the commonwealth forestry association · the commonwealth forestry association patron ... 1924 - 27...

THE COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY ASSOCIATION

PATRON HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN

Past and Present Officers

President 1979 - HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH AND

QUEENSBERRY, KT.

Post Presidents 1921 - 35 H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, KG, KT, KP, GMMG. 1936 - 42 H.R.H. THE DUKE OF KEKT. PC. KG, KT.GCMG. GCVO. 1943 - 56 THE EARL OF ATHLOSE. PC. KG. GCMG, GCB. GCVO. 1957 - 72 THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH AND OL'EESSBERRY. PC. KT. GCVO. ED.

Vice Presidents J.D. BRAZIER, ISO, DSc. J.A. DICKSON, CB. J. WYATT-SMITH. CBE. D.R. JOHNSTON. MA. C.G. LATHAM, MA, CA. M.E.D. POORE, MA, PhD, M1 Biol. R.T. BRADLEY, MA.

Chairman. R.L. NEWMAN, BSc Vice Chairman: P.J. WOOD, MA. Hon. Treasurer: P.G. ADLARD, MA.

Past Chairmen: 1921 - 22 The Rt. Hon. VISCOUNT NOVAR, KT, GCM, PC. 1923 - 24 Colonel The Rt. Hon. LORD COURTHOPE, MC, PC. 1924 - 27 Sir J. STIRLING MAXWELL. Bt. KT. 1927 - 32 Sir P.H. CLUTTERBUCK, CIE, CBE, VD. l933 - 34 Sir 1. STIRLING MAXWELL, Bt, KT. 1934 - 37 The Rt. Hon. VISCOUNT STONEHAVEN, GCMG, DSO, PC. 1938 - 54 The Rt. Hon the EARL OF CLARENDON, KG, GCMG, GCVO, PC 1954 - 59 The Rt. Hon. LORD MILVERTON, GCMG. 1959 - 61 SIR H. CHAMPION, CIE. 1961 - 64 E.B. LATHAM, CBE, MM. 1964 - 72 Sir A. GOSLING, KBE, CB. 1972 - 74 J.A. DICKSON, CB. 1975 - 77 C.G. LATHAM, MA, CA. 1977 - 79 J. WYATT-SMITH, CBE. 1979 - 82 D.R. JOHNSTON, MA. 1982 - 85 J.D. BRAZIER, ISO, PhD. 1985 - 88 M.E.D. POORE, MA, PhD. M1 Biol. 1988 - 90 R.T. BRADLEY, M.A.

Reniohal Vice-chairmen D.GWAZE (Africa) G.L. AINSCOUGH (Americas) P.J. WOOD (Eurooe and Mediterranean) S. SHYAM SUNDER (Indian Subcontinent) R.L. NEWMAN (Pacific)

Executive Committee R.L. NEWMAN (Chairman) P.J. WOOD (Vice-chairman) P.G.A ADLARD (Treasurer) R.D. BARNES R.T. BRADLEY J.D. BRAZIER BUCCLEUCH, The Duke of J. BURLEY M. CLARK J.M. DOBBY P.D. HARDCASTLE G.D. HOLMES R.H. KEMP C.G. LATHAM J.S. McBRIDE D.L. McNEIL F.R. MILLER M.E.D. POORE (3.1. ANIM-KWAPONG (Bangor Student Representative)

Representative on the Standing Committee on Commonwealth Forestry R.T. BRADLEY

Organization of Comrnonwealrh Professional Associations Representative P.J. WOOD

Governing Council P.G. ADLARD (UK) G.L. AINSCOUGH (Canada) J. ANGWENYI (Kenva) R.D. BARNES (UK) ' P.J. BERG (New Zealand) R.T. BRADLEY (UK) J.D. BRAZIER (UK) A.G.J. BROWN (Australia) BUCCLEUCH. The Duke of

T.R. CUTLER (UK) J.M. DOBBY (UK) IS . FERGUSON (Australia) R.G. FLORENCE (Australia) D. GWAZE (Zimbabwe) P D HARDCASTLE (UK) G.D. HOLMES (UK) W.J. HOWARD (UK) D.R. JOHNSTON (UK) R.S. JONES (Jamaica) R.H. KEMP (C'K) G.M. KHATTAK (Pakistan) P.R.O. K10 (Nigeria) J.P. LANLY (FAO) C.G. LATHAM (UK) J.S. McBRIDE (UK) D.L. McNEIL (UK) E.M. MNZAVA (Tanzania) D.O. MODISAGAPE (Botswana) C.H. MURRAY (FAO) R.L. NEWMAN (Australia) M.E.D. POORE (UK) F.L.C. REED (Canada) S.D. RICHARDSON (New Zealand) R.W. ROBERTS (Canada)

S. SHYAMSUNDER (India) J. SPEARS (USA) W.R.J. SUTTON (New Zealand) P.A. WARDLE (FAO) P.J. WOOD (UK) (Vice-Presidents sit as observers on the Governing Council)

Editorial Committee J.D. BRAZIER (Chairman) P G . ADLARD R.D. BARNES A.J. GRAYSON F.R. MILLER J.M. PIPER P.J. WOOD

Desk Editor A.M.D. OKOLE

Administrator E.G. RUTHERFORD

Auditor K.S. WRIGHT,FCA, AT11

Trustees of the Schlich Memorial Trust Fund CHAIRMAN VICE-CHAIRMAN DIRECTOR, OXFORD FORESTRY INSTITUTE

Queen's Award Winners 1988 Dr. J.W. TURNBULL (Australia)

Dr. D. GILMOUR (Australia) runner UD

1989 Dr. S.N. RA1 (~ndiaj Dr. J. PALMER (UK) runner up

All correspondence to: The Commonwealth Forestry Association Oxford Forestry Institute, South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3RB Tel: 0865 275072 Fax: 0865 275074

MISSION STATEMENT OF THE COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY ASSOCIATION

Mission

The Commonwealth Forestry Association has as its mission to promote for the public benefit wise use and excellence in the management of forests in the Commonwealth countries in particular and the world as a whole. This is expressed in its Royal Charter of l921 and 1962.

Objectives

In pursuing the Mission the Association itself and its Branches in various countries will: - Secure general recognition of the beneficial influence of

trees and forests in relation to climate, the conservation of land and water resources and the conservation of wildlife.

- Encourage and foster forest, environmental and forest products policy initiatives which are in the best interests of the world and specific countries in which particular policies are seen to be required.

- Promote such policies judiciously and vigorously in a co-operative fashion with other organizations with similar interests in order to achieve the appropriate goals.

- Communicate accurate scientifically based information, with the cooperation of other international and national organizations, to those in positions of authority and responsibility, and as well to the public at large.

- Provide information which will assist in educating people in basic forest management matters, so that the public come to understand the significance of forests for economic, social and cultural needs.

ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS O F CFA BRANCHES

Organization regional chairmen are ex-officio members of the Na-

A country to have a National Branch with an Executive Committee of not less than four people consisting of a chairman, vice chairman (responsible for membership development), secretary and treasurer and a member responsible for liaison with the staff of the Common- wealth Forestry Review.

A country which has distinctive provinces or states to have two-member committees in each province or state.

An Annual General Meeting is to take place for the purposes of electing both the National Committee and the State or ~iovincial Committees. Notice of such a meeting must be circulated to all members in the country concemed and minutes are to be recorded and an account of funds presented.

A bank account should be opened to keep funds which are raised in the country concemed and which are not part of any fees or dues owing to the CFA as a whole.

The funds in the national account can be expended as desired by the Executive Committee concemed, but belong to the CFA as a whole, and are accountable at the end of each year as part of the financial statement of the CFA as a whole.

There are five Regional Chairmen of the CFA elected each year at the AGM of the CFA as a whole. The

tional Committees of the countries of their region.

The regions are: The Americas Africa Europe and the Mediterranean The Indian Sub Continent Asia and the Pacific

Functions

1. The function of the National Branch is to implement the Charter and Mission statement of the CFA, to uphold the cause of best practice forestry wherever and whenever possible.

2. The Branch is to cooperate with and complement indigenous professional forestry institutes and associations and in no way compete with them.

3. It is desirable to arrange a function nationally at least every year and have a presentation of information or policy which supports the cause of good forest practices.

4. The National Branches should encourage membership of the CFA and communicate regularly with the CFA administrative office in order to provide articles, papers and other information of interest to members generally.

INS- of ECOLOGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

SCHOOL of FORESTRY

MSc/DIPLOMA OPPORTUNITIES The School of Forestry, established in 1889, now forms an integral part of the Institute

of Ecology and Resource Management. The School offers an expanding programme of

MSclDiploma courses on a modular structure which offers flexibility in choice of

subjects. New MSc courses being offered are:

MSc/Diploma in Tree Improvement This course provides the expertise required to conceive and execute tree improvement

programmes for long term and cumulative gain in tropical and temperate species. The

course combines the expertise of the School of Forestry, the Tree Improvement Branch

of the Forestry Authority and the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology. Compulsory modules

are Fundamentals of Tree Improvement and Breeding Strategies and Programme Development, and four may be selected from Clonal firestry, Multi-purpose Tree

Improvement, Tropical Silviculture and Research Methodology, or relevant options from the

existing Resource Management MSc with the approval of the Course Director.

MSc/Diploma in Education in Forestry and Natural Resources

This course is designed for those who are, or wish to become, involved in teaching of

Forestry or other natural resource subjects at a tertiary level. It is taught jointly with

the University Department of Education and Moray House College. Compulsory

modules are firesty Curriculum and Syllabus and Training Course DeY'gn, Management and Evaluation and four may be selected from Trainer-training; Methodology, Echniques and Models Understanding Student Learning, Education in Developing Countries and Adult Education, or relevant options from complementary MSc courses with the approval of

the Course Director.

These courses complement and draw on the existing established MSc programmes in

Resource Management, Principles and Practice of Plant Taxonomy, Human Ecology, Crop Technology and Extension for Rural Development.

For further particulars and application forms, please apply to:

THE DIRECIDR, MSc PROGRAMMES, INSITI[ITE OF ECOLOGY AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT,

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, DARWIN BUILDING, MAYFIELD R O m EDINBURGH EH9 3JU, UNITED KINGDOM.

International telephone + 44 3 1 650 5434.

International Fax + 44 3 1 662 0478. Telex 727442.

Commonwealrh Forestry Review Volume 71 (3141, I992 iii

C.F.A. N4TIONAL BRANCHES AND THEIR COMMITTEES (for contact addresses see page 2 15)

India National Committee Chairman Secretary Treasurer Review Liaison

State Representatives Karnataka

Chairman Secretary

Australia National Committee

Chairman Vice Chairman Secretary/Treasurer Membership

State Representatives ACT Chairman

SecretaryRreasurer Western Australia

Chairman South Australia Chairman

Secretarynreasurer Victoria Chairman

SecretaryRreasurer Tasmania Chairman

SecretaryRreasurer New South Wales

Chairman Secretarynreasurer

Northern Territory Chairman SecretaryRreasurer

Queensland Chairman SecretaryFreasurer

R.G. Florence I.S. Ferguson R.C. Nielsen B.N. Richards

S. Shyam Sunder S.N. Rai B.K. Chakrabarthi S. Parameshwarappa

R.G. Florence R.C. Nielsen S. Shyam Sunder

S.N. Rai J.E.D. Fox T.G.H. Bankes Jamaica

Chairman SecretaryRreasurer

R.S. Jones H.M. Dunphy D.R. Page

I.S. Ferguson P.B. Lavery I.N. Whyte A.J. Warner

Kenya Chairman J. Angwenyi

Lesotho Chairman Secretarynreasurer

B.N. Richards R.G. Bridges

E. Senekane T.J. Green

Malaysia Chairman Vice Chairman

R.J. Hoover I. Awang M.N. Salleh P. ~itzg&ald

T. Ryan K.S. Jennings Malani

Secretarynreasurer G.P. Sakanda Bangladesh Chairman SecretaryRreasurer

S. Anwar 1.U. Ahmad

New Zealai~d Chairman Secretary/Review Liaison

P.J. Berg D. Wije-wardana Barbados

Secretarynreasurer W.S. Chalmers Nigeria Secretarynreasurer P.R.O. Kio Belize

Secretarynreasurer H.C. Flowers Pakistan Secretarynreasurer G.M. Khattak Bot.wana

Chairman D.O. Modisagape Solomon Islaiids Chairman S. Givaro Canada

National Committee Chairman Vice Chairman Membership SecretaryRreasurer Review Liaison

Province Representatives British Columbia

SecretarytTreasurer Alberta

Secretarynreasurer Nova Scotia

Secretarynreasurer Ontario

Secretarynreasurer New Brunswick

Secretarynreasurer Newfoundland

Secretarynreasurer

Sri Lanka Chairman Vice Chairman Secretarynreasurer Membership Review Liaison

R.W. Roberts J. Maini P.J. Murphy G.P. MacQuarrie R.J. Day

K.P. Sri Bharathie K.J.T. Dayananda M.P. Sarath Fernando S.A.D. Kingsley N.S.K. Karunaratne

F.B. Knight F.L.C. Reed Tanzania

Chairman P.J. Murphy E.M. Mnzava

G.P. MacQuarrie

R.J. Day

Trinidad arid Tobago Secretarynreasurer S. Dardaine

Uganda Secretarynreasurer L. Kiwanuka J.C. Lees

UK Chairman Secretarynreasurer Review Liaison

A. Robertson R.T. Bradley D.B. Henderson-Howat F.R. Miller

Gambia Chairman Secretarynreasurer Membership Review Liaison

F. Bojang A.A. Danso M. Jaiteh M. Barrow

USA SecretaryRreasurer R.L. Mar

Vanuatu SecretaryRreasurer Ghana


D.J. Wood E.O. Nsenkyire T.M. Nolan Zimbabwe


D. Gwaze W. Bgoni Guyana

Secretarynreasurer D. Sawh FAO Committee

Chairman SecretaryPreasurer

Hong Kong Secretarynreasurer

C.H. Murray P.A. Wardle T.O. Chan

COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY ASSOCIATION Patron: Her Most Gracious Majesty The Queen

President: His Grace The Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry, K.T.

C.F.A. Administration Office Oxford Forestry Institute South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3RB England

Telephone: 0865 275072 Facsimile: 0865 275074

30 November 1992

To:

HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN AND HEAD OF THE COMMONWEALTH

The Office Bearers and Members of the Association send our loyal greetings and best wishes for the occasion of the 40th year of your reign.

Many of us recall the words you spoke at your accession:

'My whole life whether it be long or short shall be devoted to your service and to the service of our great imperial family'.

All of us have enjoyed the comfort of peace and unity over the years of your reign during which enduring and great developments in the interest of people in the Commonwealth have continued.

The development of democratic nationhood within the Commonwealth has been a great achievement and the forestry and forest products community have been very much part of that.

So we salute you for your dedication to the great cause of the Commonwealth and in our hearts wish you relief from the viccissitudes that currently beset you.

We hope for your continued dedication to us all and the comfort and success it has brought.

We are your loyal supporters.

ROBERT NEWMAN Chairman of the Governing Council of the Commonwealth Forestry Association and resident of the Commonwealth of Australia

The objects of the Association (founded in 1921) are to promote public Interest in and communtcations between all engaged in forestry and to collect and circulate information relating to forestry and the commerwal utilisation of forest products throughout the Commonweelth Nations. These objectives are to be promoted within the general recognition of the beneftcial influence

of trees and forests in relation to climate, the conservation of the land and water resources, and to the COnSeWattOn of wtldlife.

Comntonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (314) 1992 v

Contents

EDITORIAL UNCED, Rio, June 1992 Centre for International Forestry Research CFA Executive Committee Meeting Canadian Branch AGM Canadian Institute of Forestry Annual Meeting Australian Branch Annual Meeting

ANNOUNCEMENTS

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR The Forest Decimal Classification 100th Anniversary of IUFRO

MEMBERSHIP

OBITUARIES R.G.M. Willan A.E. Aitkins

NEWS OF MEMBERS

FORTHCOMING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

AROUND THE WORLD Australia Burundi Europe France Ghana India Italy Myanmar Vanuatu

ARTICLES RICHARDSON, S.D. Sticks and carrots in forest concession management HOWARD, A.F. A diameter class growth model for assessing the sustainability of silvicultural prescriptions

in natural tropical forests AHMED, G.U., SHAH NEWAZ, M.D. and TEMU, A.B. Status and prospects of natural regeneration in the

denuded hills of Chittagong, Bangladesh BHATT, B.P. and TODARIA, N.P. Firewood characteristics of some mountain trees and shrubs NG'ANG'A, F. Strength properties of cypress timber MASUKA, A.J. and KARIWO, P. Sapstain and mould in pine logs in Zimbabwe PHILLIPS, G. Development of site index curves for Eucalyptus rubida Deane et Maiden growing in Lesotho WRIGHT, J.A., GIBSON, G.L. and BARNES, R.D. Variation of stem volume and wood density provenances of

Pinus oocarpa and P. patula spp. tecunumanii at Nzoia, Kenya

BOOK REVIEWS MABBERLEY, D.J. Tropical Rainforest Ecology MARSHALL, A.G. and SWAINE, M.D. (Eds.) Tropical Rain Forest: Disturbance and Recovery Proceedings of ASEAN Seminar: 'Land Use Decisions and Policies:

Will Tropical Forests Survive their Impacts?'

vi Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (314) 1992

MEIDINGER, R. D. and PAJA~, J. (Eds.) Ecosystems of British Columbia ECHENIQUE-MANRIQUE, R. and PLUMFTRE, R.A. A Guide to the Use of Mexican and Belizean Timbers SHEPHERD, G. Managing Africa's Tropical Dry Forests SHIVA, V . , ANDERSON, P., SCHUCKING, H., GRAY, A., LOHMANN, L. and COOPER, D. Biodiversity: Social and

Ecological Perspectives GIERTYCH, M. and MATYAS, CS. (Eds.) Genetics of Scots Pine CAIRNCROSS, F . (Ed.) World Development Report 1992 - Development and the Environment IBAMA Programa nacional de conservacao e desenvolvimento florestal sustentado

NOTICES

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED

INDEX TO ADVERTISERS Edinburgh University Australian Seed Company Nelspot Kymrnene Schaurnan Meyer International Forest Sector Modelling Systems Aberdeen University Australian National University

The Commonwealth Forestry Review V0171 (314) No. 227, SeptemberlDecember 1992

ERRATUM

Front Cover & page v - Contents The title of the article listed against page 197

should be amended to read: "Site index curves for Eucalyptus rubida in Lesotho"

instead of: "Effect of insect damage on germination

of Faidherbia albiiia"

bold itself responsible for any statements or views expressed by the authors of papers, reviews It holds tiie copyright of all origiaal material.

Commonwealrh Forestry Review Volume 71 (34). 1992 137

EDITORIAL

UNCED CONFERENCE, RIO, JUNE 1992

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Devel- opment (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro from 3 - 14 June 1992 was attended by 178 governments and a host of non- governmental organisations. It was the largest conference dealing with environmental matters ever held. Although the event received extensive media coverage, a short statement appears useful.

Partly because of the wide coverage and the involvement of many people with strongly held interests, there was a large build-up of expectations that could never possibly be realised. In practice the outcome in almost every field fell far short of the hopes of most participants. Seven actions were agreed upon and since all of them have, in.some measure, implications for forests, forestry, foresters or forest dwellers they are worth recording. The first two conven- tions noted are legally binding on ratifying countries, while the remainder of the actions represent varying degrees of approval and recommendation for action by either national governments or international agencies.

i Climate change

A treaty recognising the threat posed by rapid climatic change requires countries to report on actions to assess the levels of emission of greenhouse gases. Although the treaty is limited in detailing actions that are legally binding on countries, it represents a definite step in progressing action aimed to diminish or mitigate the effects of climate change. As such it represents a useful start. It may be noted that the convention on reduction of ozone depletion agreed in Vienna in 1985 was the forerunner of an international treaty agreed at Montreal two years later committing nations to definite action on the reduction of emission of ozone deplet- ing chemicals.

ii. Biodiwrsity

The convention on this subject contains nothing which compels countries to protect their wildlife, or, as it has become fashionable to call it, biodiversity. On this subject, the cleavage between developing and developed countries was marked, with particular concern being expressed by the former on the issue of exploitation by drug firms. However provision has been made for developed countries to assist in the conservation of wildlife including plants.

iii. Forest principles

Discussions on the concept of a forest treaty had been relegated from the FAO Committee on Forestry in 1990 to the Rio conference. These discussions showed that there was fundamental disagreement between the group of eco-

nomically important (G7) nations and other countries, nota- bly Malaysia and India, of the G77 group. Differences lay in a number of issues. These ranged from suspicion over the use by developed countries of the clearance of the (princi- pally) tropical forests as a convenient route to reducing anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gas emission, to the straightforward argument about logging being a prerogative of national governments. Apparently paradoxically, countries most willing to ask for the protection of a biodiversity convention were most opposed to the acceptance of limits on forest removal under a forest treaty. The principal intellectual difficulty centres on the difference between the numerous and highly motivated environmentalists and those who regard active economic development as of paramount importance for the countries in which forest clearance is currently so rapid. The scientific and economic bases of the underlying issues are unfortunately commonly submerged in arguments that are emotional on the one hand and plainly commercial on the other. In the event the agreement on a 'non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests' was as far as a divided conference could take the matter. The idea of a forest treaty which checks wasteful and destructive action is as remote as ever.

iv. The Rio Declaration

v. Agenda 21

These two lengthy documents set out principles for environmental protection and sustainable economic development. The second, the agenda for nations' actions into the 21st century, aimed at sustainable economic growth, is a remark- able 'motherhood' type statement running to 500 pages. The contents are sane enough; the failing lies in the fact that they are operationally unrealistic. Neither this nor the declaration has any legal force.

The sections on forestry in Agenda 2 1 include a comprehensive listing under the misleading general title of 'com- batting deforestation' of the following considerations: defi- ciencies in present systems, knowledge or will; desirable objectives; necessary activities; and means of implementation. The topics dealt with are exhaustive. They comprise: sustaining the multiple functions of forests; enhancing the protection of forests as well as rehabilitation and afforestation; promotion of efficient use of forests; and strengthening planning capacities. Reference to FAO as well as other interested UN agencies in conspicuous by its absence in relation to the first two themes.

Sustainable Development Commission

The Conference agreed that a commission should be set up to progress Agenda 2 1 'S proposals. It is intended that this

138 Editorial

body should report to the United Nations' General Assembly through the Un Economic and Social Committee.

Finance

The UN target of publicly financed overseas aid amounting to 0.7% of GNP was restated. However this remains simply a target and the failure to match massively raised expectations with flows from a recession-hit world economy is clear. The Conference Secretariat considered that in order to serve the needs of Agenda 21 $125 billion per year has necessary as additional development aid; however. neither this figure nor its allocation between the individual chapters of Agenda 21 were accepted by governments. In practice only an additional $2.5 billion was pledged at Rio, with vague promises of more to follow, particularly from Japan.

Further developments

The high political importance attached to the Rio meeting means that its concerns will not be forgotten. Environ- mental matters now share the stage with the issues of development economics and security that have so long preoccupied the United Nations. At the same time Western institutions, including non-governmental ones, dominate the environment scene and super-power rivalry no longer determines the agenda. Taken together, these two facts emphasize the importance of ensuring that Western economic power is increasingly paralleled by beneficent influence in the environmental field.

Note: It is intended that the Re&w should report from time to time on significant developments bearing on forestry which arise from these high-level, increasingly politicized debates on the environment. The Editorial Committee welcomes debate on these subjects.

CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY RESEARCH

The Consultative Group for International Agricultural Re- search (CGIAR) decided in 1991 to expand and restructure its research system and to incorporate additional Centres to cater for forestry and agroforestry. in the same year the International Council for Agroforestry Research (ICRAF) joined the CGIAR system and adopted a global mandate. The latest development is that the CGIAR has decided to establish a new centre, the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).

The origin of this important development in international forestry research lies in the two Bellagio Conferences held in 1987 and 1988. Mr. G.D. Holmes, former Director General of the British Forestry Commission, was appointed chairman of the Bellagio Forestry Task Force. This was concerned witH the review of tropical forestry problems at large, ranging from fuelwood shortages to the loss of biodiversity through deforestation. One major theme which

emerged was the need for a strengthening of tropical forestry research. At the 1988 meeting convened by the UNDP, FAO, the World Bank and the Rockefeller Foundation (and noted in the re vie^, at the time (Volume 67(4): 300-302)), it was agreed that an international mechanism was needed 'to stimulate, plan and coordinate an international programme of (forestry) research in a way that gives institutional stability and long-term continuity of financial support'. The Task Force's proposal for a research agenda was agreed and subsequent discussion has centred on the various institutional options for progressing research on tropical forestry.

The CGIAR was chosen as the instrument for the support and conduct of this field of research. The incorporation of these tree related subjects represents a milestone in the history of the Consultative Group. The goal of CGIAR is now:

Through international research and related activities and in partnership with national research systems. to contribute to sustainable improvements in the productivity of agriculture, forestry and fisheries in developing countries in ways that enhance nutrition and well-being, especially for low- income people.

CGIAR began life in 1971. The Group is a multi-faceted organization encompassing co-sponsors, donors, representatives of non-donor developing countries, the international research centres themselves and a Technical Advisory Committee. This last body, the TAC. has the important function of monitoring the quality of the research of each centre. With the addition of CIFOR, CGIAR will have 17 Centres. Total core funding amounted to $232 million in 1991 and member Centres received an additional $52 million in 'complementary' funding. Each Centre is governed by a Board of Trustees. The chairmen of the Board of ICRAF (Mr. Holmes) and of CIFOR (Mr. Bengtsson) are members of each other's board in order to ensure close linkage between the two centres.

The main objectives of CIFOR are intended to be: to increase the understanding of the physical, economic and social environments of present and potential forestry systems in developing countries and the functional relationships between them; to create the potential for sustainable improved productivity of forest systems for the benefit of people in developing countries and to evaluate the alternatives for management, product utilization and marketing policies; to provide analysis, information and advice to assist in making policy decisions about forests and land use; to increase national research capacity in developing countries.

In 1991 the Australian Centre for International Forestry Research (ACIAR) was appointed the executive agency to establish the new forestry centre. It now produces anewssheet, Infoi~esearch, to inform the international forestry community about the development of CIFOR. The following information is taken from Inforesearch No. 4:

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (3/4), 1992 139

Inaugural Board of Trustees

At its midterm meeting in Istanbul in May, the CGIAR endorsed the nominees to the CIFOR Board and the Board met for the first time in Wallingford, England in July. This meeting was an important milestone: CIFOR is now an entity with a recognisable group responsible for steering the center into waters partly charted for it by efforts initiated by the International Task Force with its seminal report in 1988, culminating in the draft outline of the strategic plan prepared by ACIAR with the help of the Contact Group and others this year. ACIAR will continue its establishment role, working in support of the Board until such time as CIFOR is formally constituted and has sufficient staff to function effectively in its own right.

The Board presently comprises 15 members and will increase to 17 with the appointment of the Director General and the nominee from the host country. The members are drawn from the broad constituency of international forestry and represent a balance of regional and disciplinary interests tempered with extensive experience of tropical forestry research and development, and its management. The Board is chaired by Bo Bengtsson and vice chairman is Ronnie de Camino Velozo. Board committees are now actively working on the appointment of a Director General, selection of the host country for CIFOR's headquarters and the programme and budget for 1993. Below are digests of the board members.

Bo Bengtsson (Chairman) from Sweden recently retired as Senior Research Officer with the Agriculture and Rural Development Department of the Swedish Agency for Re- search Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC). He is now Professor in the Department of Crop Production Science, Swedish University of Agricultural Services, Uppsala. Dr. Bengtsson's specialisation is in agronomy and rural Development Research Planning and Management, and he has had extensive experience with the CGIAR.

Suree Bhumibhamon from Thailand is an Associate Professor in the Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry at Kasetsart University, Bangkok. Dr. Bhumibha- mon's many interests cover germplasm conservation, environment, data interpretation, technology transfer, research and development, community forestry and tree farming.

Yves Birot, from France is the Head of the INlRA Forestry Research Department, Avignon and Chairman of the CTFT scientific council. Dr. Birot's specialisation is in genetics and tropical forestry research.

Alan Brown, from Australia is the Chief Research Scientist with the Division of Forestry, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra. His specialisations are silviculture and tree improvement.

Ronnie de Camino Velozo (Vice Chairman) is from Chile and currently holds the position of Invited Professor of the Technological Institute of Costa Rica, San Jose. He is a member of the Scientific Tropical Center, and Professor of the Master Programme Ecology and Peace of the University

of Peace. Areas of specialisation are forest mana&ment and economics.

Louise Fortmann from the United States of America is currently Professor in the Department of Forestry and Re- source Management at the University of California, Berkeley. Dr. Fortmann is a sociologist specialising in natural resource management.

Paulo Galvao from Brazil is currently with EMBRAPA's National Center for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology. Dr. Galvao's specialist areas are silviculture and plant pathology.

Stanley Heckadon-Moreno from Panama is a Research Associate with the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Balboa, specialising in anthropology and rural sociology, previously Director General of the Institute of Natural Re- newable Resources, Panama.

George Holmes from the United Kingdom is the Chair- man of the Board of Management of the Internal Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF); ICRAF and CIFOR will share cross membership of their Boards at Chairman level. Dr. Holmes specialises in research planning and management.

Uma Lele is from India and specialises in development studies and resource economics. She has extensive experience in the World Bank and currently holds the position of Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Food and Resource Economics at the University of Florida.

Jeff Odera from Kenya is the Director and Chief Scien- tist of the Kenya Forestry Research Institute, and specialises in silviculture and entomology.

Salleh Nor is the Director General of the Forest Re- search Institute Malaysia (FRIM), and President of IUFRO. His specialisations are remote sensing, the ecology of natural forests, and conservation.

Satohiki Sasaki, from Japan, specialises in silviculture and tree physiology. Dr. Sasaki is the Professor of Silvicul- ture in the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of Tokyo, and a member of the IUFRO Board.

Hadj Sene from Senegal is the Chief of the Forest Conservation and Wildlands Branch in the Forestry Depart- ment of FAO in Rome. Dr. Sene's specialisation is in forestry development and research planning administration and management with special reference to dry zone problems.

Cornelis Van Tuyll is from the Netherlands and specialises in planning, management and administration. Dr. Van Tuyll is the Senior Adviser of Division, forest management, forest products and conservation of nature at GTZ in Frank- furt/Main Germany.

Institutional Strengthening of National Forest Research Systems

An important component of CIFOR's programme will be the strengthening of NFRSs. These are very weak in many developing countries, even where there is a well developed

industrial forestry sector; the position is worse for community-based forestry or where forestry itself is institutionally weak.

CIFOR's approach may be threefold: through active participation of NFRS staff in ClFOR research projects, through the training of young NFRS scientists through both the project mode and through in-service activities (and even

- perhaps some formal post graduate training), and through the communication and information programme.

The general call for the CGlAR system to move up- stream and be more involved in strategic rather than applied and adaptive research. creates difficulties in developing effective programmes with NFRSs whose capacities for strategic research may be minimal. While there are excep- tions, NFRSs are weaker in this regard than their agricultural counterparts. This makes the planning and execution of an effective programme which meets the expectations of developing countries and at the same time satisfies the stric- tures of the CGIAR, quite a challenge.

In this environment, technology transfer activities become at least as important as the research task itself. lt also calls for a re-definition of strategic research to re-emphasise its "outcomes orientation" wherever it be pursued across the spectrum from basic through applied to adaptive research. with technology transfer operative at all steps involving linkagesbetween scientist-scientist, scientist-extension worker and extension worker-forest manager/land holder.

Over, the next few months, ClFOR will need to grapple with these issues in our strategic planning of the Center and its programmes of research and information. The proposed information project Forest Research Networks lnformation System (FORNIS) will be a key resource in this planning as it will allow assessment of capabilities of NFRSs in both the developing and industrialised worlds and assist in the identification of research and information strategies ClFOR might adopt operationally for strengthening of developing country NFRSs.

Nencwrking Dutu Buses on Tree Growth Potentiul

AClAR have commissioned the Australian Bureau of Rural Resources to prepare a draft project design for TROPIS, the Tree Growth Potential Information System. . .his planned that TROPIS will become a key element in the information s y s m s programme of GIFOR.

TROPlS will be designed to meet the needs of research- ers working on tree introduction and growth potential for piantations and agroforestry in developing countries, giving ready access to both published and unpublished information on species characteristics growth and climatic and site requirements.

Ffollowlng an infonnal meeting of Australian interest $noups to assess their interest in TROPIS, a wider interest gtxwrp of key international organisations (including those above), has btMl invited to cotnment on the concept and

tivcs of the proht and to assist in its development, A

workshop is planned for November. Further information or comment to: Dr. John Pryer,

Bureau of Rural Resources, Department of Primary Indus- tries and Energy, Queen Victoria Terrace, Parkes ACT 2600 AUSTRALIA.

Readers interested in CIFOR and in receiving the newssheet should contact the Coordinator, Ian Bevege, at: ACIAR. GPO Box 157 1 , Canbena ACT 2601. Australia.

CFA EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING

The 182nd Executive Committee Meeting was held at the Zimbabwe High Commission in London on 25 September. The spacious and elegant setting ofthe room provided by'the Commission. with its Greek pillars. high moulded ceiling. gilt edged mirrors. chandeliers and stained glass windows. rather showed up the somewhat drab 20th century costume of committee members. Nothing abashed. they set to with a will. assisted by the Zimbabweans' generous provision of refreshments and writing materials. The response to CFA initiatives in Zimbabwe has been most encouraging and a CFA meeting will be held there early in 1993.

The Treasurer's report showed that financial progress had been made since last year. Although unpaid subscriptions still represented a substantial loss of revenue. good progress had been made in pursuing old debts. However, it was clear that the cost of producing the Rei9ii1w in its new format was'greater than the original budget for the Ravii~w and this could lead to difficulties. The Committee agreed that the appearance of the R C I ~ C M ' was greatly improved and worth the extra cost. it was suggested that the best way out of the financial difficulty was to solicit support from members and companies in forestry and forestry-related busi- nesses, in the form of advertising. Since the meeting was held, we are happy to say that some responses to this call have been received and we hope that more will follow.

The Chairman reported to the meeting on progress in setting up national branches. Several new branches had been formed since the last Executive Meeting, as readers will see from page ii i of the Review, which will soon run out of space to accommodate them. The aim is that all national branch executives will be in place before the 14th ~ o n f h o n - wealth Forestry Conference in Malaysia in September 1993. He paid tribute to the Commonwealth Foundation, whose funding had made the work of setting up the national branches possible.

Following the main business, the meeting was addressed by Dr Chris Gill, of TRADA, on the subject of 'Tropical Timber and Eco-Terrorism'. His talk was prompted by the receipt of a mailshot, 'Forever Green', which aimed to promote timber-free doors, window frames and other products by insinuating that timber-free products helped to preserve the forests and were therefore environmentally

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (3/4) , 1992 145

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

THE FOREST DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION

From Mr. W . Finluyson

Dear Sir, The R e ~ j i e ~ . for December 199 1 reached me in August 1992. It contained an article by Regina Schenker about her 'mas- terpiece', the Forest Decimal Clu.ts~fi'cation (FDC), published in 1990. A short time later I received a copy of the work itself, which had been ordered in the hope that it would be useful to the forestry information project in which 1 am now engaged. In case the rest of this letter should put the matter in doubt, let me say at once that I think Ms. Schenker and her three colleagues have done a great job, and one for which many people will find uses. Since I once took responsibility for what is said to have been a key event in the decline and fall of the O.@d System of Dec,in~ul Classfificw tioiz for For.csr/.y (ODC). I hope you will allow me some space in your columns for comment. even although, as 1 am only too well aware, the whole subject interests a limited circle of readers.

Although a few slightly different things are' also involved, what this is all about. essentially. is hihliogr.uphic irfimarion i.etr.ie~a1 - how to find publications that refer to something you are interested in. There are two main approaches. One is based on ~ w r d s : it is the world of terminology, indexing, 'key words', thesauri. etc. The other is based on classification, usually by numherx: in general libraries it is the world of D e ~ , e y or of the Ut~iversal Decimal Class$cution (UDC) and in forestry the ODC, and now the FDC - which are extensions of the UDC. The two approaches are not entirely separate; users of numerical clari- fications are often heavily dependent on indexes - which are, of course, in words! Both approaches can be computerized. Up to about the early 1970s I should think most of the people who were interested in these matters thought of computers as working with numbers: if retrieval systems could be expressed in numerical classification codes, then they could easily be computerized. In the event, as all the world knows, computers have developed an extraordinary capacity to handle words.

My short opinion, for what it is worth - and I must stress that it is that of an unqualified amateur - is that while the UDC and FDC have some uses, such as arranging the books on the shelves of major libraries, one can live very well without them when dealing with computerized bibliographic databases, which is what information retrieval is mostly about nowadays. The process of classification, and attach- ing a set of numbers to each publication, is an expensive one, and I doubt very much if it is cost effective. The words that are in any case provided in abundance in the title, index, summary of abstract, and perhaps even in the body of the text, are in general far superior searching tools. The argu-

ments put forward by enthusiastic supporters of numerical systems seem largely spurious; most of what is said about the special difficulties of German speakers, say, searching in an English-language database, does not stand up to critical questioning. There is not much to be gained by translating one's German thoughts into numbers rather than into Eng- lish words.

In spite of the very considerable effort that has gone into it, the FDC continues to display some of the shortcomings that seem to be inevitable in such systems. I do not think it will be too misleading to illustrate the point with a single example. When the manual arrived in our office one of my colleagues immediately tested it on a concept that is very much in the minds of everyone concerned with forestry in the tropics: 'community forestry', or its fairly close alternative, 'social forestry'. Neither term is in the index. although there are a few entries that might be thought to have some connection with the subject. Referring to the numbers themselves does not help much: '924' seems fairly close, but there are certainly other possibilities for an overworked librarian to choose from. Curiously, German speakers are given a little extra help at this point. in the English version, by the inclusion of the words 'Eigentumgenossenschaften, Gemeinwalder, Allmendwaldungen'. It would be much simpler and more satisfactory for the seeker after information to forget about the FDC, and devise a search strategy that included the words 'community' and 'social'.

The good thing about the FDC is that it is a simplification, which in most cases uses only three digits. Or is it? The fact that it is put out as the 'trilingual short version' omi- nously suggests that a monolingual long version is still alive somewhere. Also, simplification has its limits, as anyone will discover if they consult the five pages of introductory matter. I have to confess that, amateur that I am, I don't have much idea of what the last of these pages is all about. The inescapable conclusion is that the FDC is for information specialists. Foresters, and forestry research workers, will usually find it much easier and more rewarding to use word- based searching methods.

This leads to the further conclusion that it is in every- body's interest to support work on terminology. The revision of Ford-Robertson's Terminology is now fantastically overdue and, for example, the forestry component of the CAB Thesaurus still needs much attention - indeed, like all such work it needs permanently ongoing revision. Some- where in the forestry and forests products world there should be a unit dedicated to the terminology; at one time CAB [International] would have seemed a good home for it. Perhaps IUFRO could do more?

Yours sincerely,

W. Finlayson

78 Rajamulwatta Road Battaramulla, Sri Lanka

146 Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (3/4) , 1992

Comments of IUFRO Project Group P6.01-00 in response to W. Finlayson's letter

Dear Bill, Criticism can be positive or negative, and your letter seems to contain both aspects. In fact, we, too, think that the question 'words or numbers' will continue to be a point of controversy between documentalists, librarians, and foresters in research and practice.

However, let us add that Dr. E. Konig, head of the 'Zentralstelle fiir Agrardokumentation und Information' (ZADI) in Bonn, Germany, said this spring at a conference of the Gesellschaft fur Bibliothekswesen und Dokumenta- tion des Landbaues' (GBDL) that classification systems seemed to profit from a renaissance in 1992. And we shall always remember that the documentation centre of the 'Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Forst- und Holzwirtschaft' in Hamburg, Germany, reintroduced the FDC after a short interruption following the memorable IUFRO meeting in Hamburg in 1979.

In the meantime important forestry libraries, with or without documentation centres, such as Vienna, Helsinki, Nancy, Gottingen, Eberswalde, Farnham etc., have continued to work with the FDC system. All of them use computers, some of them classifying on-line. They make use of the FDC whenever they need.

The FDC is not at all an expensive tool. On the contrary, it helps to organize various services, such as catalogues, bibliographies, periodicals, collections of books, reprints, slides, etc. For those who find it necessary, the FDC is also of international assistance in view of literature retrieval independent of language barriers.

Two decisions taken by Oxford are still regretted by colleagues all over the world, namely the separation of the forestry library from the forestry documentation centre and the quick change from an internationally applicable forestry classification system to a home-made scheme which in less than 15 years will change shortly for the third time. Is this really a simplification for the readers of FA and FPA?

There is no doubt that the FDC has its gaps and weak passages - a s other systems do - but its use in many forestry institutes, for many series, periodicals, and bibliographies and in many countries, is certainly one reason why its continuation and regular update is 'a must' for IUFRO to assist those who have worked with the classification for decades. There exists no system in forestry equivalent to the FDC.

We also think that it is not fair to pick on one or a few 'shortcomings' of the FDC because the system is too complex to do it. Mr. P. Beak, your predecessor at the Common- wealth Forestry Bureau in Oxford, used to point out that one had to think in the decimal system while classifying. If a term was missing, the appropriate number could be found by going from the widest to the narrowest number. Is this not the way you used when coming up with 924 as a possible number for the concept you were looking for?

You confess that you cannot quite see what the last pages

of the introduction are all about. We know what you mean but please just tolerate these pages for those colleagues who need help in this matter.

You express clearly your disappointment that too little has been done recently in terminology work. It should therefore be easy for you to visualize the disappointment of FDC users between 1960 and 1980 when so many terminolo- gies were published, but nothing was done for the FDC.

At IUFRO's 100th anniversary celebration in Berlin in September 1992, IUFRO Group S6.03 and P6.01 held their meeting together. Any arguments between terminology and classification experts seem to belong to the past since we all agreed that everyone should be able to judge which system(s) were most appropriate for his or her purposes. As we have seen and heard, the terminology colleagues are still active. (See IUFRO News, vol. 21, no. 3, 1992, p.22.)

You have mentioned the decline and fall of the ODC and maybe you are right for the 1970s. But today, the FDC is alive more than ever:

The 2nd edition of the full version of the German FDC was published in 1992. CAB and IUFRO plan to publish in the near future the 2nd edition of the full version of the English FDC. The new coordinator of the IUFRO Project Group P6.01 is Dr. Matthias Riitze, successor of Siegfried Schrader in Hamburg.

With best wishes for your - presumably FDC-less? - information project.

Regina Schenker, Zurich; Dr. Daryoush Voshmgir, Vienna Forest ing. Marja Zorn-Pogorelc, Ljubljana

100th ANNIVERSARY OF IUFRO We reproduce b e l o ~ ' the CFA Chairman's cong~~utulutory letter to the President of IUFRO

Dear Mr. President, The Commonwealth Forestry Association sends its warmest congratulations, and best wishes, to the International Union of Forest Research Organisations, on the occasion of its one hundredth Anniversary since its formation on August 17th 1892.

This occasion is a very real opportunity for the Interna- tional Forestry Community to signal its unity and success in forest research and management. Many members of the Commonwealth Forestry Association are associated directly with forest research throughout the 50 Commonwealth countries in organisations which are members of IUFRO, and they and the members generally are proud to join with me in saluting IUFRO for the excellence it has.

May it continue in the next one hundred years to provide the world with continuing excellent research results.

R.L. Newman Chairman of the Governing Council

Comn~onn~ealth Forestrs Review Volume 71 (314 ), 1992 147

Membership

The Association is pleased to welcome the following as new members:

S. Parameswarappa, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Aranya Bhavan, 18th Cross. Malleswaram, Bangalore- 560 003. India.

K.J. Joseph, IFS (Retd). Manchadimoodu Vattiyurkavu, Trivandrum - 695 013, India.

Dr. Chand Basha. Director. Kerala Forest Research Insti- tute, Peechi - 680 653. Thrissoor (Kerala State), India.

Jawad Hussain Khan. No. 8.5th cross, Lakshmi Road. Shan- thinagar, Bangalore - 560 027. India.

Dr. K.A. Kushalappa. Chief Conservator of Forests, Minis- ter of Environment & Forests Regional Office, Western Region, Bhopal - 462 016, India.

M.G. Pai, 45 Forest Colony, Rajnagar, Hubli - 580 032, India.

Nasarat Shariff. KSFlC Limited, Gandhi Nagar, Kumta - 581 343, India.

V. Beera Moideen. KSFIC Limited. Dandeli - 581 325. India.

L. Basavalingaigh, 17,Sth Cross. Tank Road. N.R. Mohalla, Mysore - 570 007, India.

R.P. Patodia, 44110.12th Cross. Rangaswamy Temple Street, Bangalore - 560 053, India.

Pawan Kumar. Dy. Conservator of Forests. North Gonda - 27 1 001. Uttar Pradesh. India.

H.P. Krishnappa. Chief Conservator of Forests, Social For- estry. Aranya Bhavan, Bangalore - 560 003, lndia.

K.S.N. Murthy. 182 5th Cross. Jayamahal Extn.. Bangalore - 560 046, India.

A. Akbarsha. Conservator of Forests, Dry Land Dev. Board. Mysore, India.

B. Raghotham Rao, Dy. Conservator of Forests. Koppa, Chikamagalore Dist, Kamataka State, India.

Praveen Chandra, Dy. Conservator of Forests, Chitradurga Dist, Karnataka State, India.

P S . Murthy, Regional Director (SF), Azamgarm (UP), India.

N.K. Syed, Forest Contractor, Shimoga - 577 201, India. N. Padmanabha, Regional Manager, KSFIC Limited. Man-

agalore - 575 002, India. N.S. Adkoli, IFS (Retd), ,609, 15th Cross, I Phase, J.P.

Nagar, Bangalore - 560 078, India. A.K. Verma, Conservator of Forests, (Vigilance), Aranya

Bhavan, Malleswaram, Bangalore - 560 003, India. Dr. Ram A. Sharma, Dy. Conservator of Forests, Jeypore

Koraput, Orissa, India. K. Sundar Naik, Dy. Conservator of Forests, Honnavar - 58 1

334, India.

R.K. Torvi, Conservator of Forests, Shimoga - 577 201, India.

M.N. Narayanaswamy, Dy. Conservator of Forests, Haliyal - 581 328, India.

Abhiyu Singh, Dy. Conservator of Forests,Tathihalla, (Uttara Kannada), India.

C.S. Vedant, Silviculture, Madikeri - 571 201, India. A.K. Mukherji, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests,

Himachal Pradesh, Simla. India. Mr. C. Madhukar Raj, IFS., Conservator of Forests, Waran-

gal Circle. Warangal. Andra Pradesh, India. Mr. S.K. Ramalingegowda, IFS.. Dy. Conservator of For-

ests, Working Plan Division, Aranya Bhavan, Mysore, India.

Mr. A.K. Jain. Divisional Forestry Director, Social Forestry Division, Etawah, Uttar Pradesh. India.

Mr. Piare Lal V.P. (Pitns) ITC, Bhadrachalam Paper Boards Limited. 106 S.P. Road, Secunderabad - 500 003 Andra Pradesh. India.

DY. Conservator of Forests, Urban and Regreational For- estry West Bengal. Calcutta-700 02 1 , India.

Mr. P.K. Pathak. Plot No. 12 PTP Nagar, Trivandrum- 695038. India.

Mr. R.V. Singh. IFS., Indian Institute of Forest Manage- ment, Nehru Nagar,PB No. 357. Bhopal-462003, Madhya Pradesh. India.

Prof. V.K. Bahuguna, Indian Institute of Forest Manage- ment, Nehru Nagar, PB No. 357, Bhopal - 462003, Madhya Pradesh, India.

G.N. Bulgannawar (Managing Director), S.K. Chakrabarti, T.M. Nagaraj. T. Venkataswamy, B. Govindareddy, Dharamapaul. all of KSFIC Ltd., 'Vana Vikas', 18th Cross, Malleswaram, Bangalore 560 003, India.

K.M. Muthappa (Regional Manager), M.B. Shet Kurdekar, G. Muralidhar, K. Chandrashekar, B.C. Shanthakumar, L.B. Singannavar. Abdul Rawoof. all of KSFIC Limited, Honali Road, Shimoga - 577 201, India.

H.M. Algar, c/o Ministry of Forestry. PO Box 1610, Well- ington, New Zealand.

G.A. Dolan, 513 1 Bluegum Road, Paraparaumu Beach 6153, New Zealand.

A.R. Gillespie, Department of Forestry and Natural Re- sources, 1159 Forestry Building, Purdue University, West Lafayette. IN, USA.

D.P. Gwaze, PO Box HG 595, Highlands, Harare, Zim- babwe.

T.H. Mbanje, PO Box 50, Chimanimani, Zimbabwe.

A. Chinembiri, PO Box 11, Nhedziwa, Zimbabwe.

I. Kanyemba, PO Box 458, Mutare, Zimbabwe.

P.J. Meikle, PO Box 60, Penhalonga, Zimbabwe.

148 Membership

B.R. Seward, 10 Hilary Road, Ashbrittle, Mount Pleasant, THE EUCALYPT SONG Harare, Zimbabwe.

(Apologies to W.S. Gilbert) L.J. Mullin, 50 Glenara Avenue South, Eastlea, Harare,

Zimbabwe. A. Tembo, PO Box 65, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. I am the very model of a stress-adapted Eucalypt

To cope with all environmental stresses I am well equipped S. Clubley, PO Box 57128, Mutare, Zimbabwe. I know that some professors think that both these terms are J. Timberlake, PO Box HG 595, Highlands, Harare, meaningless

Zimbabwe. And yet I know all botanists are sure to use them none-the- W. Bgoni, PO Box HG 595, Highlands, Harare, Zimbabwe. less.

Life Members I easily cope with bushfires with my regrowth ligno-tuber- OUS,

The Association is pleased to welcome the following members And also epicormic (and the latter are more numerous)

as Life Members: I've now gone international with branches in Nigeria In Israel, California, Malaysia and Liberia.

Shankar G. Bhatt, D.J. Danbury, P.G.A. Forbes

Information Required

The Administrator will be grateful to receive forwarding addresses or other information for the following:

S.C. Bristow, Almond Cottage, 84 High Street, Meppershall SG17 5LZ, UK.

D.S. Connolly, 7 Moorsend, Bradley Valley, Newton Ab- b o t ; ~ ~ 12 IYA, UK.

A.C. Culf, Longbarn, High Street, Ketton, Stamford, Lincs. D.T. Fawcett, Treetops, 46 High Street, Port Alfred, South

Africa. A.G. Freeman, Birch Grove, St. Andrews, Grenada. A.W. Hewitt,Treelands, 10Chorley Wood,Blackrod, Bolton,

Lancs BL6 5JF. K.D. Jones, Crom Clwyd Ucheh, Llanafan Fawr, Builth

Wells LD2 3SG. G . Kerr, 10 Simon Road, Hollywood, Birmingham

B47 5LH. H.S. Martyn, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah,

Malaysia. S.S. Singham, Tinghat Tiga, Podium Utara, Bangunan Sul-

tan Salahuddin, Abdul Aziz Shah Shal Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.

N.J. Starks, 41 Ouselea, Shipton Road, Clifton, York, UK. S.V. Stone, Cottage No. 2, The Laithes, Penrith, Cumbria

CA1 l OAN. F.S. Walker, Kingsmere, Standlake, Witney OX8 7RY.

Deceased

Though my distribution spreads around the edges of Austra- lia Yet in the arid center I'm a rather dismal failure Still for travel international I am extremely well equipped I am the very model of a migratory Eucalypt

My roots have Mycorrhizas, both vesicular - arbuscular And also ectotropic (and the latter look more muscular) And yet I suffer die-back from the spreading of Phyto- phthora I wonder would it help if I pretend I'm an Angophora?

In fact when I know what is meant by tolerating water-stress When I can shut my stomates and retain my turgor more or less If only all those caterpillars would not take a bite of me You'd say no better stress-adapted plant is known to Botany.

Still my distribution patterns are extremely enigmatical My origins obscure, my systematics problematical In fact to puzzle botanists I am extremely well-equipped I am the very model of an Academic Eycalypt.

'The Eucalypt Song' was composed on the track during a field trip following the XlIIth International Botanical Congress, by Dr. R. Sinclair of Adelaide University, September 1981. It may be sung to the tune of the Major-General's song in Gilbert and Sullivan's Pirates of Penzance. Submitted by N.D. Endacott, 67 Barbers Road, Kalorana, VIC 3766, Australia.

The Association regrets to report the death of the following member:

W.B.H. Baylis, 103 The Causeway, Steventon, Abingdon OX13 6SL.

Membership Total to Date: 1524

150 Obituaries

Mongolia (at the age of 83), and always with a full description of the vegetation and wildlife.

Richard Willan will be remembered for his work in Nyasaland and Nepal, for his integrity, for kindness and loyalty to his staff and many friends in many countries, and his immense knowledge of the flora and fauna wherever he worked or visited.

R.J. DEWAR

A.E. AITKlNS

Archie Aitkins died on 27 June 1992 at the age of 81. His father was a Scots doctor in India who sent his son home to stay with relatives in Dalkeith and be educated in Ed- inburgh, first at Heriot's and then at the University where he graduated in forestry in 1933.

From there he moved to Aberdeen University as a lecturer in forest botany until the outbreak of World War 11. The war years saw him attached to Lord Beaverbrook's personal staff, an experience which had a profound effect on the remainder of his career. Firstly he grew to love rural Surrey where he made his home. Secondly he had exposure to many of the 'great and the good' of that time, which imbued him with an ease of manner in dealing with people who were prominent. sometimes powerful, in their particular fields of activity. Thirdly, perhaps subconsciously, he absorbed something of Beaverbrook's 'can do' approach.

The immediate post-war years saw him employed as a forestry consultant in the south of England, but he did not find this work particularly satisfying: prescription was easy, effective implementation often lacking. It was the latter fact that gave Archie his novel idea. He would form a forestry service company which would not only give a professional management and advisory service but would also provide labour to execute the silvicultural programmes; in addition the company would have its own nursery to supply the planting stock. Archie, ever ready to foresee a favourable outcome, wanted to call his creation the British Forestry Company but was told that, under a Labour government, 'British' was reserved for nationalized industries. At that time the house he occupied in Tilford near Farnham was called TilhiH House; the company was incorporated as The Tilhill Forestry and Advisory Company Ltd in 1948.

There was much work to be done. Private estates were setting about restoring the neglect of the war years. The recently introduced Dedication Scheme and the Approved Woodlands Scheme were beginning to have effect. There was a demand for detailed Management Plans with financial planning, greatly exceeding in scope the bare bones of the officially required Plans of Operations. The south, southeast and southwest of England together with the Welsh Marches were fertile regions for the comprehensive services provided by Tillhill. Additional staff were hired and branches wned in Sussex and Herefdshire. The estate duty law of the time was favourable to forestry and a further new concept was introduced, the non-resident forestry investor.

A wealthy Scottish family trust gave much impetus to Archie's south of England business. In the late Fifties Archie made one of his boldest moves, purchasing a semi- derelict mansion near Tilford to restore as his home and office and allying that with a long lease of adjoining heath- land with virtually limitless potential to expand the nursery. Greenhills House in its wooded surroundings was unsur- passed as a forestry headquarters and the nursery was developed to become one of the foremost in Europe.

In 1961 Archie founded Tilhill Forestry (Scotland) Ltd and gradually the company extended its services throughout Scotland and the rest of England. Having brought to fruition many of his corporate ambitions. Archie increasingly turned his attention to strategic considerations affecting the industry as a whole - timber marketing, forestry policy, the growers' interests. advocacy of U K forest expansion. He was a founder member of the Council of the Timber Growers Organization and its permanent representative on the technical committee of H.G.T.A.C.

Often unconventional in his thinking. he foresaw the role that particleboard would play in the development of a modern forest products industry and was influential in persuading Weyroc. hitherto dependent on residues for its raw material, to use small roundwood from thinnings when it set up its chipboard factory at Annan. In the early Seventies he led a consortium of Tilhill and several of its clients in financing a feasibility study for a large modem particleboard plant on a greenfield site at Stirling, incorporated as Scottish Timber Products Ltd. The factory brought Caberboard into production but its financing proved un- stable and the company went into receivership. The validity of the concept has however been amply justified by Caber- board's subsequent success and expansion.

Uniquely for a British forester, the BBC made a docu- mentary film about Archie Aitkins and his work, in which his zest and enthusiasm are well conveyed; the film is not infrequently repeated on television. He was awarded the O.B.E. for his services to forestry.

Among colleagues and clients Archie inspired affection and loyalty. He was equally at home with members of the aristocracy and the forest workers; his irrepressible good humour quickly relaxed any social tensions. A generous and considerate host, he enjoyed nothing better than stimulating company at his own table where the debate never strayed far from his consuming passion of forestry and its future.

He retired from Tilhill at the age of 70 but, regrettably, declining health prevented him from realizing long-held plans for tours to New Zealand and South America, and curtailed return visits to his favoured location for relaxation in the South of France. He was able nevertheless to rise from his wheelchair and plant a tree at Greenhills in 1988 to mark the 40th anniversary of the founding of Tilhill.

He is survived by his wife Margot who was also his business partner, and by thousands of acres of fine forests the seed for which, as he often said, he had held in his hands.

D. BRIERTON

152 Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (3/4), 1992

Leon Pederick was presented with the N.W. Jolly Medal for 1991 on 28 October 1992, for his outstanding contribution to forestry in Australia.

CJ. Piper has been appointed.Technica1 Director of TGUK Ltd. at Edinburgh with effect from January 1993.

Dennis Richardson was inducted as an Honorary Member of the Society of American Foresters on 26 October, the first New Zealander to be thus honoured.

Michael Strung Steel, appointed a Forestry Commissioner in 1988, has been re-appointedfora further four years. Michael is a Vice-Convener of the Scottish Landowners' Federation.

George F. Taylor 11, Chief of the U.S. Agency for Interna- tional Development (USAID)/Niger's Office of Agricul- ture, Natural Resources and Private Sector Development has been named Chevalier de I'Ordre du Merite Agricole du

Niger by the Government of the Republic of Niger (West Africa). The medal accompanying this award was presented at a special ceremony on Niger Independence Day August 3, 1992. The ceremony, which took place in the capital, Niamey, was presided over by the President of the Republic, Ali Saibou, the President of the High Council of the Repub- lic Professor Andre Salifou and the Prime Minister of the Transition Government Cheiffou Amadou.

John Valentine, Review Liaison member of the New Zeal- and Branch Committee until March this year, has been appointed Chief Executive of the New Zealand Ministry of Forestry. In July, the Ministry implemented a change in direction and style of operation the better to support New Zealand forestry development. Dr Valentine sees the Min- istry as playing a key role in realizing the very high expectations for forestry in New Zealand's economic recovery, by working in partnership with the forest and forest products sector in a facilitating catalytic role.

& SHRUB SEEDSMEN

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When replying to this advertisement, please mention the Commonwealth Forestry Review.

154 Forthcoming international Events

20/05/93-25D5/93 RUSSIA, Moscow. Symposium of the IUFRO Working Party S4.04-02 (Managerial Economics). Contact: Prof. N. Koshichov, Lesotekhnicheskii Institut, Mitistischi- l , 141001 Moscow, Russia.

23/05/93-30/05/93 ITALY, Viterbo. Ecophysiology and Genetics of Trees and Forests in achanging Environment. IUFRO Workshop. The Workshop aims to bring together forest scientists with multi-disciplinary interests to present their latest results on effects of changing environments and discuss implications and proposed mitigation strategies. Contact: Technical Secretar- iat, Department of Forest Environment and Resources, DISAFRI, University of Tuscia, Via S. Camillo De Lellis, 01 100 Viterbo, Italy. Tel. 39 76 1 257403; Fax 39 761 257389.

3 1/05/93-04/06/93 NEPAL, Hetauda. 'Rosewood (Dalhergia spp.) - Multipurpose and High Value Timber Nitrogen Fix- . .

ing Tree', ~nternational Workshop of the Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association. Workshop sessions will cover: Taxonomy, Biology and Ecology, Establish- ment and Management, Utilization and Socioeco- nomic Aspects, and Case Studies of the genus. Appropriate information on any and all Dalher,qia species is desirable and welcomed. Interested individuals should submit a letter of interest. an English abstract of the work they wish to present at the workshop, and copies of publications concerning their work with the genus to: James Roshetko, Nitro- gen Fixing Tree Association. 1010 Holomua Road, Paia, Hawaii 96779, USA. Tel. 808 579 9568; Fax 808 579 85 16.

0 1/06/93-05/06/93 PUERTO RICO, San Juan. International Sympo- sium/Workshop on Mountain Cloud Forests. Con- tact: Lawrence S. Hamilton, Environment and Pol- icy Institute, East-West Center, 1777 East-West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96848, USA.

03/06/93-06/06/93 SWEDEN, Jokoping. Contact: Soren Kabell, Elmia Wood, Box 6066, S-550 06 Jonkoping, Sweden. Tel: +46 36 15 20 00. Fax: 4 6 36 16 46 92.

07/06/93- 10/06/93 SWEDEN, Halmstad. Nutrient Uptake and Cycling in Forest Ecosystems. Contact: Dr. L.O. Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, De- partment of Ecology & Environmental Research, Box 7072, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden. Tel: 4 6 - 18- 672548. Fax: 46-18-673430.

08/06/93- 1 1/06/93 FINLAND, Tampere. Fourth International Water Quality Association Symposium on Forest Industry Wastewaters. Contact: Professor Matti Viitasaari, PO Box 600, 33 101 Tampere, Finland.

l 4106193- 1 6/06/93 USA, Morgantown. Modern Methods for Estimating Tree Volume and Increment. Contact: Dr. Harry V. Wiant, Jr., P.O. Box 6125, Division of Forestry, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA. Tel: (304) 293-341 1. Fax: (304) 293-2441. Bitnet: [email protected].

14106193- 17/06/93 USA., Atlanta. Twenty-second Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Contact: James L. McConnell, SFTIC Committee, 1720 Peachtree Road, NW, Suite 816 N, Atlanta, GA 30367, USA.

14/06/93- 17/06/93 DENMARK, Copenhagen. Conference on Growth and Yield Estimation from Successive Forest h e n - tories (sponsored by IUFRO S4.02-03 and S4.0 1-07) at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University. Copenhagen. The conference will provide a timely update of the state-of-the-art of the science and practice. Major issues include estimating components of stand growth, multi-level sampling designs. data and model validation, and the implementation of research results in practice. Papers and computer demonstrations are welcomed within the theme of the conference. Participants are invited to contribute problems and ideas as well as solutions. Abstracts should be submitted by 1 January. Notification of acceptance will be issued by 1 February and will be accompanied by guidelines for preparation of papers. Accepted full papers should be received no later than 15 April. Registration (by 1 December) and further information from: Jerry Vanclay, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Section of Forestry, 57 Thorvaldsensvej, DK- 187 1 Frederiksberg C, Den- mark. Tel. 45 35 28 22 25; Fax: 45 31 35 78 33.

15106193- 19/06/93 THAILAND, Chiang Mai. Genetic Conservation and Production of Tropical Forest Tree Seed. Con- tact: Symposium Secretariat, ACFTSC, Mual-Lek, Sarabu 18 180, Thailand.

2 1/06/93-24/06/93 USA, Pennsylvania. Inventorying and monitoring techniques in the context of catastrophic events. IUFRO Conference 1993. University Park, State College, Pennsylvania. The conference should provide answers to the following questions: What are

Con~monwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (3141, 1992 155

the problems relating to inventorying and monitoring natural resources after catastrophic events: How do we evaluate the impact of a catastrophic event on flora and fauna; What technologies and techniques have been used successfully for inventorying, monitoring and planning after catastrophic events; What new methods are on the horizon'! Abstracts for presentations must be submitted by January 1 . 1993 to: Dr Wayne L. Myers, Program Chair, Pennsylva- nia State University, 21 1 Ferguson Building. Univer- \ity Park. PA 16802. USA. General questions to: Dr Stephen E. Fairweather. General Chair, Pennsylva- nia State University, 208 Ferguson Building, Univer- sity Park. PA 16802. (8 14) 865- 1602.

18/07/03-23/07/93 UK. Edinburgh. Wind Related Damage to Trees. Hercot-Watt University Edinburgh. C.P. Quine, Forestry Commission Northern Re5earch Station. Roslin. Midlothian. Scotland. EH25 9SY.

June-July 1993. USA, Seattle. Recycling of Organic Wastes in For- ests: a Pacific Northwest Perhpective. Contact: James P. Kimmins, University of British Columbia, I929 W. 44th Ave., Vancouver. British Columbia V6T 1 W5. Canada. Tel: +l -604-228 2467. Fax: + l - 604-222-8645.

14/07/93- 16/07/93 KENYA. Kairobi. Developing Large Data Bases Using Remote Sensing and GIS Technology for Sustainable Management of Natural Resources(1UFRO S4.02-05). Contact: Dr. Ashbindu Singh. UNEP/ GRID. P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya. Tel: +254- 2-22649 1.

19/07/93-23/07/93 UK, Richmond. An International Symposium 'Mono- cotyledons: Classification and Evolution'. The purposes of this meeting to analyse critical characters in monocotyledon systematics. and to review and revise the existing classification of the mono- cotyledons by Dahlgren and his co-workers. By bringing together experts from around the world and combining their studies into an integrated frame- work, it is hoped to produce a relatively complete classification based on modern principles. Key topics will include the.origin and relationships of mono- cotyledons, and the relationships of such well-known groups as the palms, aroids, orchids, lilies, gingers and grasses. The conference will include workshop sessions, using a comprehensive range of currently available software for phylogenetic analysis. Contact: Paul Rudall (Secretary), Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3DS, UK.

28108193-03/09/93 JAPAN, Tokyo, XV International Botanical Con- gress, Congress Centre of Pacifico. Ref: Secretariat, XV International botanical congress, c10 Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Tokyo, 7-3- 1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 1 13, Japan. Fax (8 1)-3-814-0139 (to K. Iwatsuki XV IBC).

26.07193-30/07/93 DENMARK, Viborg. Fourth International Sympo- sium on Windbreaks and Agroforestry. Contact: Fourth International Symposium, Hedeselskabet,P.O. Box 110, DK-8800 Viborg, Denmark.

08108193- 14.08193 NIGERIA1 KENYA. Global Climate Change and the Tropical Rainforests. Ibadan, Nigeria or Nairobi, Kenya. Originally scheduled for August 1992. Con- tact: Dr. Mohammed Ellatifi. FAO. PO Box 19443. Sana'a. Republic of Yemen. Tel: 967-1-250967. Fax: 967- 1-208852.

10/08/93 - 18/08/93 SWEDEN, Uppsala. Root and Butt Rot (IUFRO S2.06-01): I993 Conference. Contact: Martin Johansson. Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026. S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden. Fax: +46- 18-309245.

15/08/93-20/08/93 CANADA. Victoria. The Biology and Control of Reproductive Processes in Forest Trees. Contact: Dr. Stephen D. Ross, University of Victoria. B.C. V8W 3E7. Canada. Fax:+l -604-356-8543.

15/08/93-20/08/93 CANADA. Halifax. 'Forests and Wildlife ... towards the 21st Century': International Union of Game Biologists (IUGB) XXI Congress. Contact: Dr. Ian D. Thompson, President, International Union of Game Biologists. c/o Forestry Canada. Box 6028, St. John's, Nfld. AIC 5x8. USA.

17108193- 19/08/93 CANADA. Canadian Tree Improvement Associa- tion 24th Biennial Meeting. The Future Forests - Options and Economics. Contact: Ms. K. Tosh, Dept. Natural Resources, Kingslear Provincial For- est Nursery, RR #6, Fredericton, NB E3B 4x7, Canada. Tel: (506) 453-9 101.

August 1993 SWITZERLAND. The Use of Multifunctional Machinery and Equipment in Logging Operations. Contact: P. Schroeder, Timber Section, ECEFAO Agriculture and Timber Division, Palais des Nations,

156 Forthroming International Ewnts

CH-121 I Genke 10, Switzerland. Tel: 73460 1 1 05 73 1 02 l l. Fax: 734 98 25. Telex: 28 96 96.

07/09/93-09/09/9 UK, Swansea. 27th National Arboricultural Confer- ence, Technical Seminar and Exhibition. University College, Swansea. For details contact the Arboricul- tural Association, Ampfield House, Romsey. Hants S05 1 9PA. Tel. 0794 687 1 7: Fax 0794 68978.

07/09/93- 1 1/09/93 LATVIA, Salaspils. Norway Spruce Provenances and Breeding. Contact: Dr. H.D. Pirags. Latvian Forestry Research Institute "Silava", Dept. of Forest Tree Breeding, Rigas iela 1 1 I , Salaspils. Latvia. Tel: +7-OI32-942555. Fax: +7-0132-2 1 1 176. Telex: 161 171 sila su.

September 1993 SLOVENIA, Ljubljana. Landscape Ecology and Forestry. Contact: Prof. Dr. Bostjan Anko. Biotech- nical Faculty, Department of Forestry. University of Ljubljana, Vecna pot 83, p.p. 486. 61000 Ljubljana. Slovenia. Tel: +061-26476 1. Fax: +061-27 1 169.

13109193- 18/09/93 MALAYSIA, Kuala Lumpur. 14th Commonwealth Forestry Conference: 'People, the Environment and Forestry - Conflict or Harmony?' The Secretary General CFC- 14. Forestry Department Headquar- ters, Peninsular Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel. 60-3-2988244: Fax 60-3-2925657.

19/09/93-24/09/93 MALAYSIA (Tours following the above). Ref: P. Baylis, F/C, 231 Corstorphine Rd., Edinburgh, EH 12 7AT. Scotland.

19/09/93-24/09/93 AUSTRALIA, Sunshine Coast. 'Australasian For- estry and the Global Environment'. 15th Biennial Conference of the Institute of Foresters of Australia. Alexandra Headlands, Queensland. Contact: Peter Francis, IFA Conference Convenor, GPO Box 1697, Brisbane Q 4001, Australia. Tel. 07 234 01 05: Fax 07 234 1200.

20/09/93-25/09/93 USA, Pennsylvania. Advancement in Forest Inven- tory and Forest Management Sciences. Contact: Dr. 0-Bok Kwon, Kangweon National University, Se- oul. Korea. Tel: 0361-53-9000 ext. 2827.

24109193-28/09/93 INDIA, New Delhi. Global Forum on Environ- mental and Development Education. Contact:

Dr Desh Bandhu, President, Indian Environmental Society, U- l 12 (3rd Floor). Vikas Marg. Delhi 1 10092. India.

27/O9/93-O 111 0193 USA, Blacksburg. Modelling Stand Response to Silvicultural Practices. Contact: Harold E. Burk- hart. Department of Forestry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg. Virginia 2406 1-0324. USA. Tel: + 1-703-23 1 6952. Fax: +l - 703-23 1 3330. Telex: 910333 186 1 VPU BKS.

AUTUMN 1993 USA. Boston. The Tropical Forest History Group of IUFRO will sponsor several sessions on the history of land use in Africa at the annual meeting of the African Studies Association. Proposals for papers should deal with long-term rather than strictly present interactions between human beings and land or other natural resources. Ref: Dr. Alice E. Ingerson. IUFRO Africa Conference, Forestry History Society. 701 Vickers Avenue. Durham. N. Carolina 27701, USA. Fax + 1-6 17-661 -7235.

CHINA. Beijing. Advances in Tree Development Control and Biotechnique. Contact: Dr. Wang Shasheng, Beijing Forestry University, Experimen- tal Center of Forest Biology. Haidan District. Beijing 100083. China.

WEST AFRICA. Data Availability and Analysis for the Tropical Moist Forest Region. Contact: Mr. Philip Adlard, 77 Shaw Green Lane. Prestbury. Cheltenham GL52 3BS. UK. Tel: 0242-579334. Fax: 0865-275074. Telex: 83 147 viaor g attn: adlard.

131 10193- 141 10193 UK, Manchester. 'Engineers andRisk Issues', Annual Conference of the Safety and Reliability Society. Papers are invited on the following topics: the measurement of risk: the tolerability and acceptability of risk; regulatory requirements for risk assessment: risks associated with particular industries; risk evaluation; individual risk; societal risk; systematic management of risk; uncertainty analysis; communicat- ing risk information: data collection and reporting systems; management support systems; decision making; emergency planning; education and training in risk management. Synopses giving title, authors, affiliations and up to 500 words should be received by 25 January 1993; full text papers by 19 April 1993. All correspondence to The Secretary, The Safety and Reliability Society, Clayton House, 59 Piccadilly, Manchester Ml 2AQ. Tel. 44 (0)61 2287824; Fax 44 (0)6 1 2366977.

1911 O/93-22/10/93 FRANCE, Clermont-Ferrand. Site Classification and Evaluation (IUFRO S 1.02-06). Contact: Walter Kilian. Forstliche Bundesversuchsanstalt, Secken- dorff-Gudent-Weg 8, A- 1 13 1 Wien, Austria. Tel: +43-1-878 38 ext. 203. Fax: +43-1-877 5907.

2211 1/93-2611 1/93 AUSTRALIA, Canberra. Water issues in Forests Today. Australian Forestry Council; CSlRO Divi- sion of Water Resources: International Association for Hydrological Sciences: IUFRO. International Symposium on Forestry Hydrology, c/o ACTS. GPO Box 2200. Canberra ACT, 2601. Australia. Tel. +61- 6-257 3299; Fax; -6 1-6-257-3256.

25/10/93-29/10/93 HAWAII, Koloa, Kauai. Behaviour. Population Dynamics, and Control of Forest Insects. Contact: Dr. Thomas L. Payne. Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 216 Price Hall, Blacksburg. VA 24061. USA. Teli + 1-703-23 1-634 1. Fax: + 1-703-982-6050.

15/05/94- 19/05/94 USA.. Williamsburg, Virginia. Spatial Accuracy of Natural Resource Data Bases. Sponsored by IUFRO S4.02. Contact: James L. Smith. Department of Forestry. 3 19 Cheatham Hall, Virginia Tech.. Blacksburg, VA 2406 1-0324. USA. Tel: 703-23 1- 78 1 1. Fax: 703-23 1-3330.

Summer 1994 CANADA. Atmospheric Influences on Growth (IUFRO S1.03-01). Contact: Dr. G. Papadopol. Ministry of Natural Resources. Ontario Forest Re- search Institute. 1245 Queen Street East. PO Box 969, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario P6A 5N5, Canada. Tel: + 1-705-946 298 1. Fax: + 1-705-945 9450.

05/07/94- 10/07/94 GERMANY. Munich. INTERFORST 94. 7th Inter- national Trade Fair for Forestry and Log Timber Technology with Scientific Conferences and Special Shows and Displays. Contact Munich Trade Fair Corporation. Messegelande, Postfach 12 1009, D- 8000 Munchen 12. Germany. Tel. 089 5 107 O; Fax 089 5107 506. Registration deadline for exhibitors 3 1 January 1994.

I 8109194-2 1/09/94 USA, Anchorage. Inventory, Socio-economics and Management of the Boreal Forests. Contact: Mr. Vemon J. LaBau, USDA Forest Service, Forestry Sciences Lab.. 201 E 9th Ave., Suite 303, Anchor- age. AK 99501, USA. Tel: 907-271-2585.

031 1 0194-07/10/94 BRAZIL, Rio de Janeiro. Resources and Environ- mental Monitoring. CO-sponsored by International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing and IUFRO S4.02. Contact: Roberto Pereira da Cunha. INPE. P.O. Box 515. 12201 San Jose dos Campos. SP. Brazil.

October 1994 CZECHOSLOVAKIA, Prague. Growth Models for Policy Making. Contact: Ivo Kupka, Forest and Game Management Research Institute. Jiloviste- Strnady, CS- 15604 Praha 5 16, Czechoslavakia. Tel: +42-2-59 16 13. Fax: +42-2-59 14 13.

FINLAND. Tampere. 20th World IUFRO Congress. Ref: Prof. R. Seppala. Forest Dept.. Unioninkatu 40A, 00170 Helsinki, Finland.

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PLUSFOREST - AN EXAMPLE OF SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT.

Finnish PlusForest produces more than is cut. Young, thriv- ing forests are capable of binding the carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere by fossil fuels and thus inhibiting the greenhouse effect.

Finland has more forests than ever before.

What's more, we make a good use of this forest, respon- sibly and efiiciently. In F~nland the economic utilisation of the forests is not at odds with ecological demands. On the

contrary, the natural manage- forests constantly renewed, as ment of PlusForest protects bio- they are our nat~onal heritage. diversity. and our only major natural

We make sure that our resource. ~ -

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KYMMENE SCHAUMAN WOOD

P.O. Box 22 (Niemenkatu 16), SF-1521 1 Lahti, Finland. Telexfax 010 358 18 866427

160 Around the World

The conservation movement claims that continued logging, which they regard as uneconomic, will destroy the forests on Fraser Island and therefore should be banned. Conservationists strongly advocate the inclusion of the Great Sandy Region on the World Heritage list which will further enhance Fraser Island as a tourist destination.

Logging interests and the forestry profession on the other hand, advocate the continuation of sustainable forest management, claiming that carefully controlled logging will not destroy the ecological processes that lead to the self-maintenance of the forest. The timber industry argues that as many as 500 people are employed directly or indirectly as a result of timber production on Fraser Island. Because the tourist industry has grown rapidly over the past two decades (perhaps beyond its sustainable capacity) while timber harvesting operations were takng place, it is also argued that timber production and tourism are not mutually exclusive activities but can continue to be managed as complementary entities as part of the multiple use management of the Island.

The first hearings of the Inquiry took place in April 1990. However, most of the Inquiry process consisted of the consideration of written submissions. Over 540 submissions were lodged with the Inquiry. It is estimated that the Inquiry, which employed up to 50 people for about 14 months, cost approximately $2 million. An interesting late submission was lodged by Aboriginal groups in Queensland who requested that Fraser Island and autonomy for future management be returned to them. The last of the Aborigi- nals had been removed from Fraser Island when the Aborigi- nal Mission was abandoned in 1904. In April 1990, Queensland Conservation groups signed an accord with the Aboriginals. All the signatories to the accord pledged to secure Aboriginal freehold title to all crown land on Fraser Island with options to lease back the land as National Park or a World Heritage Area.

The Commission report was finally tabled in the Queensland Legislative Assembly on 22 May 1991. It contains 80 recommendations. While it will take some time to digest, one thing is clear. Logging will be phased out. Mr Fitzgerald has recommended that the whole of the Great Sandy Region including Fraser Island become a World Heritage area. He has also recommended that part of Fraser Island be handed over to the Aboriginal Groups. It was reported in the local newspaper that the Inquiry report was 'very green', coming down heavily on the side of the conservationists.

GM. SHEA Special Projects, Agroforestry Coordination

Canberra

The following Statement bf M e r a l Owernment policy on international trade in tropical timber hss been received from the office of the Minister for Resources.

INTERNATIONALTROPICAL FOREST CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE POLICY

Recognising the detrimental environmental impacts of loss of primary tropical forests, the need to increase the amount of tropical rainforest under full protection, the need to develop principles for ecologically sustainable uses of tropical rainforests and the need to arrest the rate of deforestation globally, and consistent with the Government's National Rainforest Conservation Policy, the Commonwealth Government has agreed an International Tropical Forest Conservation and Sustainable Use Policy, as set out below.

INTERNATlONAL ACTION

On the international front we will: (a) consult bilaterally and negotiate multilaterally for a reduction

in the rate of deforestation in the world's major tropical rainforest regions and to encourage and facilitate the conservation and ecologically sustainable use of forests including: (i) reserved areas including fully protected areas for preserva-

tion of biological diversity and other conservation values; and

(ii) areas managed for ecologically sustainable multiple use, including biosphere reserves and areas managed for commercial forestry operations conducted in accordance with practices approved by ITTO;

(b) consult bilaterally and negotiate multilaterally with producer and consumer countries on appropriate measures to promote the rapid establishment and management of a dedicated forest estate or other secure form of tenure or land management agreement appropriate to custom within those countries currently exporting tropical timber products, especially those exporting to Australia;

(C) reiterate Australia's support for the resolution passed by the I'ITC in May 1990 that 2000 be a target date by which all tropical timbers traded should be from sustainable sources and for the resolution passed by the ITTC in June 1991 setting out a strategy to achieve the year 2000 objective, and continue Australia's active participation in the ITTO's work towards this objective;

(d) work through the ITTO towards the promotion of internally agreed environment assessment procedures and definitions;

(e) promote, where appropriate, reforestation on previously cleared land through agroforestry or the establishment of plantations of tropical timber species;

(f) provide technical and scientific assistance regionally to facilitate the establishment and management of dedicated forest estates;

(g) support and work to enhance the FAO's Tropical Forests Action Program ensuring that these emphasise the sustainable forest management and conservation aspects of the TFAP.

DOMESTIC ACTION On the domestic front we will: (a) monitor progress by tropical timber producer countries to-

wards achieving sustainable forest management, drawing on the outcome of the MTO 1995 Review;

(b) examine, in consultation with the industry, the feasibility of developing a code of conduct for Australian companies engaged in logging andlor processing of tropical timbers in other countries; and


(C) identify priorities for research into tropical forest conservation and sustainable use.

To implement this policy, we will initiate coordinated action on international tropical forest conservation and sustainable use by the Ministers for the Arts, Sport, the Environment and Territories; the Minister for Primary Industries and Energy, the Minister for Resources, and the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade.

BURUNDI

Information on forests and forestry in this remotest of countries in Central Africa, situated between Zaire and Tanzania, is given in four articles in the autumn 1992 (No 233) issue of Bois et Fore^ts des Tropiques. An upland country with a dense population, the natural forests had been virtually destroyed by the 1970s, with a threat to the natural fauna and flora and risk of starvation for want of fuelwood. This became so serious that a programme of protection and reafforestation was started and this and its associated activities are described in the journal. The four articles, on the- historical background of forestry research, the French contribution to forest development in the 70s, on the forestry projects of the 80s and a case study of reafforestation in the state forest of Rugazi, detail the investment which has been made. Between 1980 and 1990, 50 million trees were planted in some 65,000 ha of industrial plantations, 13,000 ha of communal plantations and an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 ha of private plantations. The industrial projects included both productive and protective plantations, the former a mixture of pines and eucalyptus (mainly grandis), the latter Callitris spp. with some Pinus patula, eucalypts (E. maideni and E. saligna) and Acacia mearnsii. The communal plantings are mainly eucalyptus but with some pine, cypress and callitris; the private plantings often groves of a few dozen eucalyptus or rows or clumps of Grevillea r-obusta, Albizia sp. and Leucaena sp. established on farm land. In commenting on these developments, Regis Peltier, Head of the Agroforestry Program of CIRAD - For&t (see France, below) remarks that all Burundi's problems, whether forest, agricultural, pastoral or social, are far from resolved but he sees in what has happened an example of how man is able to rebuild what he has destroyed.

EUROPE

The European Consortium for Agricultural Research in the Tropics (ECART), comprising four major European tropical agricultural research brganisations, was launched on Friday 15 May 1992 at the Royal Tropical Institute (KIT) in Amsterdam. The organisations are:

- Centre de Cooperation Internationale de Recherche Agronomique pour la Development (CIRAD), France;

- Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica Tropical (IICT), Portugal;

- Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen (KIT), The Neth- erlands; and

- Natural Resources Institute (NRI), United Kingdom. ECART has been formed in order to harness more effectively the work of some of Europe's longest-established centres of expertise in the natural resources and agricultural development sectors in the tropics. The alleviation of poverty, the sustainable productivity of renewable natural resources and the conservation of the tropical environment will be over-arching concerns.

ECART can field over 2,000 specialists from a wide range of disciplines and backgrounds whose collective experience of the natural resources and agricultural sectors in developing countries is unrivalled.

FRANCE

The Centre Technique Forestier Tropical has become one of the constituent bodies of CIRAD, the Centre de CoopCration Internationale e n Recherche Agronomique pour le DCveloppement. CIRAD, set up to integrate the French research institutes concerned with tropical agronomy. comprises five departments, with the CTFT forming one of these, CIRAD - Foret. CIRAD - Fortt continues the programme of the former CTFT, with work on forest management, tree improvement, agroforestry and wood technology. Work on fisheries and aquaculture, moved elsewhere from the CTFT in 199 1, now forms part of the activities of CIRAD - EMVT (Clevage et mCdecine vCtCrinaire).

GHANA

The first issue (October 1992) of the Ghana Gazette, published by the Ghana Timber Export Development Board, describes the timber industry's projected programme to help set up and run community forest projects in each of the country's l l0 districts as follows.

'The plan is in the first instance to encourage each community to plant and tend up to one hundred hectares of fast growing trees. The species are likely to be chosen for a variety of contributions they can make to the community, of which timber is only one.

The industry has formed a special organization which, among other tasks, is creating strategies and practical plans to deploy the voluntary funds for forest replenishment. In April this year the Association of Ghana Timber Industries (AGTI) was set up. Earlier the industry had agreed to start a Forest Improvement Levy scheme, which within a year has yielded US$1.5 million.

At present Ghana's commercial timber comes partly from permanent managed Forest Reserves and partly from unreserved forest. Eventually most harvests are likely to come from the Forest Reserves which are managed on a sustainable basis. Annual national harvests of commercial logs should not exceed 1.2 million cubic metres per year to

162 Around the World

ensure sustainability. Current harvesting is below this level. Given the future timber needs of Ghana, other African

countries and more distant overseas markets, it is important to husband and extend forest resources. AGTI has a central role to play. That individual businessmen are voluntarily contributing sums over and above statutory royalties and duties for afforestation is singularly commendable.

To raise over US$1.5 million is a commitment to be recognized. If every dollar were to be matched by additional contributions from outside sources, particularly those sources in distant countries which are so highly critical of tropical forested countries, then more good work could be done.

Earlier in the year representatives of the industry an- nounced the intention to see a million trees planted in the first year of the programme. Activities to improve community awareness of the role of trees and to gain more respect for forests are part of the strategy.

The high rainfall areas of Ghana only amount to about one third of the country. This is where the rain forest grows. In the drier regions the growing of trees and crops requires special activities to provide water. AGTI has organized the digging of wells and creation of small local reservoirs to help with irrigation, particularly in the Northern and Upper regions where rainfall is unreliable.

Ghanaians have a strong community spirit. The '1 10 X

100' (1 10 Districts X 100 hectares) programme will involve the communities themselves. It will not be something imposed by distant administrators. It is likely to involve men, women and children and, along the way, help stabilize some of the farming practices which have destroyed natural forests in the past.'

INDIA

recently, under the heading of 'The Children's Forest', La Republica (and other Italian newspapers and journals) reported on 7 February 1992 that a new law had just been approved which obliges each commune to plant a tree for every child that is born in future, and the registrar must record on the birth certificate where the tree was planted. La Republica noted that in May 1986 the idea had been launched in their own columns with the slogan 'Trees for Life', in which the paper had suggested that a better gift to a newborn child would be a tree rather than the traditional gold chain; the tree would make more impact on the increasingly polluted world in which the child would grow up than the activities of the goldsmiths.

La Republica estimated that the new law should result in 600,000 newly-planted trees every year, but the newspaper was silent on how they are to be maintained and protected, so whether the new law really will lead to an increase in Italy's forest cover remains to be seen.

J.B. BALL

MYANMAR (BURMA)

The following report is extracted from the Refugee Pai-tici- pation Network No. 12 (March 1992) and reproduced by kind permission of the editor.

The link between refugees and the environment is often discussed in the context of 'natural disasters' causing cross border migration. Equally, refugees are often held responsible for environmental degradation in the places they settle. In Burma 'S borderlands, however, the relationship between the destruction of the teak forests and refugee flows takes a different shape. Here the relation reflects the dynamics of war, a change in the military and economic strategy of the

A Bamboo Information Centre has been estabIished at State Law and Order Council (SLORC), economic Kerala Forest Research Institute, Thrissur in cooperation agreements with Thailand, and their devastating human and with the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), environmental effects. Canada. It was started in July 1989 with the aim of collecting all published literature on bamboos from Asia. Information about scientists working on bamboos and bamboo research projects, as well as a search service from the computerized database, are backed up with a document delivery service. The BIC bulletin is published every six months, containing abstracts from relevant scientific literature and information on research projects. An Information Bulletin and a compendium on Indian bamboos are also produced periodically.

Individuals or institutions interested in bamboo information are encouraged to contact the Bamboo Information Centre, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 - 653, Thrissur, Kerala, India.

ITALY

In 1991 the ltafian Ministry of Education revived the Nadotiai R s t i v d of the Tree, after a break of 18 years. More

Logging and the Military Campaign

Burma's teak forests are being destroyed by Thai logging companies granted large-scale concessions by SLORC. In addition, timber purchases by Chinese contractors have soared (at least 100 Chinese trucks leave daily for the capital of Yunnan Province in China). The logging is concentrated in territory held by Burma's insurgent ethnic minority groups, and felling has accelerated dramatically along 1500 km of Burma's border, from the rainforest on the Chinese border in the north, along the Thai border to the southern part of the coast. Thai and Chinese highway crews are busy con- structing new logging roads to penetrate parts of Burma previously inaccessible from Thailand and China.

Deforestation is providing much of the needed revenue for Burma's counter-insurgency war. Teak sales have facilitated arms purchases from China to the value of US$ 1.5 billion in the 1991 fiscal year alone. Arms contracts


have also been made with firms in Belgium, Israel, Britain, Poland, Pakistan, Germany, Singapore and Yugoslavia. Furthermore, by facilitating the advance of the Burmese military along the new logging roads, deforestation is treat- ing new flows of refugees. It is destroying the resource base, the future livelihood of the minority groups and is causing untold environmental damage.

For over 40 years, almost half the land area of Burma, and at least a third of Burma's population of 42 million, have been governed by local ethnic minorities. Their numbers swelled after 1988 when they were joined by 10,000 university students and others who fled the violent suppression of pro-democracy demonstrations in the capital, Rangoon. The latter sought shelter and support from ethnic minority groups with whom they had previously had no contact, and who they knew about only through government controlled information. Since, then, the urban dissidents and ethnic peoples of Burma have become targets for an intensified military offensive by SLORC.

Counter-insurgency campaigns by SLORC, and the preceding Ne Win government, had, until recently, been - unable to penetrate the minority-held areas. Logging roads created for timber extraction since the Thai/SLORC agreements in 1989 have, however, changed the dynamic of the war. Burmese forces have been known to use Thai soil to launch their offensive against the minorities from the rear. Aerial attacks on refugee settlements have also been exe- cuted from Thai airspace. The annual dry season offensives need no longer be accompanied by wet season retreats, and Burmese troops do not need to rely on supplies trekked from within Burma. Refugees who in the past temporarily fled the fighting, to return home following the Burmese troops' retreat, now accumulate in camps on the Thai side.

As a result of these changes, the number of ethnic minority refugees on the Thai soil has risen rapidly to the current figure of over 60,000. Logging vehicles carried SLORC troops into Thailand along the new bulldozed roads so that they could attack student and minority camps inside Burma which were therefore also forced to relocate inside Thailand. The success of this offensive was directly due to improved Thai-Burmese relations which had resulted in SLORC's grant of logging concessions to Thai companies earlier in 1989.

History of teak logging in Burma

Teak has long been an important resource in Burma. Much of the timber extraction had been under the control of the ethnic minorities. The mefhods they used were generally protective of the forest and maintained environmental stability. Damage to surrounding growth while extracting the timber was minimised by the use of elephants rather than mechanised equipment. For years, the Thais have bought timber products from wood extracted in this way by minority peoples such as the Karen, Karenni and Mon.

Tight controls on teak harvesting were also upheld through the 'Burma Selective System' which was initially

introduced by the British colonial government and maintained after independence in areas managed by the Burma Forestry Commission. This system had established a minimum age of 90-120 years for trees to be felled. Sustainable logging practices were abandoned, however, when senior military figures were placed at the head of forestry operations.

Changes after l988

Thailand's own previously expansive teak forests have been depleted by years of indiscriminate over-felling. Without the forest soils and cover to absorb and filter the rainfall, the land has been degraded, and is now vulnerable to floods and landslides. One incident alone in 1988 resulted in 350 deaths. This prompted a national ban on logging. Just days after the restrictions came into force, Thai General Chaovalit Yonchaiyut flew to Rangoon to secure concessions to Bur- mese teak. Under pressure from Thai military leaders, the concessions allowed an initial 20 companies to remove Burmese teak worth an estimated US$ 112 million in the following year. The number of companies has now grown to 43.

The indigenous people have been forced to allow contractors to enter their territory for teak. Lumber sold by the minorities has now faded into insignificance compared with the scale of timber extraction by the Thais. Indigenous peoples are routinely confronted by armed logging crews as contractors enter their territory for teak. Primary forest is cut with high-technology equipment, and trucks exit in convoys, each carrying in excess of 35 tonnes. Night and day the trucks are visible on the order highways, some with a load comprising a single enormous log, and others with a mixture of new and older growth. SLORC does not monitor removal except by means of customs agents at the border, and the minorities for their part are powerless to limit concessions granted by SLORC. The indigenous people, trapped in this way, sometimes impose a tax on the logs extracted.

Road closure is one means used by the indigenous groups to try to retain control over their timber resources. In other regions it is said that minority leaders actually agree to match the size of the Thai/SLORC logging concessions to secure income of their own. Other areas lost by the insur- gents to SLORC, are sometimes clearfelled immediately. Even where logging encroachment is slower, it nevertheless makes the forest 'a difficult place to hide', as one Mon leader recently put it.

The Effects of bgging

Roads developed for hauling timber are fundamental to SLORC offensives against minority peoples in Burma. Apart from logging on the basis of concessions negotiated with the minority groups, and in areas held by the central government (the roads from which can then be used in offensives), Thai loggers also move into rural areas follow-

ing attncks; as whole villages are evacuated under gunfire, logging operations stert within days.

Extensive felling not only has long term environmental effects, but is often followed by flashflooding and drowning. 1991 saw the worst flooding in 50 years: in just one Karen township, over 6,000 acres of rice, coconut and betelnut production were lost to floods exacerbated by deforestation. At the same time, flooding caused by deforestation in Arakan and Pegu Yomas was of such severity that it required a UN emergency response. Severe incidents of this sort are occurring along the Thai and Chinese borders. Deforesta- tion of the Burmese forests (the last block of continental forest in Asia) is an emerging regional ecological disaster.

VANUATU

The following was received by outgoing local Secretary John Jenks.

Since the last report in 'Around the World' in Vo1.67(3) 1988, there have been a number of significant developments.

Following national elections in late 1987 the Forest Service was moved away from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), to the Ministry of Civil Aviation, only to be returned in the middle of 1988. A political decision established a separate Department of Forestry within MAFF, with Leonard Bule ultimately confirmed as Director.

Major forestry activities within the 2nd National Devel- opment Plan (1987-1991) are a National Forest Resource Survey and the Santo Industrial Forestry Plantation (IFP) Project.

The Resource Survey is a joint exercise of Queensland Forestry Department, CSIRO and Vanuatu Department of Forestry funded primarily by Australian International De- velopment Aid Bureau (AIDAB), and co-ordinated in Vanuatu by David Wood (Forest Utilisation Officer). Field work started in 1989 and results are expected by end 1992. This is the first national forest inventory undertaken in Vanuatu. Indications are that Vanuatu has very little har- vestable timber.

The signing of a 70 year lease on 6,000 ha. on Espiritu Santo initiated the Santo IFP 5 Year Pilot Project in Septem- ber 1989. The project is funded by the European Develop- ment Fund (EDF) with UK TCO manager John Casey.

The UK sponsored Research Project Phase I1 was completed in 1989. The ODA Phellinus noxius research by OR'S Dr. M. Ivory has entered phase 11. Further studies of indigenous species, ecological processes and silvicultural characteristics aim to increase forest management options.

An &nobotanical investigation on the use of trees by local pe~ples was started by VS0 J.I. Wheatley, and continued by C. Clunies-Rose until her untimely death. The indigenous peoples have no written reconis, and as the you~gm gweratiom a ~ e less knowkxlgeable, it is a race

against time. 'A Guide to the Common Trees of Vanuatu' is in production with descriptions of 100 species, checklists and use class tables, in a style to suit a wide readership.

British Petroleum (NZ) started some research trials during 1988 in Santo, focusing on short rotation species, which now continues under C. Itoh and NZ Forest Products.

A review of the Erromango and Aneityum IFP plantation programmes was undertaken on behalf of the New Zealand Ministry of Forests in 1989. The economic appraisal revealed that to continue planting Pinus caribaea on Anei- tyum, despite the low cost of establishment and favourable growth, would be uneconomic due to the high cost of transporting the timber to market (Vila or Santo), and the abundance of pine worldwide. Care and maintenance continues on the 850 ha. already planted. An expanded plantation programme may be possible at Ipota, Erromango.

A review of the Local Supply Plantation (LSP) programme started in 1991 by undertaking an inventory to assess the basis of the programme and its results. Prescrip- tions on each LSP will be made.

It is anticipated that emphasis of future forest management will fall into three distinct categories: 1) Natural Forest Management 2) Industrial Forestry Plantations 3) Rural Development Support Forestry, in a participatory

effort to support small-holder subsistence forest product needs. Logging control and processing development have had

mixed experiences. On the plus side primary processing entrepreneurs have invested in more sophisticated machinery, including rotary peelers and a veneer slicer. Logging controls, including a ban on log exports, give much value added processing 'in-country', and give the custom land owners more flexibility on timber contracts, whose signings are witnessed by trained forestry staff. Logging codes of practice are being introduced. On the minus side much time has been spent controlling the activities of foreign loggers already working in Vanuatu. One group hoping to work on Malakula has already pleaded guilty to attempting to bribe Government Officers. Like other groups their plans appear to be based on inadequate groundwork and technical knowledge. Fortunately others are much more professional in their approach.

Staff development progresses well with the first graduate, Aru Mathius, returning from Lae, Papua New Guinea in 1987. Between 1987 and 1990 three certificate and two diploma holders also returned. Four are currently on degree and five on diploma training. Candidates are selected after a one year probationary period with the Department.

During 1990 John Hook joined the Department as For- estry Adviser, to assist, amongst other things, with the TFAP process. As forestry only started in Vanuatu in 1970 there is still a long way to go, and the TFAP process should produce some solid policies to allow development on thoroughly organised strategies to capitalise on Vanuatu's undoubtedly good growing conditions.


Please note the new address and amend your handbook. Director of Forestry, Department of Forestry, Private Mail Bag 064, Port Vila. VANUATU. S.W. Pacific. Telephone (678) 23856 Fax. (678) 23024 Telex. 1040 VANGOV NH

Since writing the above a tragic accident occurred on 25/7/91. A Britten Norman Islander plane returning from a botanical expedition on the West Coast of Santo crashed, killing all 9 people aboard. They were:

John Landi, Small Sawmills Project Field Manager ni-Vanuatu

Rigobert Rory, Forester ni-Vanuatu

Warren Toaliliu, Trainee Forester ni-Vanuatu

Ezra Massen, Passenger ni-Vanuatu

Dr.Jean-Francois Cherrier, Director CTFT New daledonia French

Cass Clunies-Ross', Forest BotanistlEcologist British

Steve Pinhom, Pilot British

Rene Sintes, Journalist New Caledonia French

Roger Strickland, Diplomat Australian High Commission Australian

A large multi-denominational memorial service held in Port Vila's Independence Park on Friday, 2nd August was led by the Republic's President, Fred Tirnakata. Nine coconut trees have been planted at the crash site as a memorial. The untimely death of such able ni-Vanuatu foresters is a particularly tragic loss to Vanuatu.

Our heartfelt sympathy and prayers are with all the families, relatives and friends of the victims.

J. JENKS Forest Management Oficer (1987-1991)

in Vanuatu Department of Forestry.

VS0 APPEALS FOR FORESTERS

The world's forests are disappearing and it's easy to say 'save the trees'; but for many people in the developing world, trees provide their only livelihood.

VS0 (Voluntary Service Overseas) posts foresters to a number of developing countries, where they work with local people towards local solutions to deforestation. The charity is looking for more skilled and experienced foresters to work in Nepal, Vanuatu, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Kenya.

Nick Brown, recently returned from working as a VS0 forester in Sri Lanka, says: 'A social approach to reforestation requires more thought, more planning, more time talking with villagers and more commitment from staff than has previously been thought necessary. This is the only way villagers will ever fully support attempts to prevent deforestation; and without their support the forests will continue to disappear.'

Normal VS0 postings are for two years, living in local conditions. Accommodation, a local-level salary, health insurance and National Insurance contributions are provided. For more information about all VS0 vacancies, contact the Enquiries Unit, VSO, 317 Putney Bridge Road, tel. 081 780 22661'780 1331 (24 hours).

COMMONWEALTH CURRENTS

published every two months, reports on the work, achieve- ments and problems of the Commonwealth; it is issued free. The contents may be reproduced without permission, though acknowledgement is appreciated. If you wish to receive the magazine, contact the address below. Published by the Commonwealth Secretariat, Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London SWlY 5HX, Britain. Discs converted by Fingerprint Graphics, and printed by Staples Printers Rochester Ltd. ISSN 0141 8513

Current address: 1 1 Darwin Gardens,

Shrewsbury. SY3 8QB U.K.

See Obituary in Volume 70(3).

.I

As the largest importer and distributor of timber and sheet materials in the UK, Meyer International

is a major customer for your forest products.

We have specialist companies in hardwoods, softwoods and sheet materials that sell nationally.

Our network of 160 timber and builders merchants serves local markets.

If you have forest products to sell, perhaps you should be talking to us.

MEYER Q 0

MEYER INTERNATIONAL PLC Villiers House, 41 -47 Strand,London WC2N 5JG

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ARTICLES

Sticks and carrots in forest

S.D. RICHARDSON

Forestry Adviser, P.O. Box 47, Motueka, New Zealand

concession management*

SUMMARY

The history and problems of concession management in Indonesia are outlined, showing the wider implications in other countries. The effect of short-term concessions is to encourage concessionaires to extract as much as quickly as possible, while the present system of regulatory controls is not enforceable. It is proposed that concessions should be let for a minimum 100 years; that all taxes should be replaced by an annual rental per hectare payable on the whole concession, regardless of whether it is being operated or not; and that every concessionaire should be required to deposit a performance bond to be forfeited in the event of non-performance of obligations. The operator would then have an incentive to use the land productively after harvesting, and in many situations, natural forest management would become the most attractive economic option.

Cet article prtsente I'histoire et les probltmes de l'amtnagement des concessions en IndonCsie en montrant de plus larges implications possibles h d'autres pays. En fait, le principe des concessions de courte durte encourage le concessionnaire h exploiter autant de produits possible dans un minimum de temps, alors que le systkme actuel de rkgulations et de contrBle ne peut etre applique efficacement. I1 est propost que les concessions soient loutes pour un minimum de cent ans, que toutes les taxes soient remplacCes par une rente annuelle payable sur la totalitt des concessions, qu'ily ait eu exploitation ou non, que chaque concessionnaire dtpose une garantie non recouvrable en cas de non respect des engagements. Ces mesures inciteraient 21 une utilisation plus productive de la terre aprks la rCcolte et dans beaucoup de cas, I'amCnagement de la for& naturelle deviendrait alors l'option Cconomique la plus motivante.

RESUMEN

La historia y 10s problemas de la administracidn de concesidnes en Indonesia son explicados en tkrminos generales para demostrar las implicacidnes mis amplias para otros paises. El efecto de concesidnes de corto plazo es animar a 10s concesionarios a extraer lo m h posible lo mis ripido posible mientras el sistema actual de controles reguladores no esti ejecutable. EstA propuesto que las concesidnes deben ser alquiladas por un minimo de 100 aAos y que todos 10s impuestos deben ser reemplazados por un alquiler pagadero para la concesi6n en su totalidad, sin tomar en cuenta si esti operand0 o no; y que cada concesionario debe pagar un dep6sito como un bono de cumplimiento que se pierda en caso de incumplimiento de las obligacibnes. Asi que el operador tendria un incentivo para usar la tierra en una manera mis productiva alin desputs de la cosecha y en muchos casos la administracidn natural de bosques llegaria a ser la opci6n econ6mica mis atractiva.

BACKGROUND

The foundations of the forest concession management system in Indonesia were laid in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when there was little private sector interest in forestry and very little experience outside Java of forest exploitation and management. Inevitably, the management of concessions was by trial and error and partly promotional. The first concessionaires were m i l i e , since only the military had the resources and managerial experience needed to operate them. Promotional policies have been highly successful and very attractive concession terms (and taxes) have encouraged investment in wood processing operations.

Reports from the GOI/FAO team funded by the World Bank to cany out 'forestry studies' highlight the effects of deliberately low rental capture, and high rates of effective

domestic protection. These 'carrots' are set alongside a sophisticated set of procedures and regulations ('sticks') intended to conserve and regenerate the forest resource in the interests of sustainability of timber production. In contrast to the resounding success of promotional incentives, regulatory controls have fallen well short of needs - as evidenced by under-reporting, illegal logging, lack of investment in regeneration, and other malpractices for which the tropical timber industry (the world over) is known and which are the inevitable consequence of unenforceable regulations. These failures have led to further ad hoc taxes for compensatory replanting, relaxation and then selective re-enforcement ~f're~ulations, with the result that while the incentives implicit in the concession and taxation policy

168 S.D. Richardson

promote exploitative harvesting operations, neither the sticks nor the carrots encourage a long term commitment to sustainable forestry. Relatively short concession periods in fact actively discourage any such commitment; the sheer volume of regulations (more than 250 in 7 volumes by 1987) and a bureaucracy office-bound in the national and provincial capitals, lead to their inevitable disregard.

Other commentators have pointed out the failure of the forestry sector to generate adequate revenues for the Gov- ernment of Indonesia, despite its rapid growth. The bulk of potential Government revenues have been absorbed by the promotional incentives. Since the objectives have been achieved, there is no longer any strong reason for continuing them in the light of demonstrable over-cutting.

It has also been suggested that a further distortion occurs through the availability of 'windfall' profits arising from a system that deliberately forgoes part of the economic rental (stumpage). Inevitably, windfalls are perceived to be short term and the beneficiaries will maximise them as long as they last (through exploitative logging).

PROPOSALS

The industry cannot be expected to put its own house in order in the face of uncertainty with respect to long term security of concession tenure and bureaucratic bumbledom. (It is already the biggest honesty box in the world, policing itself, and carrying out many of the monitoring function3 that are properly the responsibility of the Government.) Incentives are now needed not so much to enter the industry, as to stay in it, despite diminishing resources - and to promote greater efficiency in harvesting and forest management. It is time to consider minimum rather than maximum periods for concessions.

A strong case can be made for greater transparency and predictability with respect to taxation and control. This could be achieved through simplification; until recently, more than 10 separate taxes were collected, thus generating excessive paperwork and complicated accounting for both the industry and Government, and contributing little to cost effectiveness. A simpler control system, monitored on an area basis rather than one involving species identification and log measurement, would be easier to police; it would encourage closer utilization of forest production (including minor forest products collected and sold by the holders of customary usufruct); and, by concentrating operations on smaller areas, could reduce encroachment and illegal log poaching.

One way of tackling some of these problems is to place much greater importance on the annual concession rental (payable per hectare per amum on the whole concession beJore and after logging), without regard to species and volumes removed. Such a system would greatly reduce the size of concessions (who could afford more than 100,000 ha?). It would ensure closer utilization (and redtice wast- age), and would be reltitively simple to police. It would ds~oura$e the p m e n t practice of gross over-estimation of

operational capacity in order to pre-empt the resource; a substantial performance bond would be required by way of an interest-bearing investment with the Central Bank which would decrease anhually - though not proportionately - to extinction by the end of the concession period. The bond, equal perhaps to some 25% of the proposed total investment, would be forfeited in the event of non-performance of obligations (which would be limited to the adoption of 'safe minimum standards') by the company. It would also be forfeited in the event of significant changes in company structure or shareholding. At present there appears to be little control of mergers between companies and their concessions. Given these pre-conditions. there is no reason why concession rights should not be auctioned by competitive bidding, established for 100- 150 years, with periodic rent reviews indexed to an international market price. Smaller concessions would lead to appropriate industrial technologies ('ecologies of scale') and should appeal to environmentalists.

Many proposals have been made for changes to the forest taxation system. They tend to be academic, and unrelated to the practical limitations of manpower and infrastructure available in concessions. They can be unnecessarily sophisticated and complex. It is important in comparing forest taxation in different countries, to ensure that like is compared with like; too often, individual items of the forest taxation system (such as royalties) are taken out of context and compared with the values for other countries, but what should be compared is the total imposition (yield) of forest taxation. The advantage of the system proposed here is its simplicity; it could be policed from aerial inspections with occasional surprise visits; it is a system in which the rental variation would reflect a market evaluation of accessibility, infrastructure, and markets. Many forest revenue systems seek to establish uniform wood values throughout the country; this is unrealistic, since neither costs nor prices are uniform. There is no reason why forest taxation (including royalties) should not reflect regional variation in such parameters.

SOME IMPLICATIONS

The most important feature of the proposal is that it provides (indeed requires) a long-term commitment on the part of the concessionaire to harvest and process the forest yield; it gives a vested interest in sustainability. Perhaps more important, it transforms sustainable forest development from being an economic decision to a political one. Given this commitment to long term land management, economic analysis of post-harvesting land use options may show some unexpected results. It certainly cannot be assumed that plantation agriculture - or forestry - will be the most favoured option. Instead of being driven by short-term internal rates of return (and constrained by high discount rates) decisions may be based on 'least cost' solutions - of which sustainable yield natural forest management is the most iikely. The discount rate becomes irrelevant. It might even

Sticks and carrots in forest concession,management 169

be that companies would compete with each other (and with the bureaucracy) to develop the most cost-effective sustainable forest management system appropriate to the particular areas in which they operate.

THE LAW AND THE POLICY

Simplifying concession management would enable rationalization of forest law and policies. In Indonesia, the Basic Forest Law is both a policy manifesto and a legal instrument. It is interpreted and enforced by Presidential and Ministerial decrees. of which some 250 - in 7 volumes - have been issued.

Over the period of 25 years since the Basic Forest Law was first drafted there have been many changes in percep- tion of the multiple roles of forestry and of how the national forest estate may best be administered. A case has been made (Richardson, 1990) for the development of a 3-tier articulation of compatible forest policies. In Indonesia, the first exists already in the form of the ASEAN Common Policy; the second is the National Forest Policy which, in. its present form, is more of a planning strategy than a policy commitment; the third tier relates to Regional Policies which should reflect the demographic, cultural and ecological variation of the provinces of Indonesia. The need for flexibility in forest policies cannot be shared with the forest law which must apply uniformly. Thus, there is a case for separating the two instruments. The law is in urgent need of consolidation.

THE AUTHORITY AND THE ENTERPRISE

Similarly, there are strong arguments in favour of separating the functions of 'Forest Authority' and 'Forestry Enter- prise'. In many countries, forestry agencies attempt this dual function: as the Forest Authority they are responsible for licensing forest> harvesting and for monitoring and policing the activities of licensees; as the Forestry Enterprise, charged with management of the national forest estate, they may be responsible for reforestation, environmental protection and conservation, research and training, etc. The requirements for the two roles are different. The Authority needs to be inflexible, operating procedures and policing regulations without fear, favour or discrimination, throughout the nation. he FOI-est~;v Enterprise, on the other hand, which performs a large number of different activities, must be able and willing to coordinate a wide range of projects in different environments. It must work closely with other government departments and with NGOs; it may undertake joint ventures with the privgte sector; as well as research and training. Its administration must be infinitely flexible, its policies imaginative, and it must be accountable.

ENVIRONMENTAL GLASNOST

The time for change is now, before we are overwhelmed by environmental 'nosiness'. In the past decade there has been a total breakdown in environmental sovereignty - in space, on the high seas and, increasingly, over land. Remote

sensing monitors recognize no national boundaries; significant pollution - or destruction of forests - cannot be hidden; and protest no longer remains passive. The Chemobyl incident represented a step in history for which we should give thanks to our Gods; for the first time, a major disaster was identified and revealed to the world, by an outside agency. Even if there had been a political intention to hide it, it would not have been possible; and its containment became an international concern. The same concern is now being shown with respect to forests; and the fact that environmental activists are prepared - and able - to intervene across national boundaries (whether by physical confronta- tion, as in Malaysia, or by pressures upon transnational corporations in the international timber trade) adds a new dimension to conservation. Moreover, satellites and TV ensure that emotive debate about resources can be beamed around the world in seconds, with the audience having to depend for 'facts' on the contradictory claims of 'objective scientists'. There is no guarantee (indeed it is unlikely) that the most successful television stars are the best scientists; nor are the issues necessarily issues of fact; they may be ethical, political and economic. They are certainly emotional: and no one in our industry can distance themselves from public debate.

CONCLUSION

Every generation redefines ethics. Mine has added to the repertoire of evils, germ warfare, gang rape and tropical forestry. And we have de-listed what was once the most heinous of crimes - intellectual (or scientific) dishonesty.

Sustainable forest development is too important to be left to the short term horizons of politicians and squabbling bureaucrats. It is time to see whether the wood industry can take a longer view. I shall conclude with a litany (Auden, 1941).

THE LITANY

The campfire embers are black and cold, The banjos are broken, the stories are told, The woods are cut down, and the young grown old.

From a Pressure Group that says I am the Constitution, From those who say Patriotism and mean Persecution, From a Tolerance that is really inertia and disillusion:

Save animals and men.

The echoing axe shall be heard no more Nor the rising scream of the buzzer saw Nor the crash as the ice-jam explodes in the thaw

From entertainments neither true nor beautiful nor witty, From a home spun humour manufactured in the city, From the dirty-mindedness of a Watch Committee:


No longer the logger shall hear in the Fall The pine and the spruce and the sycamore call. Goodbye, dear friends. Goodbye, Paul.

170 SD. Richardson

From children brought up to believe in self-expression, From the theology of plumbers and the medical profession, From depending on alcohol for self-respect and self-posses- sion:


REFERENCES

AUDEN, W.H., 1941. Libretto for the Operetta 'Paul Bunyan' (Music by Benjamin Britten).

RICHARDSON, S.D., 1987. The Planning and Management of Farestry and Related Research. Report (Unpublished) for FAO, Rome.

RICHARDSON, S.D., 1990. Forestry Institutions and Policy. GOV FAO Studies. Field Dm. No. VI-5, Jakarta.

*Paper presented at the Woodmac Asia '91 Conference.

YOUR NEW COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY REVIEW

Members' Suggestions

You will have read in these pages of the Editorial Commit- tee's intention to update the Commonwealth Forestry Re- view, revising both its appearance and its content.

The programme we have outlined includes a greater emphasis to be given to the issues facing forest managers and policy-makers today, in the light of the new environmental awareness as well as growing demand from ever- larger populations. In addition to this we are proposing to provide a new Debate Forum for readers' contributions on these issues, as well as a regular feature in each issue on the forest industry of a single country. The Research Notes section is also to be given greater prominence, presenting a wider range of advances in methods and practices.

We hope that these changes will go some way to meet your requirements of the Commonwealth Forestry Review. Nevertheless, we would be very pleased to hear from our readers what other modifications they would like to see, so we can more accurately gauge the needs of our members. If you have any comments or suggestions to make which you believe would improve the Review's coverage of forestry- related issues and developments, please let us know.

FOREST SECTOR MODELLING SYSTEMS

Flexible, easy-to-use software packages are now available, which enable users to set up their own purpose-built models with any IBM compatible microcomputer equipped with a hard disk or twin floppy disk drives.

Models built with these modelling systems simulate forest sector behaviour over time in response to the specific requirements of each user. The modelling technique is very powerful and capable of handling all known forestry situations. Modelling is fast and very cost-effective.

The systems are invaluable for analysis, appraisal, planning and strategy formulation. They can be used at national, regional, district or project level. Their proven success is based on more than ten years of development and experience worldwide, including applications in Korea, Fiji, Sabah, India, Malawi, Zambia, Nigeria, Argentina, Honduras and Panama.

The systems are user-friendly and comprehensive User Guides are supplied with the software. Detailed descriptions of the systems and full instructions for setting up and running models are provided. Data collection forms are included to facilitate model-building.

Three modelling systems are now available, which work in a similar way, but are designed for different purposes:- VOLPLAN for supplyldemand analysis and physical plan-

ning of forestry output. The system deals with areas and quantities of forest products.

TIMPLAN for financial and economic planning of timber growing, harvesting, processing and trade. The system provides projections of future costs, returns, employment and capital formation, and is capable of giving a complete cost-benefit analysis of forestry production at national, district or project level.

GROPLAN for management and financial planning by forestry enterprises and timber growers. The system gives a detailed breakdown of yields by assortments and financial analysis of alternatives, including discounted cash flow tables.

A demonstration and training package called VOLDEMO has also been developed. This contains a modified version of VOLPLAN, which runs a small model containing two products and four crops. It can be used interactively to test options and to investigate the interrelationships between products and crops. With VOLDEMO, trainees can teach themselves, at their own pace, how to use the modelling systems and discover their powerful analytical features.

The modelling systems are available for use under licence. Enquiries should be addressed to:-

Dr. Michael Gane, Millgreen, Kilmington, Axminster, Devon EX13 7HE, U.K.

Commonwealth Fol-estry Review Volume 71 (3/4), 1992 17 1

A diameter class growth model for assessing the sustainability of silvicultural prescriptions in natural tropical forests

ANDREW F. HOWARD

Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 124

JUVENAL VALERIO

Department of Forest Engineering, Institute of Technology of Costa Rica, Apdo. 159, Cartago, Costa Rica

SUMMARY

In spite of the general lack of growth and yield data from managed natural tropical forests, foresters must attempt to quantify the effects of proposed silvicultural prescriptions to assess sustainability. A generalized diameter class growth model was developed for this purpose. Data from the literature were used to derive the required accounting equations. The model was encoded into a spreadsheet programme and used in an illustrative study of a community forest under management in the Osa Peninsula of Costa Rica. A prescription devised by the second author was shown to produce a sustainable yield of approximately 26 mT/ha every 15 years from a small forest on the Osa. While both the total volume and basal area per hectare stabilized after seven cutting cycles, the diameter distribution was still in flux. Practising foresters should find the modelling approach demonstrat~d here useful in the design of conservative management practices while awaiting improved data on the growth and yield of managed tropical forests.

MalgrC un manque geniral de donnCes de production et de croissance dans les forets tropicales amhagees, les forestiers doivent tenter d'kvaluer les effets de certaines prescriptions silviculturales sur une gestion 6quilibrCe de I'environnement. Pour ce propos, un modtle standard de la croissance des classes de dialnetre a Cte mis au point. Les donnees bibliographiques ont &C utilistes pour Ctablir les equations nicessaires et le modele, codifie sur un tableur. a ete utilise dans une Ctude sur une for& communautaire de la Peninsule Osa au Costa Rica. La mithodologie suivie par le deuxieme auteur a permis une production durable d'environ 26 m'/ha tous les 15 ans B Osa. Alors que le volume total ainsi que la surface terriere par hectare se sont stabilisis apres 7 cycles de coupe la repartition des diamttres dans le tableau des classes de diamttre variait encore. Bien que la precision des resultats sur la croissance et la production demandent a &tre ameliores, les forestiers devraient trouver cette modelisation utile pour la conception de pratiques d'amenagement durable de la forSt tropicale.

RESUMEN

A pesar de la falta general de datos sobre el crecimiento y productividad de bosques tropicales, naturales, administrados, los ingenieros de montes deben tratar de cuantificar los efectos de las prescripci6nes silviculturales propuestos para evaluar sostenabilidad. Un modelo generalizado de crecimiento del d i h e t r o fue desarrollado con esta intenci6n. Se us6 datos de la literatura para sacar les ecuacidnes de contabilidad requeridas. El modelo fue cifrado en el programa de una hoja electronica y usado en un estudio ilustrativo de un bosque comunal bajo administraci6n en la Peninsula Osa de Costa Rica. Una prescripcidn inventada por el segundo autor produjo un rendimiento sostenible de aproximademente 26 m3/ha cada 15 aiios en un bosque pequeiio en la Osa. Mientras el vollimen total y el area basal habfan stabilizado despues de siete ciclos de corte, la distribuci6n de diametro estaba continuamente cambiando. Para 10s ingenieros de monte el mttodo aqui demostrado les sera util en el diseiio de practicas de administracidn conservadores mientras esthn esperando datos mejorados sobre el crecimiento y la productividad de bosques tropicales administrados.

INTRODUCTION

The assessment of the sustainability of forest management depends on a stable level of reserve growing stock in each practices in natural tropical forests designed for production component stand. In spite of the fact that growth and yield of multiple products is a particularly vexing problem due to data required for accurate modelling of stand dynamics for the lack of product growth and yield data from both man- these forests is generally lacking, managers must attempt to aged and unmanaged stands. Nowadays, polycyclic quantify the effects of proposed silvicultural prescriptions to silvicultural systems based on partial cuttings are almost assess sustainability. This modelling exercise will, at least, always applied to these forests in which case sustainability lead to improved understanding of stand, and ultimately

172 Andrew F. Howard and Juvenal Valerio

forest, dynamics which is essential for the design of conservative practices that must be applied until additional data on growth and yield are available.

The objectives of this paper are two-fold. First, the basic principles of diameter class models are reviewed with the goal of informing potential users about this simple, but useful technique, and to serve as background for the rest of the paper. Second, a generalized diameter class growth model developed for use in a project investigating the long- term sustained yield of managed natural tropical forests is presented. The model was encoded into a spreadsheet progfiutrrne and used in an illustrative study of a community forest under management in the Osa Peninsula of Costa Rica.

A REVIEW OF THE PRINCIPLES OF DIAMETER CLASS GROWTH MODELS

Diameter class growth models, also known as stand projection models, differ from whole-stand models because the development of each diameter class in a stand is modelled separately (Davis and Johnson 1987). This method is a logical choice for use in the design of management of tropical forests because individual treatments for stands usually include the specification of either harvest, killing, or retention of numbers and species of trees in various diameter classes. This technique also provides the data required for a detailed analysis of stand structure which is an important consideration in the management of non-timber resources. Computer-based quantitative design of silvicultural prescriptions is meant to augment, not replace, the qualitative aspects of design and is particularly helpful in the specification of marking guides when partial cutting is employed. Stand projection and simulation modelling have previously been proposed as a means for exploring management options in tropical forests (Neil 1981, Synnott 1980, . Canonizado 1978, Nor 1978).

Davis and Johnson (1987) reviewed the basic concepts of diameter class growth models. The method involves accounting for changes in the number of trees in each diameter class with time, usually per unit area of forest. This requires the quantification of at least four components:

1, Upgrowth - the number of trees m?ving out (up) of each class due to growth;

2. Ingrowth - the number of trees moving into each class, including the smallest class, due to growth;

3. Mortality - the number of trees dying in each class per unit of time usually expressed as an annual percentage;

4. Cut - the number of trees removed or killed in either commercial or nontommercial silvicultural activities.

In the tropics, and perhaps elsewhere, it is also important to account for the number of trees killed unintentionally during commercial harvesting operations. These trees are either oompletcly destroyed or severely damaged, representing incipient additional mortality, as a result of the felling and

extraction processes. Some amount of logging damage is unavoidable, although through improved harvesting practices it can be reduced. These five components are shown in equation (l) which demonstrates the accounting procedures.

Ni,p, = Nip + Ii - Ui - Mi - Ci - Di (1) where,

N,,,, = the number of trees in class i at the end of the growth period,

Nip = the number of trees in class i at the beginning of the growth period,

Ii = the number of trees growing into class i in the period,

Ui = the number of trees growing out of class i in the period,

Mi = the number of trees which die in class i in the period,

Ci = the number of trees which are cut in class i in the period,

Di = the number of trees destroyed or severely damaged during commercial harvesting operations in class i during the period of growth.

The use of the generalized model shown in equation (1) depends on the development of accounting equations for each of the five components, preferably from empirical observations in forests similar to the target forests. A desirable feature of these individual models is that they should incorporate the effect of changes in the intensity of proposed silvicultural treatments on the variable of interest (Ui, Ii, etc.).

A DIAMETER CLASS MODEL FOR THE TROPICS

A diameter class model was developed for use in a study of long-term sustained yield of timber for a managed community forest on the Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica. The forest is part of the BOSCOSA project in the Fundacion Neotropica, San Jose, Costa Rica. In this project, land owners are being organized into cooperatives with the goal of improving the management of both agricultural and forest lands, and hence providing stable employment for members through sustainable management.

Model Structure

The model was developed by deriving accounting equations for each of the five components shown in equation (1). Upgrowth and ingrowth for all species in all but the four smallest diameter classes is estimated using an annual diameter growth model. The model was derived from data published by Jonkers (1987) and de Graaf (1986), on the growth of natural tropical forests in Surinam in response to variable intensities of treatment and is shown in equation (2).

A diameter class growth model 173

G, = 0.353914 + 0.004675 BART - 0.000077 (DBH, - 50)' (2)

where,

Gi = the average annual growth of trees in class i (cm), BART= the total percent reduction in basal area from

treatment including trees destroyed unintentionally,

DBH = the diameter at breast height (cm) of class i.

BART is computed using equation (3)

BART = [ (BA, + BAc) / BAo ] X 100 (3

where,

BA, = the total basal area of trees destroyed unintentionally,

BAc = the total basal area of trees cut in the treatment, BAo = the original basal area of the stand.

Equation (2) shows diameter growth increasing linearly with the percent reduction in basal area which is logical.. Increased intensity of removals leads to less competition for light and other resources between residual trees producing faster growth. The rate of growth has a negative parabolic relationship with tree diameter which has been suggested for tropical forests in the past (Neil 1981, Rai 1978). Trees 50 cm DBH have the maximum rate of diameter growth. Trees both smaller and larger have lower growth rates. Observa- tions on the diameter growth of trees in response to various levels of reduction in basal area were taken from graphs and tables published by de Graaf (1986) and Jonkers (1987) respectively. Considerable interpretation of these data and general statements made by the authors was required to generate the data; consequently, little can be said about the accuracy and precision of the model. The growth data used to derive the equation are shown in Appendix A.

Upgrowth is computed by multiplying the growth period (years) times the average annual growth to yield total average diameter growth per tree by diameter class. A movement ratio is then calculated with equation (4), and used to compute the number of trees growing out of each class.

where, MR = G =

W =

the movement ratio expressed as a percentage, the average diameter increment (cm) for the growth period, the width of the, diameter class (cm).

The first two digits from the right of any MR show the percentage of trees moving one diameter class more than the number of classes shown by the third digit from the right (Davis and Johnson 1987). For example, an MR = 175 indicates that 75% of the trees in the class move two classes (one more than the third digit), and the remaining 25% of the trees move only one class. This interpretation is based on the

assumption of dispersed but uniform distribution of growth across the diameter class.

Ingrowth into the smallest four classes (1 .S, 4.0,6.5, and 9.0 cm) after intervention and any period of growth is determined using equation (5).

Equation (5) was fitted to pooled diameter distribution data from the fifteen forests which make up the community forest on the Osa Peninsula. Ultimately the number of trees in these classes depends on the success of regeneration and the progression of trees through the classes. General observations made by de Graaf (1986) and Jonkers (1987) indicate that ample regeneration follows after essentially any intensity of treatment. Initial observations of regeneration on permanent plots located on the Osa Peninsula which were partially cut also indicate that regeneration is satisfactory. This assumption of essentially 'constant stocking' in the smallest classes can be considered conservative since sub- stantially more growing space is available to smaller trees in the managed stand, and ample regeneration is apparently available to occupy this space. Clearly this approach to modelling ingrowth needs empirical verification, as do all components of the model presented here.

Mortality was assumed to be a constant proportion for all diameter classes and independent of the magnitude of reduction in basal area. Empirical observations on mortality rates in managed and unmanaged stands, like growth and yield data, are extremely scarce. Results from de Graaf (1986) support the assumption of a constant rate as do the findings of Lieberman et al. (1985). This approach is also consistent with the natural maintenance of a reverse 'j'-shaped distribution of diameters in which there is a constant proportional reduction in the number of trees between adjacent classes (Meyer 1952). Mature, fully-stocked stands free of previous interventions on the Osa Peninsula generally display this distribution. Cumulative mortality for the growth period is computed using equation (6), and subtracted from the post treatment growing stock to give net growing stock prior to growth. This approach is based on the assumption that mortality cannot be salvaged, an assumption supported by de Graaf (1986).

where,

CM, = AM = t - -

the cumulative mortality (proportion) for t years, the annual mortality rate, the length of the growth period in years.

The number of trees cut (harvest) must be specified for each silvicultural treatment. The number of trees cut by diameter class is simply subtracted from the stand table at the beginning of the growth cycle. The volume of commercial material is computed using local volume equations developed from the inventory data.

Unintentional damage resulting from commercial har-

174 Altdrew F. Howard and Juvenal Valerio

vesting operations is estimated using equation (7), fitted to data taken from Jonkers (1987). Only observations of trees classified by Jonkers as either 'completely destroyed' or 'severely damaged' during logging were used in the analysis.

DAM, = 14.5875 + 0.039792 BAR' - 0.2 l6667 DBH, (7)

where,

DAM, = the percentage of trees destroyed in diameter class i,

BAR = the percentage reduction in basal area not including trees unintentionally destroyed.

BAR is computed using equation (8)

BAR = (B A J 3 A,,) X 100 (8)

Equation (7) shows damage to increase quadratically with the intensity of treatment (reduction in basal area). This is logical to an extent, after which so much basal area is removed that there are not enough trees left to damage. Damage to residual trees continues on areas used repeat- edly; consequently, a linear relationship is inappropriate. The percentage of trees damaged also increases with decreasing tree size. Larger trees are more visible and easier to avoid during harvesting operations. which leads to a lower incidence of destruction. They are also more difficult to destroy simply because of their size.

Simulation Process

The simulation process begins with the input of inventory data for the target stand. This consists of the number of trees by diameter class and an equation showing the average volume per tree as a function of tree size. A narrower width class than that used in the collection of the inventory data can be used by assuming a uniform distribution of trees across the original classes (Davis and Johnson 1987). The actual distribution of trees by diameter class can be used, or alternatively, a theoretical distribution can be fitted to the observations, for example the reverse 'j'-shaped distribution. Finally, the mortality rate, numbers of trees to cut in each diameter class, and the growth cycle must be specified. The order of accounting employed in the model is detailed below.

Trees to be cut are subtracted, BAR is calculated and damage computed, Mortality is calculated for the length of the growth cycle, BART is computed and diameter growth is determined, Upgrowth and ingrowth are computed and applied to the pre-growth, post-mortality stand to yield the post-cycle stand table, Summary statistics for the cycle are computed, The post-cycle stand table is copied to the initial stand table for the next cycle, The process is repeated for up to seven cutting cycles.

ILLUSTRATIVE STUDY

The model was used in the analysis of a standardized silvicultural prescription for the forests of the Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica proposed by the second author. This prescription is designed to convert mature, unmanaged natural stands that have not receivedprevious treatments intomanaged sustained yield units. The prescription is divided into two phases: conversion and maintenance.

The conversion phase is completed in three cuttings during the first 20 years. In the first, at year zero, one third of the total volume in trees larger than 50 cm DBH is removed. In the second treatment which occurs in year 10, one half of the volume in trees larger than 50 cm is harvested. In the third cut, which is done in year 20. the total volume in trees larger than 60 cm DBH is removed. In the second treatment which occurs in year 10, one half of the volume in trees larger than 50 cm is harvested. In the third cut. which is done in year 20, the total volume in trees larger than 60 cm DBH is removed. The logic behind this staged approach to removing the over-sized trees is to prevent unwanted invasion of competing weedy vegetation which would result if the stand was converted in a single cutting.

The maintenance phase involves application of a classic individual tree selection system. An equal percentage of trees in each commercial-sized class below 60 cm is removed at each entry. These trees are either undesirable species. or have poor form or vigour, and consequently should not be allowed to occupy growing space which otherwise could be used by better trees. All trees greater than 60 cm in diameter are also taken. The percentage of trees cut in the smaller classes is varied to insure that the volume cut at each entry is exactly equal to the net volume growth for the cutting cycle. Non-commercial treatments are applied as needed to trees below the commercial size (30 cm DBH) with a similar goal: elimination of undesirable species and trees with poor form or vigour. A stable diameter class distribution is required to enable repetition of this treatment without depletion of the growing stock, and hence is an indication of sustainability.

TABLE I . Surnrnury Statistics,for Stand B

Total Volume ( > 30 cm DBH ) 1 84m7/ha

Number of trees ( > 10 cm DBH) 283/ha

Basal area ( > 10 cm DBH) 26 m2/ha

Volume ( > 50 cm DBH) . 124 m7/ha

Number of trees ( > 50 cm DBH) 34.85ka

Annual Mortality Rate 1.75%

Vol. per Tree (-028997 + 0.03 180 DBH)?

# Trees DBH class 'i' 61 g9 1 e-o.~s?72~7 DBH,

A diameter clam growth model 175

This prescription was simulated for a single stand of mature, fully stocked mixed species in the Osa Peninsula. The restriction that at least 20 m3/ha per harvest must be obtained during the maintenance period was imposed to insure all operations would be commercially viable. To achieve this level of harvest (net growth) the cutting cycle for the maintenance phase was varied until sufficient volume accumulated. For this stand the resulting cutting cycle was 15 years. A mortality rate of 1.75% was used and held constant throughout the simulation. This rate is within the range observed by Jonkers (1987) and also by Lieberman et al. (1985). Summary statistics including the equations for volume per tree and initial diameter distribution fitted to the original inventory data are shown in Table 1 .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Summary statistics for the first period of growth (10 years) after the initial entry are shown in Table 2. This treatment removed approximately one third of the total commercial volume greater than 50 cm DBH which amounted to just' over 41 m3/ha. This level of cut resulted in a 15.9% and 22.3% reduction in basal area and total volume respectively. Damage from harvesting operations led to a loss of 16.6 m3 which represents 9.0% of the total volume and mQe than 40% of the volume harvested. After growth the net reduction in growing stock (standing volume) was 24.3%. Annual mortality averaged 2.04 m3 or 1 . 1 1% of the total volume. Annual net growth amounted to only 1.29 m3/ha.

TABLE 2. Summary Statistics for the First Growth Period

Basal Area Volume

Totals

Harvest Damage Mortality Growth Stock

Per Annum

Mortality Growth Net Growth

The second and third treatments in the conversion stage produced reduced levels of damage and mortality due to the lower numbers of large trees (> 60 cm DBH) in the stand. Otherwise these cuttings yielded similar results to the original entry. Standing volume, basal area, and number of trees were 54.3,58.4, and 76.0% of the original stand conditions, respectively, after the third cut in the conversion phase.

Summary statistics after the f i t treatment of the maintenance phase and fourth period of growth are shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3. Summary Statistics for the Fourth Growth Period

Basal Area Volume

Totals Harvest 42.9 19.9 26.2 29.4 Damage 1.3 8.9 5.7 6.4 Mortality 2.4 16.6 13.3 14.9 Growth 6.3 43.5 40.3 45.2 Stock -0.3 -1.9 -4.9 -5.5

Per Annum Mortality 0.16 1.10 0.89 0.90 Growth 0.42 2.90 2.69 3.02 Net Growth 0.26 1.79 1.80 2.11

This treatment removed 26.2m3/ha which represented almost 30% of the total standing volume. Approximately l m3/ha was lost to damage for every 4.6 m3/ha harvested. After growth residual growing stock continued to decline by 5.5%. Annual mortality declined to 0.90% of the total standing volume. The dramatic effect of volumetric losses to mortality in bigger classes was reduced because there were fewer large trees to begin with. Net annual growth increased to 1.8 m3/ha/yr, a 40% rise over the rate observed after the initial cut of the conversion phase. This improvement was due exclusively to the reduced losses to mortality as gross growth declined.

Summary statistics after the fourth treatment in the maintenance phase and seven periods of growth are shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4. Summary Statistics for the Seventh Growth Period

Basal Area Volume

Totals

Harvest 2.9 20.0 26.2 32.0 Damage 1.3 9.3 5.2 6.4 Mortality 2.3 16.5 11.7 14.3 Growth 6.5 45.6 42.6 52.1 Stock -0.0 -0.2 -0.5 -0.6

Per Annum

Mortality 0.16 1.10 0.78 0.87 Growth 0.43 3.04 2.84 3.48 Net Growth 0.28 1.94 2.06 2.60

176 Andrew F . Howard and Juvenal Valerio

The volume removed was 26.2 m3/ha, the same as that taken in the f i t treatment of the second phase. Losses to damage from harvesting were also similar. This treatment resulted in a slight decline in growing stock as measured by volume, but essentially no change with respect to basal area. This indicates that the growing stock is not being depleted, but is still undergoing some changes in diameter distribution. Annual mortality declined slightly compared to period 4, and net growth increased to 2.06 m3 ha/yr.

Comparisons of the numbers of trees in each diameter class between periods show that the diameter distribution had not fuUy stabilized (see Figure 1). After six periods the number of trees is relatively constant up to approximately 19 cm DBH but continues to increase in classes 20 to 39 cm. Decreases are shown in the larger classes. After seven periods the distribution appears to have stabilized for trees 29 cm DBH and smaller. Increases are seen in the number of trees between 30 and 47 cm DBH, while decreases continued in the larger classes.

1 - 6th period 1

Diameter at Breast Height (cm)

R ~ U R E l . Change in Diameter Distribution Between Periods

It appears that the prescription tried on the case study stand does lead to a sustainable yield of timber. However, after seven periods of growth it is not clear if the diameter distribution will stabilize. The shift of growing stock from larger to smaller classes is continuing after the seventh period. This suggests that ultimately larger numbers of trees may have to be cut in the smaller classes to compensate for lower total volume in trees 60 cm and larger. This consequence would actually provide greater opportunity to elimi- nate smaller trees with reduced potential for volume and value growth in each treatment. It is also likely that it would lead to a stabilization of the diameter distribution.

One feature of the spreadsheet model which could prove extremely useful is that cutting cycles can be determined for individual stands. This process must be completed by trial and error, however, the task did not prove to be especially

onerous in this study. The silvicultural prescription was applied to twelve other stands on the Osa Peninsula for which inventory data were available, giving a total of thirteen. Mortality rates for the stands were varied between 1.95 and 1.55% according to qualitative observations made in the field using results reported in the literature (Lieberman et al. 1985) as a guide. The cutting cycle (growth period) was varied for each stand until a sustained, net volume of approximately 20 m3/ha could be harvested. Summary statistics for all thirteen stands are shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5. Summary statistics for Stand Projections of thirteen Stands on the Osa Peninsula

Original Cutting Net

Mortality Cycle Growth* Stand m3/ha m2/ha #trees/ha Rate (%) (yrs) m3/ha/yr)

*Net growth in period 7.

The derived cutting cycles varied from a low of 15 years to a high of 20 years. Logically, stands which were originally well-stocked (for example stands B, H, and P) and apparently on better sites had shorter cutting cycles. These sites are able to carry more and taller trees per hectare than the poorer stands. In the model, the same rate of diameter growth occurs on more trees; consequently, it takes less time to accumulate the same net volume available for harvesting. Simulated net growth for the stands varied from 1.09 to 2.12 m3/ha/yr which is consistent with results reported in the literature for natural tropical forests (Maitre 1991, de Graaf 1986, Johnson 1976, Synnott and Kemp 1976, Dawkins 1959).

Foresters must consider differences in cutting cycles for stands of varying quality both when designing stand-specific prescriptions and when planning overall forest production. Failure to consider variable cutting cycles will lead to improper and perhaps destructive prescriptions for individual stands, and an uneven flow of timber from forests as a whole. If a constant supply of timber is a requirement of

A diameter class growth model 177

management, premature cutting in stands may be needed to meet supply demands, ultimately leading to depletion of the forest. Forest management planning for forests managed using polycyclic systems is a complex problem particularly when cutting cycles vary among management units. Use of a model such as the one presented here is a means for obtaining the data required for scheduling the flow of timber for a forest composed of highly variable stands.

CONCLUSIONS .

The diameter class model presented here was shown to be a useful quantitative tool for assisting in the assessment of the sustainability of a specific silvicultural prescription. The model provides sufficient detail for examining the dynamics of individual diameter classes which permits a more comprehensive assessment of sustainability and stability. It also provides the means for determining appropriate cutting cycles for individual stands subject to yield restrictions which is an important part of both stand-specific and forest wide management. Practising foresters should find the' modelling approach useful in the design of conservative management practices while awaiting improved data on the growth and yield of managed tropical forests.

REFERENCES

ADAMS, D.M. and EK, A.R. 1974. Optimizing the management of uneven-aged forest stands. Canadian Journal ofForestResearch, 4:274-287.

CANONIZADO, J.A. 1978. Simulation of selective forest management regimes. Malaysian Forester. 41 (2): 128-142.

Dam, L.S. and JOHNSON, K.N. 1987. Forest Management, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Pub. Co. New York.

DAWKINS, H.L. 1959. The volume increment of natural tropical high-forest and limitations on its improvement. Empire For- estry Review, 38 (1): 175-1 80.

DE GRAAF, N.R. 1986. A silvicultural system for natural regeneration of tropical rain forest in Surinam. Agri. Univ. Wagenin- gen, Netherlands.

JOHNSON, N.E. 1976. Biological opportunities and risks associated with fast-growing plantations in the tropics. Journal of Forestry, 74:206-211.

JONKERS, W.B.J. 1987. Vegetation structure, logging damage and silviculture in a tropical rain forest in Surinarn. Agri. Univ. Wageningen, Netherlands.

LIEBERMAN, D., LIEBERMAN, M., PERALTA, R. and HARTSHORN, G.S., 1985. Mortality patterns and stand turnover rates in a wet tropical forest in Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology, 73:915-924.

MAITRE, H.F. 1991. Silvicultural interventions and their effect on forest dynamics and production in some rain forests of CBte D'Ivoire. In: Gomez-Pompa, A., Whitmore, T.C., and Hadley, M. 1991. Rain Forest Regeneration and Management. Parthe- non, Paris.

MEYER, H.A. 1952. Structure, growth, and drain in balanced uneven-aged stands and forests. Journal of Forestry, 50:85- 92.

NEIL, P.E. 1981. Problems and opportunities in tropical rain forest management. OF1 Occasional Paper 16, Oxford Forestry Institute, Univ. Oxford.

NOR, S.M. 1978. FORSTAM: A preliminary simulation model for forest stand management. Malaysian Forester, 41(2) :143- 148.

RAI, S.N. 1978. Rate of growth of Dalbergia latifolia and Xylia dolabriformis. Malaysian Forester, 41 (3):241-52.

SYNNOTT, T.J. 1980. Tropical rainforest silviculture: A research project report. OF1 Occasional Paper No. 10, Oxford Forestry Institute, Univ. of Oxford, 45pp.

SYNNOTT, T.J. and KEMP, R.H. 1976. Choosing the best silvicultural system. Unasylva. 28 (1 12-3)74-79.

This study was funded by the World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC., and the National Sciences and Engineering Research Coun- cil of Canada. Ottawa.

APPENDIX A. Data Used to Derive the Diameter Growth Equation

Mean Annual DBH % Growth

(cm) Bart (cm)

178 Comnwmealth Foreshy Review Volume 71 (3/4), 1992

Status of natural regeneration in the denuded of Chittagong, Bangladesh G.U. AHMED, M. SHAH NEWAZ and A.B. TEMU

Institute of Forestry, University of Chiftagong, Bangladesh

hills

SUMMARY

Bangladesh has a multi-pronged strategy of increasing its wood resources through tree planting and conservation measures. Vast areas of land which were once covered by closed forests are currently denuded (covered by shrubs and grasses) and are awaiting re-afforestation. The costs of tree planting are rising and it may be faster and cheaper to bring the denuded areas under complete forest cover by assisting natural regeneration, rather than through tree planting. This study investigates this possibility.

Afin d'augmenter ses ressources en bois, le Bangladesh suit une double stratdgie axde sur les plantations et les mesures de conservation, Alors que de vastes surfaces de terres autrefois densdment boisdes, recouvertes aujord'hui de quelques herbes et buissons clairsemCs, attendant d'&tre reboishs, le cotit des plantations augmente. I1 serait peut-etre moins couteux et plus rapide de recrder les forsts par la r6gbntration naturelle que par les plantations. Cette dtude enquete sur cette possibilit6.

RESUMEN

Bangladesh tiene una estrategia multiple para aumentar sus recursos forestales a trav6s de la planta de arboles y otras medidas consewadores. Terranos vastos que estaban cubiertos por bosques estBn ahora desnudos (cubiertos solamente por arbustos y pasto) y es th esperando la repoblaci6n forestal. Los costos de plantar Brboles esta aumentando y puede que sea m& rapido y mas barato someter 10s h a s denudos a cubierto forestal completo a travCs de la regeneracidn natural que por la planta de kboles. Este estudio investiga esta posibilidad.

INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh has 143,999 km2 of land (Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, 1989) of which only 9 per cent is estimated to be under forest cover (Bhuyian and Hassan, 1988). With the target of attaining 25 per cent forest cover, the country has embarked on a multi-pronged strategy ranging from conservation of existing resources to village-based wood resource development programmes. Among the strategies employed, afforestation and re-afforestation are expensive as they require intensive site preparation and early tending. With the rather limited annual forestry development budget the chances of attaining self-sufficiency in wood products and at the same time retaining enough forest for environ- me& purposes are diminishing. There are large areas of hills which are currently classified as denuded, but were once covered by closed forests. These areas are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Forests and Environment and are scheduled for reafforestation. Although the Govem- ment's intentions are to reafforest these areas through planting, it is unlikely that the funds required will be available in the near future!.

This study was aimed at evaluating the current status of the denuded areas in Hathazari Upazila, Chittagong District, and the prospects for assisting natural regeneration to reduce the cost of re-afforestation of denuded areas.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study were to:

determine the intensity of natural regeneration; identify the regenerating species; identify factors limiting natural regeneration; assess the effect, if any, of position on the hill on natural regeneration, and finally determine whether or not it is technically and economically feasible to achieve a complete forest cover in the hilly areas through natural regeneration.

LITERATURE SURVEY

While literature on the general concepts and practices in regeneration surveys and management is abundant, there is very little written on experience in the Chittagong hill areas. It is not known how long ago the hills were cleared of their forest cover. However, Sir William Schlich, the then Conservator of Forests, inspected the forests of Chittagong in 1875 and pointed out that the hill forests were being degraded by the 'hill men' who extracted wood for domestic use, and by individuals who obtained government permits at that time to export forest produce (Khan, 1979). Thus Jarul (Lagerstroemia speciosa), the most valuable wood in the Chittagong hills, appeared to be particularly threatened.

Natural regeneration in the denuded hills of Chittagong 179

Khan (1979) concluded that as practically all the accessible areas were subjected to shifting cultivation, virgin forests were seldom seen in the Chittagong Division. The crop at that time consisted mainly of secondary growth, which due to over-exploitation was reduced to either dry scrub forest or in certain areas to savanna.

Champion and Seth (1968) stated that the seedlings of pioneering species, mainly those which rely on wind and water for seed dispersal, establish themselves under complete overhead light on freshly deposited or exposed mineral soil. It is logical to add that subsequent stages in ecological succession are dependent upon the success of the pioneer crops. Baker (1950) pointed out that topographic factors like slope, exposure and position relative to ridges and valleys affect regeneration. While recognizing that periodic burning and regulated grazing are necessary for the reduction of competition and should be good for natural regeneration, he noted that these activities had a negative impact on natural regeneration when poorly managed. He noted further that teak (Tectona grandis) and sal (Shorea robusta) had already disappeared and that there were few seedlings of Dipterocarpus and Quercus. Syzyg~urn seedlings still grew in the area. One of the objectives of management of this Forest Division is to bring denuded areas into sustainable production (Chowdhury, 1991).

In this study, it was observed that there was continuous harvesting of young saplings by local inhabitants who need wood for fuel and as a building material. This has encouraged the growth of grasses, which are also harvested and utilized for thatching. Cattle and goats graze in areas close to villages, while occasional fires leave scars on surviving seedlings. In the valleys traditional rice and vegetable cropping is combined with fruit crops such as bananas (Musa spp.), mango (Mangifera indica) and guavas (Psid- iurn gujava). As shifting cultivation involves the removal of stumps and roots - sources of regenerative plant material - soil erosion is intensified and plant regeneration is restricted.

SOIL, TOPOGRAPHY AND GROUND COVER

The soils of the area under study were formed by recent and sub-recent alluvial sediments of tidal and river flood plains and of piedmont alluvial plains and valleys. They vary from moderately alkaline to very acid and are locally slightly saline. Three soil layers can be recognised: top soil, sub-soil and sub stratum. Soils developed in the hills from uncon- solidatedrocks are moderately toexcessively drained, mainly deep and probably the oldest soils in the region. They are yellowish brown to yellowish red in colour and are sandy to clayey loams (Labrousse, 1984).

The average elevation of the hills is approximately 60 m above mean sea level (mad) but the highest peak in this area is about 400 mad. The terrain in the hills is exceedingly irregular and composed of ridges from which numerous spurs run off in various directions (Khan, 1979).

The dominant species for regeneration in these hills are

sungrass (Imperata cylindrica), assarn lata (Eupatorium odoratum), kush (Saccharum spontaneum) and some other herbs and shrubs. Seedlings of some trees arise from seed of the very few and sporadically distributed adults (Chowdhury, 1991). The present crop consists mostly of secondary re-growth (Khan, 1979).

Light demanding or shade bearing characteristics of the Indian species have been discussed by Troup (1986). Zabala (1990) discussed phenology, silvicultural characteristics, type of regeneration, silvicultural systems, yield and uses of indigenous and exotic species growing in Bangladesh.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted in the Hathazari Forest Range, close to the Chittagong University campus in an area of low lying hills 60 m above mean sea level (Labrousse, 1984). The soils are mostly sandy loams and clay loams, with no rocks. The annual precipitation is between 2500 and 3000 mm, mostly falling between June and September (Gafur et al. 1979). The data were collected between October and December, 1989.

Field Procedures

A reconnaissance survey was carried out, on the basis of which 30 hills were selected randomly for detailed study. Three plots 3 m X 3 m were selected, one plot at the top, one on the middle slope and one at the bottom of each of 30 hills. At the centre of each plot the number of seedlings by species and their heights to the nearest centimetre were recorded. For root and stump sprouts a maximum of three was allowed from one source (rootJstump). Other data were gathered as follows:

- evidence of agricultural activities; - harvesting of saplings; - evidence of fire damage; and - factors limiting natural regeneration.

Since these could not be dated, only their presence or absence were recorded. Plot data were transformed into per hectare estimates and analysed separately for valleys, mid slopes and hill tops.

For comparative purposes, a survey was carried out in an undisturbed natural forest existing in the area and all tree species growing there were listed.

TABLE 1. Number of seedlingslsaplings per hectare and their heights

Mean number Max. Height Min. Height Position

per hectare (m) (m)

Valley 3,333 8.0 0.69

Midslope 3,740 5.0 0.7 1

Hill top 3,555 5.0 0.64

180 G.U. Ahmed et al.


Amount of Natural Regeneration

Table 1 presents the mean number of seedlings and saplings per hectare, and the maximum and minimum heights for the three elevations under study.

- Valleys - - Midslope

Number of seedlings on 9m2 plot

FIGURE 1. Probability of occurrence of a given number of seedlings on a 9 m2 plot.

Figure 1 presents the probability of occurrence of a given number of seedlings and saplings on a 9 mZ plot. It may be inferred that the probabilities of obtaining at least 2220 seedlings per hectare are 0.60,0.70 and 0.87 respectively for valleys, mid slopes and hilltops. This density is equivalent to a spacing of 2.1 m X 2.1 m, which is close to the recommended plantation spacing of 2 m X 2 m, and is adequate for obtaining a complete forest cover. Protection from cutting, grazing and fires coupled with crop tending should increase natural regeneration and survival considera- bly. Due to the variation in species and age, the area is likely to attain a multistorey canopy, initially with species such as Stereospermum personatum, Albizia lebbeck, Ficus roxburghii and Holarrhena antidysenterica dominating the top tier on midslopes and hilltops. The top tier in valleys is likely to be composed mainly of Mangifera indica, Albizia chinensis and Albizia lebbeck. This was inferred from the frequency of occurrence and heights of seedlings. It must be noted that the current species composition is mainly a consequence of recent harvesting practices.

It is apparent that the density of natural regeneration increases as one moves up the hill. Two observations may be used to explain this unexpected phenomenon.

(i) The. local inhabitants cut saplings from the areas for fuel wood and other needs. Generally, cutting is at a maximum in the valleys and minimum on hill tops because the cutters try to avoid climbing down the hills with headloads.

(ii) Valleys have much richer soils which are exploited for the cultivation of rice and vegetables. A few fruit trees are also planted, as indicated above.

Regenerating Species, Relative Density and Type

Altogether, 33 tree species (including palms) were found to regenerate in the area (Table 2). Most regenerate from seed and their numbers at different elevations have also been estimated. Most of the species are light-demanding at the seedling stage.

A study of the natural undisturbed forest at a nearby site revealed that of the 40 tree species identified as forming the main crop. 15 regenerated quite well in the studied area. These are marked with an asterisk (*) in Table 2. It is expected that once a complete tree cover has been achieved, a better environment will have been created for favouring natural regeneration of a greater number of species.

Comparative Analysis of Costs of Regeneration compared with Planting

One of the management strategies of this Forest Division is to reduce the cost of plantation establishment (Chowdhury, 1991). In order to provide an indication of the cost effectiveness of assisting natural forest establishment compared with complete replanting of the area, Table 3 presents a comparative cost analysis for the two altematives. The data are based on experiences of the Institute of Forestry, Chittagong University (1989). Fixed costs have been omitted because several nurseries already exist in the area. The costs shown here are only indicative, and are not sufficiently detailed for decision making. The main justifi- cation for supporting natural forest establishment is the lack of the necessary capital for re-afforestation of the areas entirely by planting. Table 3, therefore, shows that the area can be brought under complete forest cover by natural regeneration at about 60 per cent the cost of planting. Costs only relate to the first year. Costs in subsequent years are assumed to be about the same for both altematives. Further, it must be appreciated that if the value of the product is taken into consideration, choice of species would be an important factor in deciding on the method of re-afforestation.

FACTORS AFFECTING NATURAL REGENERATION

Cultivation Regeneration in the valleys is clearly restricted by agricultural activities. However, the introduction of some fruit trees is a positive factor which contributes to soil stabilization and permanent vegetation cover.

Cutting A considerable amount of wood is extracted at the sapling stage and used for fuel and fencing material. As the best (straight) saplings are removed, this deprives the area of good quality stems for the future. However, where natural

Natural regeneration in the denuded hills of Chittagong 18 1

TABLE 2. A Complete List of Tree Species, Relative Density at DlfSerent Elevations and Type of Regeneration

Relative Density Type of

Scientific Name Regeneration Tolerance Valley Midslopes Top

Mangifera indica Emblica officinalis *Artnearpus -1akucha Terminalia hellirica Cassia nodosa Alhizia chinensis Artocarpus chaplash *Steivospermum personarum Ficus roxburghii Sterculia villosa "Gmelina arhorea *Dillenia pentagyna Vites pedunculalis "Lagersti-oemia speciosa Derris rohusta Syzygiurn cumini Alhizia lebheck Schima wallichii Phoenix sylvestris Holarrhena antidysenterica Alhizia falcatai.ia *Bambusa tulda *Teti-ameles nudijlora - [Morichcha] *Melocana baccifera Psidium gujava Syzygium fr-uticosum "Bombas ceiha *Garunga pinnata Cassia fistula *Toonu ciliata Lagerstroemia parviflora "Firmiana colorata

Seedling Light Seedling Shade Seedling Shade Seedling Shade Seedling Shade Stump/seedling Light Seedling Light Seedling Moderate Light Seed;omg Shade Seedling/coppice Moderate Light Seedling Light Seedling/roots Light Seedlinghoots Shade Coppicelseedling Light Seedling Moderate Light Seedling Shade Seedling/coppice Light Seedling Light Seedling Light Seedling Light Seedling/coppice Moderate light Rhizome/seedling Light Seedling Light Seedling Light Root suckers Shade Seedling Light Seedling/coppice Light Seedling Light Seedlindvegetative Light Seedling Shade Seedling Shade Seedling Light Seedling Light

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

*Species also found in an existing forest.

regeneration comes from coppice and root suckers, there is problem because fodder is relatively plentiful, and should a good opportunity for obtaining high quality regeneration the areas be more intensively managed, the effects of through appropriate tending operations. grazing and browsing could be reduced to tolerable levels.

Animal trampling and browsing Fires

Cattle and goats in particular trample and browse young During the dry seasons, grass fires mostly emanating from seedlings, reducing their vigour. This is not a very serious farm preparation activities in the valleys sweep the area.

182 G.U. Ahmed et al.

TABLE 3. Cost Analysis for Natural Regeneration compared with Planting (Cost in TakalHa)

Natural Activity Planting Regeneration

(2500 seedlings) (2200 seedlings)

Nursery 1800 Site Preparation 2340 3100 Seedlings Transportation 250 Pitting, Staking and planting 2350

Climber cutting 750 Fire protection (year zero) 500

Total 6740 4350

Estimated Survival (%)

Cost per surviving seedling

consider full integration and improvement of the existing shifting cultivation to ensure that the real needs of the local people are met while at the same time better forest cover is created. This could be achieved through involvement of the people in the protection, cleaning and possible enrichment planting activities and by introducing agroforestry activities in the valleys with emphasis on horticultural crops. To do this, a mutually beneficial relationship must be worked out between the Forest Department and the people. This proposal requires detailed consideration since the land involved legally belongs to government; and it may be neither practical nor desirable to consider recovering it fully for purely forestry activities.

The current damage to trees through animal trampling and browsing is only slight and could be controlled through a management system whereby in the process of weeding and clearing, fodder materials are harvested for the production of hay and silage. Further, fodder crops could be raised in the marginal areas between valleys and hills.

Dry grass produces relatively weak and short-lived fires which, at the worst, destroy young shoots. Most of the seedlings recover during the following wet season, but their growth may be slightly retarded. The worst effect of fire is deformation of the stem, which may reduce eventual utility.

Strangulation by Vines Seedlings and saplings are particularly susceptible to strangulation by vines. In these areas, the commonest species of vines are Mikamia scandens and Desmodium capitaturn. Intensive management of the area must include climber cutting operations to improve the quality of the seedlings.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Considering only the number of stems per hectare as a measure of success in reafforestation, it is possible to re- establish a complete forest cover on the hills by natural regeneration. The crucial activities required are:

- Protection from harvesting of seedlings and saplings; - protection from animal browsing and trampling; - weeding and climber cutting; - thinning of coppice crops to a maximum of 3 per

stump; - removal of less important trees to facilitate the growth

of economically important species; and - enrichment planting where necessary.

In order to reinforce the current philosophy of people- oriented forestry, future management of the area should

REFERENCES

BAKER, F.S. 1950. Principles of Silviculture, McGraw-Hill, pp 319-330.

BHUYIAN, M.K., and HASSAN, S.M. 1988. Present Constraints and Future Prospects in the Development of Tree Planting and Other Forest Resources in Bangladesh (unpublished).

CHAMPION, H.G. and SETH, S.K. 1968. General Silviculture ,for India. Published by the Government of India, Publication Branch. Delhi-6. pp 255,290.

CHOWDHURY, J.H. 1991. Draft Revised Forest Management Plan for Chittagong Division 1991-92 to 2000-2001. Volume 1. Bangladesh Forest Department.

GAFUR, M.A., ANSWARUL, K., and KHAN, M.A.A. 1979. Phytoso- ciological Studies of Hills of the Chittagong University Cam- pus. Chittagong Univers i~ Studies, Vol. 3. Part ii (Science). pp 11 -28.

KHAN, S.A. 1979. Revised Workmg Plan for the Forests of Chittagong Division. For the Period from 1978-79 to 1987-88, Forest Department, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, pp-209.

LABROUSSE, R. 1984. Preliminary Report on the Classification of Plantations in the Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts Districts. Working Paper No. 2, FAOIUNDP Project BGDfl91017, 1-12 pp.

Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1989. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Government of the People's Republic of Bangla- desh.

TROUP, R.S. 1986. The Silviculture of Indian Trees, Vol. 1-3. International Book Distributors, Dehradun, India.

ZABALA, N.Q. 1990. Silviculture of Species, Field document no. 14, UNDPPAO BGD/85/011. Development of Professional Education in the Forestry Sector, Institute of Forestry, Univer- sity of Chittagong, Bangladesh. pp. 174.

Commonwealth Forestry Rel,ie~' 71 (3/4) , 1992 183

Firewood characteristics of some mountain trees and shrubs B.P. BHATT and N.P. TODARIA

Department of Forestry, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal - 246 174, U.P. India

SUMMARY

Quantitative analysis of 32 indigenous mountain fuelwood species of Garhwal Himalaya proved that all the temperate species are best suited for firewoods as they have high calorific values, low ash and water contents. high density wood and high biomass to ash ratio. Our findings showed that / / c \ i l i l ~ ~ r ~ d r i c r . C'ihrrr.nrrni gr.rrrlcl~flo~~irn~, 1'. c~orin~foli~rrn, Bcrirla 11ti1i.s. Rhodoclendr~on c~trn~pcrriirlutrtn~ among angiosperms have promising firewood properties. Among gymnosperms, .Irrriip'r.rr.s ~ w l l i c hicrncr i \ the most suitable fuelwood species having the highest fuelwood value index.

Une etude quantitative sur 32 Cspeces locales de montagne tres bonnes productrices de bois de feu. en provenance de Garhwal dans 1'Himalaya a prouve que toutes le\ eipkces de la zone temperee sont les plus interessantes comme combustible, ceci a cause de leur haute valeur calorifique, leur faible contenance en eau et en cendres. la haute densite du bois. ainsi qu'au fort ratio de la biomasse aux cendres. Nos resultats ont montre que 1le.1 tlil,\i.c~crr7u. \'ihn~xrrni ,y~.cir~t/~fo/irrn~. \'. r~otin~folirtni. Bctrrlu rrti1i.r. R/lot/ode/ld/'O~l ccrn~l>crrllr/orrtn~, parmi les angosperrnes avaient de bonnes proprietis combustibles. Parmi les gymnospermes. .Irrnipc~r~rr.s ~~trllie~hicr~rtr est I'espkce de bois de feu la pluh appropriee ayant le piu\ fort indice conlbustible.

RESUMEN

El analicis de 32 especies indigenas de montalia que re usan como fuente de lelia en el Himalaya Garhwal demostro que todas las especies templadas son muy bien adaptadas LI producir leAa porque tienen valores calorificos muy altas. contenidos rnuy bajos de agua y ceniza, madera densa y una alta rarcin de biornasa a ceniza. Nuestros resultado., muestran que Ilcv tlipyrc~crntr. l'ihrrr~nrrnl ,qr.crncliflor.im~. V . r.orinifolirrrn. Bcirrla rrtilis y Rliorloclrrrtli-011 c~ir117/1crrirrlotrm1 entre otros angiospennos tienen propiedades de lelia muy prometedores. Entre los gymnospermos. , Irrr i i~~e~~rrr u~rl l ic hioncr es lo m& indicado de los especies para lelia. teniendo el exponente mis alto para el valor de la leAa.

INTRODUCTION

In the third world countries, the majority of the population live in rural areas where fuelwood, charcoal, crop residues and animal wastes mostly fulfil the energy requirements (Ulluwishewa, 1989). In India, 80% of the total population live in about 567,000 villages where firewood and animal waste is themain sourceofenergy (Maikhuri. 199 1 ). Moreover. with reference to Garhwal Himalaya. fuelwood, which is collected from nearby forests, is the only source of energy (Bhatt and Todaria, 1990; Bhatt and Badoni, 1990: Negi and Todaria in press). Commercial fuel is beyond the reach of the inhabitants, due to their poor socio-economic conditions.

Due to an ever-increasing population. fuelwood consumption is increasing rapidly. In an estimate, Negi and Todaria (in press) recorded 1.49 kgldaylcapita fuelwood consumption from Garhwal Himalaya. This level of firewood requirement has resulted in over-exploitation of natural resources: consequently, the region is experiencing an acute scarcity of fuelwood. To overcome the problem, various governmental as well as non-govemmental agencies are engaged in energy plantations in these hills. However, there is a lack of scientific expertise for fuelwood farming, indicating that screening of various tree spp. indigenous to the hills is necessary for documentation for fuelwood farming.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Branch cuttings of 2-3 cm diameter were collected from their natural habitats during October 1990. These were divided into four replicates of 10 cm length. Moisture content of wood was determined after drying it at 1 W 5°C for 48 hours. Density was calculated by water displacement technique (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987). Wood samples were ground in hand grinder. For the estimation of energy of wood samples, the pellets of plant material were burnt in an oxygen bomb calorimeter. For the estimation of ash, 2 gm of ground sample was burnt in a muffle furnace at 600°C.


Table 1 depicts the data for firewood properties of various tree crops of Garhwal Himalaya. The calorific values expressed here are within the range as reported by earlier workers (Bhatt and Todaria, 1990; Bhatt and Badoni, 1990; Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987; Bhatt and Todaria, 1992). Cotoneaster spp. have the highest calorific values among all the angiosperms and Juniperus wallichiana among the gymnosperms of the higher Himalaya. An ideal fuelwood sp. should have high density wood, low ash content, and low water content (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987). In another study, Bhatt and Todaria (1990) reported that temperate spp.

184 B.P. Bharr and N.P. Todaria

TABLE 1. Firewood characteristics of some mountain trees and shrubs of Garhwal Hirnalaya

Calorific Values Fuelwood Wood Bio-mass1

Moisture Ash Value Plant species KJIgm KJIgm density Ash % Ic Index

dry ash free dry g.cm-' ratio weight weight

W I )

Cotoneaster microphyllus Cotoneaster duthiana Cotoneaster disticha Betula utilis llex dipyreana Viburnum grandiflorurn Rihes glaciale Desrnodium elegans Spiracea vestita Berberis vulgaris Acer acuminarurn Indigofera nebepetata Rosa sericea Viburnum cotinifolium Salix karelinii Arundinaria spathiflora Piptanthus nepalensis Cornus macrophylla Rosa macrophylla Salix fruticulosa Jasminum hurnile Hippophae rhamnoides Rhododendron campanulaturn Campylotropis sp.

Gymnosperms Juniperus wallichiana Taxus baccata Abies pindrow Ahies spectabilis Cedrus deodara Cupressus torulosa Pinus cone Pinus roxhurghii

have comparatively lower ash and water contents than those of tropical ones. It should be mentioned here that all the plant spp. analysed for firewood characteristics in the present investigation have been selected from the temperate Wimalaya.

Besides Cotoneaster spp., Ilex dipyreana seems a suitable firewood species on account of its high density wood and low ash percentage (Table 1). In general the temperate 8pp. have been reported to have high density wood; however, in our present findings and those reported earlier (Bhatt arid Todaria, 1990, Bhaa and Badoni, 1990), the density of temperate woods was more or less similar to

tropical wood densities, although ash and moisture contents were significantly lower in temperate fuelwood taxa. Arundi- naria spathzpora also seems good fuel as the wood has high (average) energy values and low ash content (Table 1). Viburnum grandiflorurn and Cornus macrophylla have average calorific values but due to low ash and moisture content can also be considered good fuelwood species. Campylotro- pis sp. Jasminum humile, Rosa macrophylla, and Hippophae rhamnoides seem least suitable for energy plantations.

As far as energy values of conifers are concerned, they possess high calorific values and densities as compared to angiospenns. In fact, the gymnosperms are over-exploited

Firewood characteristics of some mountain trees and shrubs l85

for fuel and commercial exports (Singh, 1984). Pinus roxburghii and Abies spp. in particular are excessively used for firewoods. Juniperus wallichiana and Taxus baccata have high density wood together with low ash and moisture contents besides high calorific values. On the other hand, Pinus roxburghii and Abies spp. have high ash contents. As far as the energy plantation of gymnosperms is concerned, it will be worth noting here that P. roxburghii is the most pioneering species on dry exposed hilly slopes (Applegate and Gilmour, 1989). In Garhwal Himalaya this species has a better survival percentage than that of other fuelwood spp. For the estimation of ideal fuelwood species, a fuelwood value index is worked out by Purohit and Nautiyal (1987) taking into account the calorific values and density of wood as desirable characters and high water and moisture content as non-desirable characters. FVI was calculated as follows:

FVI = calorific value X density

ash X water content

The quality of fuel depends on quantitative and qualitative properties of wood. Quantitative properties include calorific value, density, moisture and ash content, drying rate and chemical composition. Although most of the earlier works emphasized the calorific value more, gross calorific value of non-dried wood is not important in comparative evaluation as there are no significant differences between the majority of species. Further, effective calorific value also depends on the moisture content. The higher the moisture content, the less efficient is the wood as a fuel since the net calorific value for heating is reduced. Moreover, it has been recorded that the moisture content of wood varies with the dimensions of branches, seasons of the year, and so on. Thus, water content cannot be considered as part of the intrinsic value of a species as a fuel since it can be varied. Therefore, the above mentioned formula of Purohit and Nautiyal (1987) has been modified as

calorific value X density

ash

Keeping this in view a combination of three factors: calorific value, density, and ash, will be most appropriate in determining the suitability of a wood as fuel. On this basis, of the 32 species analysed, V. grandiflorum has the highest F.V.I. followed by Ilex dipyreana and Viburnum cotinifolium.

Besides screening for these quantitative firewood characteristics, estimation of qualitative properties (burning without emitting sparks or toxic smoke; production of persistent residual embers; drying rate of woods) are yet to be worked out besides growth performance and biomass yield of these Himalayan tree species (Groves and Chivuya, 1989; Gough et al., 1989). All these studies are under investigation and it is hoped that these will bring an up-to- date package of scientific know-how for fuelwood farming and ecological restoration in Garhwal Himalaya.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The assistance of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, in providing research associateship for B.P. Bhatt, is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Mr. A S . Pharaswan for plant material collection and identification.

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BHATT, B.P. and TODARIA, N.P. 1992. Firewood characteristics of some Indian mountain tree species. Forest Ecology and Management 47, 363-366.

BHATT, B.P. and BADONI, A.K. 1990. Fuel characteristics of some mountain firewood shrubs and trees. Energy 15, 1069- 1070.

GOUGH, D.K.; BELL, R.E.; RYAN, P.A. and BRAGG, C.T. 1989. Drying and burning properties of the wood of some Aus- tralian tree species. In D.J. Boland (ed.) Trees for the Tropics, Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research, Canberra, Australia, Monograph 10, pp. 177- 186.

GROVES, K.W. and CHIVUYA, A.M. 1989. Fuelwood evaluation of four Australian grown tree species. In D.J. Boland (ed.) Trees for the Tropics, Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research, Canberra, Austra- lia, Monograph 10, pp. 159-169.

MAIKHURI, R.K. 1991. Fuelwood consumption pattern of different tribal communities living in North-East India. Bioresource Technology 35, 291-296.

NEGI, A.K. and TODARIA, N.P. (in press). Energy from biomass and its effect on forest resources; a case study from Garhwal Himalaya. Bioresource Technology.

PUROHIT, A.N. and NAUTIYAL, A.R. 1987. Fuelwood Value Index of Indian mountain tree species. The International Tree Crops Journal 4, 177-182.

SINGH, B. 1984. Conservation and fixation of solar energy in Pinuspatula plantations of Darjeeling Himalaya. Biomass 5, 43-54.

ULLUWISHEWA, R. 1989. A case study of energy use for domestic cooking by urban dwellers in Colombo city. Energy 1, 341 -343.

186 Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(3/4), 1992

Strength properties of cypress timber grown in Kenya

FRANCIS NG'ANG'A

Kenya Forest Department, P.O. Box 52715, Nairobi, Kenya

SUMMARY

In both commerce and forestry, cypress timber, mostly C~tpr~essrr? Irrsitti17ic~. occupies the leading position in Kenya and at least parts of the neighbouring countries. As a contribution towards its efficient structural applications. a country-wide \ample of the commercial timber was obtained and subjected to standard strength test, of small clear specimens. Results of the tests on green wood are presented. Te\ting of the dry timber is still in progress. The tests yielded measures of the mean strength values and standard deviations nece\sary in derivation of basic strength from which grade and design stresses will be developed. National standard\ and structural engineering authorities are playing a part in these derivations. Several correlations uere studied. including relation\ with density and age. Correlation coefficients were rather low while coefficients of variation tended to be high.

Au Kenya, ainsi que dans certaines regions des pays voisins, le bois de cyprks. essentiellement C~rl~wc-srrs 1rc.tittr11ic.o. est trks apprecie. la fois dans le commerce et en foresterie. Afin de tester ses potentialitks en matiere de construction. un Cchantillonnnge national a et6 \oumis 2 un test standard de resistance. Alors que les tests sur le bois vert sont encore en cours. les resultat\ pre\entes ici concernent le boi\ sec. Les tests ont produit des mesures de la valeurde solidite moyenne, ainsi que des types necesjaires a la derivee de la wliditi de base. desquels seront developpis les degris et les courbes de pression. Plusieur.. correlations ont eti. etudiees. incluant le rapport ii la demite et B I'age. Les coefficients de correlation sont plut6t faibles alors que le5 coefficients de variation\ tendent B Ctre fort\.

RESUMEN Tanto en el commercio como en la silvicultura, la madera de cipres. por su mayor parte Crrprc.\ srrs Irrtirtr~iic o. ocupa unn pmicion principal en Kenya y en ciertas zonas de 10s paises vecinos. Como una contribucibn hacia su aplicacibn estructural eficiente. se tom6 una\ mue\tra\ a escala nacional de la madera commercial y se puso e5pecimenes pequeiios y claros a las prueba\ normales de re\~stcncia. Lo\ resultado\ de las pruebas de inadera verde estin aqui presentados. Las prueba de la madera seca estin todavia en el proceso de real~rarae. Las pruebas dieron medidas de 10s valores medios de resistencia y las desviaci6nes estindare que \on necesaria\ para la derivac16n de la resistencia biisica de lo cual los estrises de grado y diseAo serBn desarrollados. Los cstlindares nacionaleh 4 Ins autoridatic\ tle ingcnier-ia estructurni estin tomando papeles en estas derivaciones. Varias correlacicines, inclu\ive la relaci6n entre In den\idod 5 la edud fueron ~nvestigndas. Los coeficientes de las correlacione salieron muy bajos mientras los coeficiente\ de vw~acion d i a n \er muy alto\.

INTRODUCTION

Though originally introduced from Central America, cypress trees feature prominently in East African industrial as weli as rural forestry. with Kenyapossibly having the largest growing stock of any one country. For a period of thirty years o r so, cypress has been the country's leading commercial timber. Ii makes up more than half the volume of lumber, estimated at 200,000 m3, produced every year. It finds wide-spread demand as a general construction timber.

The cypress trees belong predominantly to the species C~pr-essus 1usiranic.u Mill. although occasionally its close relative C.henthun~ii End. is encountered. Nowadays the formerly quite common species, C.ntuc~mcu~pu Hartw. is rare. In the timber trade these species distinctions are unknown.

In the forest estate the trees are grown in plantations on a nominal thirty-year harvesting rotation. Stem pruning to a maximum height of 9 m at two year intervals during the early age and thinning out at five-year intervals, from the

age of twelve years. are 5tandard silvicultural practices (Plate I ) .

Despite the industrial and market importance of the timber, the necessary strength values needed for structural design purposes have been wanting. Although some spot tests were carried out as long ago as 1949, a thorough strength testing study as here reported has not been attempted before.

T o establish strength of timber, like any other structural material, the actual strength is measured on a representative sample in accordance with precisely defined testing procedures. Practical determination and procurement of a sufficiently representative sample, however, constitute quite a deterrent to establishment of timber strength. The material totality, or population, for which strength is required needs to be suitably defined, after which the sample must incorporate such diversity as exists in the population.

Going by experiences recorded in the literature, a multi-

Strength properties of qpress timber grown in Kenya 189

tion of sample strips and one possible outcome for a log having 250 mm top end diameter.

(iv) Once the three strips had been sawn out, if the remainder of the flitch was big enough. a 63mm square piece was also obtained.

(v) The strips and the square piece were each immediately cut into equal halves. one half to be stacked in an open air-drying shed while the other was stored immersed under water.

Static Bending Test. Centre-point Loading: The specimen, a horizontal simply supported beam 20 X 20 X 300rnm. provided the means to measure flexural strength and stiffness. For the latter property, neutral axis deflections at various load levels were measured using a dial gauge so that a load-deflection graph could later be plotted manually.

If on examination of the mode of specimen failure, sloping grain seemed to have been contributory, the actual slope angle was also measured.

Tc7st S p c ~ ~ i n ~ o ~ s .

From each strip a 20 X 20mm test stick was machined with faces truly edge or flat grained. Similarly the square piece was machined into a 50 X 50mm test stick. Test specimens were then cut from the machined sticks.

Storage constraints caused machining of green timber to extend over a period of two years. For every specimen of preen timber tested, an end-matched specimen of the dry timber would later be tested.

Conip~msion Pur~ullel to Gruin Test: The 20 X 20 X 60mm specimen loaded axially gave the crushing strength, a measure of short column strength.

Shcur Purdlal to Grain Test: Each strip supplied two 20mm specimen cubes for testing, one on a radial and the other on a tangential plane. The actual shear plane orientation was verified after the test.

Stutir Bcndiq Test. Fow-poi~it Loudi/ig: The specimen 50 X 50 X 1000mm served primarily to provide a measure of shear-free modulus of elasticity. for which purpose neutral axis deflections again had to be measured. The majority of the logs were too small to yield this specimen.

The five tests indicated below were carried out. Both nominal density and moisture content were also measured for each test specimen.

The actual test procedures conformed with the specifications by the British Standards Institution (Anon, 1957) but with two deviations. namely:

(i) Test room temperature not being under control. the testing was deferred whenever the temperature rose above 25°C. Thus the temperature fluctuated, but not below 18°C.

.luriku Hurtlric.~.~ Test: In the initial stages of this work a 20 X 20 X 50mm specimen was used but due to occasional splitting tendency. a left-over portion from the static bending test later served as the test specimen. For the logs which provided the larger test stick, a 50 X 50 X 150mm piece became the preferred test specimen. On this last specimen, measurements were made not only on radial and tangential faces but also on the end-grain. Janka hardness is reputed to be so highly correlated with compression strength perpen- dicular to grain (Lavers. 1967) that it serves as an indirect measure of the latter.

( i i ) In the case of centre-load static bending test. the moving cross--head speed was set at Imm per minute. This heemed to be more widely applied (Anon. 1972; Mack. 1979).

Wood Property Arithnietic

Mean Coefficient Treeb Specimen% of Variation Number Number

Ba4c Den\ity, hglm' Cm\hing Strength. MPa

Shear Strength:- Radial Plane. MPa Tangential Plane. MPa

Janka Hardne\s:- Radial Face. kN Tangential Face. hN End-grain Face. kN

Static Bending. Centre ~oabing:- Modulus of Rupture. MPa Modulus of Elasticity. MPa Elastic Limit. MPa Basic Density, k g h '

Static Bending. Four-point Loading:- Modulus of Rupture. MPa Modulus of Elasticity, MPa Elastic Limit, MPa

190 Francis Ng 'ang 'a

TABLE 3. Comparison of wood strength variation within a tree and between trees

Replicated Trees . Between Within Wood Trees Trees Variance

Property Number

Sample Variance

variance b

variance W

Ratio b/w

- - -

Nominal Density, kg/m3 29 1 30 20 10 2.0

Crushing Strength, MPa 29 1 24.7 18.4 6.2 2.9

Modulus of Rupture, MPa 282 67.9 36.2 1.9

Modulus of Elasticity, MPa 282 3,497,000 3,642,000 1 .O

Shear Strength:-

Radial Plane, MPa 292 1.08 0.78 0.3 1 2.5

Tangential Plane, MPa 292 1.35 0.96 0.34 2.8

TABLE 4. Correlation analyses of strength with density and with strffness

Dependent Independent Constants Strength Test variable variable Regression Correlation

Source Y X

Equation Coefficient a b

Compression Crushing parallel to grain strength, MPa

Nominal density, kg/m3

Modulus of Static bending, rupture, MPa

Nominal density, kg/&

centre-point load Modulus of rupture, MPa

Modulus of elasticity, MPa

Modulus of Static bending, rupture, MPa

third point load Modulus of rupture, MPa

Nominal density, kg/m3

Modulus of elasticity, MPa

RESULTS

Table 2 summarizes the strength values obtained from the different tests explained above. Culling of results from defective specimens and various other mishaps explain why for some properties the sample size fell short of the maximum 292 trees.

Frequency distribution fordensity andcompressionstrength are illustrated in Figure 2, in which the corresponding Gaussian curves are superimposed.

Several correlations of strength with density and with stiffness are shown in Table 4. Figure 3 illustrates these correlations for the result of the four-point loading 'itatic bending test.

Mean values and variances per tree were also calculated for those trees from which more than one specimen had been tested. This facilitated comparison of variation between and within trees, as summarized in Table 3.

, *

Strength properties of cypress timber grown in Kenya 191

Sample Total

10 20 30 (a) Crushing Strength Parallel to Grain, Mpa

8 !mm 40 Sample Total

0 200 300 m 500 600

(b) Basic Density, kglm3

FIGURE 2 . Sanple distribution histogr.amsji)r comparison nith expectations according to the normal distribution curves.

DISCUSSION

The primary objective of this work was to establish clear wood strength, i.e. wood free of all defects. Table 2 fulfils this aim for the green wood. To realize the set objective fully, however, results for the dry timber, testing of which took unexpectedly long, are essential.

Right from the beginning, close liaison was maintained with the public works authorities responsible for structural design specifications. Consequently, the results have already been adopted as the initial basis from which to develop a national standard for structural applications of cypress timber. The mean strength values as listed in Table 2 have first to be converted to lower values known as the basic strength.

Basic strength refers to the clear wood strength such that, at the specified probability level, the wood is that much strong or stronger. The reduction factor applied to the mean strength depends partly on the material strength probability distribution and partly on a standardized, though quite dis- cretionary, factor of safety (Anon, 1972; Sunley, 1968).

It is usual to assume that the probability distribution function approximates the normal distribution model, an assumption Figure 2 supports to a fair degree. Strictly however the figure does suggest that the actual distribution has some positive skew.

Basic strength applies to the theoretical material having

I . 1 , i . I I I I I

300 350 400 450 500 550 600

(a) Basic Density, kg/m3

FIGURE 3. Scatter diagrams nith corresponding linear (solid line) and power (broken line) regression curves for the four- point loading static bending test.

no strength reducing defects whatsoever. As real timber always contains some defects, visible or invisible, the basic strength in practice is further scaled down to a grade strength. The latter depends on the severity of defects permitted by the relevant timber grading specification.

Modulus of Elasticity

Comparing the results of the two static bending tests in Table 2, the shear-free modulus averages 17% higher than that obtained from the centre-loading test. This factor should be applicable in derivation of basic strength rather than the generally assumed ten per cent.

Strength Variation

Existence of variation in timber presents the greatest challenge to establishment of reliable strength values. Despite the common temptation to replicate tests within the available log or plank, it was demonstrated nearly forty years ago that, for a given sample size, just one specimen per tree offers the best estimate of variance.

The very demanding multi-stage random sampling scheme which was employed has thus been proved the most reliable and economically efficient strategy (Anon, 1969; Bendtson et al . , 1970). Its necessity basically follows from the

192 Fraitcis Ng'ang'a

discovery that differences between trees generally account for as much variation, or even more than that within trees. Table 3 reflects this general variation occurrence, thereby endorsing desirability of sampling many trees and minimis- ing within-tree replication.

While not inordinately so, the variations of the timber properties are large. Narrower variances could undoubtedly be established by regional or age groupings, but such measures would be of little practical use in a free timber market.

Strength Correlations

The correlation equations in Table 4 and Figure 3 lead to the following conclusions:-

(i) In each case the linear regression fits the data nearly as well as the power regression and so, being simpler, is preferable.

(ii) For a given test, strength correlation with stiffness is higher than with density. Both, however, are generally low.

The foregoing second conclusion has important practical implications. It means that the two commonest measures relied on to predict strength of timber have relatively low reliability when applied to cypress timber. In particular, results of the four-point loading static bending test suggest that machine stress grading of cypress timber ~ o u l d proha- bly have low efficiency (Curry and Tory, 1976).

Juvenile Wood

As revealed by Table 2, exclusion of wood from the central 130mm diameter core leads to higher strength and stiffness. The increases though small, less than six per cent, are highly significant. In contrast, density remains the same.

a The above results confirm findings from an earlier work by the author, based on a sample of ten trees, as graphically

O 40 80 120 160200 Distana from Pith, mm

FIGURE 4. Changes of density and strength with stem diameter. or age.

reproduced in Figure 4 (Ng'ang'a, 1971). The uniformity of density along a radial distance contrasts sharply with the definite increase of crushing strength and. more dramatically so, with the increase of elasticity modulus.

These changes along radial distance represent changes attributable to tree age, or rather the age of cambium at the time of the different wood layers formation. For the wood at the core retains juvenile mechanical properties even in later years. Mature trees have stronger timber only to the extent that they contain more mature wood volume.

The apparent uniformity of density within a tree has tended to be misconstrued as proof that the timber strength does not change with tree age. Both Table 2 and Figure 4 disprove this notion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people and several institutions played crucial roles in this work but two must be mentioned. Laboratory Technolo- gist D.M. Mikile, of Kenya Forestry Research Institute, performed the experimental work throughout, from tree selection to laboratory equipment operation. Systems Analyst A.G. Wanene. of Government Computer Services, facilitated analysis of the data. The author was able to do the work in his capacity as the Utilization Officer in the Forest Department.

REFERENCES

ANON. 1957. Methods of testing m a l l clear specimens of timber. BS 373. British Standards In\titution, London.

AWN. 1969. Sampling of timber for evaluation of species properties. Technical Paper No. 5. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Division of Forest Products. Melbourne.

ANON. 3972. Establishing clear wood strength values. ASTM 2555070. Annual Book of ASTM Standards Part 16. American Society of Testing and Materials. Philadelphia. pp 755-775.

BENDTSON B.A.. FREESE F. and ETIIIN(;TO\~ R.L. 1970. A forest sampling method of wood strength. Fow.\t Pr~or1r1c~t.s . 1o11r~11 20 1 1 : 38-47.

CURRY W.T. and TORY J.R. 1976. The relation between the modulus of rupture (ultimate bending stress) and modulus of elasticity of timber. Building Research Establishment Current Paper 30176, Princes Risborough.

LAVERS G.M. 1967. The strength properties of timbers. Forest Products Research Bulletin No. 50. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.

MACK J.J. 1979. Australian methods for mechanically testing small clear specimens of timber. Technical Paper (Second Series) No. 31, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Re- search organisation, Division of Building Research, Mel- bourne.

NG'ANG'A F. 1971. Assessment of some wood properties of utilization interest. Thesis for Master of Science in Forestry, Melbourne University.

SUNLEY J.G. 1968. Grade stress for structural timbers. Forest Products Research Bulletin No. 47. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.


Sapstain and mould in pine logs in Zimbabwe A. J. MASUKA Forest Research Centre, P. 0. Box HG 595, Highlands, Harare, Zimbabwe

and

P. KARIWO Forestry Commission, P. 0. Box 320, Mutare, Zimbabwe

SUMMARY

Logs (1.2 m long) of Pirirrs pcitrrlu, Pirirrs c,lliottii and Pin~rs tueclii were cut and left for 5. 10. 15 or 20 days in the field followed by 4 or 15 days at the log-deck during the wet season of 1989 at Chisengu Forest. The surfaces of the logs were assessed for stain and mould at the end of the storage periods. The logs were also cut S and 10 cm from the ends and assessed for stain and mould on the exposed surfaces. Pir~rrspcircrlri was most su\ceptible with 27% stain and mould incidence after 15 days in the fi eld, followed by P. rl l iott i i (12%) and P. taeda ( 10%). After 20 days in the field all log5 of the three species had stain and mould. but at different intensities. Fungal discoloration originated in the field. Field conditions were more conducive to the development of stain and mould than those at the log-deck. The fungi entered through log ends. In all cases bark was an effective barrier against causal fungi.

RESUME

Pendant la saison des pluies de 1989. dam la forCt de Chisengu. des rondins, ( 1.2 metres de long). de Pirirrs putirlci. Pir1lr.s olliorii et Pinri.s tuetlri ont it6 coupes et IaissCs sur place pendant 5, 10. 15 ou 20 jours, suivis de 4 2 15 jours de stockage sous abris. A la fin de cette pkriode. les surfaces de taches et de moi\issures ont et6 cvaluees sur les biiches, de mCme qu'aux extrimitis coupkes j. 5 et 10 cm des bords. Aprh 15 jours de terrain, i l s'est aver6 que P. pnrrrlo. Ctait I'espece la plus sensible aux moisissures. suivi de P. clliotii et P. ttreda avec des taux de tache5 respectifs de 37, 12 et 109. Aprk 20 jours. toutes les trois espPces ont presente des taches et des moi\issures, mais j. des degris diverc. La dicoloration fungique a debut6 \ur le terrain oil les conditions Ctaient plus propices i leur diveioppement que sous abris. Le champignon a pinetre par les extrCrnitCs et dans tous les cas. I'ecorce a Cte un obstacle.

RESUMEN

Letioc (1.2 metros de largo) fueron cortadm y dejados durante S. 10. 15 o 20 dias en el campo seguidos por 4 o 15 dias en la cubierta de leiios durante lii estacibn de las Iluvias de 1989 en el bosque de Chisengu. Las superficies de los leiios fueron valoradas por manchas y moho despuks de cada periodo de alniacenaje. Los leiios tambien fueron cortados a 5 y I0 centimetros de los puntos y valorados por manchas y moho en la\ superficies nuevamenle expuestos. Pir~rr.spritrrlri result6 lo mas susceptible con un 27% incidencia de mancha y mohodespues de 15 dias c11 el campo. seguido por P. c~lliottii (12%) y P. tcrctlcr (10%). DespuCs de 20 dias en el camp todos los leiios de todos 10s tres especies ~enian manchas y moho pero con grados diferentes de intensidad. El descoloramicnto origin6 en el campo. Las condiciones en el campo favorecieron mis el desarrollo de manchas y moho que las condicidnes en la cubierta de leiios. El hongo se metic5 a traves de las puntas de los lefios. En todos los casos la corteza sirviB de barrera efectiva contra el hongo causal.

INTRODUCTION

Fungus induced discoloration of timber is a major problem in Zimbabwe. Customer prejudice against affected timber provided the impetus for a search for prophylactic solutions in 1988. The work reported here is part of that study.

The most important sapstain fungi on pines in Zimbabwe are Sphaeropsis supinea (Fr.) Dyko & Sutton and Botryodip-

lodia theohromue Pat. (Masuka. 1991, 1992). Elsewhere in the tropics, these are also the major stain fungi (see Findlay, 1953; Momoh and Uluyide, 1967; Gibson, 1979; Ivory. 1987). Several species cause mould of pines in the tropics. The most prevalent are Tr i chodema vir ide (Pers.) Fr. and Penic i l i ium spp.. Sapstain and mould fungi develop rapidly under favourable temperatures (20 to 3@C), and wood moisture content (around 65%). Development of fungi stops below 20% and above 85% moisture contents (see Boyce, 1938; Holtam, 1966).

Climatic conditions in Zimbabwe are conducive to the development of sapstain and mould in logs both in the field and at the log-deck. The percentage of affected timber is not known but is assumed to be substantial. Logs are normally left in the field for up to two weeks and at the log-deck for up to one week irrespective of the season. There is however increased urgency to transport and saw all logs as quickly as possible during the wet season. During the wet season there may also be an extended delay in transporting logs as some roads become inaccessible. Break-down of equipment causes further delays.

The maximum periods between felling and sawing, before significant stain and mould develop, are not known. There is also no information on differential susceptibility of Pinus spp. logs to sapstain and mould fungi. The present study sought to redress this.

Sapstain and mould in pine logs in Zimbabwe 195

TABLE 1. Stain intensity in logs of three Pinus spp.

Intensity of stain

Treatment Species End 5 cm 10 cm

P. elliottii 12 P. patula 27 P. taeda 10




P. elliottii 6 F. patula 3 1 P. taeda 2


l Not assessed

Intensity of stain

Stain had progressed fastest in P. patula after a storage period of 10 days in the field and 4 days at the log deck. Stain progressed slowest in P. taeda. All three species logs, however, had stain at the lOcm assessment surface after 25 days (FIOLDIS).

The severity of stain increased with prolonged storage both in the field and at the log-deck. Stain intensity was more severe in the field. Table 1 shows a summary of the intensity rankings data.

There was no stain and mould in F5 or F10 treatments.

Stain and mould fungi

The major stain fungus was S. sapinea. B. theobromae was also common. Among the, mould fungi found T. viride and Penicillium spp. predominated. Alternaria sp. and Pesta- lotiopsis sp. were also recorded.

Rainfall and temperature

The mean daily temperature and rainfall data for Chisengu for the duration of the experiment are shown in Fig. 4. These weather conditions were suitable for colonisation and development of sapstain and mould fungi.

l Rainfall + Temperam

mm 140 1

OC r 35

Days 21 November - 26 Dccember,l989

FIGURE 4. Temperature and rainfail data for Chisengu during the experiment

1% A J . Masuka and P. Kariwo

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Lambeth et al. (1989) reported earlier findings of sapstain incidence of up to 35% in southern pines (including P. patula) after one and half months in Colombia. However the incidence of stain varies with season, species (Holtam, 1966) and locality.

The intensity data indicates rapid development of moderate stain in P. patula (see Table 1 ) . This, however, is not sustained probably because of a faster drying rate in that relatively thin-barked species. P. patula exudes less resin from cut surfaces than either P. elliottii or P . taeda. This might be one of the causes of the higher susceptibility of the species to early establishment and development of stain and mould fungi.

Field conditions were more suitable for the development of stain than those at the log-deck. This corroborates findings elsewhere (Lambeth et al . , 1989) and emphasises the need to transport logs to the log-deck as quickly as possible. However, this is not always possible to achieve under our conditions, as is evident in present circumstances. The maximum period logs can be left in the field is variable, depending on weather conditions. Seasonal differences in rainfall exist and there have been drier summers lately at Chisengu, as elsewhere around the country. In circumstances similar to those of the experimental period, a two week period should be the absolute maximum delay period. At forests where all three or P. patula and either of the other two pines are grown, felling operations at the peak of the wet season should be confined to P. elliotfii or P . taeda. At lower altitude estates with P. elliotfii and P. taeda only, it is advisable to fell P, taeda. Judicious selection of compart- ments - with all-weather roads or close to the sawmill - for felling during the peak of the rains is recommended in higher altitude areas where monocultures of P. patula exist.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Managers at Chimanimani Estates, and Muguzo Forest Research Station and their staff assisted in setting up the experiment. L. Manhiri assisted in monitoring the experiment. W. R. Mills provided statistical advice. We are grateful to Dr. G. D. Piearce for his valuable comments.

REFERENCES

BOYCE, J. S., 1938. Forest Pathology. McGraw Hill Book Com- pany. London.

FINDLAY, W. P. K., 1953. Dry Rot and Other Timber Troubles. Hutchinson's Scientific and Technical Publications. London.

GIBSON, I. A. S., 1979. Diseasesof Forest Trees Commonly Planted as Exotics in the Tropics and Southern Hemisphere. Part I I . The genus Pinus. Commonwealth Mycological Institute/Com- monwealth Forestry Institute.

HOLTAM, B. W., 1966. Blue Stain: A note on its effect on the wood c& home grown conifers and suggested methods of control. Forestry Cammission LRafet 56.

IVORY M. H., 1987. Diseases and disorders of pines in the tropics. ODA Researrh Publications 31.

LAMBETH, C., OSORIO, G. and OSORIO, L. F., 1989. Bluestain incidence in commercial plantation species in Colombia. Ef- fects of storage time and debarking. Investigac~ion Forestal Res. Rep. 122.

MASUKA, A., 1991. Laboratory evaluation of the efficacy of Antiblue and Biocide in the control of sapstain and mould fungi on Pinus elliottii. ELU J . For. Path. 21(3): 185-189.

MASUKA, A. J., 1992. Field tests with Antiblue and Biocide TT for the prevention of sapstain and mould fungi on Pinrrs elliottii timber. The International Group on Wood Preservation. Work- ing Group 111. Preservatives and Methods of Treatment. Docu- ment No. IRGlWP13682-92. IOpp.

MOMOH, Z. 0. and ULUYIDE, A. O., 1967. An attempt to control blue stain by the use of chemicals. Dept. For. Rcs. T w h . Note 38.

YOUR NEW COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY REVIEW

Researrh Notes

Research Notes have been a feature of the C o m m o n ~ ~ e a l t h Forestry Review for many years. As part of the updated Review we hope to give Research Notes a greater prominence and widen the scope of this section.

To achieve this we need the participation of our readers to keep us informed of those local advances in research that they feel could usefully be brought to the attention of a wider audience.

The areas to be covered by the Research Notes feature include advances in methods of forestry production from the nursery to harvest. as well as new developments in timber processing. There may also be research on agroforestry systems, forest modelling, economics or other topics which can be presented to our readers rapidly and conveniently by means of a Research Note. This should be at most 2,000 words long, with a summary of not more than 150 words.

If you wish to draw our attention to research developments in your country, please contact the Editorial Committee who will be happy to provide guidance and advice on presentation if necessary.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(3/4), 1992 197

Development of site index curves for Eucalyptus rubida Deane et Maiden growing in Lesotho

GARETH B. PHlLLlPS

Divisional Forest Office, 2nd Mile Post, Passara Road, Badulla, Sri Lanka

SUMMARY

This paper describes the development of site index curves for Eui~~lyptus ruhida growing in Lesotho. Two methods of estimating a parameter of linearization are compared. The most suitable model results from the use of an iterative approach which minimizes the sum of the squares of the deviations. The selected parameter of linearization is then applied to a nested data set and a site specific parameter is estimated using an algebraic difference method. The selected model has an anamorphic form, is independent of base age, does not require a prior estimate of site index and is independent of distortions introduced by the association of stand age with site quality. The method uses a data set which contains both decreases in dominant height and permanent sample plots with only one remeasurement.

Cet article decrit I'evolution des indices de courbes sur site pour I'Elccal~ptus rxhida, plant6 au Lesotho. Deux methodes d'estimation d'un parametre de linearisation sont comparees. Le modhle le plus approprik resulte de I'utilisation d'une approche iterative qui minimize les sommes des carres des diviations. Le parametre de linearisation choisi est alors applique B une serie de donnkes imbriquees et un paramhtre specifique au site est estime en appliquant la methode de ladifference algebrique. Le modhle pksente une forme anamorphique independant de I'age de base, ne requi?re pas I'estimation prealable d'un indice de site et est independant des distortions introduites par l'association habituelle agelqualite du site. La mkthode utilise une serie de donnees contenant B la fois la diminution des hauteurs ainsi que les ichantillons permanents.

RESUMEN

Este papel describe el desarrollo de las curvas de exponentes de sitio para Eucalyprus ruhidu cultivada en Lesoto. Dos metodos para calcular un parametro de linealizacion estan comparados. El modelo mas adecuado resulta del uso de un metodo iterativo que minoriza la suma de los cuadrados de las desciaciones. Se aplica el parametro de linealizacion escogido a una colecci6n de datos nidificados y se calcula el parimetro especifico al sitio usando un metodo de diferencia algebraica. El modelo escogido tiene una forma anam6rfica, es independiente de una edad basica, no requiere una estimaci6n del exponente del sitio anterior y es independiente de distorcicines introducidas por la asociacion de edad con la calidad del sitio. El metodo utiliza una colecci6n de datos que contiene la disminucidn de la altura dominante y terrenos de muestra permanentes con solamente una remedida.

INTRODUCTION Assessing the productive capacity of the land for a given crop is an important component of any growth o r yield model. The most widely accepted measure of productive capacity is site index, the average dominant height of trees at a given age. This age is commonly referred to as the base age (Clutter et al., 1983; Hagglund, l98 1; Tesch, l98 1 and others).

Estimates of site index can be used in two fundamentally different ways (Strand, 1964): (a) to enable classification of sites according to site index,for

example Site index = f (H,A) (1)

where H equals dominant height and A equals age, and (b) to predict the future height growth of a stand, for ex-

ample Dominant height = f (A,S) (2)

where A equals age and S is a measure of site quality.

The distinction is important because these two equations may not be related in any way, despite being fined to the same data set (Hagglund, 1981). In the first equation, site index is predicted from age and height and this is typically used to classify sites in quality classes, or simply rank them for productive potential. However, the latter equation is more flexible in its application. It describes future height growth as well as predicting site index when age equals the base age.

DIRECT ESTIMATION O F SITE INDEX

Curtis (1964) describes four requirements of an ideal system for producing site index curves: 1) Accurate estimation of the shape of the mean growth

curve, free from distortions introduced by the association of stand age with site quality.

2) A means of measuring the variation in shape of the

198 Gareth B. Phillips

growth curve for different sites, enabling further investigation of the relationship between growth and site factors. A method of evaluating the reliability of the derived curves. Minimum use of subjective judgement.

Two more can be added: The ideal system produces a family of curves that are independent of base age (which is usually arbitrarily chosen), and It should not require a prior estimate of site index. The method described by Bailey and Clutter (1974)

apparently meets all of these requirements. Using the Schumacher growth equation (Schumacher 1939), which assumes that the log&hm of dominant height is a linear function of reciprocal age, two models can be derived:

In (H) = a, -b A-' (3) and In (H) = a - bi A-k (4)

where H = dominant height, a, and b, = site specific parameters,

' b and a = constant parameters, k = parameter of linearization, and A = age at height H.

Given values for a, b, and k, a base age can be chosen at which dominant height equals site index (SI). Equation (3) produces an anamorphic or common slope model (from the linear nature of the logarithmic equation) and equation (4) produces a polymorphic or common intercept model.

One problem with the approach described by equation (2) is that too much weight may be attached to errors in the measurement of dominant height and age of a single stand. Cultural treatments, such as weeding and fertilizing, may alter the absolute relationship between dominant height and age. This problem can be overcome by looking at the height growth over a known time interval. In equation (3), the anamorphic model, ai is the site specific parameter, and for a given height-age pair, (H,A,),

In (H,) = a, - b A;k (5)

and for a second height-age pair (H,,A,) on the same site,

in (H,) = a, - b A;k (6)

substituting for ai in equation 6 gives

In (H,) = In (H,) + b (A: - A;') (7)

allowing the value of b to be estimated with no reference to a base age. Given b and k, a, the site specific parameter can be estimated.

Borders et al. (1984) have described this as an algebraic difference method because it refers to the difference in two height-age pairs. The same technique can be used for the polymotptt'i model in equation (4).

This method meets all the requirements suggested by Curtis (1964) and Bailey and Clutter (1974). A similar methodology can be derived for other growth equations, for example the Chapman-Richards and the Gompertz growth functions. Kilpatrick and Savill (1981) have compared these different models but there is no general conclusion as to which is best. It was beyond the scope of this study to test the different growth functions as the Schumacher model was found to perform adequately.

Estimation of parameters For each model there are three parameters to be estimated. In the exponential form, the polymorphic model gives curves which tend towards the same asymptote, having different relative rates of growth, whilst the anamorphic model gives curves tending towards different asymptotes with the same relative rates of growth. The parameter of linearization (k) affects the rate at which the curves approach the asymptote. It should be greater than zero and is often approximated as one (Bailey and Clutter, 1974).

Given a value of k, a or b can be estimated by ordinary least squares, on the assumption that the linear relationship between the logarithm of dominant height and reciprocal age is acceptable. Using either the anamorphic model (equation 3) or the polymorphic model (equation 4) and transforming each height age pair as shown

Y, = In (H,) and xi = (l/Ai)

where H, is the ith measurement of one plot with n remeasurements, enables b in the anamorphic model to be estimated as

n n n

$.x,y, - ( =X, f: yi In) b = n n (8)

?X,? - ( f xJ2/n

and a for the polymorphic form to be estimated as

n n n n

=y, - ( =xi $. XIYi l = X , ? ) a = (9) (Alder 1980)

To estimate a o r b for the full data set requires the use of the technique described as nested regression (Alder, 1980 pp. 48-55). Alder gives a worked example showing how the nested regression can be carried out.

For m, plots, each with n, measurements,

n, "4 ", f ( q j y i , - a,, y Yi, / n,)

j j b = ( 10) and

Site index curves for Eucalyptus rubida in Lesotho 199

Estimating k

There are at least four alternatives for estimating the value of k in equations 3 or 4: 1) Taking an estimate of k = 1, as suggested by Bailey and

Clutter (1974) and subsequent authors. 2) By applying any one of several non-linear estimation

techniques to the nested data set. 3) Using a method based on derivatives described by Bailey

and Clutter (1 974). 4) Applying an iterative procedure to find the value of k

which minimises the sum of the squares of the deviations of In (H).

Methods (3) and (4) will be discussed here.

Method 3: For either model, differentiation of

In H = a , - b( l /A)k

with respect to A, gives

I/H (dH/dA) = bk(l/A)'L+" (12)

Taking logs gives In (1/H (dH/dA)) = In (bk) + (k+l)ln (l/A) (13)

Equation (13) is linear and letting

Qi, = 1Jf-l (dH/dA) and Pi, = In(l/A) gives

Q, = a + PP,

where a = In(bk) and P = (k+l).

a and p can be estimated using covariance analysis, and the estimated value of k for the complete data set can be derived from P (Bailey and Clutter 1974).

In practice this can be achieved using the following transformations:

and substituting P and Q for X and y in equation 10 above.

Two important points to note here are that 1 ) estimates of dominant height that decrease with increas-

ing age result in attempting to take the logarithm of a negative number

2) there is no value of Plj and Q,, corresponding to the first height-age pair and therefore at least three height-age pairs are needed to provide two transformed pairs to use in the regression calculation. In a data set where the maximum number of measurement pairs is three, this results in only two data points and consequently, zero degrees of freedom on the residual sums of squares: there is no residual term when fitting a line between two points. Whilst it is still possible to estimate parameters, it is impossible to derive any confidence limits.

Method 4: An alternative method for estimating k is to use an iterative procedure (Kilpatrick and Savill 1981). select-

ing the model which minimizes the sums of the squares of the deviations (SSD) of In (H) For m, plots with nj remeasurements,

m "

SSD In (H) = F t (Predicted In H - Actual In H)2 (21) J

The advantage of this approach is that the full data set can be used, including plots measured only twice and plots with decreasing dominant heights.

- S. AFRICA

0 District Capitals

I

AFRICA

F I G U R E I . Map of Lesorho shonvin,p distribution of permanent sun~ple plots by dirtricr

THE DATA

The data for this study were obtained from 0.04 ha permanent sample plots in plantations of Eucalyptus ruhida in the Kingdom of Lesotho. The elevation of the plots varies from 1500 m to 1850 m, rainfall averages between 600 to 900 mm per year and falls mainly during the summer months. Rain- fall increases with altitude. The mean winter temperature is 7°C with average maxima and minima of 15°C and P C ; frosts are common during the winter. The mean summer temperature is 21°C with average maxima and minima of 25°C and 15°C. Fully stocked plots, on average, contained 50 trees. The planned rotation age is 8 years, as small trees are best suited for use as fuelwood and poles. After initial screening, 43 plots were left, sited predominantly in the west and north of the country, as shown in Figure 1. The age range of the plots and the number of remeasurements is represented in Figure 2. The maximum time interval between two measurements was 2.3 years. The dominant height of the plots ranged from a minimum of 3.4 m to a maximum of 16.2 m. The height growth of the plots can be seen in Figure 3.


FIGURE 3 . Height age data for the 43 plots

As Figure 2 shows, some plots had been measured three times, others only twice. Eight plots showed a decrease in dominant height, probably due to die-back induced by drought. The data were accordingly divided into two sets: the positive data set (22 plots measured three times with no decreases in height) and the full data set (43 plots). The former was used in Bailey and Clutters' derivative approach, the latter in the iterative approach.

RESULTS

Using the derivative technique in conjunction with the positive data set, p was estimated to be -0.2, giving a value of -1.2 for k. It is impossible to estimate confidence limits on p as there were insufficient degrees of freedom. As figure 4 illustrates, this is not an acceptable result.

Using the iterative technique to find the value of k which minimized the sum of the squares of the deviations (SSD) produced a more acceptable result. Figure 5 shows the graph of SSD of In (H) plotted against different estimates of k, for the full data set. The SSD are minimized at different values of k for the two models, unlike the result achieved by Bailey

indices of h. X, and 10, where site index is dominant height at age 6 years. Dom. Ht = a, + b(age) ". k waq estimated using the derivative technique, b using nested regression and a, using the algebraic difference technique.

3 ,A Common intercept model 8 - Common slope model >

2 2

4 m

1

The graph shows the sum of the squares of the deviations of In ( H ) for different estimates of k . Given a value of k, a or b can be estimated for the complete data set using the nested regression, b, or a, can be estimated for each permanent sample plot using the algebraic difference method, and the total SSD of In (H) calculated.

and Clutter (1974). The SSD are minimized at values of 1.2 and 0.6 for the anamorphic and polymorphic models respectively. This method cannot be used to estimate confidence intervals on .k, but the graph shows that the sum of the squares of the deviations is quite insensitive to estimates of k within the range of 0.8 to 2.0. In either case, it should be noted that selecting a value of k = 1 as suggested by several authors, would have been a, good approximation.

Selecting the model and value of k with the lowest sum of squares enabled b in equation 3 to be estimated as 3.6.

Sire index curves for' Eucalyptus rubida in Lesorho 201

Figure 6 shows the site index curves for the value of k which minimized the sum of the squares of the deviations for the anamorphic model. The residuals of the anamorphic model (Figure 7) show the least bias, being well distributed about a mean of zero.

0 4 " ' ~ ' ~ " " 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 I

Age (years)

The dark lines show the dominant height age relationship for site indices of 6, 8. 10 and 12, where site index is dominant l~eight at age 6. Dominant height = a,- 3.6 (age).". k was estimated by minimizing the sum of the squares of the deviations of In (H). b using the nested regression and a, using the algebraic difference techniclue.

Given the optimum value of k. the full data set was used to estimate the value of b and then a, was calculated for each sample plot. The dominant height at each age was then estimated and the deviation from the true height calculated. All 108 measurement pairs from 43 plots were used.

The choice of the model is not difficult for this data set. As Figure 4 shows, the common slope or anamorphic model has the lowest SSD and is consistently lower than the polymorphic model. It varies little for values of O.8<k<2.O. Thus if the estimate of k = 1.2 is poor, it will have little effect on the SSD. The selected model is

In H = a, - 3.6 A.'.?

The curves illustrated in Figure 6 show the predicted height growth of trees in site indices 6, 8, 10 and 12, using a base age of six years, which is below the proposed rotation age of eight years. The dominant heights for site indices 4 to 12 are tabulated below in Table 1.

2 4 6 8 ,; 10 12 ai (years)

Site Index

VALIDATION

The objective of a validation exercise is to test whether height can be predicted with acceptable accuracy over a given time interval. In the case of these height age curves, this can be achieved using data collected from the next remeasurement programme. or from plots excluded from this data set. The relationship between actual and predicted height can be tested using ordinary least squares. Further- more. the residuals created using the new measurements can be plotted as in Figure 7. Predicted growth over time intervals of greater than 2.3 years. and beyond the age of 12.3 years must be studied carefully as they are outside the range of the original data set.

CONCLUSION

Of the two methods considered, only the iterative process has produced a suitable family of curves for estimating site index. This process was able to utilize the full data set, and therefore take account of real decreases in top height resulting from periodic droughts, as well as utilizing data from permanent sample plots measured only twice. However, even with the larger data set, it is not possible to estimate confidence limits on k. There appeared to be insufficient data for the derivative method, which uses covariance analysis, as the estimate of the parameter of linearization suggested increasing growth rates with age. Furthermore, with only three measurements pairs for 22 plots, there were insufficient degrees of freedom to enable any estimation of confidence limits.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank the Government of Lesotho, the Forestry Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Forest Research Officer for supplying the data for this study. Also the ODA who funded my studies at the Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, and finally the staff and students there who have helped me.

REFERENCES

ALDER, D. 1980. Forest volume estimation and yield predic- tion. FAO, Rome. Forvstry Paper 22 (2), 48-55.

BAILEY, R.L. and CLUTTER, J.L. 1974. Base-age invariant polymorphic site curves. FOI.PSI Science 20: 155-9.

BORDERS, B.E., BAILEY R.L. and WARE, K.D. 1984. Slash pine site indices from a polymorphic model by joining (splining) non-polynomial segments with an algebraic difference method. Forest Science 30 (2): 4 1 1-23.

BURKHART, H.E. and TENNANT, R.B. 1978. Site index equations for radiata pine in New Zealand. N.Z. Journal of' Forvstry Science 7 (3): 408-4 16.

CLUITER, J.L., FORTSON, J.C., PIENAAR, L.V., BRISTER, H.G. and BAILEY, R.L. 1983. Timber management: A quanti- tutive approach. Wiley, New York.

CURTIS, R.O. 1964. A stem analysis approach to site index curves. Forest Science 10 (2): 241 -256.

HAGGLUND, B. 1981. Evaluation of forest site productivity. Forestry Abstracts 42 ( 1 l): 5 15-527.

KILPATRICK, D.J. and SAVILL, P. 1981. Top height growth curves for Sitka spruce in Northern Ireland. Forvst~:~ 54 (l) : 31-9.

TESCH, S.D. 198 1. The evolution of forest yield determination and site classification. Forest Ecology and Manage- ment 3: 169- 182.

STRAND, L. 1964. Numerical construction of site index curves. Forvst Science 10 (4): 410-414.

SCHUMACHER, F.X. 1939. A new growth curve and its applications to timber yield studies. Jolrrnal oj'For.estry 37: 8 19-820.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71(3/4), I992 203

Variation of stem volume and wood provenances of Pinus oocarpa and fecunumanii at Nzoia, Kenya

J.A. WRIGHT1, G.L. GIBSON2 and R.D. BARNES3

l Smurfit Cartdn de Colombia, AA 6574, Cali, Colombia

density in F! patula ssp.

21nstitute of Ecology and Resource Management, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JU

30xford Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB

SUMMARY

A provenance trial of Pinus oocarpa Schiede of the international series coordinated by the Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, was established in Kenya at Nzoia (1700 m) in 1972. In 1980, the trial was assessed for volume under bark and wood density (densitometric and pilodyn) and these traits plus the derived indices of within sample density variation and dry matter index were analysed. There were statistically significant differences (p<0.01) between provenances for volume under bark, dry matter index and mean pilodyn reading based on 16 treesblock but not for mean densitometric density (p<O.10), mean pilodyn reading based on 3 trees/block (p<0.10) or within sample density variation (p <0.25). The mean densitometric density and mean pilodyn reading based on 3 trees/block were significantly correlated (p<0.02) for provenances (r =- 0.59) and individual trees.@ = -0.63).

Un essai sur les provenances de Pinus oocarpa Schiede pris dans les sCries internationales coordonnCes par 1'Institut Forestier d'oxford, UniversitC d'oxford, a CtC Ctabli i Nzoia (1700 m), au Kenya en 1972. En 1980, ces essais ont CtC test& pour le volume sous dcorce et la densit6 du bois (densiomCtrique et pilodyne). Ces caracteres, en plus des indices dbrivds de la variation de la densit6 et de I'indice de matitre stche d'un Cchantillon ont CtC analisds. Dans le cas d'une lecture de 16 arbres par parcelle les diffbrences statistiques (p < 0.01) entre les provenances pour le volume sous bcorce, l'indice de matiere seche et la moyenne du pilodyne, sont significatives, alors qu'elles ne le sont pas pour la moyenne de la densit6 densiomttrique (p < 0,10), la moyenne du pilodyne pour une lecture de 3 arbestparcelle, ou encore dans des Cchantillonnages de variation de la densit6 (p <0.25). La moyenne de la densit6 densiomCtrique, ainsi que que la moyenne du pilodyne pour des lectures de 3 arbes/parcelle, Ctaient fortement corrbl6es pour les provenances (r = -0.59) et pour les arbres individuels (r = -0.63).

RESUMEN

En 1972 una prueba de procedencia de Pinus oocarpa Schiede de la serie intemacional coordinada por el Institute de Ciencias Forestales de la Universidad de Oxford, se establecid en Nzoia (1700111) en Kenia. En 1980 la prueba fue evaluada para volumen bajo la corteza y densidad de la madera y estas caracteristicas mis 10s exponentes derivados dentro de la variacidn de densidad en la muestra y el exponente de materia seca fueron evaluados. Hubieron diferencias significativas en cuanto a las estadisticas (p < 0.01) entre las procedencias de volumen bajo la corteza, el exponente de materia seca y el promedio de la lectura de pilodyn basado en 16 brboles/bloque pero no para el promedio de densidad densitomCtrica (p <0.10), el promedio de la lectura de pilodyn basado en 3 hboles/bloque o dentro de la variaci6n de densidad de la muestra (p < 0.25). El promedio de la densidad densitomdtrica y el promedio de la lectura de pilodyn basado en 3 &boles/ bloque tuvieron correlacidnes significativas (p < 0.02) para las procedencias (r = -0.59) y 10s hboles individuos (r = -0.63).

INTRODUCTION

Hutchings (1909) recognized that the planting of exotic Morelet established at Nzoia, Kenya in 1972 with seed conifers would be needed to supplement the native Junipe- obtained from the Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI), Univer- rus procera Hochst. ex Endl. and Podocarpus sp. of Kenya sity of Oxford. in order to meet the local demand for softwood timber. The first reported introduction of Pinus oocarpa Schiede to Kenya was in 1968 but this was a total failure due to the use AND

of provenances not adapted to the site (Chagala and Gibson, Provenance details for P. oocarpa are summarized in 1984). This paper reports on a trial comprising 15 prove- Greaves (1979). Subsequently, four provenances have nances of P. oocarpa and one provenance of P, caribaea been reclassified as P. patula Schiede and Deppe ssp.

204 JA. Wright, G.L. Gibson and R.D. Barnes

tecunumanii (Eguiluz and Perry) Styles (McCarter and Birks, 1985). Details of provenances, country of origin and abbreviations for the three species in this trial are given in Table l . The Nzoia site is at 00"56'N with an elevation of 1700 m and mean annual precipitation and temperature are, respectively, 1250 mm and 18.9"C. The original design of the trial was a balanced lattice with five blocks but due to missing values it has been analysed as a randomized complete block (Chagala and Gibson, 1984). The trial consists of 25 trees per block and a sub-plot of 16 trees were evaluated in this assessment.

TABLE 1 . Details ofprnvenances, country of origin and ahhrevia- tions for. P. oocarpa, P. patula ssp. tecunumanii and P. caribaea.

Species Provenance Country Abbreviation

P. oocarpa Angeles Bucaral Bonete Chaucus Conacaste Huehuetenango Lagunilla San Jose Siguatepeque Zamorano Zapotillo

P. patula Camelias ssp. tecrmumanii Mountain

Pine Ridge Rafael Yucul

P. carihoeu Alamicamba

Honduras Guatemala Nicaragua Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Honduras Honduras Honduras

Nicaragua Belize

Nicaragua Nicaragua

Nicaragua

ANG BUC BON CH A CON HUE LAC 30s SIG ZAM ZAP

CAM M P 0

RAF YUC

ALA

The trial was measured in 1980 and increment cores of 8 mm diameter were taken bark to bark at breast height from the three largest trees in each measured plot in each provenance in each block. Subsequent treatment, determination of mean density (DEN) and the calculation of within sample density variation (VAR) of these increment cores were similar to those described by Wright et al. (1986a). Volume under bark (VUB) was calculated for each tree sampled for density and this value was multiplied by the DEN to derive a dry matter index term (DMI). A pilodyn was used at the time of measurement to determine the density of all the trees in a plot (P16) as well as for those trees sampled for DEN (P3). The pilodyn (6 joule, 2.5 mm diameter pin) drives a steel pin with a precise force and the depth the pin penetrates is inversely proportional to the density of the wood of the penetrated area. The analysis of variance was applied to the data for DEN, P3, P16, VAR, VUB and DMI. Provenances were compared at the 5% level using the Q statistic as described by Chew

(1977). The pilodyn reading and the mean density as derived from the densitometer were compared at the individual tree and provenance levels using the correlation coefficient determination method (Snedecor and Cochran, 1980).


The results of the analyses of variance are summarized in Figure 1 for DEN, P3 and P16 and in Figure 2 for VAR, VUB, and DMI. Provenance means were significantly different (p<0.01) for VUB, DMI and P16 but not for DEN (p<0.10), P3 (p<0.10) or VAR (p<0.25).

The P. patula ssp. tec~unnmanii provenances Yucul, Mountain Pine Ridge, Camelias and Rafael were the largest VUB producers but were ranked below the trial mean for DEN with the exception of Camelias. The superior volume production of the P. patula ssp. tecunumanii provenances in this trial had been observed by Chagala and Gibson (1984). The study used 64 trees to obtain a provenance mean while the current assessment was based on provenance means derived from the 12 trees sampled for DEN. These four P. patula ssp. tecunumanii provenances have also been shown to be superior in terms of VUB in other trials of this series (Wright et al., 1986a, b; 1987: 1988).

The P. carihaea provenance Alamicamba was ranked slightly above the trial mean for VUB but had the lowest DEN, P3 and P16 of the sixteen provenances evaluated. Chagala and Gibson (1984) observed that the Alamicamba provenance of P. carihaea had poor form and branching habits relative to the P. oocarpa and P. putulu ssp. tecunumanii provenances. Greaves (1977) has also concluded that provenances of P. carihaea can grow vigorously in this region of Kenya but that form will be poor. This would suggest that sites similar to that at Nzoia may be more suitable for P. ooc,arpa and P. patula ssp. rec~utirrmunii than for P. carihaea.

The P. oocarpa provenance Huehuetenango was ranked below the trial mean for DEN and VUB indicating that slow growth does not always result in high DEN. By contrast the P. oocarpa provenances Bonete, Lagunilla and Siguate- peque all were above the trial mean for DEN and VUB although they were not able to produce the DMI levels of the P. patula ssp. tecunumanii provenances Yucul, Camelias and Mountain Pine Ridge.

Correlations between the three methods of density determination are summarized in Table 2. There were significant correlations (p<0.02) between DEN and P3 at the provenance mean (r = -0.59) and individual tree (r = -0.63) levels (Table 2). These results are similar to those obtained by Gough and Bames (1984). In that study the pilodyn reading was found to be significantly correlated (p<0.01) with gravimetrically determined density at the individual tree (r = -0.67) and family (r = -0.87) levels in a progeny test of P. elliottii Engelm. in Zimbabwe.

In the current assessment correlations between DEN and P3 were low for certain provenances and high for others.

S t e m volume and wood density in Pinus oocarpa a n d P. patula 205

ZAM, ZAP

12.1 BON

l BUC, CON

CHA, ZAM

CAM, JOS,

MPO, RAF, YUC,

ALA 160 SIG

149 #g CON l::: t ANC, LAC

I5 l 52 ALA &g

BUC 1 E C

97 CHA

Source df F ratio and p value Blocks 3 1.01 0.72 1.54 Provenances 15 1.80 2 98(p<.10) 2.33(p<.W3)

(P< 10) a e provenance 2.0 2.6 0.3

Source df F ratio and p value Blocks 3 1.04 6.47 5.49 Provenances 15 1.37 4.64(pc.001) 4 .74(~<.001)

(P<.Z) a.e. provenance 4 19 8

FIGURE 1. Analysis of 1,arianc.e ranked means and the c~r.itica1 d$jerenr,e, Q , at the 5% level fat. dmsitomerric density (DEN). pilodyn r.eadin,y.s on three tr.ee.sIhlock ( P 3 ) andpilodyn readings on .si.tteetl t~.ees!hlock ( P 1 6 ) o f P. oocarpa and P. patula ssp. tecunumanii pt.ovmanc,e.s at Nzoia. Kenya.

Figure 2. Analysis of ~,arianc,e, ranked means and the critical differenc,e, Q , at the 5% level for within sample density wriation (VARJ, ,olume under hark (VUB) and dry matter index (DMI) of P. oocarpa and P. patula ssp. tecunumanii /?rovenanc.es at Nzoia, Kenya.

This is similar to correlations between densitometric density and pilodyn readings in some provenances of Eucalyprus c~urnaldulensis Dehn, in Brazil (Moura, Barnes and Birks, 1987). Provenance means of P16 were significantly correlated (p<0.05) with DEN (r = -0.55) and P3 (r = 0.91) (Table 2). This indicates that the provenance means derived from pilodyn readings on the entire sixteen trees per block are similar to provenance means obtained by densitometric analysis on increment cores from three trees per block and from pilodyn readings on three trees per block. The economics, ease of operation and non-destructive nature of the pilodyn warrant its use in screening large numbers of samples prior to densitometric or other techniques of wood analysis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Seed for the international provenance trials of P. oocarpa and P. patula ssp. tecunumanii were collected and distributed under research schemes at the Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI), University of Oxford, funded by the Overseas Devel- opment Administration of the British Government and with the cooperation of the forest authorities in various countries of Central America where the species are indigenous. The trial was established and maintained by the Forest Research Division of the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute and their help with the assessments and permission to publish these results is gratefully acknowledged. We would also like to thank Mr. Tony Quilter of the OF1 for his assistance in the preparation of the increment cores for densitometric assessment.

TABLE 2. Cor~elution matrir ( r 1xalue.s) for densitomerric density assessedfrom increment <,ores (DEN) , pilodyn readings on three treeslhlock ( P 3 ) and pilodyn readings on sixteen treeslhlock (P16) for provenances (individual trees) ($P. oocarpa and P. patula ssp. tecunumanii.

REFERENCES

CHAGALA, E.M. and GIBSON, G.L. 1984. Pinus oocarpa Schiede international provenance trial in Kenyaat eight years. In:Barnes, R.D. and Gibson, G.L. (eds.), Provenance and genetic improvement strategies in tropical forest trees. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford, and Forest Research Centre, Harare. 191-199.

DEN

CHEW, V. 1977. Comparisons among treatment means in an analysis of variance. Agricultural Research Service of United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 64 pp. DEN -0.59 (0.63) -0.55

P3 0.9 1 P16

G o u c ~ , G. and BARNES, R.D. 1984. A comparison of three methods of wood density assessment in a Pinus elliotfii progeny test. South African For. Jour. 128:22-25.

206 J.A. Wright, G.L. Gibson and R.D. Barnes

GREAVES, A. 1977. Results from provenance trials of Pinus caribaea Morelet and P. oocarpa Schiede at Nzoia, Turbo pulpwood scheme. Technical Note No. 148, Kenya Forest De- partment, Nairobi, 8pp.

GREAVES, A. 1979. Description of seed sources and collections for provenances of Pinus oocarpa. Tropical Forestry Papers 13, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford, 144pp.

HUTCHINS, D.E. 1909. Report on the forests of British East Africa. HMSO, London, 155pp.

McCARTER,P.S. and BIRKS, J.S. 1985. Pinus patula subspecies tecunumanii: The application of numerical techniques to some problems of its taxonomy. Commonwealth For. Rev. 64:117- 132.

MOURA, V.P.G., BIRKS, J.S. and BARNES, R.D. 1987. A comparison of three methods of assessing wood density in provenances of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. and other Eucalyptus species in Brazil. Australian Forest Research 17533-90.

SNEDECOR, G.W. and COCHRAN, W.G. 1980. Statistical methods. Iowa State University Press, 7th ed., 507pp.

WRIGHT, J.A., GIBSON, G.L. and BARNES, R.D. 1986a. Provenance variation in stem volume and wood density of Pinus caribaea, P. oocarpa and P. patula ssp.tecunumanii in Zambia. Com- monwealth For. Rev. 6533-40.

WRIGHT, J.A., GIBSON, G.L. and BARNES, R.D. 1986b. Variation of stem volume and wood density of provenances of Pinus oocarpa and P. patula ssp. tecunumanii at Agudos, Sao Paulo, Brazil. IPEF, Piracicaba 32:21-23.

WRIGHT, J.A., GIBSON, G.L. and BARNES, R.D. 1987. Provenance variation in stem volume and wood density of Pinus oocarpa and P. patula ssp. tecunumanii growing at two elevations in South Africa. South African For. Jour. 143:46-48.

WRIGHT, J.A., GIBSON, G.L. and BARNES, R.D. 1988. Provenance variation in stem volume and wood density of Pinus caribaea, P. oocarpa and P. patula ssp. tecunumanii in Puerto Rico. Turrialba 38: 123- 126.

BOOK REVIEWS

D.J. MABBERLEY. Tropical Rain Forest Ecology. Blackie, Academic and Professional Division, Bishopbriggs,Glasgow G64 2NZ, 1991. 3 12pp £39.00 hbk; f 17.95 pbk. ISBN 0.2 I693 1479 hbk; 02 1693 l487 pbk.

Tropical rain forests have over the last decade received an increasing amount of media attention. Despite only occupy- ing 7% of the world's surface area their importance in terms of biological diversity, environmental services and forest produce has only just been brought to the general public's attention. Foresters have often only been associated with tropical forest production (and subsequent destruction) and regarded as unsympathetic to those with strong ecological concerns. Successful and sustainable natural forest management relies entirely on the creative manipulation of the. forest's ecology. This is not possible without a clear understanding of forest ecology.

David Mabberley's book, the second edition, follows in the traditions of P.W. Richards' The tropical rain forest (Cambridge University Press, 1952) clearly and systemati- cally detailing the type of ecological background that foresters and those working in related fields should know when working in these areas. It is a wide ranging text that begins with discussion of the effect of continental drift, climate, soils and nutrient cycling on tropical forest ecology. Forest succession and biological diversity (in all its manifestations) are then covered in some detail. Of particular interest is the importance now placed on gaps in the canopy created by falling trees, and how these influence the nature of succession. The role of other organisms, including insects and animals, and the significance of their interactions with tropical trees is covered. encompassing both seed dispersal and pollination. The variation in species richness from one geographical location to the next is also included. Last but definitely not least, the influence of man on the ecology of forests at all levels of use, from hunter-gatherer to conversion of forest lands to agriculture, is touched on.

This book, general by its nature, is an important reference for all those interested in the ecology and management of tropical rain forests. It provides a solid bench mark of ecological information, covering all the world's rain forests and the range of biotic and abiotic factors that impinge on forest ecology.

Finally a suggestion which might be incorporated in the next reprint or edition. On the back cover there is a brief paragraph proposing possible readers as 'ecologists, botanists, forest economists and geographers.' What about including foresters as a category on their own? Perhaps Dr. Mabberley or his publishers have decided that in a market driven world forest economists will prevail. Or perhaps it is assumed that foresters are well versed in tropical forest ecology. If the latter is true, it is an incorrect assumption

since there is a good deal for all foresters to learn from this invaluable reference.

F.R. MILLER

A.G. MARSHALL A N D M.D. SWAINE (Eds) Tropical Rain Forest: Disturbance and Recovery (Proceedings of a Royal Society Discussion Meeting held on 18 and 19 September 1991). The Royal Society, 6 Carlton House Terrace, Lon- don SWlY 5 AG, UK. 1992. 135pp. Paperback f 19.50 (UK addresses): f 2 1 .OO (Overseas addresses). ISBN 0-85403- 458-7.

This book comprises a collection of 13 papers previously published in Philosophical T~.ansactions of the Royal Soci- ety of London series B, volume 335 (no. 1275), pages 323- 457. The original page numbering has been retained. As a collection of scientific papers, it does not have the continuity one expects from a book. The volume is largely restricted to the Royal Society's research programme in the Danum Valley Field Centre and adjacent Ulu Segama forest (a timber concession) in Sabah (Malaysian Borneo), apart from a couple of references to West Malaysia. The slim volume examines a broad range of issues, including structure and regeneration in dipterocarp forest, hydrology, mycorrhizal relationships, litter dynamics, fruiting phenology, and the implications of logging on insects and on vertebrates. There is no record of discussion arising during the Royal Society meeting. The cover indicates that the volume is confined to a summary of these long-term studies, with some suggestions for future research, and that prescrip- tive conclusions would be premature. However, forest managers rarely have the luxury of waiting for definitive results, and the book would have benefited from a conclud- ing chapter, consolidating the material and offering preliminary management guidelines.

The presentation and reproduction of material is of a high standard, but a few errors remain. For example, on page 405 'foliar nutrient concentrations in disturbed areas of forest in Queensland (Lambert & Tanner 1986)' does not correspond to the reference on page 406: 'Lambert & Turner 1986 Nutrient concentrations in foliage of species within a New South Wales sub-tropical rain forest'.

Some important new material is presented. N.D. Brown and T.C. Whitmore (p.369) challenge the paradigm of gap regeneration dynamics. They found that the most important determinant of seedling survival and growth was the size of seedlings at the time of gap creation, regardless of species. An ability to persist for long periods under closed forest and slowly accumulate growth may bestow an enormous advantage on seedlings when gaps occur. This finding renews the

208 Book Reviews

importance of minimizing logging damage to existing seedlings.

Several papers give clear practical advice for forest management. For example, F.R. Lambert (p.450) concluded that all bird species are likely to survive in (or recolonize) logged forest, if there is (i) unlogged forest from which colonization may occur, and (ii) if the area zoned for logging is large enough (relative to the annual harvest) that some areas always have advanced regeneration.

It's not all good news. For example, I. Douglas et al. (p.405) observed serious soil erosion two years after logging. A.D. Johns (p.440) stressed that some species will be adversely affected by logging. The ecological effects of damage to residual trees increase as the harvest increases (and big harvests usually mean more damage). Johns also warned of the dangers of relogging before regeneration had fully established.

But there is good news. J.D. Holloway et al. (p.435) suggested that insect diversity could recover even after severe disturbance, provided that fragments of untouched forest remained to provide reservoirs for recolonization. Johns also suggested that felling up to half the trees may not cause permanent ecological damage, and observed that in his Ulu Segama study, the loss of 73% of trees did not reduce numbers of primates or frugivorous birds.

The authors are pragmatic and most provide practical advice for forest management. There is no call to protect all the forest from any disturbance. Rather, there is a rational analysis of the implications of logging and other distur- bances, and clear guidelines to help managers minimize ecological effects of harvesting. The Royal Society missed an opportunity to consolidate practical advice in a conclud- ing chapter, but the volume will nonetheless remain an important reference work for students and managers of tropical moist forests. Since the Philosophical Transactions are found on few forestry bookshelves, you should buy a copy of this book; you won't regret it.

J. VANCLAY

Proceedings of ASEAN Seminar on 'Land use Decisions and Policies: Will Tropical Forests Survive their Impacts?' 28- 30 October 1991, Penang, Malaysia. 286pp Softbound. ASEAN Institute of Forest Management, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

The publication of the proceedings of this three-day seminar (including a one day post-seminar tour) held in Penang, Malaysia on 28-30 October 1991 comprises the interesting and valuable Welcome, Opening, Keynote and Closing addresses, the programme, 23 papers of varying length and detail, and a well-balanced set of recommendations.

The seminar was divided into five sessions: I Land use policies in the ASEAN region (5 papers); I1 Tropical raiaforest management practices (6 papers); 111 Modem tCEbnology in fonstry and land use planning (4 papers); IV

Strategies towards sustainable forest development (5 papers); and V Resolutions. There were in addition 3 papers classified as information papers: 'Impact of selective logging on some aspects of stocking and growth of a hill dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia'; 'Timber estate creation through transmigration as forest land use to save natural forest in Balikpapan, Indonesia'; and 'Discussion on the strategies of land use in the tropical area of Yunnan Province, China'.

The objectives of the seminar were fourfold: to promote the role and contribution of forests in achieving social, economic and environmental stability; to exchange ideas and experiences on the impact of land use decisions on forest sustainability; to promote rationalization and harmoniza- tion of land use policies, strategies and practices; to discuss and recommend future directions and the role of forest managers in land use decision-making.

These objectives appear both desirable and rational but unfortunately there is no record of the discussions which took place, other than the production of a set of recommendations and a valuable closing address. The reviewer is particularly concerned with the absence of any substantial answer, even in most papers presented, to the question posed by the seminar in its title: Will tropical forests survive the impacts of land use decisions and policies? The only paper which seriously addresses itself to the problem is that on the 'Role of training in the implementation of land use policies'. The author argues that 'harvesting practices in the natural forests will determine the sustainability of operations through their impact on the success of regeneration of the forests, and that adequate harvesting control may be the only silvicultural action necessary.' He also states that 'This has to be achieved through specific training programmes and through education of the public in general', that 'logging operations in the Asia-Pacific region are largely in the hands of concessionaires, who are, by default, responsible for the silvicultural treatment of the forests', and the existence of 'a further problem of policing harvesting operations, com- pounded by an inadequate number of trained personnel needed to enforce forest harvesting regulations, and by an inadequate number of trainers with the necessary expertise and experience to conduct training courses in their respec- tive fields.' Finally, the author states that 'although results from training will not be immediately apparent, there is a need to persevere with the specific training programme for foresters at all levels, and with the education of the public in general, if the forests are to survive'. This is a rather bleak scenario in the short term. Is it all too late?

The Minister of Primary Industries, Malaysia, in his excellent opening address makes several most pertinent land use statements. These include the following: 'The greatest challenge facing us is to reconcile the competing needs of development and conservation of our forests on a sustainable basis.' 'One of the most important ways of protecting our forests is to strengthen the forestry policies and their implementation on the ground.' 'I find it ironical that there

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (314). 1992 209

is still demand for agricultural land in Malaysia when more than a million hectares of alienated land in the country has been left idle and unattended.' 'I believe also that the time is ripe for all countries in the ASEAN region to adopt a thrifty approach to land use.'

Similarly, the keynote address by a senior member of the Ministry of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia is also very encouraging. He lists several practical land use issues on the implementation of tropical forests' sustainability.

The closing address by the State Secretary of Penang briefly refers to the discussions during the two day seminar. These include the importance of land use allocation to achieve maximum socio-economic benefits and the preservation of natural resources for their intangible benefits and environmental considerations. He also stressed that developed countries had moral obligations to compensate the opportunity cost of setting land aside in perpetuity for biological diversity considerations. It was recommended that ASEAN member countries should endeavour to have an . integrated land use policy, should address the undesirable ease of excision of land from existing permanent forest estate for other land uses, that the long term management, development and conservation of land should balance the need of the economy, environment and ecology, that research and development in forest management should be intensified, and that education and training on proper harvesting techniques and practical silviculture should be given priority at all levels.

The many problem areas are recognized. The international concern about global forest depletion and degradation is acknowledged. The need for efficient forest management practices and control is appreciated. There is undoubtedly real hope for the long term future of tropical forests in ASEAN countries, though time is short and the indirect cost of retaining such land could be high. However, the eventual cost of not doing so and the need to rectify the widespread environmental damage caused could be even higher.

J. WYATT-SMITH

D. MEIDINGER and J. PAJAR (Eds.) Ecosystems of British Co- lumbia. Ministry of forests, Research Branch, 31 Bastion Square, Victoria V8W 3E7, British Columbia, 1991. 330pp. ISSN 0843-6452, no.6.

This softcover book is spiral bound and has a bulky format. But its contents are very. well presented indeed. It is supported with concise and attractive illustrations, maps (including a glossy colour map of biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia), and compact, comprehensible tables. Besides notes on the floristics, there are equally extensive notes on wildlife habitats, agriculture, recreation, and community watersheds where appropriate.

Introductory chapters (1-4) contain a brief history on classification systems of British Columbia from 1926 to the present. The classification system is firmly entrenched in

the philosophy of climax ecosystem which latter day ecologists would consider static and somewhat outmoded. In any case, the scope of book is restricted to descriptive ecology and herein lies its weakness.

Although the authors give a tacit recognition that ecosystems are dynamic - after all, they spend considerable effort describing vegetation succession - they seem to lack intui- tion of dynamic ecosystems and so their treatment of eco- types is a little stilted and out of touch with current ecological modelling. For example, their definition of climax needs some clarification. On p. 12 an opening sentence tells us that 'climax' refers to a dynamical equilibrium; meaning that vegetation succession tends towards a steady state rather than an endpoint. Their next sentence restates the definition of 'climax'asastableecosystem unlessdisturbedby '...outside forces or modifying factors'. This implies that they see disturbance, whether catastrophic or subtle, as an aberrant event and it is obvious they have difficulty dealing with dis- ruptions within and between 'climax'. Mathematical ecologists are a little more precise in their definitions. To them dynamical equilibrium is a contraction in terms. Equilih- rium means a static endpoint. So how can it be dynamic? In any case, since ecosystems are constantly changing and never really become static, perhaps we should banish the notion of equilibrium from ecological classifications. The authors' second premise, that 'climax' systems are stable and even predictable, is reasonable - indeed this book is all about stable ecosystems and this is a useful concept so long as we restrict our attention within a particular plant association. However, chaotic events at all temporal and spatial scales that are unpredictable but not random processes, are at the core of ecosystem dynamics. Without chaos there cannot be change. The authors, having missed the point, present us with a rather static view of the vegetation component of biogeoclimatic classification in British Columbia. It is strange to read that disturbance of plant associations by abiotic factors (wind, floods, etc.,) is catastrophic while disturbance by wildlife and recreation is not. Major rethinking is required here.

Notwithstanding the debates on the merits of climax theories, this is a good publication. And since it may be some time before there is a practical ecosystems classification based on dynamical systems approach, as an alternative to climax philosophies, this book will remain a standard reference for a long time to come.

A. ROBERTSON

R. ECHENIQUE-MANRIQUE AND R.A. PLUMFTRE. A Guide to the Use of Mexican and Belizean Timbers. Oxford Forestry Institute, Tropical Forestry Paper No, 20. 1990. vi + 175 pages. Softback, £1 1.50. ISBN 0 85074 115 7.

Some 20 years ago, when traditional hardwoods for many uses came under increasing pressure of supply and rising costs, it became evident that many under-utilised woods,

210 Book Reviews

often available in only modest quantities, would need to be used if markets were to be maintained. At the same time, for environmental reasons, the more effective use of the forest resource became urgent and means to market under-utilised species were sought. Traditional methods had specified species for a use, but if many more species were to be marketed and used some other basis for selection was needed, and the concept of specifying property requirements of timber for a use was introduced by the reviewer and others. This Oxford Forestry Institute Tropical Forestry Paper is an example of its application.

The first author, an experienced wood technologist in Mexico and Director there of the Laboratory of Wood Science and Technology at Xalapa, came to Oxford for a year to work on the project. With the guidance of the second author, he defined the properties required of wood for 18 different timber uses in Mexico and Belize. The uses include many aspects of building but also furniture, packag- ing, tool handles and turned items. The properties which require consideration for each use are given and timbers appropriate for the use are tabulated, with brief notes on levels of performance for each of the selected properties. Finally, for each use, there is guidance on the performance and, if a criticism is made and it is a minor one, this information would have been more helpful at the beginning of each end-use table rather than at its end.

One hundred and nine Mexico and Belize timbers are considered in the guide, a small number in comparison with the total available in the two countries but, as technical information on additional timbers is acquired, these can be added to the lists. There are some interesting features to the guide. Thus, there is a table of average equilibrium moisture contents for different cities in Mexico, which can range from 8 to 18.5%, and others for susceptibility to decay in different states and towns, and for risk of attack by subterranean and dry-wood termites, both particularly important considerations when selecting for acceptable performance.

It is a most useful compilation and an example of what might be done elsewhere to facilitate the wider choice of timbers for use. Almost entirely of tabular matter, it is well produced, clearly presented and, at f 11.50, excellent value for the money.

J.D. BRAZIER

GILL SHEPHERD. Managing Africa's Tropical Dry Forests: A Review of Indigenous Methods. ODI Agricultural Occa- sional Paper 14, Overseas Development Institute, London. 1992. 117pp. ISBN 0-85003-139-7.

This useful monograph is primarily an annotated bibliography on the subject. Commentaries on individual items are well-developed and informative. The study focuses on English-language literature, but a listing of French language kems pmvides r starting point for those wishing to explore W litefptture as well.

The bibliography is accompanied by an assessment of the principal features of the woodland management situation in the dry forest region of Africa as a whole. Main headings include ownership, tenure, woodland management, and the role of the state. The tenure section stresses the role of investment of labour in establishing land ownership rights. This differs from the view of separate land and tree tenure explored by Fortmann and Riddell in their 1985 bibliography Trees and Tenure, which might well be read in conjunction with the present publication.

In addition to being a valuable source document for anyone seeking guidance to the literature on the subject, the monograph provides insights into the potential for intervention to strengthen management of Africa's tropical dry forests. The author traces the decline in indigenous management systems, and relates this to broader trends towards progressive replacement of local control by State-managed rules and regulations. Project approaches that take account of this changing institutional environment are suggested, and needs for further research are identified.

J.E.M. ARNOLD

V. SHIVA, P. ANDERSON, H. SCHUCKIM~, A. GRAY, L. LOHUAN'V and D. COOPER. Biodivei.sity. Social and Ecological Per- spectives. World Rainforest Movement, Penang, and Zed Books Ltd.. 57 Caledonian Road, London N I 9BU, UK. 1992. 124pp. £29.95 hbk; £9.95 pbk. ISBN 1-85649-053- X (hbk); ISBN 1-85649-054-8 (pbk).

The interest of this small book on a currently much debated subject is that it is published by the World Rainforest Movement. The book consists of an introduction and five papers tackling topics and issues associated with species diversity and indigenous peoples in rainforests: the role of biotechnology in producing uniformity in agriculture and forestry; biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. One paper uses the experience of rainforest in Thailand to illustrate conservation strategies.

The UNEP convention on global biodiversity is criti- cized and an outline for an alternative convention is proposed. More detailed and informative than a run-of-the-mill book by an interest group, this publication is readable, well produced and succinctly but passionately argued. It stresses the North-South divide and the institutional basis of past failures to conserve diversity. The authors argue that using commercial interests is not the only way to 'value' genetic resources, and warn of the imposition of intellectual property rights turning life forms into private property.

J.M. PIPER

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (3/4), 1992 21 1

M. GIERTYCH and CS. MATYAS (Eds.). Genetics of Scots Pine. Elsevier Science Publishers, BV PO Box 1991, 1000 BZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands and AkadCmiai Kiad6, Budapest, Hungary, 1 9 9 1 , 2 7 9 ~ ~ US.$ 137.00 D fl. 240.00. ISBN 0-444-98724-X.

This monograph represents, in the words of the first editor, 'a truly international effort, prepared in the traditional IUFRO spirit of selfless co-operation'. It comprises 21 papers by 24 authors from 9 countries on all aspects of the genetics of Scots Pine, The first chapters, describing the natural distribution and taxonomy, provide the background. Further chapters take the reader through patterns of variations in and inheritance of specific traits, genetic testing, breeding, propagation and hybridization. A few of the chapters are of more general interest, e.g. Seed orchards, progeny testing; most will find a more specialist audience (e.g. Breeding strategies for Christmas trees, Provenance variation in growth and phenology, Inheritance of wood properties).

The book provides a review of topics which are of importance to those concerned with the management and breeding of Scots Pine. I would not recommend the book to a wider audience. There are comprehensive lists of references for further study with a detailed index. It i s a very expensive book, but luckily not one that individuals need to own; a library copy is all that is required.

J.S. BIRKS

F. CAIRNCROSS (ed.) (World Bank). World Development Report 1992 -Development and the environment. Washing- ton , D.C., USA. 1992. xii + 308pp. ISBN 0-19-520876-5 (pbk).

This report completes a trilogy of papers from the World Bank on the goals and means of development (the earlier reports of 1990 and 1991 considered poverty and development strategies). The report is partly a textbook setting out the factual position underlying problems, the text being well-larded with relevant statistics, and partly a discussion and assessment by the Bank's staff of policies concerning the environment. Emphasis is placed on the Bank's philosophy that 'The protection of the environment is an essential part of development. Without adequate environmental protection, development is undermined; without development, resources will be inadequate for needed investment, and environmental protection will fail'. The report covers an immense amount of ground including descriptions of conditions in all the main fields of economic activity inter- acting with the environment. Special attention is given to sanitation and water, energy and industry and the rural scene. Forestry is considered in several connections including deforestation, sustainable management and the pricing of standing timber, afforestation and carbon storage. The

description of such matters as the polluter pays principle, the Global Environment Facility and Brazilian Tropical Rain Forest Fund makes the report a valuable source of factual information on the current environmental policy scene. In addition to a special appendix of environmental data, the report follows the pattern of recording 'world development indicators', a valuable set of statistics covering demogra- phy, national income, the composition of production and consumption, trade, financial assistance, debt, etc.

A.J. GRAYSON

IBAMA Programme nacional de conservacao e desenvolvimento florestal sustentado (National programme for conservation and sustained forestry development). 1991. Environment Secretariat, Brazil. l lOpp.

Produced in 1991 by a team comprising Brazil's Federal Government, its Secretary for the Environment and the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Resources, this report is bound to command interest. The report's 95 pages present a fairly full account of the Brazil- ian forestry sector, describing the flora and phyto-ecological regions before discussing prospects for conservation of forestry ecosystems and national timber output.

The largest part of the report presents the national programme for conservation and sustained forestry development in four sections: conservation of ecosystems, forestry production, research and development and strengthening institutions. Within each of the sections, sub-sections take the form: a. current situation, b. desirable situation, c. objectives and d. goals and costs.

To mention just a few of the specified objectives, these include decentralization in the execution of national forestry policy via the encouragement of State-level forestry bodies; the establishment of a continuous forestry inventory; reafforestation specifically for the purpose of relieving the 'greenhouse effect'; conservation of the dry forests of the 'cerrado'; development of a set of actions to demonstrate the economic, social and environmental viability of extrac- tive reserves as a model of 'eco-sustained development' for Amazonia. The inclusion of cost estimates for each item helps the reader retain a sense of reality in the face of these commendable aims - for example, amongst the objectives listed above, it is estimated that the last one alone will cost US$ 33 million. The total bill would come to US$ 3,200 million.

A final section to the report provides many tables and graphs of output, exports, reafforestation, species utilized, energy balance, etc.

There appears to be no mention in the report of the forest's indigenous human inhabitants, though there is some mention of agro-forestry within the Amazon.

J.M. &ER

212 Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (3/4), 1992

NOTICES

IUCN Tropical Forests Programme Series L. RAKOTOVAO, V . BARRE and J. SAVER (Eds.) L'Equilibre des Ecosyst2mes forestiers d Madagascar: Actes d'un semi- naire international. 1988. 338pp. ISBN 2 88032 951 5. C. WILKS La Conservation des EcosystPmes forestiers d'Afrique centrale. 1989. viii + 124pp. ISBN 2 88032 995 7. P. HECKETSWEILER. La Conservation des EcosystPmes forestiers du Congo. 1991. 187pp. ISBN 2 88032 99 1 4. C. DOUMENGE La conservation des EcosystPmes forestiers du Zaire. 1990. 242pp. ISBN 2 8317 0033 7. C. WILKS. La Conservation des Ecosyst2rnes forestiers du Gabon. 1990. xiv + 215pp. ISBN 2 88032 988 4. P. HECKETSWEILER and J.M. IKONGA (Eds.) La Rkserve de Conkouati: Congo. le secteur sud-est. 1991. 323pp. ISBN 2 8317 0080 9. P. HECKETSWEILER, C. DOUMENGE and J.M. IKONGA (Eds.) Le parc national d'Odzala, Congo. 1991 .xiv + 334pp. ISBN 2 8317 0033 7.

These well-produced soft-back books cover specific tropical forests and the wildlife within them, and give conservation planning and management guidelines for forests. Over fifteen titles have now been published in the series.

The seven French titles in the series all refer to French- speaking Africa and Madagascar. Two are concerned with forested reserves in Congo: the south-eastern sector of the Conkouati Reserve in Congo and the Odzala National Park. These provide detailed information on the physical and biological environments as well as the human and legislative context. In the case of the Conkouati Reserve there is a (surprisingly) short section commenting on the impact of exploitation of oil reserves in the Reserve. Recommenda- tions are made on means of reducing this impact. A further three books are concerned with ecosystem conservation, in central Africa, Zaire and Gabon. These three follow similar formats, with data on forest resources, biological diversity, the use of forest land and the legislative context of forest use. Current conservation programmes are detailed and major issues are discussed - these include, for example, elephants and ivory, professional training, re-forestation. A regional action plan is proposed. Number 6 in the series reports on an international seminar held to study the balance of forest ecosystems in Madagascar.

Each of these books is authoritative, exhaustively detailed and well illustrated, presenting a comprehensive picture of the topic or area studied.

For a full catalogue of IUCN publications in this series, write to IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL.

J.M. PIPER

G.D. PIEARCE, and P. SHAW (Eds.). Forestry research in Zimbabwe. Proceedings of the Anniversary Seminar 'Forestry Research Advances in Zimbabwe', Zimbabwe College of Forestry, Mutare, 27-31 August 1990. The Zimbabwe Forestry Commission, Harare, Zimbabwe. 1992. 269pp.

This conference was held to mark the thirtieth anniversary of the establishment of the John Meikle Forestry Research Station and to review and plan ahead for the whole spectrum of forestry research conducted in Zimbabwe. It was the first occasion on which people from all divisions of industrial, rural and social forestry had been brought together to discuss research. It is intended that the meeting should mark the beginning of continuous communication between these disciplines. The whole forestry research field in Zimbabwe is covered in 28 invited papers. In addition, a new annotated bibliography of Zimbabwean research publications was prepared for the conference and this is also available from the Zimbabwe Forestry Commission.

R.D. BARNES

A. WHITEMAN, INSLEY, and G. WATT. Price-size curves for broadleaves. Occasional Paper 32. 199 1. Forestry Com- mission, Edinburgh. £2.00 (by post £2.40). ISBN 0-85538-245-7.

Price-size curves for standing values of broadleaves were constructed using the results of an extensive postal survey of prices received in sales of trees and logs in 1989. Regressions were calculated from 854 records for price on tree volume, species, point of sale (standing, felled, etc.), location and ease of harvesting. Regression coefficients on the last two variables were insignificant and these variables were therefore dropped from the final model. Price-size curves were computed for oak, beech, ash and sweet chest- nut, and for fellings and thinnings.

A.J. Grayson

PUBL l CAT


IONS RECEIVED

TIM D. DAVIS, BRUCE E. HAISSIG and NARENDRA SANKHLA Groups. 1992. Forestry Canada, Ottawa, Canada K l A (Eds.) Adventuious Root Formation in Cuttings (Advances in Plant Sciences Series, Vol. 2). Available from Diosco- rides Press, an imprint of Timber Press Inc., 9999 SW Wilshire, Suite 124, Portland, OR 97225, USA. 1989. 315pp., 42 tables, 49 figures, hbk $39.95 + $3.75 shipping and handling for the first book, $2.50 for the second, and $1.75 for each additional. ISBN 0-931 146-10-0. The 26 contributors from 10 countries represent the entire range of plant sciences concerned with the biological and bio- chemical formation of roots, including horticulture, forestry, plant physiology and pathology, biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology.

W. ERDELEN, N. ISHWARAN and P. MULLER (Eds.) Tropical Ecosystems. Proceedings of the International and Interdis- ciplinary Symposium, Saarbrucken, Germany, 15- 18 June 1989. Verlag Josef Margraf, Muhlstr. 9, PO Box 105, D- 6992 Weikersheim, Germany. 1991. 202pp. ISBN 3-8236- 1 183-6. Contents include; Structure and Distribution Pat- terns as Basic Parameters for the Analysis and Modelling of Ecosystems in the Tropical Evergreen Moist Forests; Clear- ing a Tropical Rain Forest - Effects on the Ant Fauna; Is Sustainable Utilization of the Tropical Evergreen Moist Forest Possible?; Human Impact on Forest Ecosystems and Soil Deterioration in Tropical Bolivia; and a section on conservation issues.

FAO Publications Catalogue 1991 Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. The 1450 titles listed in this catalogue are divided into ten subject sections with a special section of four pages listing computerized information series. In the Forestry section, 22 conservation guides are listed and the 86 forestry titles concentrate on forest products and economics. The Plant Production and Plant Protec- tion section covers plant production, plant genetics and breeding, seed and nursery stocks, plant and crop pests and diseases, plant protection and plant protection products. This catalogue serves as a valuable reference source and will be of particular interest to those involved in agriculture, forestry and land use development. The catalogue lists all ISBN documents and publications issued prior to 1991 and is available in English, Spanish and French.

FORESTRY CANADA The State of Canada's Forests 1991 (Second Report to Parliament): Environmental, Social and Economic Indicators Forestry Canada, Public Inquiries Unit, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A IG5. 1992. 85pp. Gratis. ISBN 0 662 194400 3.

FORESTRY CANADA Canada's Forestlndustry: A Strategy for Growth. Report of the Forest Sector Advisory Council and Reports of the Forest Sector Advisory Council Working

1 ~ 5 . - 25 and 83 pp. n p s . ~ ~ o ISBN.

FORESTRY COMMISSION (UK) Catalogue of Publications 1992 Publications, Forest Research Station, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Farnham, Surrey GUlO 4LH. 24pp. Gratis.

FORESTRY COMMISSION (UK) Bulletin 83: Seed Manual for Forest Trees ed. A.G. Gordon. Publications, Forest Re- search Station, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Farnham, Surrey GUlO 4LH and HMSO. 132pp. f 10.95. ISBN 0-1 l - 710271.

FORESTRY COMMISSION (UK) Bulletin 105: Roe Deer Biology and Management by P.R. Ratcliffe and B.A. Mayle. Publi- cations, Forest Research Station, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrec- clesham, Farnham, Surrey GUlO 4LH and HMSO. 28pp. £5.50. ISBN 0-11-710310-1.

FORESTRY COMMISSION OF NEW SOUTH WALES Forestry Com- mission Publications 1991 The Publications Centre, For- estry Commission of NSW, Locked Bag 23, Pennant Hills, NSW 21 20, Australia.

FORSPA (Forestry Research Support Programme for Asia and the Pacific) Pre-Implementation Seminar Proceedings (FORSPA Publication 2) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Phra Athit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand. 1992. 99pp. nps. No ISBN.

RUTH KIRK with JERRY FRANKLIN The Olympic Rain Forest: An Ecological Web University of Washington Press, Seattle and London, 1992. 128pp. ISBN 0-295-97187-8.

NORWEGIAN FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE Festskrift til Ivar Samset (Communications of the Norwegian Forest Research Institute Vol. 41) NISK-As, PO Box 61, 1432 As-Nlh, Norway. 1988. 570pp. 39 articles, the majority in English, written at the invitation of the Norwegian Forest Research Institute in honour of Professor Ivar Samset on his retire- ment.

SKOG~INDUSTRIERNA (Swedish Pulp and Paper Association) Plain Facts on the Swedish Forests and their Products Skogsindustrierna, PO Box 26210, S-100 41 Stockholm, Sweden. 1992. 64pp. nps. ISBN 91 88198 06 5.

DIRECCAO GERAL DAS FLORESTAS Portugal: A Country of Forests DGF, AV. Joao Crisostomo 26/28, 1000 Lisboa, Portugal. 1992. 60pp. no ISBN.

D.R. WILLIAMSON Establishing Farm Woodlands (Forestry Commission Handbook 8) Publications, Forest Research Station, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Farnham, Surrey GUlO 4LH and HMSO. 1992. v + 42 pages. £6.75 (£7.35 by post). ISBN 0 l l 7 10309 8.

University of opportunity

FORESTRY EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES The University of Aberdeen, founded in 1495, has been awarding degrees in Forestry since 191 4.

BSc (Forestry) Firmly founded on a scientific base, this degree emphasises resource and business management aspects relevant to both temperate and tropical forests. The honours degree normally requires four years of study but students with diplomas or equivalent qualifications are usually admitted direct into the second year.

Diploma/MSc Designed for practising foresters from the tropics or subtropics are a in Forest diploma course (9-months) and an MSc course ( 12-months). Programmes Management are flexible and can be designed to meet individual needs, including the

involvement of courses from other land-use departments. Courses include Forest business administration; Finance and investment appraisal in forestry; Forest mensuration and inventory; Rural developmentforestry'and Agro-forestry; Silviculture; Forestprotection and Arboriculture.

Research These are available at both Master's and Doctoral level: a wide- Degrees ranging research programme is available encompassing both temperate

and tropical forestry issues.

Aberdeen and theNorth-East of Scotland contain aconcentration of researchestablishments in Land Use and Environmental matters unique in Europe: in addition to the departments within the University there is the Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, the Rowett Research Institute and the Marine Research Laboratory; combining the interests of all these is the Aberdeen Centre for Land Use. The University is also the base of CEMP, the international Centre for Environmental Management and Planning.

Write for further details to

UNIVERSITY OFABERDEEN


Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 71 (3/4), 1992 2 15

GPO Box 4, Cdnberrd Aumdlld ACT 2601 New Zedland Mr S Anwdr

Mr D 0 Modhdgdpe

200 Promendde du Portage Hull, Quebec K I A OGA Mr Foday Bojang

Mr D Sdwh 2 18 Charlotte and Ormoque Street 10 At! 91&iltl Bourdd, Georgetown

Mr. H S Dunphy

COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY REVIEW

Australian National University

Department of Forestry School of Resource and Environmental Management

THE DEPARTMENT The ANU Department of Forestry has become a foundation department within the new School of Resource and Environmental Management. The Department retains its traditional strengths in forest management (including fue management, wood science and industrial technology), eucalypt sihiculture and ecology, inventory and modern usage of computers in forestry. In addition students now have access to a wide range of resource subjects, including resource economics, soil conservation, landcare and rehabilitation, agroforesq, agroecolv, remote sensing and geographic information systems, human sciences, and others still m the process of development.

The Department maintains strong linkages with foresq programs in many countries. It is particularly well placed to offer graduate programs to students from these countries and to students wishing to pursue careersh developing countries. There are currently 51 graduate students enrolled of whom 47 are from averseas.

Postgraduate Diploma (Grad Dip) Each Diploma program is individually designed to meet the student's needs. It may be aself contained course with a mix of coursework, directedreading and research to enable candidates to specialise in an area of interest or it may be preliminary work for later masters or PhD study. It is especially valuable for overseas students as it can be designed to pravide an introduction to Australian forests and environmental conditions. 10 months full-time - 18 months part time Entry Qualifications - Appropriate BA or BSc

Master of Forestry (MF) A program of coursework in forest and environmental management. Can be directed to particular topics or countries. 1 year and six weeks full-time Entry Qualifications -Appropriate honours degree or postgraduate diploma

Master of Science (MSc) Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) A program of intensive research in forestry or environmental science. Can be directed to articulY topics or countries. - 1-2 yean full-time - 2 4 years part-time Eny 'f""icatiom -Appropriate honours degree a ptgraduate diploma PhD- ycarsfull-timc Entry Q@iications -Appropriate honours degree, postgraduate diploma or MSc

~ Q U W I F S : Department of Forestry International Fax Australii National University + 61 6 249 0746 GPO Box 4 Canberm ACT 2601 International Telephone AU- + 61 6 449 4579


THE COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY ASSOCIATION

Recent years have seen far-reaching changes in forestry and Commonwealth forestry has been no exception. The tropical forests have been disappearing fast and most investment is in plantation forestry or in forestry for community development. The oil crisis has brought renewed attention to tree growing for renewable energy supplies. The awareness of the environment and recreational value of the forest continues to grow.

The aims of the Association The Commonwealth Forestry Association (CFA) brings together all who are concerned with conservation, development and management of forests, especially of the tropical and sub-tropical resources. Forests are important in many ways to many people. Supply of timber, the protection of soil, water supplies and the environment and the provision of healthy recreational areas are a few. Equally important in the long term are the maintenance of wild areas for research and the preservation of genetic diversity. For millions of rural people in developing countries the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems, including wildlife, forest and grazing lands, is of prime importance. Such concerns cannot be confined within narrow geographical or political boundaries and, although originally instituted as a Commonwealth organisation, the Association now represents global concern about forestry matters.

The Association S membership The CFA is essentially a professional Association keeping its members informed of developments in forest science and practice, mainly through its publications, but also through periodic meetings. Its members come from non-Commonwealth and Commonwealth countries and include foresters, forest and wood scientists, timber merchants, ecologists, resource managers and conservationists, as well as forest services, institutions, organizations and firms.

The Association's services The Association's office is in the Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, with which it co-operates closely. The Departmental library, in col- laboration with CAB International, Wallingford, gives the Association unique support as an information centre for visit- ing members.

THE ASSOCIATION'S PUBLICATIONS

Commonwealth Forestry Review The Review is published quarterly and contains articles on a wide range of subjects, an editorial on forestry around the world and reviews of books, research papers and reports. The object of the Review is to bring to readers, particularly those who do not have extensive library facilities, a comprehensive summary of information. The Review is sent free by surface mail to all paid-up members and it can be sent airmail at extra cost.

Commonwealth Forestry Handbook Published periodically, this gives a List of Members, details of senior personnel of Commonwealth Forest Services, Research and Educational Institutions, Organizations and Societies, a list of Forestry publications, has a section on Technical Infor- mation and a list of World Timbers, with their standard and botanical names and countries of origin. This is also sent free to members of the Association.

Annual Subscription Rates 1992193

LIFE MEMBER: .......................................................... £300.00 NB: Eligibility to transfer to Life membership:

30 subscriptions paid up or 60 years age with 10 subscriptions paid up ............................................ f 75.00

ORDINARY MEMBER: (individual) Over 30 years age ............................................................... f 30.00 Under 30 years age .............................................................. f 20.00

AFFILIATED MEMBER: ............................................ f 50.00 (Forest Depts, Companies, Institutions, International Organisations)

STUDENT MEMBER: .................................................... f 10.00

DEVELOPING COUNTRY MEMBER: (Please apply to CFA National SecretaryITreasurer)

SUBSCRIPTIONS TO REVIEW: (Libraries) .............. f 50.00 SINGLE COPY OF REVIEW: (Plus postage) ............. f 12.50 COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY HANDBOOK: ... £ 20.00 Free to members (plus postage)

APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP The Commonwealth Forestry Association, OFI, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, UK Please enrol me as a *Life MemberlOrdinary MemberlAssociate Member (Student)/Affiliated Member (Institution, Company or Forest Department)

.................................................................................................................................. I enclose *ChequelBanker's OrderlDraft/Cash/UNESCO Coupon for f * Delete those not applicable PLEASE USE BLOCK CAPITALS Ordinary Members, Life Members and Associate ~ e h b e r s

Surname and Initials ...................................................................................................................... Title (e.g. Mr.) ...................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Degrees and Distinctions

(Students-first degree, if any) ......................................................................................................... Date of Birth ...................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................................... Affiliated Members (Institutions, Company etc.)

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Address for despatch of Commonwealth Forestry Review

...................................................................................................................................................................... Country ...................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Signature of Applicant

Position ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Introduced by (this is not essential) ................................................................................................................................................................................................ Date ........................................................................................................................................................ Membership to start as from January 19 .....................

Advice to Contributors

GENERAL Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced throughout, with at least a 3 cm margin on the left. Two copies must be submitted to the Editorial Office, Commonwealth Forestry Asso- ciation, Oxford Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB. Authors are advised to keep a copy of their manuscripts for checking against proofs. The style of setting out, subdivision of text, and layout of tables should conform to that of a current copy of the Review.

Contributions must be original and not have been submitted for publication elsewhere.

SUMMARY

Authors must supply a summary of not more than 150 words at the beginning of the paper, and should suggest no more than five keywords.

PREPARATION FOR PUBLICATION

Each submitted manuscript will be referred to a member of the editorial board and at least one expert referee. Authors will be consulted if the paper is considered suitable for publication but alterations are thought desirable. After these alterations have been included the manuscript will be considered final.

Page proofs will be sent to authors for checking before publication. These proofs are simply for the purpose of correcting printing errors: only in exceptional cases, and at the discretion of the Editorial Board, may authors be permitted to change their text at this stage.

SCIENTIFIC NAMES

The complete scientific name (genus, species and authority, and cultivar where appropriate) must be cited for every organism at the first time of mention. The generic name may be abbreviated to the initial thereafter except where intervening references to other genera with the same initial would cause confusion. If vernacular names are employed, they must be accompanied by the correct scientific name on first use.

TABLES

Tables should be numbered in arabic numerals and each submitted on a separate sheet with an appropriate legend at the head. The preferred position in the text should be indicated.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Text-figures. The publication of papers may be delayed, and the cost is increased, when figures have to be redrawn or relettered by the printers. This can be avoided if authors will comply exactly with the following instructions.

Drawing should be made in black ink on Bristol board, tracing film, or graph with faint ruling. Photocopies are not satisfactory for reproduction. A photocopy or other suitable duplicate should, however, accompany each figure. The maximum space available on a page is 228 X 179 mm (9 X 7 inches), and the width of a single column of text is 86 mm (3.4 inches), thus for a full page figure the original should not be larger than 456 X 358 mm (18 X 14 inches) and for a single column width figure the original should not be larger than 172 X 358 mm (6.8 X 14 inches). Authors should

indicate on the back of figures whether they are to be reproduced at single or double column width.

Legends to figures must not be incorporated in the figures, but should be typed in double spacing on a separate sheet. Each legend should contain sufficient explanation to be meaningful without cross-referencing. The individual figures must be numbered clearly in pencil and should bear the nameof the author.Photographs for plates must be of a high quality, printed on glazed paper, and should be supplied at the same size as for final reproduction, bearing in mind the dimensions given above. A separate typewritten double-spaced EXPLANATION OF PLATES should be supplied, setting out the legends for the photographs, which will be referred to as Plate 1, Plate 2, Plate 2A etc. A scale should be included in the picture wherever possible, otherwise the scale of the original should be stated in the EXPLANATION OF PLATES so that the final scale can be calculated. Photographs should be black and white; colour reproduction will not be considered, and black and white reproduction of colour photographs is possible but will give an inferior result.

ORIGINALS

If authors wish to have original illustrations returned after publication they should make a specific request when submitting their paper for consideration.

REFERENCES

A great deal of editorial time can be taken up by revising references to conform with the style of the Review. Authors are requested to observe the following guide closely.

Citations in the text should take the form: Smith and Robinson (1960). If several papers by the same author in the same year are cited, they should be lettered in sequence (1960a). (1960b) etc. When papers are by more than two authors, all the names should be recorded on first mention, e.g. Smith, Jones, and Williams (1960). Subsequent reference should be to Smith et al. (1960).

At the end of the paper, the list of REFERENCES must be arranged in alphabetical order without serial numbering. The following standard form of citation should be used: BUNTING, G.S., 1967. The conserved type of Calliandra. Taxon,

16, 469-472. ELIAS, T.S., 1978. Mimosoideae. In POLHILL, R.M. and RAVEN,

P.H. (Eds.) Advances in Legume Systematics Parr 1. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey. 425pp. All citations in the text should appear in the list of references

and vice versa. The list must be typed double-spaced throughout and checked thoroughly before submission.

COMPUTER DISKS Where authors use a word-processor, they should nevertheless submit their papers in printed form only in the first instance. When a paper is accepted for publication, it will be greatly appreciated if authors can provide a disk to accompany, the final version of the manuscript. If possible, the paper should be written in WordPer- fect 5. l , or alternatively sent as an ASCII file, but materials in other programmes can be translated here if necessary. There is no need to send figures in graphics programmes, but the printed figure should be of a high quality suitable for reproduction.

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