extent of
Time texts providing coverage in pages
period reviewed coverage M SD Mdn Range
1980-1989 62 39 (63%) 1.91 1.09 1.50 0.5-6.0
1990-1999 52 29 (54%) 2.73 3.31 2.00 0.5-18.0
2002 57 33 (58%) 2.39 1.71 1.75 0.4-8.0
TABLE 2
FREQUENCY OF TOPICS COVERED WITH TEXTS
Time period
Topic 1980s 1990s 2002
Zener cards/Rhine 21 8 14
Ganzfeld/Honorton 1 23 24
Other (remote viewing, PK influence 9 7 0
of random event generator, etc.)
Total no. of texts providing coverage 39 28 33
No. of texts in sample 62 52 57
Note. Data for the sample of textbooks from the 1990s were adjusted to
reflect the criteria for selection of textbooks and for coverage used
for the sample of textbooks from the 1990s.
TABLE 3
AUTHORS CITED FIVE OR MORE TIMES IN 2002 TEXTS COVERING PARAPSYCHOLOGY
Authors Times cited
Bern & Honorton 24
Milton & Wiseman 21
Hyman 21
Randi 15
Gallup & Newport 10
Blackmore 9
175
Hansel 8
Alcock 8
Marks 7
Honorton 5
McConnell 5
Rhine 5
Swets & Bjork 5
Messer & Griggs 5
TABLE 4
JOURNAL CITATIONS (5 OR MORE) PERTAINING TO ESP/PARAPSYCHOLOGY
Journal Times cited
Psychological Bulletin 63
Skeptical Inquirer 58
Journal of Parapsychology 22
British Journal of Psychology 12
Teaching of Psychology 7
Journal of Psychology 6
Contemporary Psychology 5
American Psychologist 5
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Department of Social Sciences
Elizabeth City State University
Elizabeth City, NC 27909, USA
MIGUEL ROIG *
* Department of Psychology
Notre Dame Division St. John 's College
St. John's College
179
Staten Island, NY 10301, USA
MATTHEW D. SMITH **
GILLIAN FERRIER **
** Psychology Department
Liverpool Hope University College
Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD
Great Britain
James McClenon analyzed textbooks for the 2002 academic year. Miguel Roig, Matthew D.
Smith, and Gillian Ferrier analyzed data from textbooks published in the United Kingdom and
the United States between 1990 and 1999, and findings were presented at the 108th Annual
Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, in August 2000.
Matthew D. Smith and Gillian Ferrier analyzed a portion of the 1990-1999 data representing
textbooks used in the United Kingdom and presented findings at the 42nd Annual Meeting of
the Parapsychological Association, San Francisco, in August 1999.
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