The context of parental migration and the self-rated health of children in Ghana and Nigeria

V. Cebotari, V. Mazzucato & M. Siegel27 November, 2015

Definitions

• Transnational families - when parents migrate internationally and children are left in the origin country to be raised by a caregiver.

Parents – biological parents

Caregiver – the person responsible for the day-to-day care of the child. This can be the other parent, an extended family member or a non-kin member.

Aim• A. To investigate the relationship between

different contexts of parental absence and child health • We do this by looking at parental migration in combination

with extraordinary family circumstances such as divorce and parental death.

• B. To assess the complexity of life of children left-behind in relation to health• How often children change caregiver, remittances, who is the

parent that migrates and who is the caregiver

Transnational and migration studies• The literature points to: • Difference between maternal and paternal migration• Importance of who the caregiver is• The role of remittances

[Dreby, 2007; Fresnoza-Flot 2009; Schmalzbauer 2004; Parreñas 2005]

Gaps• Qualitative transnational studies: no reference group • Not all transnational characteristics are investigated• Primarily based on adult/caregiver assessments• Double separation• migration + marital dissolution• migration + parental death

• Hardly any comparative studies [Graham & Jordan 2011]

• Focus on L. America and Asia – no African cases.

Internal vs international

Ghana and Nigeria

• Children with parents away (no orphans):• 38% Ghana (GDHS, 2008)• 21% Nigeria (NDHS, 2008)

• The existence and widespread practice of child fostering and social parenthood• No guilt feelings on the part of parents• Children not/less stigmatized by peers/society• Child fostering may be preferred choice

[Coe, 2008; Bledsoe & Sow, 2011]

Data and sample

• 2 twin surveys:• Ghana: N= 2,760; Nigeria: N= 2,168

• High out migration areas• Ghana: the Greater Accra region, Kumasi, Sunyani,

Cape Coast• Nigeria: Ife, Ibadan

• A stratified sampling procedure of junior/senior, public/private and high/low quality schools

Self-rated health

On a scale from 1 to 5 [1 = not good to 5 = very good], how would you rate your own health?

Non-migrant

Internal: together

Abroad: together

Internal: divorced

Abroad: divorced

Internal: deceased

Abroad: deceased

3.7

3.8

3.9

4

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

Ghana

Non-migrant

Internal: together

Abroad: together

Internal: divorced

Abroad: divorced

Internal: deceased

Abroad: deceased

4.15

4.2

4.25

4.3

4.35

4.4

4.45

4.5

4.55

4.6

Nigeria

Complexity of children’s life-1

• Location of the migrant parent and the type of separation: non-migrant, internal/together, internal/divorced, inter’l/together, inter’l/divorced, internal/death, inter’l death.

• Children with parents away and divorced are likely to report decreased health.

• Which migrant parent is absent and who is the caregiver: non-migrant, father away/mother carer, mother away/father carer, both away

• Maternal migration negatively affects child health• This would not be the case when the mothers are the caregivers

Complexity of children’s life-2

• The stability of the child raising arrangement: non-migrant/zero changes, non-migrant/often changes, migrant/zero changes, migrant/often changes

• Frequent changes in caregiver are more likely to decrease child health

• Remittances: non-migrant, migrant/yes, migrant/no

• Children living transnationally and receiving remittances are more likely to have better health

Other measurements• Child characteristics• Age, gender

• family characteristics• Education mother, education father, total nr. of children, younger

siblings,

• Family Process• Quality of child/parent relationship

• Living Conditions• Subjective living conditions, housing conditions

• School type• Low/high quality, public/private

Analytical strategy

• Ordinal probit models• Step-wise inclusion of controls

Results - type of absence

Ghana Nigeria

Location parent(s) and the type of separation

Non-migrant parents - - - - - -

Parent(s) away internally: together -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.16 -0.12 -0.14

Parent(s) away internationally: together 0.08 0.03 0.04 -0.08 -0.08 -0.04

Parents(s) away internally: divorced/separated

-0.18* -0.14 -0.13 -0.31*** -0.33** -0.37***

Parents(s) away internationally: divorced/separated

-0.23* -0.27* -0.27* -0.34* -0.40** -0.36*

Parent away internally: parent deceased -0.15 0.00 0.01 -0.17 -0.21 -0.23

Child age (years) -0.06*** -0.05** -0.06** -0.05*** -0.05*** -0.05**

Child is girl -0.04 -0.05 -0.05 0.02 0.03 0.02

Mother’s education secondary or more 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.06

Father’s education secondary or more 0.10 0.10 -0.01 0.02

Nr. of siblings living with the child -0.02 -0.02 -0.02 -0.02

The child is living with younger siblings 0.05 0.06 -0.02 -0.03

Living conditions are better 0.16** 0.15** 0.37*** 0.35***

Number of People per rooms in the house -0.00 -0.01 -0.06* -0.08**

Distant relationship with parent(s)/caregiver -0.15 -0.15 -0.03 -0.05

Low–quality schools -0.12 -0.01

Private schools -0.13* -0.21**

Results – complexity of children’s life

Ghana NigeriaMigration status and the caregiver              Non-migrant parents -       -    Father abroad, mother caregiver 0.10       0.04    

Mother abroad, father caregiver 0.06       -0.42*    

Both parents abroad, other carer 0.03       -0.08    

Stability of the care arrangement              Non-migrant parents: changed never

  -       -  

Non-migrant parents: changed caregiver > 1

  -0.26**       -0.19  

Parent(s) away: never changed caregiver

  0.06       0.08  

Parent(s) away: changed caregiver > 1

  -0.07       -0.29*  

Remittances              Non-migrant parents:     -       -

Parents away internationally: yes     -0.06       -0.10

Parents away internationally: no     -0.06       -0.17

Other Findings

• Older children -> decreased health• Good living and housing conditions -> better health• Children in private schools -> decreased health

Conclusions• It is important to distinguish between the contexts of parental

absence in relation to child health • The transnational life of children is not unidimensional and

different family arrangements affect children differently and not necessarily in a more negative way• Family unity is key• Stability of the caregiver makes a difference• Family norms around child upbringing are important• Remittances are not crucial

• Children’s perceptions of their own well-being should be considered more in policy responses.

THANK YOU!