the chartbook of economic inequality complete · 2017-05-02 · institute for new economic thinking...

The Chartbookof Economic Inequality

Tony Atkinson, Joe Hasell,Salvatore Morelli, and Max Roser

2017

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TheChartbookofEconomicInequality1ABAtkinson,

NuffieldCollege,Oxford,LondonSchoolofEconomicsandInstituteforNewEconomicThinkingattheOxfordMartinSchoolJoeHasell,

UniversityofNaples–FedericoIISalvatoreMorelli,

InstituteforNewEconomicThinkingattheOxfordMartinSchoolandCSEF–UniversityofNaples–FedericoIIMaxRoser

InstituteforNewEconomicThinkingattheOxfordMartinSchool

May2017

AbstractTheChartbook summarizes theevidenceabout long-run changes in fivedifferentdimensionsofeconomicinequality–overallandtopincomeinequality,poverty,earningsdispersion,andwealthinequality–for25countriescoveringmorethanonehundredyears.TheevidencerepresentsanupdateandextensionoftheworkdonebyAtkinsonandMorelli(2014).Theresultsarepresentedin 25 charts, one for each country, togetherwith a full description of themethod and sources.Series,sourcesandgraphscanbedownloadedatwww.chartbookofeconomicinequality.com.

PurposeThepurposeofthisChartbookistopresentasummaryofevidenceaboutlong-runchangesinfivedifferentdimensionsofeconomicinequalityfor25countriescoveringmorethanonehundred years. The evidence represents an update of the work done by Atkinson andMorelli(2014).Thereisarangeofcountriesandtheyaccountformorethanathirdoftheworld’spopulation:Argentina,Australia,Brazil,Canada,Finland,France,Germany, Iceland,India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Mauritius, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway,Portugal, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US. Theresultsarepresentedin25charts,oneforeachcountry,togetherwithadescriptionofthesources. The underlying figures and original sources are available atwww.chartbookofeconomicinequality.com.

Weaimtoprovideforeachcountryfiveindicatorscoveringonanannualbasis:

1. Overallincomeinequality2. Topincomeshares3. Income(orconsumption)basedpovertymeasures;4. Dispersionofindividualearnings;5. Topwealthshares/wealthinequalitymeasures.

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TonyAtkinsonsadlypassedawayinJanuary2017,beforethenewversionofthepaperwasfinalized.Tonywastheprimarydriverofthisprojectwhichwouldnotexistwithouthiscommitment,passion,andcontribution.Theassembly of the data for this chartbook has formed part of the Inequality project at the Institute for NewEconomic Thinking at the Oxford Martin School and has had the financial support of the INET grant(IN01100021). SM acknowledges financial support from the “Guido Cazzavillan Fellowship” at Ca’ FoscariUniversity.Anearlier versionof theChartbookwas circulated inMarch2014with the title “TheChartbookofEconomicInequality”,ECINEQworkingpaper-324.InApril2017aboundcopyofthisdocumentwasdistributedattheINET-Oxford.WethankAnneBrunner-Ellis, JoKay,SusanMousley,andTanyaValefortheirsupport. Fortheir help and advice, we thank Rolf Aaberge, Facundo Alvaredo, Charlotte Bartels, Hans Baumann, AndreaBrandolini, JonEpland,LeonardoGasparini,MarkusM.Grabka,ArthurB.Kennickell,AndrewLeigh,RenéLevy,StefánÓlafsson,Wiemer Salverda,Moritz Schularick,Ulrike Steins,Giovanni Vecchi, andDanielWaldenström,buttheyarenottobeheldinanywayresponsibleforanyerrorsoromissions.

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This isambitiousandourchartsfalla longwayshortofbeingcomplete,as is illustratedinTable1,whichshowsthedatesatwhich,foreachcountry,thefiveindicatorscommence.Inthe past, more evidence was available about the upper part of the distribution, and ourindicatorscoverthetopincomesharesmorefully.Fortheotherindicators,coverageismorelimited.Inonlyfiveofthetwentyfivecountriesdothedataonoverallinequalitystartbefore1945.Inmanycasesdataarenotalwaysavailableforeveryyearandtherearegapsintheseries. These are joined within the graphs but it is worth noting that this may well missimportantyear-to-yearvariations.Insomecases,particularlyforwealth,wehavelocatednotimeseriesatall.

Our emphasis is on change over time.We have therefore concentrated on comparabilityovertime,andforthisreasonpresentedtheevidencecountrybycountry.

Whatdotheindicatorsshow?

Foreachofthefiveindicators,wehaveapreferredorotherwisestandarddefinition,butwehavehadtodepartfromthiswherenodataareavailableonthisbasis.Toaidthereader,wehaveinthechartsmarkedbythesymbol(*)theseriesbasedonthepreferred(orstandard)definition. In a number of countries, this includes cases where data are available on thepreferreddefinitiononly for the later part of theperiod, butwherewehavenonethelesschosentopiecetogetheralongerseriesfromsourcesthatmakeuseofdifferentdefinitions.

Inthecaseofoverallincomeinequality,ourpreferredincomeconceptisequivalised(usingascale to allow for differences in household size and composition) household disposableincome,definedasincomefromallsources,includingtransferpayments,minusdirecttaxesandsocialsecuritycontributions.Theequivalencescaleusedinmostcasesisthe“modifiedOECDscale”,whichgivesaweightof1tothefirstadult,of0.5toeachadditionaladult,andof 0.3 to each child. Thismeans that the incomeof a family of 2 adults and 2 children isdivided by 2.1. In some cases, other scales are employed, such as the square root scale,where income is divided by the square root of the household size (2 in the example justgiven). Thedistribution is amongpersons: each individual appears in thedistributionwiththe equivalised income of the household. No allowance is made for within-householdinequality. Inanumberof cases, thedefinitions in theavailable statisticsdepart fromthispreferred version. For example, income may not be adjusted for household size andcomposition,orthedistributionmayrelatetogrossincome,beforethedeductionofincomeandsocialsecuritytaxes.Becausetheincometaxisusuallyprogressive,inequalityistypicallyhigherforgrossincomethanfordisposableincome.

The overall distribution is summarised in a single summary statistic, typically the Ginicoefficient, most commonly published by statistical agencies. The explanation of thecoefficientgivenbymostagenciesismadeintermsofgeometry,butweprefertodescribeitintermsofthemeandifference.AGinicoefficientofGpercentmeansthat,ifwetakeanytwohouseholds fromthepopulationat random,theexpecteddifference is2Gpercentofthemean. So that a rise in the Gini coefficient from 30 to 40 per cent implies that theexpecteddifferencehasgoneupfrom60to80percentofthemean.Anotherusefulwayofthinking, suggested by Amartya Sen, is in terms of “distributionally adjusted” nationalincome,whichwiththeGinicoefficientis(100-G)percentofnationalincome.Sothatarise

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intheGinicoefficientfrom30to40percentisequivalenttoreducingnationalincomeby14percent(1/7).

Muchoftheevidenceabouttopincomesharesisderivedfromtaxrecords,andourstandard– although not necessarily preferred – definition is gross income for tax purposes beforededuction of allowable outgoings. Typically, but not exclusively, income here excludescapitalgainsandlosses.Wherebothincludingandexcludingcapitalgainsdatawasavailable(asfortheUnitedStatesandSweden)wehavechosenthelatter.Transferincomeiscoveredtovaryingdegreesindifferentcountries.Becausethetaxsystemistypicallyprogressive,thetopsharesindisposableincomearesmaller:forexample,intheUKin2000theshareofthetop1percentinbeforetaxincomewas12.7percent,whereastheshareinaftertaxincomewas 10.0 per cent. It is also worth noting that the measuring unit is typically not thehouseholdbuttheunitreportingincomefortaxpurposes(thetaxunitistypicallyformedbymarriedcouplesandunmarriedadultsoradultsonlydependingon the taxation regimeofeach country). The evidence about top shares is presented in terms of the shares of,typically,thetop1percent.Thisisreadilyinterpreted:ashareof10percentforthetop1percentmeansthattheyreceive10timestheirproportionateshareofincome.

OurpreferreddefinitionofpovertyfollowsthatadoptedintheEuropeanUnion(EU)agreedcommon social indicators: a relative measure set at 60 (or 50) per cent of the medianequivalised disposable income in the country in question. In some cases, the figurespresented relate toabsolutepovertymeasuresbasedonapoverty line fixedover time intermsofpurchasingpower. Itshouldbestressedthattherelativemeasure isnotsimplyameasureofinequality.ItwouldbequitepossiblefortheEUmeasuretobereducedtozerowithoutinequalitybeingeliminated:asituationwherenoonereceiveslessthan60percentofthemedianisquiteconsistentwithconsiderableinequality.

Our preferred definition of earnings dispersion refers to thewage and salary received bythose inemploymentandwhoseemploymentwasnotaffectedbyabsence. The indicatorusedinmostcasesistheratioofearningsatthetopdecile(theperson10percentfromthetop) to themedianearningsexpressedasapercentage. This isameasureofhow far thedistributionofearningsisspreadoutatthetop:afigureof180percentmeansthatthoseinthetop10percentofearningsreceive80percentormoreinexcessofmedianearnings.

Theindicatorofwealthistakentobethenetworthofeitherindividuals(asinestatedata)or of households (as in survey data). “Net” means that all liabilities (debts) have beensubtracted from the total assets (real and financial); the figure for some households isnegative(forexamplewherethemortgageexceedsthevalueoftheproperty).Thesummaryindicatorusedinmostcasesistheshareofthetop1percent.Afigureof25percentmeansthatthetop1percentowns25timestheirproportionateshare.

Linkingofseriesovertime

Discontinuities in statistical series on inequality are frequent. The US Census Bureau“selected measure of household income dispersion” covers the period from 1967 to thepresent, but there are no fewer than 19 footnotes indicating changes in the processingmethod.Thisismorethanoneeverythirdyear.Dealingwiththeseisamatterforjudgment.InconstructingtheseriesintheChartbook,theruleswehavefollowedare(a)toacceptin

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general continuous published series; (b) to link overlapping series given within a singlesourcebyassumingtheyshareaproportionalrelationship(i.e.ifanoverlapbeginsin1970,theseriesare linkedbymultiplying thepre-1970seriesby the ratioof thenewto theoldobservationfor1970);(c)tolinkinthesamewayoverlappingseriesfromdifferentsourceswherethereappearstobeasufficientlyclosedefinition(werecognisethatthisisamatterfor judgment); and (d) in some cases, where there is no overlapping year between twoseries, to join them by linking adjacent years (i.e. implicitly making the additionalassumption that there was no change over the intervening period). In a few instances,where a discontinuity is present in very recent years, we have applied the proportionallinking, as described above, forward rather than backward. This avoids recentmethodologicalchangesaffectingobservationsforthedistantpastinlong-runseries.

The proportionate linkingmeans that the reader can rely on the year-to-year percentagechanges, but means that the figures graphed here may differ from those in the originalsources.

Wheretheconditionsstatedabovearenotsatisfied,thenweshowmultipleserieswithoutlinks.

Scaling

In choosing the scalingof thegraphs,wepreferred the scale thatguaranteed theclearestpossible visualisation of the series. Therefore, we warn the reader that the scale of thegraphsisnotalwayscomparableacrosscountries.

Permissiontousethiswork

Alldata,sources,andgraphsaremadefreelyaccessibleforeveryonetouseatourwebsite:www.chartbookofeconomicinequality.com.

AllvisualisationsinthisdocumentandonthewebpublicationarelicensedunderaCreativeCommonsBY-SAlicense.Thismeansthateveryoneisfreetosharethesevisuals(i.e.copyandredistributethematerialinanymediumorformat)andtoadaptthesevisuals(i.e.remix,transform,andbuilduponourmaterial).Thisincludesallpurposesandalsocommercialuses.

ThesepermissionsaregivenUnderthefollowingterms:

• Attribution–BY—Youmustgiveappropriatecredit,providealinktothelicense,andindicateifchangesweremade.Youmaydosoinanyreasonablemanner,butnotinanywaythatsuggeststhelicensorendorsesyouoryouruse.

• ShareAlike–SA—Ifyouremix,transform,orbuilduponthematerial,youmustdistributeyourcontributionsunderthesamelicenseastheoriginal.

Thelicenseisaccessibleatcreativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

Sources

Thesourcesaredescribedforeachcountryonthepagefollowingthechart.Wehavetriedinallcasestocheckthefiguresagainsttheoriginalsources.Theimportanceofsuchchecking

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maybeillustratedbyreferencetoSouthAfrica.Inseekingdataontheoveralldistribution,wehad identifiedaseries for theGinicoefficientcovering theyears from1960to1987 intheWorld Income Inequality Database (WIID). Given the problems of securing long-termdistributionaldataforthatcountry,thisappearedtoogoodtobetrue.Thisprovedtobethecase.Investigationoftheoriginalsource(LachmannandBercuson,1992,Table2)revealedthatthetitlewas“Ginicoefficientsassumingincomeequalitywithinracialgroups”.Thedatashowed the differences between races, which is an important part, but only part, of thestory.Thesedatadonotmeasureoverallinequalityandarenotusedhere.

In thisexercise,wehavemadeuseofvaluablebuildingblocks. Inparticular thestudiesoftopincomes,largelyresultingfromtheprojectorganisedbyAtkinsonandPiketty(2007and2010),provideananchor for theempiricalanalysisof topshares.Thisprojectgave rise tothe World Top Incomes Database subsequently subsumed into the World Wealth andIncomeDatabase (referred tobelowas ‘WTID’and ‘WID.world’ respectively).Butwewishalsotocover,asfaraspossible,thedistributionasawhole,andtofollowwhathappenstopovertyaswellasriches. Theseries thatwepresentthereforeshownotonly top incomesharesbutalsomeasuresofoverall inequalityandmeasuresof low incomes.HereweareabletodrawonthecollectionofhistoricaldataassembledovertheyearsbyAtkinsonandBrandolini(seeforexample,Brandolini,2002).

Thegeneralsourcesonwhichwehavedrawnare:

(a) Atkinson,AB,2008,ThechangingdistributionofearningsinOECDcountries,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

(b) Atkinson,ABandPiketty,T,editors,2007,Topincomesoverthetwentiethcentury,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

(c) Atkinson,ABandPiketty,T,editors,2010,Topincomes:aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

(d) Brandolini, A, 2002, “A bird’s eye viewof long-run changes in income inequality”,BankofItalyResearchDepartment,Rome.

(e) LuxembourgIncomeStudy(LIS)KeyFigures,downloadedfromLISwebsite.InJune2016, theKey Figures covered 47 countries, including 19 of those covered by thisChartbook: http://www.lisdatacenter.org/data-access/key-figures/inequality-and-poverty/

(f) WorldTop IncomeDatabase(WTID),byFAlvaredo,AB.Atkinson,TPiketty,andESaez.OnlinebetweenJanuary2011andNovember2015.

(g) World Wealth and Income Database (WID.world), created by F Alvaredo, A BAtkinson,TPiketty,ESaezandGZucman,http://www.wid.world.Thedatabaseandtheproject(managedalsowiththecontributionofLucasChancel) istheexpansionofapreviousversionpubliclyknownasWorldTopIncomeDatabase.

(h) OECD iLibrary, Employment and Labour Market Statistics, Gross earnings decileratioshttp://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/employment/data/earnings_lfs-ear-data-en

(i) Eurostat data based on EU-SILC (Statistics on Income and Living Conditions)http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-datasets/-/ilc_di12

Inthecaseofthelastofthese,itshouldbenotedthattheresultsarepublishedonthebasisof the survey year,whatever theunderlying income year. The income referenceperiod inEU-SILCisafixed12-monthperiodpriortothesurveyyear(suchasthepreviouscalendaror

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taxyear).ThisholdsforallcountriesexcepttheUK,forwhichtheincomereferenceperiodisthe current year and Ireland (not included in the Chartbook) for which the survey iscontinuous and income is collected for the last twelve months. (This may be seen byconsultingtheMetadataonthewebsite.)The incomeyearhasthereforebeentakenhere,forallcountriesapartfromtheUK,astheyearprecedingthesurveyyear.

As for theWID.worlddataonTop income shares,wemostly refer todatadownloaded inDecember 2016. At the same time, it is worth stressing that not all data on top incomeshares is taken from theWID.world. This is the case, for instance, of Brazil and Iceland,whereestimatesaretakenfromexistingliterature.

We owe a considerable debt to the many researchers who have contributed to thesesources.

What’snewinthe2017version?

Itisworthstressingthatthe2017versionoftheChartbookofEconomicInequalitycontainsimportantdifferenceswithrespecttoitsprecedingversions.Firstofall,allserieshavebeenupdated,extendingthecoverageintime,bothforwardandbackwardwheneverpossible.Second,thereliabilityofalldatahasbeenre-assessedleadingtotheomissionofafewseriespreviously included and the replacement of specific data where a more compellingsubstitute has become available or otherwise brought to our attention. In some cases,amendments have beenmade in theway different series are linked together, or links toadditionalserieshavebeenintroducedinordertoprovideamoreconsistentlong-runview.Third,alloriginalsourceshavebeenindividuallyverifiedandprovidedinaseparatesourcessheet foreachcountry, fromwhich theChartbookseriesarecalculated, soas toallow forfull replicability. This has led to some modest revisions of some Chartbook series whereroundedfigureshadbeenusedpreviously.This important additional information can now be found online which, we hope, willincreaseboththereliabilityoftheChartbookseriesandtransparencyintermsofhowtheyhave been constructed. This provision will also allow users to make use of the originalsourcesinalternativeways,shouldtheyfindanythingtoquestionamongstthejudgementsthathavebeenmadewhencombingseries.Notethathyperlinkstooriginaldatasourcesandreferencesarealsodirectlyprovided,whereverpossible,bothwithinthe‘sources’sheetsofthespreadsheetandthesourcesdescriptionforeachcountry.

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Table1CoverageofdatafortheChartbook(firstyearofdataoftheoriginalsource)

Country Overallinequality Topincomeshares Poverty Earnings Wealth

Argentina 1953 1932 1974 - -

Australia 1950 1921 1981 1975 1915

Brazil 1981 1960 1981 2002 -

Canada 1959 1920 1976 1931 -

Finland 1920 1920 1971 1971 1909(1800)

France 1956 1900 1970 1950 1902(1807)

Germany 1962 1900(1891) 1962 1949 1973

Iceland 2003 1992 1986 1986 -

India 1951 1922 1973 1983 -

Indonesia 1964 1920 1970 - -

Italy 1901(1861) 1974 1977 1973 1989

Japan 1923 1900(1886) 1985 1951 1983

Malaysia 1957 1947 1970 - -

Mauritius 1975 1933 1996 - -

Netherlands 1959 1914 1994 1977 1905(1894)

NewZealand 1958 1921 1982 1958 1956

Norway 1900(1875) 1900(1875) 1986 1986 1912(1789)

Portugal 1967 1936 1980 1982 -

Singapore 1966 1947 - 1965 -

SouthAfrica 1975 1914 2006 1997 -

Spain 1964 1933 1985 2004 1901

Sweden 1951 1903 1975 1975 1908(1800)

Switzerland 1950 1933 1982 1991 1915

UK 1938 1908 1961 1954 1900(1895)

US 1918 1913 1948 1939 1913

Note:Inafewcasestheactualinitialyearoftheseries(withintheoriginalsources)precedestheyear1900andthisisindicatedwithinthetableinitalicsandparenthesis.Seriesarenotalwayscontinuous.

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1. Argentina

Sources:

Overall inequality: Gini coefficient for household equivalised income from SEDLAC (Source: Socio-EconomicDatabaseforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(CEDLASandTheWorldBank))(accessed21February2017)EPHCdata(averageswheremultipleobservationsperyear),linkedbackwardsat2003todatafor28maincitiesfrom1998to2003, linkedat1998 todata for15maincities from1992to1998, linkedat1992 todata forGreaterBuenosAiresfrom1974to1992,linkedat1974to1972estimateinCONADE-CEPAL/GasdelEstadoseriesfromAltimir(1986,Cuadro7).

Top income shares: Shares of top 1 per cent in total gross income (individuals, excluding capital gains) fromWID.world,basedonworkofAlvaredo(2010).

Povertymeasures: Percentage of individuals below 50 per cent ofmedian household per capita income fromSEDLAC(Source:Socio-EconomicDatabaseforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(CEDLASandTheWorldBank))(accessed21February2017),EPHCdata (averageswheremultipleobservationsperyear), linkedbackwardsat2003todatafor28maincitiesfrom1998to2003,linkedat1998todatafor15maincitiesfrom1992to1998,linkedat1992todataforGreaterBuenosAiresfrom1974to1992.

Dispersionofearnings:Nosuitabledatawerefound.

Wealthinequality:Nosuitabledatawerefound.

References:

Altimir,O,1986,“EstimacionesdeladistibucióndelingresoenlaArgentina,1953-1980”,DesarrolloEconómico,vol25:521-566.

Alvaredo,F,2010,“TherichinArgentinaoverthetwentiethcentury1932-2004”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Gasparini,LandCruces,G,2008,“Adistributioninmotion:ThecaseofArgentina”,CEDLAS,UniversidadNacionaldeLaPlata.

Gasparini,L,Cruces,GandTornarolli,R,2011,“RecenttrendsinincomeinequalityinLatinAmerica”,Economia,vol11:147-190.


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2. Australia

Sources:

Overallinequality:Series1:Ginicoefficientofequivaliseddisposablehousehold(weekly)incomefromTable1.1in catalogue 6523.0 (Australian Bureau Statistics –ABS-Household Income andWealth –Australia 2013-2014)(accessed21February2017).AccordingtotheABS,althoughtheestimatesfor2003–04and2005–06havebeenrecompiledtoreflectthenewmeasuresofincomeintroducedin2007-2008,“notallcomponentsintroducedin2007–08 are available for earlier cycles” (seeWilkins, 2014 for a detailed assessment of suchmethodologicalchanges for incomedistributionmeasures; linkedat1995toseries fromLISKeyFigures (accessed21February2017).Series2:GinicoefficientforgrosshouseholdincomecalculatedfromIngles(1981,Table9).Series3:GinicoefficientforindividualgrossincomefromHancock(1971,Table4).

Top income shares: Share of top 1 per cent in total gross income (individuals, excluding capital gains) fromWID.world,basedonworkofAtkinsonandLeigh(2007),updatedandrevisedbyRogerWilkinsoftheUniversityofMelbourne.Foracritiqueof theAtkinson/Leighestimates,andalternativeestimates for theperiod1970to2010,seeBurkhauser,HahnandWilkins(2015).

Poverty measures: Percentage of individuals in households with equivalised (square root scale) disposableincomebelow60percentofthemedianfromLISKeyFigures(accessed21February2017).

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage ofmedian earnings, fromMay survey,EmployeeEarningsandHours(allemployees)takenfromAtkinson(2008,AppendixA,TableA.5),updatedfromreportsfor2006 (EmployeeEarnings andHours, Table 5), 2008 (EmployeeEarnings andHours, Table 6), 2010 (EmployeeEarningsandHours,Table8),2012(Datacube:‘ALLEMPLOYEES,Distribution’,Table1)and2014(Datacube:‘ALLEMPLOYEES,Distribution’,Table2)fromtheAustralianBureauofStatisticswebsite,catalogue6306.0(accessed21February2017),linkedbackwardsat1998toseriesbackto1975givenbyOECD(Atkinson,2008,TableA.3).

Wealth inequality:Shareoftop1percent intotalhouseholdnetwealthfromKaticandLeigh(2015,AppendixTables,TableA1andA2):1915observationbasedonnationalwealthsurvey(tabulations),inheritancetaxseriesused from1953 to1978 (when the inheritance taxwasabolished),andmore recentobservations, since1987,basedonnationalwealthsurveys(microdata).

References:

Atkinson,AB,2008,ThechangingdistributionofearningsinOECDcountries,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Atkinson,ABandLeigh,A,2007,“ThedistributionoftopincomesinAustralia”,EconomicRecord,vol83:247-261.

Burkhauser,R,Hahn,MandWilkins,R,2015,“Measuringtop incomesusingtaxrecorddata:AcautionarytalefromAustralia’,JournalofEconomicInequality,vol13:181-205.

Hancock,K,1971,“Theeconomicsofsocialwelfareinthe1970s”,inHWeir,editor,Socialwelfareinthe1970’s,AustralianCouncilofSocialScience,Sydney.

Ingles, D, 1981, Statistics on the distribution of income and wealth in Australia, Research Paper no 14,DepartmentofSocialSecurity,Canberra.

Katic,PandLeigh,A,2015,“TopWealthSharesinAustralia:1915-2012”,ReviewofIncomeandWealth,vol62:209–222,Issue2,June2016.

Saunders,P,1993,“LongerrunchangesinthedistributionofincomeinAustralia”,EconomicRecord,vol69:353-366.

Wilkins,R,2014,“EvaluatingtheevidenceonincomeinequalityinAustraliainthe2000s”,EconomicRecord,vol90:63-89.

Wilkins,R,2015,“MeasuringincomeinequalityinAustralia”,AustralianEconomicReview,vol48:93-102,2015.


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3. Brazil

Sources:

Overall inequality: Gini coefficient for household equivalised income from SEDLAC (Source: Socio-EconomicDatabaseforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(CEDLASandTheWorldBank))(accessed21February2017)–seeGasparini, Cruces and Tornarolli (2011); linked at 2004 to the “NewPNAD” data series, linked at 1993 to theearlier“PNAD”series(ontheassumptionofnochangebetween1990and1993).

Top incomeshares:Shareof top1percent in total income (households,excludingcapitalgains) for1960and1970fromLangoni(1978,Tabela1.1and3.3).

Povertymeasures: Percentage of individuals below 50 per cent ofmedian household per capita income fromSEDLAC(Source:Socio-EconomicDatabaseforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(CEDLASandTheWorldBank))(accessed21February2017),linkedat2004tothe“NewPNAD”dataseries,linkedat1993totheearlier“PNAD”series(ontheassumptionofnochangebetween1990and1992).

Dispersionofearnings:Ginicoefficientforlabourearningsinsixmainmetropolitanregions,personsaged15-60,fromNeri(2010,Table2.3,Junefigures).


References:

Fishlow,A,1972,“Braziliansizedistributionofincome”,AmericanEconomicReview,PapersandProceedings,vol62:391-402.

Gasparini,L,Cruces,GandTornarolli,R,2011,“RecenttrendsinincomeinequalityinLatinAmerica”,Economia,vol11:147-190.

Langoni,CG,1978(firstedition1973),DistribuiçãodeRendaeDesenvolvimentoEconômicodoBrasil?,ExpressãoeCultura,RiodeJaneiro.

Langoni,CG,1973a,“Incomedistributionandeconomicdevelopment:TheBraziliancase”,workingpaper.

Langoni, C G, 1975, “Review of income data: Brazil”, Research Program in Economic Development DiscussionPaper60.

Neri, M C, 2010, “The decade of falling income inequality and formal employment generation in Brazil” inTacklinginequalitiesinBrazil,China,IndiaandSouthAfrica,OECD,Paris.


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4. Canada

Sources:

Overall inequality: Series 1: Gini coefficient of equivalised (from 2010 square root scale) after-tax family unitincome from Statistics Canada, Table 206-0033 (accessed 22 February 2017). Series 2: Gini coefficient forequivalised gross family income for 1965 to 1983 from Wolfson (1986, Table 3, Total Money Income PerEquivalentAdultUnit);Series3:Ginicoefficientforgrossfamilyincomerestrictedtonon-farmfamiliesfor1959-1971fromLove(1979,TableA.3).

Top income shares: Share of top 1 per cent in total gross income (individuals, excluding capital gains) fromWID.world,basedonworkofSaezandVeall (2007)andVeall (2010) (more recentLongitudinalAdministrativedataLAD)linkedin1982toearlierseries).

Povertymeasures: Percentageof individuals inhouseholdswithequivalisedafter-tax annual incomebelow50percentofthemedianfromStatisticsCanada,Table206-0041(accessed22Feb2017).

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, from OECD iLibrary,EmploymentandLabourMarketStatistics,Grossearningsdecileratios(accessed22Feb2017),joinedfrom1994backwardstoearlierobservationsfromAtkinson(2008,AppendixC).Breakbetweenthetwosourcesindicatedwithinthetable.EarlierOECDfigures(TableC.3)arelinkedtoaseriesonearningsinthemanufacturingindustry(TableC.5),linkedin1950tocensusdatapriorto1951(TableC.4).


References:


Love,R,1979,IncomedistributionandinequalityinCanada,MinistryofSupplyandServices,Ottawa.

Saez, E and Veall, M R, 2007, “The evolution of high incomes in Canada: 1920-2000” in A B Atkinson and TPiketty,editors,Topincomesoverthetwentiethcentury,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Veall,MR,2010,“TopincomesharesinCanada:Updatesandextensions”,workingpaper,McMasterUniversity.

Wolfson,MC,1986,“StasisAmidChange–IncomeInequalityinCanada1965-1983”,ReviewofIncomeandWealth,vol32:337-369.


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5. Finland

Sources:

Overall inequality: Series 1: Gini coefficient of equivalised (EU scale) household disposable cash income from1966fromStatisticsFinland–IncomeandConsumption,IncomeDistributionStatistics(PX-WebStatFin,Table4b;accessed22February2017); it shouldbenotedthat the figures for1966-1981,1987-1992,andfrom1993arenot fully comparable and that the figures prior to 2002 use the OECD equivalence scale; earlier series 2 fordistributionamongtaxunitsbasedontaxrecordsfrom1920to1966fromJänttietal(2010,Table8A.1),seealsoBerglund et al (1998) and Eriksson and Jäntti (1998). From 2011 onwards Statistics Finland uses households'disposablemoney income as themain concept (imputed income from owner-occupied dwellings and taxablerealizedcapitalgainsareexcluded).

Top income shares: Shareof top1per cent in total gross income (individualspost-1990and taxunitsbefore,excludingcapitalgains) fromWID.worldbasedonworkof Jänttietal (2010)basedonthe IncomeDistributionSurvey,linkedat1990totheearlierseriesbasedonincometaxrecords.

Povertymeasures:Percentage of individuals in householdswith equivalised (modifiedOECD scale) disposableincomebelow60percentofthemedianfromwebsiteofStatisticsFinland–IncomeandConsumption,IncomeDistribution Statistics (PX-Web StatFin, Table 5a; accessed 22 February 2017), linked backwards at 1990 toestimatesbyRiihelä,SullströmandTuomala(2003,TableA.4.1)usingOECDequivalencescale.

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, from OECD iLibrary,Employment and LabourMarket Statistics,Gross earningsdecile ratios (accessed22 February2017), linkedat1980toearlierseriesfromAtkinson(2008,AppendixF,TableF.3).

Wealth inequality:Shareof top1per cent in total individualnetwealth fromRoineandWaldenström (2015).Figures are based on estate data between 1907 and 1915; wealth tax assessments 1922-67; wealth taxtabulationsfrom1987-2005usingnetmarketablewealth.

References:


Berglund, M, Jäntti, M, Parkatti, L and Sundqvist, C, 1998, “Long-run trends in the distribution of income inFinland1920-1992”,ÅboAkademiUniversity.

Eriksson, T and Jäntti, M, 1998, “Modelling the distribution of income and socio-economic variables: Finland1949-1992”,paperpresentedatthe25thGeneralConferenceoftheIARIW,Cambridge.

Jäntti, M, Riihelä, M, Sullström, R and Tuomala, M, 2010, “Trends in top income shares in Finland”, in A BAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Riihelä,M, Sullström, R and Tuomala,M, 2003, “On recent trends in economic poverty in Finland”, TampereEconomicWorkingPaper23,DepartmentofEconomics,UniversityofTampere.

Roine,JandWaldenström,D,2015,“Longruntrendsinthedistributionofincomeandwealth”inABAtkinsonandFBourguignon,editors,HandbookofIncomeDistribution,volume2,Elsevier,Amsterdam.


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6. France

Sources:

Overallinequality:2002-2014:earlierfiguresforGinicoefficientofequivalised(modifiedOECDscale)disposablehouseholdincomefromwebsiteofINSEE,Lesniveauxdevieen2010,Tableau1;themostrecentobservations,fromLesniveauxdevieen2014,Figure2,beingadjusteddownwardusingaforwardproportional linkat2010and2012todealwithachangeinmethodology;linkedat2002toearlierfiguresfromGodefroyetal(2009,Table1);linkedagainat1996toearlierINSEEfiguresinRevenueetPatrimoinedesMénages,édition1999,p32,Table10),linkedbackwardsat1970toseriesongrossincome(excludingcertaincategoriesofincome)fromConcialdi(1997,Table11.11),andfinallylinkedagaintoearlieryearsat1962tofiguresretrievedfromWIIDdatareferringtoUN-ECE-1967source(householdtaxableincome).

Top income shares: Share of top 1 per cent in total gross income (individuals, excluding capital gains)fromWID.world. Based on the work of Garbinti, Goupille-Lebret, and Piketty, 2016a. Theseries is based onmicro-filesofincometaxreturnsforyearspost1970yearsandonincometaxtabulationsforearlieryears(non-taxable income sources are accounted for).Figures replace tax record series from Piketty (2001) up to 1997(updatedfrom1998to2006,inLandais(2007)andfrom2007onwardsbyF.AlvaredoandT.Piketty).Thebaseunit is the individual but resources are split equally within couples. See also Garbinti, Goupille-Lebret, andPiketty, 2016a for a comparison of results based on pre-tax national income (the sum of all pretax personalincomeflowsaccruingtotheownersoftheproductionfactors, laborandcapital,aftertaking intoaccountthedistributionofpensionincomebutbeforeanyothertaxortransfer).

Povertymeasures:Percentageof individuals living inhouseholdswithequivalised(EUscale)disposable incomebelow 60 per cent of themedian (urban France) from INSEE, Tableaux de l’économie française édition 2017,section 5.5Niveaux de vie – Pauvreté, p65, Taux de pauvreté table, with additional observations taken fromRevenue,niveauxdevie,etpauvretéen2012,ERFS–INSEERésultatsNo.164,Tauxdepauvreté–Sérieslongues1996-2012,tableTPA60_01.;SimilarlytowhatdonefortheGinicoefficient,themostrecentobservationswereadjusteddownwardusinga forwardproportional linkat2010and2012 (when themethodof calculationwasrevised).

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, from the Annual wages:distributionsandevolutionstimeseriesavailableattheINSEEwebsite(D9/D5interdecileratiooftheDistributionofsalariesforfull-timejobsbygendersection,downloaded27February2017).

Wealthinequality:Shareoftop1percentintotalindividualnetwealthfromWID.world,(seeGarbinti,Goupille-Lebret,andPiketty,2016b).Theseries, isbasedonestatemultipliermethodbasedon inheritancetaxdataforpre-1970periodandon"amixedcapitalizationmethodbasedonincometaxdataandhouseholdsurveys"(p.3)for the period following 1970. The seriesreplaces the share of top 1 per cent in totalestatesat death fromPiketty,Postel-VinayandRosenthal(2004,TableA7).

References:

Boiron,A,Labarthe,J,Richet-Mastain,L,andBonnin,MZ,2015,“Leswniveauxdevieen2013”,InseePremièreNo1566,INSEE,Paris.Concialdi,P,1997,“IncomedistributioninFrance:Themid-1980sturningpoint”inPGottschalk,BGustafsssonandEPalmer,editors,Changingpatterns in thedistributionofeconomicwelfare:An internationalperspective,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge.Godefroy,P,Pujol,J,Raynaud,EandTomasini,M,2009,“Inégalitésdeniveaudevieetmesuresdelapauvretéen2006”,INSEEwebsite.Garbinti,B, Goupille-Lebret, J, and Piketty, T, 2016a, “Income Inequality in France, 1900-2014: Evidence fromDistributionalNationalAccounts(DINA)”,unpublishedmanuscript.Garbinti,B, Goupille-Lebret, J, and Piketty, T, 2016b, “Accounting for Wealth Inequality Dynamics: Methods,EstimatesandSimulationsforFrance(1800-2014)”,unpublishedmanuscript.Landais, C, 2007, “Les hauts revenus en France 1998-2006: Une explosion des inégalités?”, Paris School ofEconomicsWorkingPaper.Piketty,T,2001,LeshautsrevenusenFranceau20èmesiècle,Grasset,Paris.Piketty,T,2003,“IncomeinequalityinFrance,1901-1994”,JournalofPoliticalEconomy,vol111:1004-1042.Piketty,T,Postel-Vinay,GandRosenthal, J-L,2004,“Wealthconcentration inadevelopingeconomy:ParisandFrance,1807-1994”,CEPRWorkingPaper4631,CentreforEconomicPolicyResearch,London.

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7. Germany

Sources:

Overall inequality: Gini coefficient of equivalised (modified OECD scale) disposable household income for allpersonsinprivatehouseholdsforallGermany(WestGermanyfrom1984to1990)fromSOEPmonitor1984-2013,SOEPSurveyPaper284,page83,note that thedataarebasedon informationcollected in theGermanSocio-Economic Panel on annual income (preceding year, so that the 2012 data are from the 2013 survey), linkedbackwardsat1983todatafromtheEVS(IncomeandExpenditureSurvey)forWestGermanyfromBecker(1997,Tabelle1)andHauserandBecker(2001,page89).

Top income shares: Share of top 1 per cent in total gross income (tax units, excluding capital gains) fromWID.world,coveringWestGermanyfrom1950to1990andthereafterunifiedGermany;earlierseriescoveringPrussiabefore1919andtheGermanReichfrom1925to1938(includingcapitalgains),basedontheworkofDell(2007)andBartelsandJenderny(2015).

Povertymeasures: Percentage of individuals in householdswith equivalised (modifiedOECD scale) disposableincomebelow60percentofthemedianforallpersons inprivatehouseholdsforallGermany(WestGermanyfrom1984to1990)fromSOEPGroup(2015),SOEP2013-SOEPmonitor1984-2013,SOEPSurveyPaper284,page91,FGT=0column(e.g.whenFoster–Greer–Thorbeckepovertyindexreducestotheheadcountratio)-notethatthedataarebasedoninformationcollectedintheGermanSocio-EconomicPanelonannualincome(precedingyear,sothatthe2012dataarefromthe2013survey)-;linkedat1983toseriesforpercentageofindividualsinhouseholdswithequivalised(originalOECDscale)disposablehouseholdincomebelow50percentofthemeanforallpersonsofGermannationalityinprivatehouseholdsforWestGermany,fromBecker(1997,Tabelle2).

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, from OECD iLibrary,EmploymentandLabourMarketStatistics,Grossearningsdecileratios(accessed22February2017), linked(via1995)toearlierseriescoveringWestGermanyfrom1949to1991andGermanytill1995fromAtkinson(2008,AppendixH,TableH.4).

Wealthinequality:Ginicoefficientper-capitanetwealthcoveringGermanytakenfromFrick,GrabkaandHauser(2010, Tabelle 2.6), using SOEPdata–updated figures for 2002, 2007, and2012providedbyMarkusGrabka;linked at 2002 on the assumption of no change to 2003 using the earlier series based on the income andexpendituresurvey-EVS;furtherlinkedat1998toearlierEVS1973-1993seriesrelatedtoWestGermany.

References:


Bartels, C, and Jenderny, K, 2015, „The Role of Capital Income for Top Income Shares in Germany”, WTIDWorkingpaper,2015/1.

Becker,I,1997,"DieEntwicklungderEinkommensverteilungundderEinkommensarmutindenaltenBundesländernvon1962bis1988"inIBeckerandRHauser,editors,EinkommensverteilungundArmut,Campus,Frankfurt.

Dell,F,2007,“TopincomesinGermanythroughoutthetwentiethcentury:1891-1998”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomesoverthetwentiethcentury,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

DIW (Deutsche Institut fürWirtschaftsforschung), 1973, “Einkommensverteilung und –schichtung der privatenHaushalteinderBundesrepublikDeutschland1950bis1970”,Wochenbericht,No25,Berlin.

Frick,JR,Grabka,MMandHauser,R,2010,DieVerteilungderVermögeninDeutschland,EditionSigma,Berlin.

Hauser, R and Becker, I, 2001, Einkommensverteilung im Querschnitt und im Zeitverlauf 1973-1998,BundesministeriumfürArbeitundSozialordnung,Bonn.

SOEPGroup,2015,SOEP2013-SOEPmonitor1984-2013,SOEPSurveyPaper284:SeriesE.Berlin:DIW/SOEP


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8. Iceland

Sources:

Overall inequality:Gini coefficient for equivalisedhousehold disposable income fromEU-SILC (ilc_di12 series),Eurostatwebsite(accessed27February2017).Top income shares: Share of top 1 per cent in totalmarket income before direct tax and benefits (tax units,including capital gains). They cover all taxable incomes (except benefits, i.e. child benefits and tax rebates onmortgage interest costs). Pension earnings and capital gains are included. Figures are providedbyStefanÓlafsson,basedontheworkofÓlafssonandKristjánsson(2012)andÓlafssonandKristjánsson(2013).Povertymeasures:series1:Percentageofindividualslivinginhouseholdswithequivalised(EUscale)disposableincomebelow 60 per cent of themedian from EU-SILC (People at risk of poverty after social transfers table),Eurostatwebsite(accessed27Feb2017);series2:for1986-1995(with50percentofthemedian)fromÓlafssonandSigurðsson(1996,Figure2).Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, from OECD iLibrary,Employment and Labour Market Statistics, Gross earnings decile ratios (accessed 22 February 2017); GinicoefficientforemploymentearningsfromÓlafsson,SandSigurðsson(1996,Figure2).


References:

Ólafsson, S and Sigurðsson, A S, 1996, “Poverty in Iceland” in A Puide, editor, Den nordiska fattingdomensutvecklingochstruktur,TemaNord,Copenhagen.

Ólafsson,SandKristjánsson,AS,2012,“ÞróuntekjuskiptingarinnaráÍslandi1992to2010”,inIcelandicReviewofPoliticsandAdministration,vol.8:39-71

Ólafsson, S and Kristjánsson, A S, 2013, “Income Inequality in Boom and Bust: A Tale from Iceland’s BubbleEconomy” in JCGornickandM Jäntti,editors, Income inequality:Economicdisparitiesand themiddle class inaffluentcountries,StanfordUniversityPress,Stanford.


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26

9. India

Sources:

Overall inequality: Series 1:Gini coefficient for equivalised disposable household income from LIS Key Figures(see Vanneman and Dubey, 2013), accessed 21 February 2017; Series 2: Gini coefficient for per capitaexpenditurefromWorldBankIndiaDatabaseandWorldBank2016databaseaslistedinWorldIncomeInequalityDatabaseversion3.4,January2017(accessed28February2017),allIndiadata.Figuresfor1952,1953and1956areaveragesofthetwoavailableestimates.The1993figureiscalculatedasweightedaverageoftheurbanandruralestimates,usingtheweighting impliedbythe1992figures;similarly forthe2004and2009observations,usingtheweightingimpliedbythe2011figures.

Top income shares: Share of top 1 per cent in total gross income (individuals, excluding capital gains) fromWID.world,basedonworkofBanerjeeandPiketty(2010).

Poverty measures: Three series from Rangarajan (2014): series 1 (Expert Group Rangarajan) from Table 4.7;series 2 (ExpertGroup Tendulkar) fromTable 2.2; and series 3 (ExpertGroup Lakdawala) fromTable 2.1. Thechangesinmethodologyovertimewereimplementedinordertobettercapturethechangesinthecompositionandpriceof theconsumptionbasketof thepooraswellas thechangingnormsandexpectationsabout livingconditions(seeMoreandSingh,2014foranaccount).

Dispersionofearnings:GinicoefficientfordailyearningsofregularworkersfromMajumdar(2010,Table4.4).


References:

AsianDevelopmentBank,2007,KeyIndicators2007,AsianDevelopmentBank,Manila.

Banerjee,AandPiketty,T,2010, “Top Indian incomes,1922-2000” inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

GovernmentofIndia,PlanningCommission,2013,PovertyEstimatesfor2011-2012,GovernmentofIndia,PressinformationBureau.

Majumdar, D, 2010, “Decreasing poverty and increasing inequality in India” in Tackling inequalities in Brazil,China,IndiaandSouthAfrica,OECD,Paris.

More,S.andSingh,N.,2014:PovertyinIndia:concepts,measurementandstatus,mimeo.

Rangarajan, C, 2014, Report of the Expert Group to review the methodology for measurement of poverty,PlanningCommission,NewDelhi.

Vanneman,RandDubey,A,2013,“HorizontalandverticalinequalitiesinIndia”inJCGornickandMJäntti,editors,Incomeinequality:Economicdisparitiesandthemiddleclassinaffluentcountries,StanfordUniversityPress,Stanford.


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28

10. Indonesia

Sources:

Overallinequality:GinicoefficientforhouseholdpercapitaexpenditurefromthewebsiteofBadanPusatStatistik(StatisticsIndonesia),consumptionandexpenditure/DistributionofExpenditureperCapitaandGiniIndex,2010-2015(earlierfiguresfor2002to2009hadbeendownloadedpreviously,butappeartobenolongeravailableonthewebsite);earlierobservationsfromAsra(2000,Table4)andRao(1988)takenfromKrongkaewandRagayah(2006,Table2);linkedat1970(withtheassumptionofnochangesince1969)usingGinicoefficientforpercapitaconsumption from Fields1989 series as listed inWorld Income Inequality Database version 3.4, January 2017(accessed28February2017),allIndonesiaexcl.WestIrian,EastTimorandMaluku.Topincomeshares:Shareoftop1percentand0.05percentintotalgrossincome(households,excludingcapitalgains)fromWID.world,basedonworkofLeighandvanderEng(2010).

Povertymeasures:Percentagewith expenditure belowofficial absolute poverty line (see Asra, 2000) for totalpopulation (rural and urban) from Statistics Indonesia, Poverty,Number Of Poor People, Percentage of PoorPeopleandThePoverty Line, 1970-2013; thepoverty linewas revisedupwards in1998 (series2before1998;series1from1998).Averagestakenofmultipleannualobservationsfrom2011.



References:

Asra,A,2000,“PovertyandinequalityinIndonesia”,JournaloftheAsiaPacificEconomy,vol5:91-111.

Asra,A,1989,“InequalitytrendsinIndonesia,1969-1981:ARe-Examination”,BulletinofIndonesianStudies,vol25:100-110.

Booth,A,1993,“CountingthepoorinIndonesia”,BulletinofIndonesianEconomicStudies,vol29:53-83.

Krongkaew, Medhi and Ragayah, Haji Mat Zin, 2006, “Income distribution and sustainable economicdevelopmentinEastAsia:Acomparativeanalysis”.

Leigh,AandvanderEng,P,2010,“TopincomesinIndonesia,1920-2004”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Miranti,R,2010,“PovertyinIndonesia1984-2002:Theimpactofgrowthandchangesininequality”,BulletinofIndonesianStudies,vol46:79-97.

Rao,V.V.B,1988.‘IncomeDistributioninEastAsianDevelopingCountries’,Asian-PacificEconomicLiterature,vol.2,no.1,March,pp.26-45.Sundrum,RM,1979,“Incomedistribution,1970-76”,BulletinofIndonesianStudies,vol15:137-141.


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11. Italy

Sources:

Overall inequality:Ginicoefficientofper-capitaincomecomputedbyN.Amendola,A.BrandoliniandG.Vecchiand taken fromVecchi (forthcoming) basedonwork fromBrandolini (1999) andBrandolini andVecchi (2011)andVecchi (2011); figuresprovidedbyGiovanniVecchi; income isdeflatedusinga spatial indexof thecostoflivingattheregionallevelbasedontheworkofAmendola,KiswaniandVecchi(2009).

Top income shares: Share of top 1 per cent in total gross income (individuals, excluding capital gains) fromWID.world,basedonworkofAlvaredoandPisano(2010).

Povertymeasures: Percentage of individuals in householdswith equivalised (modifiedOECD scale) disposableincome below 60 per cent of the median from Bank of Italy, Statistics, Surveys of households and firms,HouseholdIncomeandWealth,Tablesofmainresults(tableB3A2).

Dispersionofearnings: FromAtkinson (2008,AppendixK,TablesK.4 from1977onandK.5up to1975). LaterfiguresprovidedbyAndreaBrandolini.

Wealth inequality: Share of top 1 per cent in wealth (equivalent net wealth – modified OECD scale, personweights)fromBrandolinietal(2004,Table6,adjustedfigures)andBrandolini(2014).

References:

Alvaredo, F andPisano, E, 2010, “Top incomes in Italy 1974-2004” inABAtkinsonandTPiketty, editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Amendola,N,AlKiswani,BandVecchi,G,2009,“IlcostodellavitaalNordealSudd’Italia,daldopoguerraaoggi.Stimediprimagenerazione”,RivistadiPoliticaEconomica,volIV-VI,3-34.


Brandolini,A,1999,“TheDistributionofPersonalIncomeinPost-WarItaly:SourceDescription,DataQuality,andtheTimePatternofIncomeInequality”,GiornaledegliEconomistieAnnalidiEconomia,vol.58,pp.183-239.

Brandolini,A,2014,“TheBigChill.ItalianFamilyBudgetsaftertheGreatRecession”.InCFusaroandAKreppel,editors,Stillwaitingforthetransformation,Berghahn,NewYork.

Brandolini, A andVecchi, G, 2011, “TheWell-Being of Italians: A ComparativeHistorical Approach”, Bank of Italy,EconomicHistoryWorkingPapersn.19.

Brandolini,A,Cannari,L,D’Alessio,G,andFaiella,I,2004,“HouseholdwealthdistributioninItalyinthe1990s”,BankofItaly,EconomicResearchDepartment.

Vecchi,G,2011,"Inricchezzaeinpovertà.Ilbenesseredegliitalianidall’Unitàaoggi",Bologna:IlMulino.

Vecchi, G, (forthcoming) “AHistory of Living Standards in Italy, 1861-2011”Monograph for OxfordUniversityPress.


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12. Japan

Sources:

Overall inequality: series1:Gini coefficient forequivaliseddisposablehousehold incometaken fromLiseetal.(2014) - supplementarymaterial -usingdata from theFamily IncomeandExpenditureSurvey (FIES), linkedat1981 to series from Tachibanaki (2005, Table 1.1) based on the Income Redistribution Survey; series 2: Ginicoefficientforhouseholdincome(pre-taxandtransfersandnotequivalised)forthepre-secondWorldWarperiodfromMinami (1998, Table4, case (2)) (sourcealso citedbyHayami (1997, Table7.2) andMoriguchi andSaez(2010,Figure3.2)).

Topincomeshares:Shareoftop1percentintotalgrossincomefromWID.world(individuals,excludingcapitalgains),basedonworkofMoriguchiandSaez(2010).

Povertymeasures:Percentage of individuals in householdswith equivalised (modifiedOECD scale) disposableincome below 60 per cent of themedian from IncomeDistributionDatabase inOECD.Stat (accessed 10 April2017).

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, from OECD iLibrary,Employment and LabourMarket Statistics,Gross earningsdecile ratios (accessed22 February2017); linkedat1975 to series computed by Facundo Alvaredo based on work by Moriguchi and Saez (2010), Appendix 3C,covering all employees in theprivate sectorwhoworked for the sameemployee throughout a calendar year,excludingtemporaryworkerswithjobdurationsbelowoneyear,regularemployeeshiredmid-year,governmentemployeesandretirees.

Wealthinequality:Ginicoefficientfornetworthforallpopulation(home-ownersandtenants)fromTachibanaki(2005,Table1.10).

References:

Hayami,Y,1997,Developmenteconomics,ClarendonPress,Oxford.

Lise,J,Sudo,N,Suzuki,M,Yamada,KandYamada,T,2014,“Wage,incomeandconsumptioninequalityinJapan,1981–2008:Fromboomtolostdecades”,ReviewofEconomicDynamics,vol17:582-612.Supplementarymaterials.

Minami, R, 1998, “Economic development and income distribution in Japan: An assessment of the Kuznetshypothesis”,CambridgeJournalofEconomics,vol22:39-58.

Moriguchi, C and Saez, E, 2010, “The evolution of income concentration in Japan, 1886-2005: Evidence fromincometaxstatistics”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincome:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Tachibanaki,T,2005,ConfrontingincomeinequalityinJapan,MITPress,Cambridge.


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13. Malaysia

Sources:

Overall inequality: Gini coefficient for household income (not equivalised) from Department of StatisticsMalaysia,Household IncomeandBasicAmenities SurveyReport 2014 (accessedvia theeStatistikdata requestservice)(seealsoRagayah,2008,Table1); linkedat1970backto1967using theobservationfromRao(1988)takenfromKrongkaewandRagayah(2006,Table2);linkedin1970againbackto1957usingtheGinicoefficientfromhouseholdincomefromIkemoto(1985)TableIII,p.353.

Top income shares: Shares of top 1 and top 0.1 per cent in total gross income fromWID.world (individuals,excludingcapitalgains).

Povertymeasures:Shareofbottom40percentintotalhouseholdincome(notequivalised)fromDepartmentofStatisticsMalaysia,Household Income and Basic Amenities Survey Report 2014 (Table 5.4). See also Ragayah(2008,Table1).

PercentageofhouseholdsbelowofficialabsolutepovertylinefromDepartmentofStatisticsMalaysia,HouseholdIncomeandBasicAmenitiesSurveyReport2014(Table5.6);seealsoSnodgrass (2002,Table2-1).Theseries isshownintwopartsbecausethepovertylinewasrevisedupwardswhenthe2005methodologywasintroducedinplaceoftheearlier1977methodology(seeUNDP,2007).



References:

Anand,S,1983,“InequalityandPovertyinMalaysia:MeasurementandDecomposition”,publishedfortheWorldBank,OxfordUniversityPress.

Atkinson,AB,“TopincomesinMalaysia1947tothepresent”,WTIDMethodologicalNote,December2013.

DepartmentofStatisticsMalaysia,2014,“HouseholdIncomeandBasicAmenitiesSurveyReport2014”.Accessed2March2017,fromtheeStatistik(DataRequest)facilityoftheDepartmentofStatisticsMalaysiawebsite.

DepartmentofStatisticsMalaysia,2009,“HouseholdIncomeandBasicAmenitiesSurveyReport”.

DepartmentofStatisticsMalaysia,2012,“HouseholdIncomeandBasicAmenitiesSurveyReport”.

Ikemoto,Y,1995,“IncomedistributioninMalaysia:1957-1980”,TheDevelopingEconomies,XXIII-4


Ragayah,HMZ,2008,“IncomeinequalityinMalaysia”,AsianEconomicPolicyReview,vol3:114-132.

Rao,V.V.B,1988.‘IncomeDistributioninEastAsianDevelopingCountries’,Asian-PacificEconomicLiterature,vol.2,no.1,March,pp.26-45.Snodgrass, D R, 2002, “Economic growth and income inequality: TheMalaysian experience” inMG Asher, DNewmanandTPSnyder,editors,PublicpolicyinAsia,QuorumBooks,Westport.

UNDP,2007,Malaysia:Measuringandmonitoringpovertyandinequality,UNDPMalaysia,KualaLumpur.


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14. Mauritius

Sources:

Overallinequality:Ginicoefficientformonthlyhouseholddisposableincome(notequivalised)fromreportontheHousehold Budget Survey (HBS) 2012, Table 3, report on HBS 2006/07, Table 3, and report on HBS 2001/02,(Table4.2).

Topincomeshares:Sharesoftop1and0.5percentintotalgrossincomefromWID.world(taxunits,excludingcapitalgains)basedonAtkinson(2011).

Povertymeasures: Proportion of households with equivalised income below 50 per cent of themedian fromreportonHBS2012,Table7andreportonHBS2006/07,Table7.



References:

Atkinson,AB,2011,“TopincomesinMauritius:A75yearhistory”,mimeo,seriesupdatedbytheauthor.

Subramanian,A,2001,“Mauritius:Acasestudy”,FinanceandDevelopment,vol38:4,1-7.


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15. Netherlands

Sources:

Overallinequality:Ginicoefficientforequivalised(CBSscale)disposablehouseholdincomefromCentraalBureauvoordeStatistiek(CBS)website;linkedat2000toseriesfrom1977to2000suppliedbytheCBS;inkedat1977toseriesfordisposableincome,notequivalised,amongtaxunits,fromTrimp(1996,Staat2).

Top incomeshares:Shareof top1per cent in totalgross income fromWID.world (taxunits,excludingcapitalgains),basedonworkofSalverdaandAtkinson(2007)andupdatesfromSalverda(2013).

Povertymeasures:Percentageof individuals living inhouseholdswithequivalised(EUscale)disposable incomebelow60per centof themedian fromEU-SILC (Peopleat riskofpovertyafter social transfers table),Eurostatwebsite(accessed27Feb2017).

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage ofmedian earnings. Series from Atkinson (2008,AppendixL,TableL.3)basedonOECD(LMS)dataupto1999;latestfiguresfromOECDiLibrary,EmploymentandLabour Market Statistics, Gross earnings decile ratios (accessed 22 February 2017). Break between the twosourcesindicatedwithinthetable.

Wealth inequality: Share of top 1 per cent of households in total personal net wealth from Roine andWaldenström(2015),drawingontheworkofWilterdink(1984,page269).

References:


Roine, J and andWaldenström, D, 2015, “Long run trends in the distribution of income and wealth” in A BAtkinsonandFBourguignon,editors,HandbookofIncomeDistribution,volume2,Elsevier,Amsterdam.

Salverda,WandAtkinson,AB,2007,“TopincomesintheNetherlandsoverthetwentiethcentury”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomesoverthetwentiethcentury,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Salverda,W (2013). Extending the top-income shares for theNetherlands from1999 to 2012:An explanatorynote.Mimeo.

Trimp,L,1996,“Inkomens1959-1994”,Sociaal-economischemaandstatistiek,vol13,No12:31-34.

Wilterdink,N,1984,VermogensverhoudingeninNederland,DeArbeiderspers,Amsterdam.


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2000

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16. NewZealand

Sources:

Overallinequality:Series1:Ginicoefficientforequivalised(usingsquarerootscale)disposablehouseholdannualincome before deduction of housing costs from Perry (2016, Table D.8) from 1982 to 2015; series 2: GinicoefficientforindividualtaxableincomefromEaston(1983,Table10.7aftertheintroductionofPAYE).

Top incomeshares: The top incomesharesare fromWID.world,basedonworkofAtkinsonandLeigh (2008),updatedbyAlvaredoandAtkinson(2014).Notethattop incomeserieshaveabreak in1952.Datarefertotaxunitsbefore1953andtoindividualsfrom1953onwards.

Povertymeasures:Percentageofindividualsinhouseholdswithequivalised(applying1988revisedJensenscale,describedasclosetothemodifiedOECDscale)disposableincomebeforehousingcostsbelow60percentofthecontemporarymedianfromPerry(2016,TableF.3).

Dispersionofearnings:EarningsattopdecileaspercentageofmedianearningsfromAtkinson(2008,AppendixM, TableM.3), based on thework of Easton (1983); continued fromOECD iLibrary, Employment and LabourMarketStatistics,Grossearningsdecileratios(accessed22February2017).

Wealthinequality:Shareoftop1percentofindividualsintotalnetwealthfromEaston(1983,Table7.3).

References:


Atkinson,ABandLeigh,A,2008,“TopIncomesinNewZealand1921-2005:UnderstandingtheEffectsofMarginalTaxRates,MigrationThreat,andtheMacroeconomy”,ReviewofIncomeandWealth,series54(2):149-165.

Alvaredo, F and A B Atkinson, 2014, “New Zealand: Estimates of Top Shares for 2011/2012, and Revision for2010/2011”WID.worldTechnicalNoteSeriesN°2014/3

Easton,B,1983,IncomedistributioninNewZealand,NewZealandInstituteofEconomicResearch,Wellington.

Perry, B, 2016, “Household incomes in New Zealand: trends in indicators of inequality and hardship 1982 to2015”,MinistryofSocialDevelopment,Wellington.


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17. Norway

Sources:

Overall inequality:Series1:Ginicoefficientofgrossfamily incomenotequivalisedfromAaberge,AtkinsonandModalsli (2016,TableA1,averageofupperand lowerbounds; seealsoTableA5); Series2:Gini coefficientofequivalised (EU scale) disposable household income from StatBank within the website of Statistics Norway,Income and Wealth Statistics for Households, Income, Table 07756 (Measures of income dispersion), totalpopulation.Top incomeshares: Shareof top1 in total gross income fromWID.world (individuals, excluding capital gains),basedonworkofAabergeandAtkinson(2010)updatedbyAaberge,AtkinsonandModalsli(2013).

Povertymeasures:Percentageofindividualsinhouseholdswithequivalised(EU-scale)disposableincomebelow60percentofthecontemporarymedian(includingstudenthouseholds), fromStatisticsNorway(2016),Figure3.1(p.21).AsubsetoffigurescanalsobefoundatStatBankwithinthewebsiteofStatisticsNorway,IncomeandWealthStatisticsforHouseholds,Income,Table06801(Percentageofpeopleinhouseholdswithannualafter-taxincome below different distances to the median). Note that data before 2004 are based on the IncomeDistribution Survey (Inntekts- og formuesundersøkelsen for husholdninger - IF). Data series provided by JonEplandatStatisticsNorway.

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, from OECD iLibrary,Employment and LabourMarket Statistics,Gross earningsdecile ratios (accessed22 February2017); linkedat2002 to a series of the authors’ own calculations extrapolating from income shares data in Atkinson (2008,AppendixN,TableN.3).

Wealth inequality: Share of top 1 per cent of households in total personal net wealth from Roine andWaldenström (2015), downloaded from Waldenström’s webpage, drawing from Ohlsson, Roine andWaldenström(2008,Table1).

References:

Aaberge, R and Atkinson, A B, 2010, “Top incomes in Norway” in A B Atkinson and T Piketty, editors, Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Aaberge, R,Atkinson,AB andModalsli, J, 2013, “The ins andouts of top incomemobility”, StatisticsNorwayResearchDepartmentDiscussionPaperno762.

Aaberge, R, Atkinson, A B and Modalsli, J, 2016, “The long-run distribution of income in Norway”, StatisticsNorway.


Bojer,H,1987,“Personlig inntektsfordeling iNorge1970-1984,Tidsskrift forSammfunnsforskning,vol28:247-258.

Ohlsson,H,Roine,JandWaldenström,D,2008,“Long-runchangesintheconcentrationofwealth:Anoverviewof recent findings”, in J B Davies, editor, Personal wealth from a global perspective,Oxford University Press,Oxford.

Roine,JandWaldenström,D,2015,“Longruntrendsinthedistributionofincomeandwealth”inABAtkinsonandFBourguignon,editors,HandbookofIncomeDistribution,volume2,Elsevier,Amsterdam.

StatisticsNorway,2016,"Økonomioglevekår"Rapporter2016/30,StatisticsNorway.


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18. Portugal

Sources:

Overall inequality: Gini coefficient of equivalised (modified OECD-scale) disposable household income fromRodrigues,Figueiras,andJunqueira,2012Quadro18(series1),Quadro16(series2),andQuadro14(series3).Series1isbasedondatafromtheEuropeanCommunityHouseholdPanelandEU-SILC.Datafrom2009arefromEU-SILC,downloadedfromEU-SILC(ilc_di12series),Eurostatwebsite(accessed27February2017).

Top income shares: Share of top 1 and top 0.1 per cent in total gross income from WID.world (tax units,excludingcapitalgains),basedonworkofAlvaredo(2010).

Povertymeasures:Percentageof individuals living inhouseholdswithequivalised(EUscale)disposable incomebelow60percentofthemedian,fromRodrigues,FigueirasandJunqueira,2011,Quadro10,upto2000;from2002datatakenfromEU-SILC(Peopleatriskofpovertyaftersocialtransferstable),Eurostatwebsite(accessed27Feb2017);linkedat1995toestimatesfor1980and1990fromRodrigues(2005).

Dispersionof earnings: Earningsat topdecile aspercentageofmedianearning. Series1 fromAtkinson (2008,AppendixP,TableP.3)withupdatedfiguressuppliedbyCFRodrigues(2003onwards),linkedat2008toseriesfrom OECD iLibrary, Employment and Labour Market Statistics, Gross earnings decile ratios (accessed 22February2017).


References:

Alvaredo,F,2010,“TopincomesandearningsinPortugal1936-2005”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.


Rodrigues,CF,2005,Distribuiçãodorendimento,desigualdadeepobreza,PhDthesis,UniversidadeTechnicadeLisboa.

Rodrigues, C F, Figueiras, R and Junqueira, V, 2011, “Portugal: um pais profundamente desigual”, InstitutoSuperiordeEconomiaeGestão,Lisbon.

Rodrigues,CF,Figueiras,RandJunqueira,V,2012,DesigualdadeEconómicaemPortugal,FundaçãoFranciscoManueldosSantos,Lisbon.


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19. Singapore

Sources:

Overallinequality:Series1householdincomefromworkperhouseholdmember(basedonmodifiedOECDscale)including employer Central Provident Fund -CPF- contributions and after accounting for government transfersandtaxes,fromStatisticsSingapore,HouseholdIncome,Table15.Series2percapitamonthlyincomefromworkforallhouseholdsfromKrongkaewandRagayah(2006,Table2);Series3percapitamonthlyincomefromworkforemployedpopulationonlyfromKrongkaewandRagayah(2006,Table2);linkedat1974toRao(1988)citedinthesamesource.

Topincomeshares:Sharesoftop1percentintotalgrossincomefromWID.world(individuals,excludingcapitalgains), based onwork of Atkinson (2010) and updated by the author using the Annual Reports of the InlandRevenueAuthority,Appendix5.Thedatafromtax incomereferto‘yearofassessment”.Estimatesfor1980to1986arebasedon12monthratherthan24monthassessments.

Povertymeasures:Nosuitabledatawerefound.

Dispersionofearnings:EarningsatupperquintileaspercentageofmedianfromCentralPensionFundearningsdata,asdescribedinAtkinson(2010),updatedfor2010fromYearbookofSingaporeStatistics,Table4.10.Thissource no longer contains earnings figures. Earnings at bottom quintile from Statistics Singapore, Labour,Employment,WagesandIndustryTables;thesourcenotesthattheyear-on-yearchangestendtobevolatile.


References:

Atkinson, A B, 2010, “Top incomes in a rapidly growing economy: Singapore”, in A B Atkinson and T Piketty,editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress.


Rao,V.V. B, 1988. ‘IncomeDistribution in EastAsianDevelopingCountries’, Asian-Pacific Economic Literature,vol.2,no.1,March,pp.26-45.

Singapore Department of Statistics, 2013, Key household income trends, 2012, Occasional Paper on incomestatistics.


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20. SouthAfrica

Sources:

Overall inequality: Gini coefficient of per capita income from Statistics South Africa, 2014, Table 5, linked at2005/2006toseriesfrom1993fromLeibbrandtetal(2010a,Table5.17), linkedat1991/1993toestimatesfor1975,1991and1996ofWhitefordandvanSeventer(2000).

Top income shares: Shares of top 1 per cent in total gross income fromWID.world (excluding capital gains),basedonworkofAlvaredoandAtkinson(2011)updatedbythesameauthorsforlatestfigures.Itisworthnotingthatthetopsharesserieshaveabreakin1990.Datarefertomarriedcoupleandsingleadultsbefore1990andtoindividualsfrom1990.

Povertymeasures: There is noofficial poverty line.A varietyof poverty standardshavebeenemployed– seeBudlender,LeibbrandtandWoolard(2015).Series1takenfromStatisticsSouthAfrica(2014,Table3)basedontheIncomeandExpenditureSurvey(IES)andLivingConditionsSurvey(LCS),relatingtopercentageofindividualsliving inhouseholdswithpercapitaexpenditurebelowthe“upperbound”poverty line.Series2relatestothepercentageofindividuals(allraces)livinginhouseholdswithpercapitaincomebelowR3,000(at2000prices)byLeibbrandtetal (2010,Table1.3); linkedat2000back to1970usingdata fromvanderBergandLouw(2004,Table5)(averageofpessimisticandoptimisticestimatestakenfor2000).

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage ofmedian earning from Leibbrandt et al (2010a,Table5.19).


References:

Alvaredo,FandABAtkinson(2011).ColonialRule,ApartheidandNaturalResources:TopIncomesinSouthAfrica1903-2007.CEPRDiscussionPaper8155

Borat, H and Kanbur, R, editors, 2006, Poverty and policy in post-apartheid South Africa, Human SciencesResearchCouncil,CapeTown.

Budlender, J,Leibbrandt,MandWoolard, I,2015,“SouthAfricanpoverty lines:areviewandtwonewmoney-metric thresholds”, Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit Working Paper Number 151,UniversityofCapeTown,CapeTown.

Lachmann,andBercuson,K,1992,editors,EconomicpoliciesforanewSouthAfrica,IMFOccasionalPaperNo91,Washington,D.C.

Leibbrandt,M, Poswell, L, Naidoo,M,Welch,M, andWoolard, I, 2006, “Measuring recent changes in SouthAfricaninequalityandpovertyusing1996and2001Censusdata”,inBoratandKanbur(2006).

Leibbrandt,M,Woolard,I,Finn,A,andArgent,J,2010,“TrendsinSouthAfricanincomedistributionandpovertysincethefallofapartheid”,OECDSocial,EmploymentandMigrationWorkingPapers101,OECD,Paris.

Leibbrandt,M,Woolard,I,McEwen,H,andKoep,C,2010a,“BetteremploymenttoreduceinequalityfurtherinSouthAfrica”inTacklinginequalitiesinBrazil,China,IndiaandSouthAfrica,OECD,Paris.

StatisticsSouthAfrica,2014,PovertytrendsinSouthAfrica,StatisticsSouthAfrica,Pretoria.

VanderBerg,SandLouw,M,2004,“ChangingpatternsofSouthAfricanincomedistribution:Towardstimeseriesestimatesofdistributionandpoverty”,SouthAfricanJournalofEconomics,vol72:546-572.

Whiteford,ACandvanSeventer,DE,2000,“SouthAfrica’schangingincomedistributioninthe1990s”,StudiesinEconomicsandEconometrics,vol24:7-30.


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21. Spain

Sources:

Overall inequality: Series 1 relates to household equivalised disposable income from EU-SILC (ilc_di12 series),Eurostatwebsite,accessed27February2017(therearebreaksintheseriesin2000,2003and2007,whichhavebeentreatedbyassumingthattherewasnochangeintheinterveningyear);linkedat1995totheseriesrelatedto equivalised (square root scale) disposable household income among individuals from Luxembourg IncomeStudy (LIS)KeyFigureswebsite;series2relates tohousehold incomefromFamilyBudgetsurveys fromUnitedNations(1981,page297).

Top income shares: Shareof top1 and0.01per cent in total gross income fromWID.world (excluding capitalgains),basedonworkofAlvaredoandSaez(2010)updatedbythesameauthorsforrecentestimates.Theseriesreferstoindividualsaged15+minusmarriedwomenuntil1989andtoindividualsaged15+from1990.

Povertymeasures:Percentageof individuals living inhouseholdswithequivalised(EUscale)disposable incomelessthan60percentofthemedianfromEU-SILC(Peopleatriskofpovertyaftersocialtransferstable),Eurostatwebsite(accessed27Feb2017)(thereisabreakintheseriesat2007,whichhavebeentreatedbyassumingthatthere was no change in the intervening year); data are linked at 2003 to the series related to those withequivalised(squarerootscale)disposableincomelessthan60percentofthemedianfromLuxembourgIncomeStudy(LIS)KeyFigures;thedataarefurther linkedbackat1995totheseriesrelatedtothosewithequivalised(OECDscale)disposableincomelessthan60percentofthemedianfromCantó,delRioandGradin(2003,Tabla2).

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, from OECD iLibrary,EmploymentandLabourMarketStatistics,Grossearningsdecileratios(accessed22February2017).

Wealth inequality: Series 1: Share of top 1 per cent in total individual net wealth including real estate fromAlvaredoandSaez(2010,Table10D.8),basedonwealthtaxdata,updatedto2007;Series2shareoftop1percentintotalindividualestatesfromAlvaredoandArtolaBlanco,forthcoming,Figure6.(Forestimatesbasedontheinvestmentincomemethod,seeMartínez-Toledano,2016.)

References:

Alvaredo,FandArtolaBlanco,M,forthcoming,“WealthconcentrationinSpaininEuropeancontext1900-2015:Localversusglobalforces”,mimeo.

Alvaredo,FandSaez,E,2010,“IncomeandwealthconcentrationinSpainonahistoricalandfiscalperspective”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Cantó, O, del Rio, C, and Gradin, C, 2003, “La evolucion de la pobreza estática y dynámica en España en elperiodo1985-1995”,HaciendaPúblicaEspañola,vol167;87-119.

Escribano, C, 1990, “Evolucion de la pobreza y la desigualdad en España, 1973-1987”, Información ComercialEspañola,Octobre:81-108.

Martínez-Toledano,Clara,2016,“ThedistributionofwealthinSpain:Evidencefromcapitalizedincometaxdata",mimeo.

UnitedNations,1981,Asurveyofnational sourcesof incomedistributionstatistics,StatisticsPapers, seriesM,number79,UnitedNations,NewYork.


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22. Sweden

Sources:

Overall inequality: Series 1: Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income from 1975 from thewebsite ofStatistics Sweden, Income Distribution 1975-2013, linked backwards at 1988 using ratio of 1989-rev to 1989values; series 2: earlier series from 1951 to 1973 for familymarket income fromBjörklund and Palme (2000,Table2)linkingtaxregisterdatafor1951and1956todatafromtheSwedishLevelofLivingSurveyfor1967and1973.

Top incomeshares:Shareof top1per cent in totalgross income fromWID.world (taxunits,excludingcapitalgains),basedonworkofRoineandWaldenström(2010).Notethattheconceptoftaxunitchangedfrommarriedcouples (filing a joint tax return) to individuals (whethermarried or not filing tax returns separately) in 1971(althoughtherewasanoptiontofileseparatereturnsfrom1966).

Povertymeasures:Percentageofindividualslivinginhouseholdswithequivaliseddisposableincomelessthan60per cent of themedian fromStatistics Swedenwebsite,Household Finances; earlier figures for percentageofindividualslivinginhouseholdsbelowSwedishWelfareBoardline,Table2.

Dispersion of earnings: Earnings at top decile as percentage of median earnings, based on series given inAtkinson(2008,AppendixQ,TableQ.5);from2005onwards,takenfromOECDiLibrary,EmploymentandLabourMarketStatistics,Grossearningsdecileratios(accessed22February2017).

Wealthinequality:Shareoftop1percentofhouseholdsintotalnetmarketablewealthatmarketvaluesbasedonwealth tax assessments from Roine andWaldenström (2015), downloaded fromWaldenström’swebpage,drawing from Roine and Waldenström (2009, Table A1), joined at 2000 to estimates of top 1 per cent ofindividuals in total capitalized wealth based on income and property tax registers from Lundberg andWaldenström(2016,TableA1).

References:


Björklund,A andPalme,M, 2000, “The evolutionof income inequality during the rise of the Swedishwelfarestate1951to1973”,NordicJournalofPoliticalEconomy,vol26:115-128.

Lundberg, J and Waldenström, D, 2016, “Wealth inequality in Sweden: What can we learn from capitalizedincometaxdata?”,UppsalaUniversitydiscussionpaper.

Roine,JandWaldenström,D,2009,“Wealthconcentrationoverthepathofdevelopment:Sweden,1873-2006”,ScandinavianJournalofEconomics,vol111:151-187.

Roine,JandWaldenström,D,2010,“TopincomesinSwedenoverthetwentiethcentury”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomes:Aglobalperspective,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.


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23. Switzerland

Sources:

Overallinequality:Series1:since2006,dataonGinicoefficientofdisposableequivalisedhouseholdincomearetaken fromEU-SILC,Eurostatwebsite.Eurostatpointsout that there isabreak in theseries in2013;Series2:GinicoefficientofdisposableequivalisedhouseholdincometakenfromLISwebsite,startingin1982andendingin2004;Series3:Ginicoefficientofaftertaxincomesaveragedover2yearsoftaxunitsfromAbeleandLüthi,1977,Tableau10)basedontheestimates includingnon-taxpayersbyNoth (1975,Tabelle19),where theyearidentifiedissecondof2yearperiod.

Top incomeshares:Shareof top1per cent in totalgross income fromWID.world (taxunits,excludingcapitalgains),basedonworkofDell,PikettyandSaez(2007).UpdatedbyFoellmiandMartínez(2016).Taxunitsrefersto individuals (adults)minusonehalfofmarriedmenandwomen;from1996,thedefinitionofadultschangesfromaged20andabovetoaged18andabove,creatingabreak.

Povertymeasures:Percentageof individuals living inhouseholdswithequivalised(EUscale)disposable incomelessthan60percentofthemedianfromEU-SILC(Peopleatriskofpovertyaftersocialtransferstable),Eurostatwebsite(accessed13April2017).

Dispersionofearnings:EarningsattopdecileaspercentageofmedianearningsfromOECDiLibrary,Employmentand Labour Market Statistics, Gross earnings decile ratios (accessed 22 February 2017); linked at 1996 toAtkinson(2008,AppendixR,TableR.2).

Wealth inequality: Share of top 1 per cent of households in total personal net wealth from Roine andWaldenström(2015)updatedto2008,downloadedfromWaldenström’swebpage.

References:

Abele, H A and Lüthi, A P, 1977, “La repartition personelle des revenus en Suisse entre 1941 et 1972” in GGaudard,HKleinewerfersandJPasquier,editors,Lapolitiqueéconomiquede laSuisse,EditionsUniversitaires,Fribourg.


Dell, F, Piketty, T and Saez, E, 2007, “Income and wealth concentration in Switzerland over the twentiethcentury”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomesoverthetwentiethcentury,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

Ecoplan,2004,VerteilungdesWohlstandsinderSchweiz,Berne.

Foellmi,RandMartínez,I,2016,VolatileTopIncomeSharesinSwitzerland?ReassessingtheEvolutionbetween1981and2008.ForthcomingonTheReviewofEconomicsandStatistics.

Levy,R,Joye,D,Guye,OandKaufmann,V,1997,Touségaux?,EditionsSeismo,Zurich.

Noth, A, 1975, Die personelle Einkommensverteilung in der Schweiz 1949 bis 1968, Dissertation, UniversitätFreiburg,Freiburg.

Ohlsson,H,Roine,JandWaldenström,D,2008,“Long-runchangesintheconcentrationofwealth:Anoverviewof recent findings”, in J B Davies, editor, Personal wealth from a global perspective,Oxford University Press,Oxford.



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24. UnitedKingdom

Sources:

Overall inequality:Series1:Ginicoefficientofequivalised (modifiedOECDscale)disposablehousehold incomefor all persons in the United Kingdom (Great Britain up to 2001/2) from Institute for Fiscal Studies: LivingStandards, Inequality and Poverty Spreadsheet (before housing costs deducted data (BHC)), downloaded 19March2017;thedataarefromtheFamilyExpenditureSurveyfrom1961uptofinancialyear1993/4(calendaryearsupto1992),thereafterfromtheFamilyResourcesSurvey.Series2:Ginicoefficientofaftertaxincome,notequivalised,among tax units (“BlueBook series”) fromAtkinson andMicklewright, 1992, TableBI1 (figure for1938fromRoyalCommissionontheDistributionofIncomeandWealth,1979,page23);

Top income shares: Share of top 1 per cent and top 0.05 per cent in total gross income from theWID.world(excludingcapitalgains),basedontheworkofAtkinson(2007)andupdatedbythesameauthor.NotethattheUKexperiencedachangeinthetaxbaseasthetaxationsystemmovedfromfamilytoindividualbasein1990.

Povertymeasures: Percentage of individuals in householdswith equivalised (modifiedOECD-scale) disposableincomebelow60percentofthemedianintheUnitedKingdom(GreatBritainupto2001/2)fromInstituteforFiscalStudies:LivingStandards,InequalityandPovertySpreadsheet(beforehousingcostsdeducteddata(BHC)),downloaded19March2017; thedataare from theFamily Expenditure Survey from1961up to financial year1993/4(calendaryearsupto1992),thereafterfromtheFamilyResourcesSurvey.

Dispersionofearnings:EarningsattopdecileaspercentageofmedianearningsfromAnnualSurveyofHoursandEarnings,ASHE1997to2016selectedestimates,Table5,ONS(downladed19March2017),coveringallfull-timeworkersonadultrateswhosepayforthesurveyperiodwasnotaffectedbyabsence,linkedbackwardstotakeaccountofchangesinmethodologyin2011,2006and2004,linkedat1997tothedatafromtheNewEarningsSurvey(NES)fromAtkinson(2008,TableS.4),takingtheseriesbackto1968(whentheNESbegan);againlinkedat1968backwardstotheincometaxdata(ScheduleEearnings)fromAtkinson(2008,TableS.7).

Wealthinequality:Shareoftop1percentofindividualsintotalpersonalnetwealthfromWID.worldbasedonthe work of Alvaredo, Atkinson and Morelli (2016), which makes allowance for wealth of the excludedpopulation; series interpolated where no wealth estimates using share of top 1 per cent of estates asinterpolatingvariablebasedonestimatedrelationship.

References:

Alvaredo,F,Atkinson,ABandMorelli,S,2016,“TopwealthsharesintheUKovermorethanacentury”,CEPRDiscussionPaper,N.11759.

Atkinson,AB,2007,“TheDistributionofTopIncomesintheUnitedKingdom1908-2000”inABAtkinsonandTPiketty,editors,Topincomesoverthetwentiethcentury,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.


Atkinson,AB,Gordon,JPFandHarrison,AJ,1989,“Trendsinthesharesoftopwealth-holdersinBritain,1923-1981”,OxfordBulletinofEconomicsandStatistics,vol51:315-332.

Atkinson, A B and Micklewright, J, 1992, Economic transformation in Eastern Europe and the distribution ofincome,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge.

RoyalCommissionontheDistributionofIncomeandWealth,1979,ReportNo.7,FourthreportontheStandingReference,Cmnd.7595,HMSO,London.

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25. UnitedStates

Sources:

Overall inequality: TheGini coefficient forgross equivalisedhousehold income is from theU.S. Bureauof theCensus, Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2015, (Table A-3, Selectedmeasuresofequivalence-adjustedincomedispersion),wherewehaveassumedthathalfoftherecordedchangebetween1992and1993wasduetothechangeinmethods(andthereforeadded1.15percentagepointstothevaluesfrom1992backto1967;post-2013figuresbeingadjusteddownwardusingaforwardproportionallinkat2013todealwithachangeinmethodology;theseriesislinkedbackwardsat1967totheseriesfrom1944givenby Budd (1970, Table 6, column 9) related to money income before tax for consumer units (families plusunrelatedindividuals);linkedat1944totheBEAsyntheticseriesforgrossfamilyincomesfromBrandolini(2002,TableA1),whocalculatedtheGinicoefficients fromtheoriginal tabulations;and linkedat1929toaseries forgross income of income recipients based on the NBER/Brookings synthetic estimates, calculated from thetabulations in Mitchell et al (1921, Table 25) and Leven, Moulton and Warburton (1934, Tables 27 and 29,excludingcapitalgains).

Topincomeshares:Shareoftop1percentintotalgrossincomefromtheWID.world(taxunits,excludingcapitalgains) are based on the work of Piketty and Saez (2003) and regularly updated by Emmanuel Saez. See alsoPiketty,SaezandZucman,2016foracomparisonofresultsbasedonpre-taxnationalincomesplitequallywithincouples(thesumofallpretaxpersonalincomeflowsaccruingtotheownersoftheproductionfactors,laborandcapital,aftertakingintoaccountthedistributionofpensionincomebutbeforeanyothertaxortransfer).

Poverty measures: Series 1: the proportion of the population living in households with pre-tax cash incomebelowtheofficialpoverty line from1959takenfromtheU.S.Bureauof theCensuswebsite,HistoricalPovertyTables,Table2and(alsopresentedinTableB1fromtheU.S.BureauoftheCensus,Income,Poverty,andHealthInsurance Coverage in the United States: 2015); post-2013 figures being adjusted downward using a forwardproportional link at 2013 to dealwith a change inmethodology; before 1959 data taken from Fisher (1986),markedwithabreakasnolinkingisused;Series2:Proportionlivinginhouseholdswithafter-taxincomebelow50percentofthemedianfromMeyerandSullivan(2010,AppendixTable7),updatedbylinkingforwardtothesameseriesfromOECDiLibrary(OECDSocialIssues/Migration/HealthStatistics,IncomeDistributionDatabase).

Dispersionofearnings:TheseriesisbasedonStateofWorkingAmericaDataLibrary(EconomicPolicyInstitute,2017, wages by percentile series) based on the Current Population Survey (CPS) Outgoing Rotation Groupmicrodata, linked at 1973 to the estimates of Karoly (1992, Table 2B.2),linked at 1963 to the estimates ofAtkinson(2008,TableT.10)fromtheCPStabulations,linkedat1949totheestimatesofGoldinandMargo(1992,Table2)basedonCensusofPopulationdata.

Wealthinequality:Series1:Shareoftop1percentofindividuals(equal-splitadults)intotalpersonalnetwealthfromWID.worldbasedontheworkofSaezandZucman(2016)whocapitalisedtotalinvestmentincomesofUStax units. Series 2: Share of top 1 per cent of households in total personal net wealth from the Survey ofConsumerFinancesbackto1989andfromearlywavesoftheSurveyofConsumerFinances(SCF)goingbackto1949 assembled by Khun, Schularick and Steins (2017) into the harmonized historical Survey of ConsumerFinances (HHSCF).For recentcomparableestimatesseealsoKennickell (2009,Table4,and2011,Table5)andBrickeretal.(2015).AnalternativeseriesbasedontheestatetaxdataisgiveninKopczukandSaez(2004,TableB1)andwasupdatedfromSaezandZucman(2016,OnlineAppendix),TableC4.

References:


Brandolini, A, 2002, “A bird’s eye view of long-run changes in income inequality”, Bank of Italy ResearchDepartment,Rome.

Bricker,J,Henriques,AM,Krimmel,JA.andSabelhaus,JE,2015,“MeasuringIncomeandWealthattheTopUsingAdministrativeandSurveyData,”FinanceandEconomicsDiscussionSeries2015-030.Washington:BoardofGovernorsoftheFederalReserveSystem.

59

Budd,EC,1970, “Postwar changes in the sizedistributionof income in theU.S.”,AmericanEconomicReview,PapersandProceedings,vol60:247-260.

EconomicPolicyInstitute,2017,StateofWorkingAmericaDataLibrary,Seriesforwagesbypercentile.

Fisher,G,1986,“Estimatesofthepovertypopulationunderthecurrentofficialdefinitionforyearsbefore1959”,mimeograph, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, U.S. Department of Health andHumanServices.

Goldin, C and Margo, R A, 1992, “The Great Compression: The wage structure of the United States at mid-century”,QuarterlyJournalofEconomics,vol107:1-34.

Goldsmith,SF,1958,“TheRelationofCensusIncomeDistributionStatisticstoOtherIncomeData”,inAnAppraisalofthe1950CensusIncomeData,StudiesinIncomeandWealth,vol23:65-107,Princeton,PrincetonUniversityPress.

Karoly,L,1992,Thetrendininequalityamongfamilies,individuals,andworkersintheUnitedStates:Atwenty-five-yearperspective,Rand,SantaMonica.

Kennickell,AB,2009,“Pondsandstreams:WealthandincomeintheU.S.,1989to2007”,FinanceandEconomicsDiscussionSeries,FederalReserveBoard,Washington,D.C.

Kennickell, A B, 2011, “Tossed and turned: Wealth dynamics of U.S. households 2007-2009”, Finance andEconomicsDiscussionSeries,FederalReserveBoard,Washington,D.C.

Kopczuk,WandSaez,E,2004,“TopwealthsharesintheUS,1916-2000:EvidencefromtheEstateTaxreturns”,NationalTaxJournal,vol57:445-487,longerversioninNBERWorkingPaper10399.

Khun,M,Schularick,M,andSteins,U,2017,IncomeandWealthInequalityinAmerica,1949-2013,mimeoLeven, M, Moulton, H G and Warburton, C, 1934, America’s capacity to consume, Brookings Institution,Washington,D.C.

Meyer,BDandSullivan,JX,2010,“Fivedecadesofconsumptionandincomepoverty”,WorkingPaper#09.07,The

HarrisSchoolofPublicPolicyStudiestheUniversityOfChicago.

Mitchell, W C, King, W I, Macaulay, F R and Knauth, O W, 1921, Income in the United States: Its amount anddistribution1909-1919,Harcourt,Brace,NewYork.

Piketty,TandSaez,E,2003,“IncomeinequalityintheUnitedStates,1913-1998”,QuarterlyJournalofEconomics,vol118:1-39.

Piketty,T,Saez,E,andZucman,G,2016,“DistributionalNationalAccounts:MethodsandEstimatesfortheUnitedStatesDataAppendix,WID.worldWORKING,PAPERSERIES,N°,2016/4

Saez,EandZucman,G,2016,“WealthinequalityintheUnitedStatessince1913:Evidencefromcapitalizedincometaxdata”,QuarterlyJournalofEconomics,vol131:519-578.

Alldata,allsources,fullreplicationfiles,andallvisualsarefreelyaccessibleatourwebsite:www.chartbookofeconomicinequality.com.

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