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The Cambridge Law Journal/2008 - Volume 67/Issue ! 1 "o#ember/$r%i&les/The Changing Judi&ial 'ole()uman 'igh%s! Communi%* Law and %he In%en%ion o+ Parliamen% - The Cambridge Law Journal! 67 ,2008! ..87-07

Cambridge Law Journal

The Cambridge Law Journal, 67 [2008], pp 487-507

!o"ember 2008

The Changing Judi#ial $ole% &uman $igh'(, Communi') Law and 'he*n'en'ion o+ arliamen'

ame ar* $rden

Member of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales. This paper was delivered as the Annual lecture of the

Constitutional and Administrative Law Bar Association on 2 !ovember 2""#.3 Cambridge 4ni#ersi%* Press 2008

5eneral Law

*n'rodu#'ion

$ member o+ %he ar who a..eared be+ore us re&en%l* said he was an engineer b* %raining and %ha% wha% hedid when he was looing a% a .roblem was %o %urn i% b* 09 and e:amine i% on a di++eren% .lane; <ha% I.ro.ose %o do %his e#ening is %o %al a li%%le abou% s%a%u%e law and s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion and %o use %hosesub=e&%s as a .la%+orm +rom whi&h %o draw some &on&lusions abou% %he =udi&ial role; I ho.e %o loo a% some o+%he issues +rom a new angle and %o .ro#oe some dis&ussion when I ha#e +inished s.eaing;

e+ore I s%ar%! I am going %o .ro#ide *ou wi%h a roadma. %o show %he rou%e I in%end %o %ae; I will be s.endingmos% o+ m* %ime on m* .rin&i.al .remise; * .rin&i.al .remise is %ha% s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion is now &a.ableo+ being anal*sed in%o %wo dis%in&% models! whi&h I &all %he $gen&* odel and %he *nami& odel; I will s%ar%wi%h %he $gen&* odel; In %he &ourse o+ des&ribing %he $gen&* odel! I .ro.ose %o mae a shor% de%our in%o%he rule o+ law; In .rin&i.le! legisla%ion should &om.l* wi%h %he rule o+ law; Then I will %urn %o %he *nami&odel; This has onl* been de#elo.ed o#er %he las% *ears bu% i% is dis%in&% +rom %he $gen&* odel; In %he&ourse o+ looing a% %he *nami& odel! I will loo a% %he e:%remel* liberal a..roa&h %o in%er.re%ing legisla%ionunder se&%ion o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18; I will &on%ras% %his wi%h %he &our%s> more res%ri&%ed a..roa&h %o%he ?ues%ion whe%her! ha#ing %aen a&&oun% o+ @%rasbourg =uris.ruden&e! %he* should e#er go be*ond i%; I will&all %ha% %he A%ae a&&oun%A .oin% a+%er se&%ion 2 o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18 whi&h .ro#ides %ha% whende%ermining an* ?ues%ion in &onne&%ion wi%h a Con#en%ion righ% %he &our% Amus% %ae a&&oun% o+A @%rasbourg

=uris.ruden&e; TheCamb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at )''

de#elo.men% o+ %he *nami& odel is one o+ %he +a&%ors whi&h has led %o a deba%e abou% whe%her =udges nowha#e %oo mu&h .ower; <hen I &ome %o m* &on&lusions! I shall draw a%%en%ion %o %his deba%e and mae %hree.oin%s in res.onse; The* will be abou% &he&s and balan&es! %he A%ae a&&oun%A .oin% and %he sour&es whi&h

=udges use when de%ermining ?ues%ions deri#ed +rom a s%a%u%e;

I should sa* a% %he ou%se% %ha% wha% I am going %o %al abou% re.resen%s m* %hining a% %he .resen% %ime; *%hining is no% +i:ed and I migh% well %ae a di++eren% #iew i+ %he ma%%er was argued ou% in +ron% o+ me; I wouldalso mae %he general .oin% %ha% when I re+er %o A%he Con#en%ionA or ACon#en%ionA Arigh%sA! I am o+ &oursere+erring %o %he Buro.ean Con#en%ion on )uman 'igh%s and %he righ%s guaran%eed b* %ha% Con#en%ion;



Page

The gen#) .odel

I. The General Approach to Statutory Interpretation

@%a%u%es are %he means b* whi&h %he legisla%ure im.oses i%s will on %he &i%ien; @%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion%here+ore has &ons%i%u%ional im.li&a%ions; <hen %he &our% de&ides a ?ues%ion o+ s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion! i% isde&iding how +ar %he s%a%e &an go in &on%rolling some as.e&% o+ an indi#idual>s a&%i#i%ies; @%a%u%e law isin&reasingl* im.or%an% in %he 4ni%ed Dingdom be&ause o+ %he sheer #olume o+ s%a%u%e law ena&%ed ea&h *earb* Parliamen% and also b* %he de#ol#ed Parliamen%s o+ %he 4ni%ed Dingdom! %ha% is %he @&o%%ish Parliamen%!%he "or%hern Ireland $ssembl* and %he <elsh $ssembl*; @ome legisla%ion is ena&%ed %o +ul+il in%erna%ionalobliga%ions! su&h as %he obliga%ion %o im.lemen% Communi%* ins%rumen%s! %ha% is! legisla%i#e measures o+#arious inds ado.%ed b* %he Buro.ean Communi%* and re?uiring im.lemen%a%ion in %he member s%a%es@%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion is %he .reroga%i#e o+ %he &our%s! in&luding %ribunals! and %he &our%s alone; <e do no%!+or ins%an&e! ha#e a .rin&i.le su&h as e:is%s in %he 4ni%ed @%a%es o+ $meri&a whereb*! in a &ase in#ol#ing a&hallenge %o e:e&u%i#e a&%ion &arried ou% on %he basis o+ %he e:e&u%i#e>s #iew as %o %he meaning o+ anambiguous s%a%u%e! %he &our% does no% as whe%her %he in%er.re%a%ion is &orre&%! bu% sim.l* whe%her %he

adminis%ra%i#e agen&*>s in%er.re%a%ion is a .ermissible one;

1

The .rin&i.les o+ s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion are no% &odi+ied; The* are go#erned b* %he &ommon law and are%here+ore &a.able o+ endogenous de#elo.men% b* %he &our%s %o mee% new %e&hni&al .roblems or so&ialneeds; @in&e %he .rin&i.les o+ in%er.re%a%ion are go#erned b* %he &ommon law! i% migh% be %hough% %ha%s%a%u%es mean wha% =udges sa*

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at )',

%he* mean! ra%her %han wha% Parliamen% ma* ha#e in%ended; u% %ha% is no% so( in general! %he &our%>s +un&%ionis %o as&er%ain %he in%en%ion o+ Parliamen% and %ha% is done +rom %he language %ha% Parliamen% has used; Thuswe &an sa* %ha% %he basi& model +or s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion is an A$gen&* odelA; The essen%ial +ea%ure o+%his model is %ha% %he =udge se%s ou% %o in%er.re% wha% is wri%%en in +ron% o+ him! ra%her %han %o %hin abou%&ons%i%u%ional issues; In doing %his he is +ul+illing as +ai%h+ull* as he &an %he will o+ %he demo&ra%i&all* ele&%edParliamen%; I should mae i% &lear %ha% %he e:.ression A%he in%en%ion o+ Parliamen%A is a %erm o+ ar% whi&hre+ers %o %he in%en%ion o+ Parliamen% %o be +ound Ealmos% e:&lusi#el*F in %he legisla%i#e .ro#ision under&onsidera%ion;

I% +ollows na%urall* +rom %he &our%>s +un&%ion in in%er.re%a%ion %ha% =udges &anno% rewri%e s%a%u%es; oreo#er!%he* mus% alwa*s a&% wi%hin =udi&ial &ons%rain%s; u%! in .ra&%i&e! %here are si%ua%ions where i% is no% &lear wha%Parliamen% would ha#e in%ended i+ i% had %hough% abou% %he si%ua%ion %ha% has emerged and .resen%s i%sel+ in%he &ase be+ore %he &our%; Parliamen% ma* ha#e in%ended one %hing bu% %he language whi&h i% has used ma*no% bear %ha% meaning; The &our% has %o +ind %he meaning o+ %he s%a%u%e +rom %he language used and %heindi&a%ions gi#en in %he s%a%u%e read as a whole; This means %ha% i% is .ossible %ha% i%s in%er.re%a%ion will %urnou% no% %o ha#e been wha% Parliamen% in +a&% in%ended; @in&e %he role o+ %he &our%s is %o in%er.re% legisla%ion!and no% %o rewri%e i%! %he &our%s &anno% &ure a ga. in a legisla%i#e s&heme; )owe#er! b* &are+ul in%er.re%a%ion%he* ma* be able %o .re#en% %he ga. +rom arising in %he + irs% .la&e;

In .rin&i.le! %he same me%hod a..lies %o all inds o+ legisla%ion! wha%e#er %he sub=e&% ma%%er; In de%ermining

%he in%en%ion o+ Parliamen% +rom %he language used! %he main rules %ha% %he &our% a..lies are %ha% %he s%a%u%emus% be read as a whole and %ha% all %he words mus% be gi#en a meaning; There are o%her rules su&h as %helimi%ed &lass! or eiusdem generis% rule; 4nder %his rule! where %here are a number o+ s.e&i+i& %erms +ollowedb* a general word! %he general word is %o be in%er.re%ed as limi%ed %o %he same &lass o+ %hing as %he earliers.e&i+i& %erms; @ome o+ %he rules a..ear %o &on%radi&% o%hers! su&h as %he rule %ha% e#er* word mus% be gi#ena meaning as o..osed %o %he rule %ha% .ermi%s %he &our% %o re=e&% words in &er%ain &ir&ums%an&es assur.lusage; I% &ould be said %ha% %he rules are sim.l* a +orm o+ language lie a di.loma%i& language %ha% %he&our% is using %o s*s%ema%ise %he &om.le: .ro&ess o+ reasoning i% is a&%uall* under%aing;

$+%er a s%a%u%e is .assed! &hanges o+%en o&&ur! +or e:am.le! &hanges in so&ial &ondi%ions or %e&hnologi&al



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de#elo.men%s; B:&e.%ionall*! a s%a%u%e is limi%ed %o a s%a%e o+ a++airs e:is%ing a% a .ar%i&ular .oin% in %ime! bu%more generall* i% is silen% abou% i%s e++e&% in &hanged

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),"

&ir&ums%an&es; $s alread* e:.lained! %he &our%s &anno% +ill ga.s in legisla%ion! and so %he* ha#e %o de%ermine

whe%her %he e:is%ing s%a%u%e a..lies %o %he &hanged s%a%e o+ a++airs; The legisla%ion ma* e:.ress a &lear.ur.ose %ha% &an onl* be +ul+illed i+ i% is a..lied %o %he new s%a%e o+ a++airs; The )ouse o+ Lords held %ha% %hiswas %he &ase where %he s%a%u%e .ro#ided +or a .ro&ess o+ s%a%u%or* li&ensing +or in #i%ro +er%ilisa%ion o+ humanembr*os and a new me%hod o+ &rea%ing embr*os ou%side %he human bod* was dis&o#ered;2 In o%her &ases! i%ma* be %ha% %he legisla%ion re+ers %o a &on&e.%! whi&h is su++i&ien%l* wide %o embra&e &hanges in&ir&ums%an&es; This is %he &ase! +or ins%an&e! in &om.anies legisla%ion! whi&h re?uires &om.an* a&&oun%s %oshow Aa %rue and +air #iewA; The &on%en% o+ %he &on&e.% o+ a %rue and +air #iew ma* &hange o#er %he &ourse o+ %ime bu% %he &on&e.% i%sel+ is unal%ered;

In some =urisdi&%ions! %he &our%s! when in%er.re%ing a s%a%u%e! &an %ae in%o a&&oun% wha% was said inParliamen% when %he ill was &onsidered; In Bngland and <ales! %he use o+ legisla%i#e his%or* as an aid %o %hein%er.re%a%ion o+ %he s%a%u%e was no% .ermi%%ed .rior %o 1; I% &an now be used as an aid %o in%er.re%a%iononl* i+ %he s%a%u%e is ambiguous and i+ a go#ernmen% minis%er! or o%her .romo%er o+ %he ill! made a s%a%emen%in Parliamen% dealing &learl* wi%h %he .oin% o+ dis.u%e; This is a #er* limi%ed e:&e.%ion %o %he general rulee:&luding legisla%i#e his%or*; The &our% &anno%! +or e:am.le! use legisla%i#e his%or* %o show %ha% a .ar%i&ular&hange in %he law was &onsidered and re=e&%ed in %he &ourse o+ .re-legisla%i#e s&ru%in*;

I wan% %o mae one las% im.or%an% .oin% abou% s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion; Ver* +ew =udges ha#e e#er wri%%enabou% s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion; G+ &ourse! %here are boos wri%%en b* s&holars in s%a%u%e law! &ons%i%u%ional lawand legal .hiloso.h* bu% wha% %he boos do no% %ell *ou is %his( %ha%! in .ra&%i&e! when %he &our% is in%er.re%inga s%a%u%or* .ro#ision! whe%her i% is an im.or%an% general .ro#ision or a highl* %e&hni&al .ie&e o+ se&ondar*legisla%ion! i% will o+%en a..roa&h %he ma%%er b* .eeling awa* %he la*ers o+ meaning and b* anal*sing %he.oli&* &hoi&es %ha% ha#e been made %o arri#e a% %he +orm o+ words %ha% has been used; In o%her words!s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion is an in%ensi#e e:er&ise %ha% in#ol#es drilling down in%o %he subs%ra%um o+ meaning o+%he s%a%u%or* .ro#ision; This is a .oin% %o whi&h I wan% %o &ome ba&; I% a..lies whe%her %he =udge is in agen&*mode or in %he d*nami& mode! whi&h I ha#e *e% %o des&ribe;

I now wan% %o mae one or %wo .oin%s abou% s%a%u%e law i%sel+; @%a%u%es are ena&%ed on %he basis %ha%

.rin&i.les o+ %he general law a..l* %o su..lemen% %he s%a%u%e unless Parliamen% has e:&luded %hemCamb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),-

e:.ressl* or b* im.li&a%ion; The .rin&i.les in ?ues%ion ma* be .rin&i.les o+ .ubli& law or o+ .ri#a%e law; Hore:am.le! where a s%a%u%e &rea%es a .ubli& bod* and gi#es i% .owers! i% will be .resumed b* %he &our%s when%he* in%er.re% %he s%a%u%e %ha% %he .ubli& bod* will! in %he e:er&ise o+ i%s .owers! be sub=e&% %o %he su.er#isor*

=urisdi&%ion o+ %he &our%s on %he .rin&i.les o+ adminis%ra%i#e law de#elo.ed b* %he &our%s; These general.rin&i.les o+ law do no% need %o be se% ou% in %he s%a%u%e and in general i% is be%%er no% %o se% %hem ou%; To se%%hem ou% ma* %hrow doub% on %heir a..li&a%ion in s%a%u%es where %he* are no% se% ou%! and de#elo.men%s in%he &ase law ma* no% a..l*; I+ %he .rin&i.les se% ou% in %he s%a%u%e go be*ond %he .rin&i.les .ermi%%ed b* %he&our%s! a &i%ien ma* unin%en%ionall* ob%ain addi%ional remedies o#er and abo#e %hose %o whi&h %he &i%ienwould be en%i%led in similar si%ua%ions under .ubli& law; G+ &ourse! where a s%a%u%e e:%ends no% =us% %o our own

=urisdi&%ion bu% %o =urisdi&%ions o+ o%her .ar%s o+ %he 4ni%ed Dingdom! %he .rin&i.le %ha% s%a%u%es are ena&%ed on%he basis %ha% %he .rin&i.les o+ %he general law a..l* means %ha% %he s%a%u%e ma* ha#e a di++eren% e++e&% inano%her .ar% o+ 4ni%ed Dingdom;

**/ The $ule o+ Law

The mos% im.or%an% o+ %he general .rin&i.les o+ law is undoub%edl* %he rule o+ law i%sel+; I am going %o %ae%his o..or%uni%* %o sa* a li%%le abou% %he rule o+ law and wha% %ha% &on&e.% means; The rule o+ law is absolu%el*+undamen%al! and in .rin&i.le all s%a%u%e law should &om.l* wi%h %he rule o+ law; <hen %he Cons%i%u%ional'e+orm $&% 200 re+ormed %he o++i&e o+ Lord Chan&ellor! i% was %hough% desirable %o s%a%e %ha% %he re+orms %o



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his o++i&e did no% a++e&% his +un&%ion %o u.hold %he rule o+ law; $&&ordingl*! se&%ion 1 o+ %ha% $&% .ro#ides(

This $&% does no% ad#ersel* a++e&%-

EaF %he e:is%ing &ons%i%u%ional .rin&i.le o+ %he rule o+ law! or

EbF %he Lord Chan&ellor>s e:is%ing &ons%i%u%ional role in rela%ion %o %ha% .rin&i.le;

The rule o+ law has ne#er been &om.rehensi#el* de+ined; I% is lie a %ree %ha% is .er.e%uall* de#elo.ing andhas man* bran&hes; The +undamen%al .rin&i.le o+ %he rule o+ law is %ha% %here is a s%a%e o+ a++airs in whi&h lawrules and in whi&h .eo.le are e?uall* sub=e&%ed %o %he law; The bran&hes o+ %he rule o+ law in&lude a&&ess %o

=us%i&e! %he .rin&i.le o+ limi%ed go#ernmen%! %he .rin&i.le o+ se.ara%ion o+ .owers! %he .rin&i.le %ha% %he lawmus% a&hie#e a &er%ain ?uali%* and %he .rin&i.le %ha% %he law mus% guaran%ee &er%ain basi& righ%s; The @eniorLaw Lord o+ %he 4ni%ed Dingdom! Lord ingham o+ Cornhill! has se% ou% a number o+ %he +ea%ures o+ %he ruleo+ law in a le&%ure now

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),2

.ublished in %he Cambridge Law Journal! and i% is well wor%h reading in +ull; )e said %ha% %he &ore o+ %hee:is%ing .rin&i.le o+ %he rule o+ law is %ha% all .ersons and au%hori%ies wi%hin %he s%a%e! whe%her .ubli& or.ri#a%e! should be bound b*! and en%i%led %o %he bene+i% o+! laws .ubli&l* and .ros.e&%i#el* .romulga%ed and.ubli&l* adminis%ered in %he &our%s; )e said %ha% i% was im.or%an% %o unders%and %he im.li&a%ions o+ %he rule o+law! and he &on#enien%l* broe %hese down in%o eigh% sub-rules! whi&h he s%a%ed he did no% in%end %o bee:&lusi#e; Those sub-rules were %ha%(

1 EiF %he law mus% be a&&essible! and so +ar as .ossible in%elligible! &lear and .ra&%i&able

2 EiiF ?ues%ions o+ legal righ% and liabili%* should ordinaril* be resol#ed b* %he a..li&a%ion o+ %he

law! no% b* %he e:er&ise o+ dis&re%ion

3 EiiiF %he laws o+ %he land should a..l* e?uall* %o all sa#e %o %he e:%en% %ha% ob=e&%i#e

di++eren&es =us%i+ied di++eren%ia%ion

4 Ei#F %he law mus% a++ord ade?ua%e .ro%e&%ion o+ +undamen%al human righ%s

5 E#F means mus% be .ro#ided +or resol#ing wi%hou% .rohibi%i#e &os% or inordina%e dela* bona

+ide dis.u%es whi&h %he &our%s %hemsel#es are able %o resol#e

6 E#iF minis%ers and .ubli& o++i&ers a% all le#els mus% e:er&ise %he .owers &on+erred on %hem

reasonabl*! in good +ai%h! +or %he .ur.oses +or whi&h %he .owers were &on+erred and wi%hou%e:&eeding %he limi%s o+ su&h .owers

7 E#iiF ad=udi&a%i#e .ro&edures .ro#ided b* %he s%a%e should be +air! and

8 E#iiiF %he e:is%ing .rin&i.le o+ %he rule o+ law re?uires &om.lian&e b* %he s%a%e wi%h i%s

obliga%ions in in%erna%ional law;

Ver* man* s&holars ha#e also wri%%en abou% %he rule o+ law; Gne o+ %he mos% rele#an% +or %he .ur.oses o+ %hisle&%ure is Pro+essor Lon Huller +rom )ar#ard; In his boo! The Moralit of Law Pro+essor Huller &rea%ed a&hara&%er &alled Ding 'e:! who a%%em.%ed %o legisla%e +or his ingdom; Pro+essor Huller &on&luded %ha% ana%%em.% %o &rea%e a legal s*s%em migh% mis&arr* in a% leas% one o+ eigh% wa*s; Indeed! he wen% on %o &on&ludeEal%hough %his &on&lusion is no% ne&essar* %o m* argumen%F %ha% a %o%al +ailure in an* one o+ eigh% wa*s %ha%he iden%i+ied would resul% in some%hing %ha% &ould no% .ro.erl* be &alled a legal s*s%em a% all Ae:&e.% .erha.sin %he Pi&wi&ian sense in whi&h a #oid &on%ra&% &an s%ill be said %o be one ind o+ &on%ra&%;A The eigh%elemen%s o+ law! whi&h a&&ording %o Pro+essor Huller are ne&essar* +or a so&ie%* as.iring %o ins%i%u%e %he ruleo+ law! were as +ollows(

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),/



9 EiF Laws mus% e:is% and be obe*ed b* all! in&luding go#ernmen% o++i&ials;

10 EiiF Laws mus% be .ublished;

11 EiiiF Laws mus% be .ros.e&%i#e in na%ure! so %ha% %he e++e&% o+ %he law ma* onl* %ae .la&e

a+%er %he law has been .assed; Hor e:am.le! %he &our% &anno% &on#i&% a .erson o+ a &rime&ommi%%ed be+ore a &riminal s%a%u%e .rohibi%ing %he &ondu&% was .assed;

12 Ei#F Laws should be wri%%en wi%h reasonable &lari%* %o a#oid un+air en+or&emen%;

13 E#F Laws mus% a#oid &on%radi&%ions;

14 E#iF Laws mus% no% &ommand %he im.ossible;

15 E#iiF Law mus% s%a* &ons%an% %hroughou% %ime %o allow %he +ormalisa%ion o+ %he rules;

16 E#iiiF G++i&ial a&%ion should be &onsis%en% wi%h %he de&lared rule; Blemen%s Ei#F! E#F and E#iF &an

be a..lied dire&%l* %o s%a%u%e law; Hor ins%an&e! s%a%u%e law should generall* be .ros.e&%i#e inna%ure and a#oid &on%radi&%ions and no% &ommand %he im.ossible; Pro+essor Huller>s rules ma*o&&asionall* ha#e .ra&%i&al im.li&a%ions +or %he wor o+ %he &our%s; I would lie %o gi#e %hee:am.le o+ a &ase in whi&h I sa% &alled 01 3ran4 v. 5567. This &ase &on&erned %he .ower o+%he Lord Chan&ellor %o mae rules +or as*lum a..eals; The s%a%u%or* .ower .ro#ided %ha%! inmaing %hese rules! %he Lord Chan&ellor should Aaim %o se&ure;;; %ha% %he rules are designed %o

ensure %he .ro&eedings be+ore %he %ribunal are handled as +airl*! ?ui&l* and e++i&ien%l* as.ossible;;;;A; The .ower also enabled %he Lord Chan&ellor %o mae a rule re?uiring a %ribunal %ohear an a..eal in %he absen&e o+ %he .ar%ies;

The Lord Chan&ellor made a rule re?uiring %he %ribunal %o hear an a..eal in %he absen&e o+ a .ar%* or hisre.resen%a%i#e i+ i% was sa%is+ied %ha% %he .ar%* or his re.resen%a%i#e had been gi#en no%i&e o+ %he da%e! %imeand .la&e o+ %he hearing and had gi#en no sa%is+a&%or* e:.lana%ion +or his absen&e; This rule was in &on%ras%%o %he rule whi&h a..lies in normal &i#il .ro&eedings!6 whi&h enables %he &our% %o .ro&eed %o a %rial in %heabsen&e o+ a .ar%*! bu% .ro#ides %ha% %ha% .ar%* ma* a..l* +or %he =udgmen% %o be se% aside; The &our% ma*gran% %ha% a..li&a%ion i+ %he a..li&an% a&%ed .rom.%l* has a good reason +or no% a%%ending %he %rial and has areal .ros.e&% o+ su&&ess; There was no e?ui#alen% in %he as*lum rules; I+ %he a..ellan% did no% re&ei#e no%i&eo+ %he a..eal hearing! he would be unable %o gi#e an* e:.lana%ion +or his absen&e and %hus &ould ne#ersa%is+* %he re?uiremen% %ha% he should .ro#ide a sa%is+a&%or* e:.lana%ion +or his absen&e! e#en %hough %he

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),)

rule had .ur.or%ed %o gi#e %hem %ha% o..or%uni%*; The %ribunal would ha#e %o hear and de%ermine his a..eal inhis absen&e e#en i+ he was able subse?uen%l* %o .rodu&e a good e:.lana%ion +or his absen&e; $n a..ellan%migh% be able %o .ro#e %ha% he had a sa%is+a&%or* e:.lana%ion +or his absen&e be&ause! +or e:am.le! he hadhad an a&&iden% and been in hos.i%al when %he no%i&e was sen% and had no% seen i% un%il i% was %oo la%e; In %he&ases be+ore us! %he .ar%ies had +ailed %o a..ear be&ause %he* did no% re&ei#e an* no%i&e o+ %he a..ealhearing; The* had &hanged %heir addresses and ased %heir soli&i%ors %o gi#e no%i&e o+ &hange o+ address %o%he %ribunal! whi&h %hose soli&i%ors had +ailed %o do;

The @e&re%ar* o+ @%a%e argued %ha% %he a..ellan%s> remed* was %o a..l* +or =udi&ial re#iew o+ %he %ribunal>sde&ision; )owe#er! =udi&ial re#iew is no% a#ailable where %here is a mis%ae o+ +a&% whi&h is %he res.onsibili%*o+ %he .ar%* a..l*ing +or =udi&ial re#iew or his legal re.resen%a%i#es! or i+ %he mis%ae in#ol#es dis.u%ed

?ues%ions o+ +a&%;

In %he &ir&ums%an&es! %he rele#an% rule remo#ed %he righ% o+ a .ar%* %o .ro#ide a sa%is+a&%or* e:.lana%ion +orhis absen&e b* .ro#iding %ha% %he %ribunal mus% .ro&eed in his absen&e e#en i+ he did no% now he had %o .u%+orward su&h an e:.lana%ion; I held %ha% %he si%ua%ion in whi&h a .ar%* was gi#en a righ% and i% was %hen %aenawa* be+ore he had a &han&e %o e:er&ise i% did no% +ul+il %he basi& re?uiremen%s o+ %he rule o+ law as iden%i+iedb* Pro+essor Huller; The rule was a&&ordingl* held %o be ultra vires %he Lord Chan&ellor>s rule-maing .ower;The Lord Chan&ellor a&&e.%ed %he &our%>s de&ision and al%ered %he rules;

u% %he im.or%an% .oin% %o no%e abou% 01 3ran4 is %he s&o.e o+ %he rule-maing .ower; The rule had %o be +air;There is no su&h general rule a..l*ing %o $&%s o+ Parliamen%; I% would be wrong %o su..ose %ha% a s%a%u%e has



ne#er been .assed whi&h o++ends %he rule o+ law as des&ribed b* Lord ingham or Pro+essor Huller; Hore:am.le se&%ion o+ %he Ta:es anagemen% $&% 170 .ro#ides %ha% a .erson>s righ% %o re&o#er a .a*men%o+ %a: made under a mis%ae due %o an error in a re%urn is %o a .a*men% a% %he dis&re%ion o+ %he Inland'e#enue in &er%ain limi%ed &ir&ums%an&es; This ma* o++end %he +irs% sub-rule enun&ia%ed b* Lord ingham bu%no one has e#er sugges%ed %ha% i% is no% on %ha% a&&oun% a #alid and binding law;

The )nami# .odel

I. Introduction

I now %urn %o %he *nami& odel and I s%ar% b* re+erring %o %he rela%ionshi. be%ween s%a%u%es and obliga%ionsin in%erna%ional law; In%erna%ional %rea%ies are no% en+or&eable in our domes%i& law unless

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),+

%he* are a..ro#ed b* Parliamen%; u%! where an in%erna%ional %rea%* is ado.%ed in%o Bnglish law! an im.or%an%s%a%u%or* .resum.%ion arises! whi&h is %he s.ringboard +or a more d*nami& a..roa&h %o s%a%u%or*in%er.re%a%ion %han %he $gen&* odel! whi&h I ha#e hi%her%o dis&ussed; I% is .resumed b* %he &our%s %ha%!

where Parliamen% has made an in%erna%ional %rea%* .ar% o+ our domes%i& law! %hen! when i% ena&%s subse?uen%legisla%ion! i% in%ends %ha% legisla%ion %o &om.l* wi%h i%s in%erna%ional obliga%ions; This is now o+ &ru&ialim.or%an&e in rela%ion %o Communi%* law and human righ%s; I am going %o s%ar% b* &onsidering %hein%er.re%a%ion o+ legisla%ion when human righ%s are said %o be in#ol#ed;

II. The Dynamic Model in relation to legislation when human rights are said to beinvolved

The legisla%i#e +ramewor +or %he &our%>s in%er.re%a%i#e du%* in %he &on%e:% o+ human righ%s is &on%ained inse&%ion o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18; This im.oses a s.e&i+i& manda%or* obliga%ion on %he &our%s %oin%er.re% legisla%ion Aso +ar as i% is .ossible %o do soA in &on+ormi%* wi%h %he Con#en%ion righ%s; This a..roa&his buil% on %he .resum.%ion %ha% domes%i& law mus% be in%er.re%ed in a&&ordan&e wi%h in%erna%ional %rea%*

obliga%ions ado.%ed b* Parliamen%; $&&ordingl*! se&%ion E1F o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18 .ro#ides(

@o +ar as i% is .ossible %o do so! .rimar* legisla%ion and subordina%e legisla%ion mus% be read and gi#ene++e&% in a wa* whi&h is &om.a%ible wi%h Con#en%ion righ%s;

The &our%s ha#e been gi#en .owers %o mae de&lara%ions o+ in&om.a%ibili%* in res.e&% o+ legisla%ion whi&h&anno% be in%er.re%ed so as %o be &om.a%ible wi%h Con#en%ion righ%s; u% an* su&h de&lara%ion does no% a++e&%%he resul% in %he .ar%i&ular .ro&eedings or &ons%i%u%e an* .re&eden% on whi&h o%her .ar%ies &an rel*; I% sim.l*a&%s as a signal %o Parliamen% and also %o %he go#ernmen% %ha% i% should &onsider in%rodu&ing some measure%o amend %he ena&%men% in ?ues%ion; The s&heme o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18 was in%ended %o .reser#e

Parliamen%ar* so#ereign%* in %ha% regard;<ha% does %he in%er.re%a%i#e du%* mean in .ra&%i&e @igni+i&an%l*! in rela%ion %o %he in%er.re%a%ion o+ legisla%ionunder %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18! we mo#e +rom an $gen&* odel %o %he A*nami& odelA; The =udge is no%sim.l* looing a% %he wording and %r*ing %o a..l* i%; )e is looing a% %he wording &ri%i&all*; )e is &onsideringwhe%her i% &om.lies wi%h %he Con#en%ion; This a..roa&h wors on %he basis %ha% wha% Parliamen% in%endedwas %ha% s%a%u%es should ha#e %he e++e&% o+ o.era%ing in &on+ormi%* wi%h human righ%s unless %he &on%rar*

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),

&on&lusion &ould no% be a&hie#ed as a ma%%er o+ in%er.re%a%ion; u%! in %ru%h! i% is no longer a ma%%er o+ looing



a% Parliamen%ar* in%en%ion; This is highligh%ed b* %he +a&% %ha% %he new a..roa&h a..lies %o legisla%ionwhene#er .assed; $% %he highes% le#el o+ generali%*! %he &our% is a&%ing as %he guardian o+ human righ%s and&ons%i%u%ional righ%s; I%s role is a d*nami& one! and hen&e I &all %he model in %his &on%e:% %he *nami& odel;

Jus% how d*nami& is %his model $+%er a li%%le %rial and error on %he .ar% o+ %he )ouse o+ Lords! i+ I ma*res.e&%+ull* sa* so! %here was an im.or%an% &ase &alled 8haidan v. 8odin*Mendo9a;7 This &ase &on&erned

%he ?ues%ion whe%her s%a%u%or* righ%s o+ su&&ession in res.e&% o+ a %enan&* were %ransmi%%ed %o a .erson wholi#ed wi%h a de&eased original %enan% o+ %he same se:; The rele#an% &ondi%ion in %he s%a%u%e was %ha% %he.erson should ha#e li#ed wi%h %he de&eased original %enan% Aas his or her wi+e or husbandA; I+ %he legisla%iondid no% bene+i% same se: &ou.les! i% would dis&rimina%e agains% %hem in #iola%ion o+ ar%i&le 1 o+ %heCon#en%ion read wi%h ar%i&le 8 o+ %he Con#en%ion; The )ouse o+ Lords held %ha% %he s%a%u%e in ?ues%iona..lied %o %he sur#i#or o+ a same-se: rela%ionshi. as mu&h as i% did %o a sur#i#ing s.ouse; The &our% ga#eim.or%an% guidan&e as %o %he limi%s o+ se&%ion o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18; I will merel* re+er %o %hes.ee&h o+ Lord "i&holls;

Lord "i&holls held %ha% %he e++e&% o+ se&%ion was %ha% %he &our% migh% be re?uired %o de.ar% +rom %heunambiguous meaning o+ %he s%a%u%e; The ?ues%ion o+ di++i&ul%* was how +ar %he &our% should go; )e held %ha%%he answer %o %his ?ues%ion did no% de.end u.on %he a&%ual wording used b* Parliamen%; )e &on%inued(

Hrom %his %he &on&lusion whi&h seems ines&a.able is %ha% %he mere +a&% %he language under&onsidera%ion is in&onsis%en% wi%h a Con#en%ion-&om.lian% meaning does no% o+ i%sel+ mae aCon#en%ion-&om.lian% in%er.re%a%ion under se&%ion im.ossible; @e&%ion enables %he language %o bein%er.re%ed res%ri&%i#el* or e:.ansi#el*! bu% se&%ion goes +ur%her %han %his; I% is also a.% %o re?uire a&our% %o read in words whi&h &hange %he meaning o+ %he ena&%ed legisla%ion! so as %o mae i%Con#en%ion &om.lian%; In o%her words! %he in%en%ion o+ Parliamen% in ena&%ing se&%ion was %ha%! %o ane:%en% bounded onl* b* wha% is >.ossible>! a &our% &an modi+* %he meaning! and hen&e %he e++e&%! o+.rimar* and se&ondar* legisla%ion;

Parliamen%! howe#er! &anno% ha#e in%ended %ha% in %he dis&harge o+ %his e:%ended in%er.re%a%i#e+un&%ion %he &our% should ado.% a meaning in&onsis%en% wi%h a +undamen%al +ea%ure o+ legisla%ion; Tha%would be %o &ross %he &ons%i%u%ional boundar* se&%ion sees %o demar&a%e and .reser#e; Parliamen%has re%ained %he righ%

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),#

%o ena&% legisla%ion in %erms whi&h are no% Con#en%ion-&om.lian%; The meaning im.or%ed b* a..li&a%iono+ se&%ion mus% be &om.a%ible wi%h %he underl*ing %hrus% o+ %he legisla%ion being &ons%rued; <ordsim.lied mus%! in %he .hrase o+ m* noble and learned +riend! Lord 'odger o+ Barls+err*! >go wi%h %hegrain o+ %he legisla%ion>; "or &an Parliamen% ha#e in%ended %ha% se&%ion should re?uire &our%s %o maede&isions +or whi&h %he* are no% e?ui..ed; There ma* be se#eral wa*s o+ maing a .ro#isionCon#en%ion-&om.lian%! and %he &hoi&e ma* in#ol#e issues &alling +or legisla%i#e delibera%ion;8

8haidan is a .ower+ul s%a%emen% o+ %he &our%s> .re.aredness %o in%er.re% legisla%ion so %ha% i% is &om.a%iblewi%h human righ%s; I% is #er* +ar +rom being aimed a% %he in%er.re%a%ion o+ legisla%ion as a re+le&%ion o+ wha%Parliamen% mus% ha#e in%ended; Hran&is ennion sa*s %ha% %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18 has re#olu%ionisedour &ons%i%u%ion; )e is righ% in %ha%; I% also re#olu%ionised s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion where %here is a &hallenge onhuman righ%s grounds; )uman righ%s &hallenges are signi+i&an%! and so %he e:&e.%ion made b* %he )uman'igh%s $&% is a signi+i&an% one;

<here a ?ues%ion arises as %o &om.a%ibili%* wi%h %he Con#en%ion! %here+ore! %he &our%s do no% ha#e %o see %hein%en%ion o+ Parliamen% in %he .ar%i&ular %e:%; The &our%s mus% ado.% wha% is some%imes &alled a As%rained&ons%ru&%ionA in order %o a&hie#e &om.a%ibili%* wi%h %he Con#en%ion; I do no% &onsider %ha% +u%ure genera%ionswill ne&essaril* regard %his sor% o+ in%er.re%a%ion as As%rainedA; 'a%her %he* will see i% as an illus%ra%ion o+ amore d*nami& a..roa&h or %he *nami& odel; The &our% in %his &on%e:% is no longer an agen% sim.l* +or %he.ur.ose o+ as&er%aining Parliamen%ar* in%en%ion; The &our% has a% %he highes% le#el o+ abs%ra&%ion aninde.enden% role as guardian o+ %he rule o+ law and human righ%s; The in%er.re%a%i#e obliga%ion is a #er*



Page

e:%ensi#e one and %he %es% o+ Agoing wi%h %he grain o+ %he legisla%ionA %aes li%%le a&&oun% o+ %he +a&% %ha% inrea&hing i%s Con#en%ion-&om.lian% in%er.re%a%ion o+ %he legisla%ion %he &our% ma* ha#e in e++e&% %o mae asele&%ion +rom a number o+ .ossible wa*s in whi&h %he legisla%ion &ould ha#e been dra+%ed on a Con#en%ion-&om.lian% basis;

<hen %here is an issue as %o &om.a%ibili%* wi%h %he Con#en%ion! %he ?ues%ion ma* arise whe%her %he legisla%i#e

a&% is ne&essar* in a demo&ra%i& so&ie%* or ser#es a legi%ima%e aim; $r%i&le 8 o+ %he Con#en%ion! +or ins%an&e!.ro#ides %ha% %here &an be in%er+eren&e b* .ubli& au%hori%ies wi%h %he .ri#a%e or +amil* li+e o+ an indi#idual i+%ha% is ne&essar* in a demo&ra%i& so&ie%*! .ro.or%iona%e and in a&&ordan&e wi%h %he law;

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),'

In res.e&% o+ %hese ?ues%ions! %he =udi&iar* is re?uired %o de&ide some no#el and .ro+ound ?ues%ions o+ moraland .oli%i&al signi+i&an&e; The de&isions o+ %he higher &our%s ma* ha#e subs%an%ial so&ie%al and .oli%i&alim.li&a%ions; <ha% is %here %o assis% %hem In %he 4ni%ed @%a%es! %here are %wo s&hools o+ %hough%; @omebelie#e %ha% =udges should a..l* %he #iew o+ %he &ons%i%u%ion whi&h would ha#e been ado.%ed b* %hose whora%i+ied %he &ons%i%u%ion in %he eigh%een%h &en%ur*; u% wh* are %he #iews o+ %he original +ounders o+ %heCons%i%u%ion su.erior Their #iew o+! sa*! e?uali%* ma* be ?ui%e di++eren% +rom %he #iew %ha% migh% be generall*a&&e.%ed in %he %wen%*-+irs% &en%ur*; The o..osing .oin% o+ #iew is %ha% %he =udges should rea&h %heir ownde&ision as o+ %he da%e o+ %heir de&ision on wha% %he Cons%i%u%ion re?uires; Kues%ions o+ in%er.re%a%ion &anonl* be de&ided in %he &on%e:% and &ul%ure in whi&h %he* arise; Gn %he o%her hand! %his a..roa&h is o.en %o%he ob=e&%ion %ha% i% &an &on+er %oo mu&h .ower on %he =udges; Peo.le who +a#our %his a..roa&h some%imesgo +ur%her and sa* %ha%! be&ause Parliamen% is so bus* and unable %o deal wi%h ma%%ers o+ de%ailed lawre+orm! i% should be +or %he =udges %o u.da%e laws when %he* need %o be u.da%ed; u% %his runs e#en dee.erin%o %he ob=e&%ion %ha% i% &on+ers mu&h %oo mu&h .ower on =udges;

The $meri&an deba%e does no% a..l* as su&h in our =urisdi&%ion; u% we s%ill ha#e %o as oursel#es where weshould see %o +ind %he answers %o %he di++i&ul% ?ues%ions .osed b* %he ?uali+ied Con#en%ion righ%s; Is .ubli&o.inion rele#an% I% ma* be di#ided or no% +ull* in+ormed; I% &an be said %ha% e#en re&ogni%ion o+ rela%i#eins%i%u%ional &om.e%en&e -- %ha% is! a de&ision %ha% %he e:e&u%i#e or Parliamen% is be%%er able %o +orm a #iew ona .ar%i&ular ma%%er -- &ons%i%u%es a +orm o+ moral or .oli%i&al =udgmen% b* =udges %ha% in %ha% si%ua%ion %he&our%s should e:er&ise res%rain%; The ?ues%ion has %o be ased( wha% is %here %o assis% %he =udges! when%ra#elling in%o a..aren%l* un&har%ed %erri%or* in &ases in#ol#ing %he a..li&a%ion o+ ?uali+ied righ%s! a.ar% +rom

E%o %he e:%en% a#ailableF analogi&al reasoning +rom %he &ommon law and sound moral and .oli%i&al reasoningI shall a%%em.% a .ar%ial answer %o %ha% ?ues%ion when I &ome %o m* &on&lusions;

e+ore lea#ing %he Con#en%ion! I wan% %o %al abou% %he A%ae a&&oun%A .oin%; I% is now es%ablished in Bnglishlaw %ha%! sa#e in s.e&ial &ases! %he du%* o+ na%ional &our%s is A%o ee. .a&e wi%h @%rasbourg =uris.ruden&e asi% e#ol#es o#er %ime( no more bu% &er%ainl* no less;A E per Lord ingham in : ;llah4 v. 5pecial Ad<udicator.F This is in one sense &onsis%en% wi%h %he +un&%ion o+ %he @%rasbourg &our% as %he organ +or au%hori%a%i#ein%er.re%a%ion o+ %he Con#en%ion; u% i% does no% a&nowledge %ha% %he @%rasbourg &our% is onl* la*ing

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at ),,

down minimum guaran%ees; oreo#er ar%i&le o+ %he Con#en%ion i%sel+ re&ognises %ha% &i%iens o+ %he&on%ra&%ing s%a%es ma* ha#e more +ar-rea&hing righ%s; $gain! ;llah on %he +a&e o+ i% si%s uneasil* wi%h %he du%*in se&%ion 2 o+ our )uman 'igh%s $&% 18 im.osed on &our%s! when Ade%ermining a ?ues%ion whi&h hasarisen in &onne&%ion wi%h a Con#en%ion righ%A! %o A%ae a&&oun%A o+ @%rasbourg =uris.ruden&e! ra%her %han %o+ollow i%; Hrom %ha% i% migh% a..ear %ha% i% was in%ended %ha% %he &our%s should be +ree in an a..ro.ria%e &ase%o go +ur%her %han @%rasbourg &ase law or e#en E%hough %his would ha#e %o be an e:&e.%ional &aseF no% as +aras @%rasbourg &ase law;

The resul% o+ %he A%ae a&&oun%A .oin% is %ha% %he &our%s %ae a res%ri&%i#e a..roa&h %o %he ?ues%ion when %ode.ar% +rom @%rasbourg =uris.ruden&e; <e &an &on%ras% %his a..roa&h wi%h %he e:.ansi#e #iew %aen o+se&%ion o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18; I% is %rue %o sa* %ha% %he ?ues%ion o+ wha% %he Con#en%ion re?uires&ould well be a more di++i&ul% ?ues%ion %han how %o in%er.re% a domes%i& s%a%u%e! bu% i% does no% +ollow +rom %his%ha% %he de&ision whe%her or no% %o use se&%ion does no% also in#ol#e subs%an%ial .oli&* ?ues%ions o+ %he indnormall* reser#ed %o %he legisla%ure; I% is %here+ore arguabl* .arado:i&al %ha% %he &our%s ha#e no% %aen a



more res%ri&%i#e a..roa&h %o se&%ion as well;

III. The Dynamic Model and the interpretation of directive-based legislation

I now wan% %o %urn %o Communi%* law; $% %he %ime o+ %he .assing o+ %he Buro.ean Communi%ies $&% 172!%here was a +or in %he road; The =udges &ould ha#e gone down %he rou%e mared Ai&e*an Parliamen%ar*@o#ereign%*A and held %ha%! i+ Parliamen% +ailed %o legisla%e in a&&ordan&e wi%h Communi%* law! Parliamen%mus% ha#e in%ended %o deroga%e %o %ha% e:%en% +rom %he Trea%* o+ 'ome; u% %ha% did no% ha..en; The &our%s%oo %he o%her rou%e mared ACommuni%* Law-Com.lian% In%er.re%a%ionA! and in%er.re%ed legisla%ion! so +ar as%he* &ould! so %ha% i% was &om.a%ible wi%h Communi%* law; The %radi%ional do&%rine o+ .arliamen%ar*so#ereign%* %oo on a new meaning; Parliamen% mus% ha#e a..ro#ed o+ %he &our%s> a..roa&h be&ause! as weha#e seen! i% &o.ied i% when i% ena&%ed %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18; u% %he %wo +orms o+ &om.a%iblein%er.re%a%ion are no% iden%i&al; In %he &on%e:% o+ Communi%* law! %here is a +i:ed re+eren&e .oin%! namel* %helaw as laid down b* %he Buro.ean Cour% o+ Jus%i&e whereas %he @%rasbourg &our% onl* la*s down minimumguaran%ees;

Buro.ean 4nion legisla%ion is mu&h less e:a&% %han our own domes%i& law; ismar& said( ALaws are liesausages! i% is be%%er no% %o see %hem being made;A I some%imes %hin %ha% he mus% ha#e had

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at +""

Communi%* legisla%ion in mind; Communi%* legisla%ion +re?uen%l* re.resen%s a &om.romise be%ween %hedi++eren% member s%a%es! and lea#es ma%%ers %o be resol#ed b* %he &our%s; I% is also dra+%ed wi%h less .re&ision%han we are a&&us%omed %o in %he 4ni%ed Dingdom; The in%er.re%a%ion o+ Communi%* legisla%ion .resen%s.ar%i&ular di++i&ul%ies +or an* na%ional =udge! be&ause i% in#ol#es balan&ing more in%eres%s %han are generall*re?uired %o be balan&ed in a domes%i& si%ua%ion;

<hen %he &our% has %o +ind %he meaning o+ legisla%ion designed %o im.lemen% Communi%* legisla%ion! i% has %o&onsider %he .roblem a% %wo le#els( +irs%l*! %he meaning o+ %he underl*ing Communi%* legisla%ion! and!se&ondl*! %he meaning o+ %he domes%i& legisla%ion;

$s %o %he in%er.re%a%ion o+ domes%i& legisla%ion! %he .rin&i.le in Bngland and <ales is %ha% %he &our% mus%in%er.re% %he domes%i& legisla%ion so +ar as .ossible in &on+ormi%* wi%h Communi%* law; The leading au%hori%*

is Litster v. 0orth 7r 7oc= > Engineering Co Ltd ;10 The Litster &ase in#ol#ed %he $&?uired 'igh%s ire&%i#eE77/187/BBCF; This dire&%i#e is designed %o sa+eguard %he righ%s o+ em.lo*ees when %heir em.lo*er>sunder%aing is %rans+erred %o ano%her &om.an*; The .ersons .ro%e&%ed b* %he 4ni%ed Dingdom im.lemen%inglegisla%ion were .ersons who were Aem.lo*ed immedia%el* be+ore %he %rans+erA; The em.lo*er in ?ues%ionbe&ame insol#en% and had en%ered re&ei#ershi.; The issue was whe%her %his wording ?uo%ed abo#e &o#eredem.lo*ees who were dismissed one hour be+ore %he %rans+er b* re&ei#ers; The )ouse o+ Lords held %ha%! %ogi#e e++e&% %o %he underl*ing dire&%i#e as in%er.re%ed b* %he Cour% o+ Jus%i&e! %here had %o be read in%o %hewords Aa .erson so em.lo*ed immedia%el* be+ore %he %rans+erA %he words Aor who would ha#e been soem.lo*ed i+ he had no% been un+airl* dismissed in %he &ir&ums%an&es des&ribed in regula%ion 8E1FA; In o%herwords! %he )ouse o+ Lords made a signi+i&an% &hange %o %he wording o+ %he legisla%ion b* adding words %ha%were no% %here; This is no% .ossible in s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion under .urel* domes%i& law; I+ %he &our%s %oo %hesame a..roa&h %o a .urel* domes%i& s%a%u%e! i% would .robabl* be regarded as im.ermissible =udi&iallegisla%ion;

$s regards %he in%er.re%a%ion o+ %he underl*ing Communi%* legisla%ion! %he Cour% o+ Jus%i&e held in 1feiffer v.7eutsches :otes ?reu9 (11

118; In %his ins%an&e! %he .rin&i.le o+ in%er.re%a%ion in &on+ormi%* wi%h Communi%* law %hus re?uires %here+erring &our% %o do wha%e#er lies wi%hin i%s =urisdi&%ion! ha#ing regard %o %he whole bod* o+ rules o+na%ional law! %o ensure %ha% ire&%i#e /10 is +ull* e++e&%i#e! in order %o .re#en% %he ma:imum weel*woring

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at +"-



%ime laid down in $r%i&le 6E2F o+ %he dire&%i#e +rom being e:&eeded Esee! %o %ha% e++e&%! Marleasing !.aragra.hs 7 and 1F;

In %he re&en% &ase o+ :evenue and Customs Commissioners v. 37T Card 5ervices 3reland Ltd !12 i% was&on%ended %ha% %he dis%ribu%ors o+ .hone &ards in %he 4ni%ed Dingdom were no% liable %o V$T on .hone &ardsissued b* an Irish &om.an* and redeemed b* an asso&ia%ed Irish &om.an*; The su..l* o+%ele&ommuni&a%ions ser#i&es is liable %o V$T under Communi%* law bu% i% was sough% %o %ae ad#an%age o+ adi++eren&e in %he rules be%ween %he 4ni%ed Dingdom and Ireland; The 4ni%ed Dingdom im.osed V$T on %hesu..l* o+ %ele&ommuni&a%ions ser#i&es %o %he end user and e:em.%ed dis%ribu%ors o+ .hone &ards unless %hesu..lier who was liable %o .a* V$T +ailed %o do so! whereas Ireland im.osed V$T on %he su..l* o+ %he .hone&ard %o %he end-user; In %hese &ir&ums%an&es %he e:em.%ion on %he +a&e o+ i% a..lied be&ause %he Irish&om.an* su..l*ing %ele&ommuni&a%ions ser#i&es &ould no% be said %o ha#e +ailed %o .a* V$T whi&h i% was no%liable %o .a*;

The Cour% o+ $..eal held %ha% %here was a general .rin&i.le in %he @i:%h V$T ire&%i#e agains% %he a#oidan&eo+ non-%a:a%ion and %ha% %he 4ni%ed Dingdom e:em.%ion did no% a..l* where %he .rin&i.le o+ %he a#oidan&e o+

non-%a:a%ion would be #iola%ed; The Cour% o+ $..eal held %ha% %he rele#an% %es% was %ha% in 8haidan v. 8odin*Mendo9a% namel*! whe%her %he in%er.re%a%ion %ha% would be re?uired %o mae %he s%a%u%e in ?ues%ion&om.lian% wi%h Communi%* law would in#ol#e a de.ar%ure +rom a +undamen%al +ea%ure o+ %he legisla%ion or goagains% %he grain o+ %he legisla%ion; The &our% re&ognised %ha% %ha% de&ision &on&erned in%er.re%a%ion underse&%ion o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18 bu% held %ha% %he di++eren&es were imma%erial and a..lied %he same.rin&i.le %o %he in%er.re%a%ion o+ dire&%i#e-based legisla%ion;

The %a:.a*er &on%ended %ha% %he in%er.re%a%ion in a&&ordan&e wi%h 8haidan would o++end %he Communi%* law.rin&i.le o+ legal &er%ain%*; The Cour% a&&e.%ed %ha% %he .erson a++e&%ed b* legisla%ion mus% be able %o +oresee%he manner in whi&h i% is %o be a..lied and %ha% %ha% mus% .ar%i&ularl* be so where %he legisla%ion has +inan&ial&onse?uen&es +or him su&h as +low +rom %he im.osi%ion o+ %he re?uiremen% %o a&&oun% +or V$T; oreo#er! a%a:.a*er was en%i%led %o s%ru&%ure his business so as %o limi% his liabili%* %o %a: and %o %ae ad#an%age o+ an*loo.holes %ha% he &ould +ind; )owe#er! %he Cour% o+ $..eal held %ha% i% was well-nown %ha% %he .ro#isions o+%he im.lemen%ing legisla%ion had %o be in%er.re%ed in &on+ormi%* wi%h %he @i:%h ire&%i#e and %ha% %he su..l* o+ %ele&ommuni&a%ions ser#i&es &ons%i%u%ed a %a:able su..l* +or %he .ur.oses o+ %he @i:%h ire&%i#e; There+ore%he .rin&i.le o+ legal

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at +"2

&er%ain%* was no% in+ringed; "or was i% an ob=e&%ion %o %he a..li&a%ion o+ %he Marleasing .rin&i.le %ha% i% migh%resul% in %he im.osi%ion o+ a &i#il liabili%* where su&h a liabili%* would no% o%herwise ha#e been im.osed underdomes%i& law; The &our% re+erred %o Centrosteel 5rl v. Adipol 8mb6 !1 where %he e++e&% o+ in%er.re%ing I%alianlaw in a&&ordan&e wi%h %he dire&%i#e on &ommer&ial agen%s was %ha% a &on%ra&% made b* an agen% who wasno% regis%ered in a&&ordan&e wi%h %he .urel* domes%i& .ro#isions o+ I%alian law was en+or&eable and no% #oid;

I. Is the approach to statutory interpretation different in relation to devolution!uestions"

In %he las% de&ade %here has been a %rans+er o+ legisla%i#e .ower b* %he <es%mins%er go#ernmen% %o %he@&o%%ish Parliamen%! %he "or%hern Ireland $ssembl* and %he <elsh $ssembl*; The de#ol#ed .owers aredi++eren% in %he &ase o+ <ales bu% %ha% di++eren&e is no% ma%erial +or %he .ur.oses o+ %his .a.er; The de#olu%iondimension is a whole new area o+ s%a%u%e law! &alling +or a..ro.ria%e s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion;

The de#olu%ion arrangemen%s in %he 4ni%ed Dingdom do no% &ons%i%u%e a +ull* +ederal s*s%em; $s I e:.lained in:. 6orvath4 v. 5ecretar of 5tate(1



The 4ni%ed Dingdom de#olu%ion arrangemen%s la& some o+ %he &hara&%eris%i&s o+ a +ederal s*s%em;The <es%mins%er Parliamen% has no% gi#en u. i%s so#ereign%* o#er %he de#ol#ed adminis%ra%ions and%ha% means %ha% in %heor*! sub=e&% %o &ons%i%u%ional &on#en%ions! i% &ould res%ri&% or re#oe %he .owers%ha% i% has gi#en %o %he de#ol#ed adminis%ra%ions; Hur%hermore! %here is no .ro#ision +or =udi&ial re#iewo+ legisla%ion .assed b* %he <es%mins%er Parliamen% on %he grounds %ha% i% deals wi%h de#ol#edma%%ers; The onl* ?uali+i&a%ion %o %ha% .rin&i.le is i+ %he &our% de&ides %ha% %he legisla%ion o+ %he<es%mins%er Parliamen% #iola%es Communi%* law; I+ an* su&h ?ues%ion arises! %he &our%s o+ an* .ar% o+

%he 4ni%ed Dingdom &an re+er a ?ues%ion %o %he Cour% o+ Jus%i&e +or a .reliminar* ruling; In addi%ion!%here is no se.ara%e legisla%i#e bod* +or Bngland as o..osed %o <ales! @&o%land or "or%hern Ireland;The =udi&ial s*s%ems +or Bngland and <ales are no% se.ara%e; There is no dual s*s%em o+ &our%s in an*.ar% o+ %he 4ni%ed Dingdom; oreo#er! %he 4ni%ed Dingdom minis%ers ha#e! as I ha#e des&ribed! areser#e .ower wi%h res.e&% %o %he im.lemen%a%ion o+ Communi%* law;

@o %he de#ol#ed assemblies are no% inde.enden% so#ereign .arliamen%s! and %he* mus% a&% wi%hin .owers&on+erred; The 4ni%ed Dingdom has no assembl* o+ re.resen%a%i#es o+ %he de#ol#ed bodies;

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at +"/

'ela%ions wi%h %he Communi%* are no% de#ol#ed ma%%ers bu% in some &ases %he de#ol#ed assemblies &an

im.lemen% Communi%* dire&%i#es; In %he 6orvath &ase! a dire&%i#e had been im.lemen%ed b* %he de#ol#ed =urisdi&%ions in di++eren% wa*s; There was a &hallenge %o %he Bnglish regula%ions on %he grounds %ha% %hedi++eren%ial im.lemen%a%ion o+ a Communi%* measure +or di++eren% .ar%s o+ %he 4ni%ed Dingdom #iola%ed %he.rin&i.le o+ non-dis&rimina%ion in %he BC Trea%*; The Cour% o+ $..eal re+used %o se% aside a re+eren&e %o %heCour% o+ Jus%i&e +or a .reliminar* ruling on %his ?ues%ion; The BC Trea%* binds %he member s%a%e; The@%rasbourg &our% has a..lied %he same .rin&i.le and held %ha% %he Con#en%ion binds %he &on%ra&%ing s%a%es %o%he Con#en%ion and %he* are res.onsible +or a&%ions o+ au%onomous regions wi%hin %he &on%ra&%ing s%a%e; 1

$&&ordingl*! i% has %o be seen i+ %he Buro.ean Cour% o+ Jus%i&e will dis%inguish %he si%ua%ion where a uni%ar*member s%a%e #iola%es i%s obliga%ions under %he BC Trea%* b* im.lemen%ing a dire&%i#e in a wa* whi&hdis&rimina%es un=us%i+iabl* be%ween %hose a++e&%ed! +rom %he si%ua%ion in 6orvath% where %he di++eren%ia%ionresul%ed +rom %he in%ernal &ons%i%u%ional arrangemen%s o+ %he 4ni%ed Dingdom;

The legisla%ion ena&%ing %he de#olu%ion arrangemen%s s.e&i+ies %he .owers reser#ed %o %he <es%mins%erParliamen%; )i%her%o! %here has been no real dis.u%e abou% %hose .owers or %he dis.u%e had been resol#ed b*

some .ra&%i&al solu%ion! su&h as legisla%i#e &om.e%en&e mo%ions wi%hin %he de#ol#ed Parliamen%s; u%! wi%h%he re&en% &hanges in %he .oli%i&al &om.osi%ion o+ %he de#ol#ed Parliamen%s! dis.u%es ma* s%ar% %o o&&urwhi&h re?uire %he in%er#en%ion o+ %he &our%s;

The +un&%ion o+ %he &our%s de&iding %hose issues ma* %hen be similar %o %ha% o+ %he Buro.ean Cour% o+ Jus%i&ewhen i% &onsiders whe%her a dire&%i#e .re#en%s a member s%a%e +rom ena&%ing i%s own legisla%ion on a.ar%i&ular sub=e&%; In %hose &ases! %he Cour% o+ Jus%i&e a..ears %o ha#e .ro&eeded on %he basis o+ looing no%sim.l* a% %he dire&%i#e in ?ues%ion! bu% also a% %he wider ob=e&%i#es o+ %he Buro.ean 4nion; Indeed! i% &ould besaid %ha% i%s a..roa&h has o+%en been &en%ralising! wi%h a nod in %he dire&%ion o+ subsidiari%*; I%s +un&%ion wouldseem %o in#ol#e a s.e&ial balan&ing o+ %he in%eres%s o+ %he member s%a%es and %hose o+ %he Communi%* and i%sins%i%u%ions; This area &ould lead %o +ur%her de#elo.men%s in %he + ield o+ s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion; There is&om.ara%i#e ma%erial in %he 4ni%ed @%a%es! Canada! India! @ou%h $+ri&a and 5erman* %o draw on;

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at +")

Con#lu(ion(

I. #ecapitulation of the Agency and Dynamic Models

The .rin&i.al a..roa&h used b* %he &our%s in Bngland and <ales is one where %he =udge sees %o +ind %hein%en%ion o+ Parliamen% as e:.ressed in %he language Parliamen% has used; I ha#e &alled %his %he $gen&*odel; )ere %he =udge a..lies im.or%an% .resum.%ions! in&luding %he .resum.%ion %ha% Parliamen% in%ended %o+ul+il i%s in%erna%ional obliga%ions ado.%ed in%o Bnglish domes%i& law; u% %his model is no% %he &om.le%e.i&%ure; The $gen&* odel im.oses a di++eren% dis&i.line +rom %ha% im.osed b* %he dire&%ion in %he )uman



Page 1

'igh%s $&% 18 %ha% =udges should in%er.re% legisla%ion! whene#er .assed! so +ar as .ossible in &on+ormi%*wi%h Con#en%ion righ%s; I ha#e sugges%ed %ha% +u%ure genera%ions will no% regard %his %*.e o+ in%er.re%a%ion! %ha%is! Con#en%ion-&om.lian% in%er.re%a%ion! as a As%rained in%er.re%a%ionA! as i% is some%imes des&ribed; The* willre&ognie %ha% %he basis in %his &on%e:% is %ha% %he =udge is no longer an agen% o+ as&er%aining Parliamen%ar*in%en%ion and %ha% his +un&%ion is as guardian o+ &ons%i%u%ional norms! in&luding human righ%s; This model I

ha#e %here+ore &alled %he *nami& odel; The *nami& odel is also a..li&able %o %he in%er.re%a%ion o+domes%i& s%a%u%es! whi&h ha#e %o be gi#en a d*nami& in%er.re%a%ion in order %o mae %hem &om.a%ible wi%hCommuni%* law;

II. Drawing the threads together

The *nami& odel leads na%urall* %o argumen%s abou% &hanges in %he =udi&ial role and abou% whe%her =udges now ha#e %oo mu&h .ower; This was %he %heme o+ %he Jus%i&e 2007 Tom @argan% le&%ure gi#en b*Pro+essor Conor 5ear%*; The .ro#o&a%i#e %i%le o+ %he le&%ure was A$re =udges now ou% o+ %heir de.%hA )esil+ull* &on=ured u. %he gra.hi& .i&%ure o+ =udges! s%ri..ed down %o %heir swimwear! in %he dee. end o+ aswimming .ool! .h*si&all* &hallenged and .erha.s o#erwhelmed; )e ad#an&ed %hree .ro.osi%ions; )is +irs%.ro.osi%ion was %ha%! al%hough =udges are no% *e% ou% o+ %heir de.%h! %he* mus% be on &ons%an% guard agains%be&oming so; Indeed! he %hough% %ha% %he guard o+ some had been dro..ing o+ la%e; )is se&ond .ro.osi%ion

was %ha%! i+ =udges do +ind %hemsel#es ou% o+ %heir de.%h! %he* mus% on no a&&oun% swim; The* should mo#eba& %o %he shallow end! where %he* belong; Pro+essor 5ear%*>s %hird .ro.osi%ion was %ha% i% was essen%ial +or%he in%egri%* o+ %he =udi&ial +un&%ion %o &lari+* %he =udi&ial role along %hese lines; <hile he did no% +a#our =udgesbeing %oo &au%ious! %he Adee. endA! as he gra.hi&all* &alled i%! was +or ele&%ed re.resen%a%i#es and no% %he

=udges; <i%h res.e&% %o Pro+essor 5ear%*! i% is di++i&ul% %o a#oidCamb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at +"+

&ir&ulari%* here! be&ause A%he dee. endA is o+%en de+ined as %ha% whi&h is ou%side %he &om.e%en&e o+ %he =udi&iar*;

In%eres%ingl*! a similar deba%e has been %aing .la&e in 5erman*; The %radi%ional #iew o+ %he rela%ionshi.be%ween %he legisla%ure and %he =udi&iar* was %ha% o+ mas%er and ser#an%; The %hen Presiden% o+ %he [email protected] Cour% o+ 5erman*! Pro+essor r )irs&h! in a =ournal ar%i&le!16 in whi&h he re+erred Eamong o%her

%hingsF %o %he Buro.eanisa%ion o+ 5erman domes%i& law! ?ues%ioned whe%her %his analog* was &orre&% %oda*;The =udges brea%he li+e in%o %he dead le%%er o+ %he wri%%en law; The* hel. legisla%ion %o be&ome wha% i% shouldbe; The Presiden% e:.ressed a .re+eren&e +or %he analog* o+ %he .ianis% and &om.oser %o %ha% o+ ser#an% andmas%er; The legisla%or is %he &om.oser; The =udge is %he .ianis% in%er.re%ing %he binding re?uiremen%s o+ %helegisla%or; The =udge has dis&re%ion in doing so bu% he mus% no% +alsi+* %he .ie&e; <ha% more &ould aBuro.ean or na%ional legisla%or wan% %han %o ha#e his laws in%er.re%ed b* a =udge wi%h %he same sill as %ha%wi%h whi&h )orowi% or 'ubins%ein in%er.re%ed Cho.in u% %his ar%i&le led %o a .ro%es%; Gne &ri%i& said( AIn a&oun%r* in whi&h one =udge migh% be )orowi% and ano%her 'ubins%ein! =udges .ose a %hrea% %o +reedom;A Gnemus% no% &arr* %his analog* wi%h 5erman law %oo +ar! be&ause 5erman =udges ha#e more dis&re%ion ins%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion %han Bnglish =udges in some res.e&%s! and %he analog* o+ %he .ianis% &ould be read assugges%ing %ha% %here is some la%i%ude +or %he .ro&li#i%* o+ %he indi#idual; The law is +ar grea%er %han an*indi#idual =udge; The law is no% %he +ie+dom o+ an* indi#idual =udge %o de#elo. as he wan%s; B#en so! %hedeba%e in 5erman* is no% wi%hou% in%eres%; I% e&hoes %he dis%in&%ion I ha#e drawn be%ween %he $gen&* odel

and %he *nami& odel;This deba%e abou% %he .ro.er role o+ %he =udi&iar* in a modern demo&ra&* raises dee. .oli%i&al and.hiloso.hi&al ?ues%ions; The answers %o %hese ?ues%ions &anno% be summed u. in a +ew words; u% %here are%hree .oin%s %ha% I would mae b* wa* o+ a &on&lusion %o %his le&%ure;

Hirs%! &o-in&iden% wi%h wha% is seen as a shi+% in .ower %o %he =udi&iar*! %here has been a s.on%aneous grow%ho+ &he&s and balan&es; The .ubli& has be&ome more in#ol#ed in #arious wa*s in %he wor o+ %he &our%s;There has been an e:.onen%ial grow%h in ins%i%u%ions in#ol#ing %he &ommuni%* in %he organisa%ion o+ %he

=us%i&e s*s%em; Hor e:am.le! %here are numerous user &ommi%%ees and =us%i&e &oun&ils! su&h as %he Ci#ilJus%i&e Coun&il! %he Hamil* Jus%i&e Coun&il and %he Criminal Jus%i&e Coun&il; There is also %he @en%en&ing



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5uidelines Coun&il; In %hese wa*s %he .ubli& has mu&h grea%er Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at +"

in#ol#emen% in %he adminis%ra%ion o+ =us%i&e %han %he* ha#e had in %he .as%; This is bound ine#i%abl* %o ha#ean e++e&% on =udges; There is bound o#er %ime %o be a grea%er sense o+ &onne&%edness be%ween %he &our%s

and =udges and %he &ommuni%ies %ha% %he* ser#e; The law used %o be adminis%ered on %he basis o+ a %o.-down.ro&ess; "ow i% is more o+ a bo%%om-u. .ro&ess; $dded %o %ha% %here ha#e been &hanges in %he wa* =udgesa&%; The* ha#e redu&ed %he use o+ legal La%in! whi&h man* .eo.le +ind o++-.u%%ing! and %he =udges are abou%%o abandon %heir wigs in &i#il &ases; There is a new s*s%em o+ =udi&ial a..oin%men%s! wi%h subs%an%ial la*membershi.! and a new s*s%em o+ =udi&ial &om.lain%s and dis&i.line; o%h new s*s%ems ha#e a s%a%u%or*basis; @o! %here has! %o some e:%en%! been a s.on%aneous grow%h o+ &he&s and balan&es;

* se&ond .oin% rela%es %o %he A%ae a&&oun%A .oin%; The sel+-den*ing ordinan&e in ;llah is %ha%! sa#e ins.e&ial &ases! %he &our%s should go as +ar as @%rasbourg =uris.ruden&e bu% no +ur%her; There are %e&hni&algrounds +or &ri%i&ising %ha% holding; The reason gi#en b* %he )ouse o+ Lords in %he ;llah &ase was %ha% %he@%rasbourg &our% was em.owered %o gi#e au%hori%a%i#e .ronoun&emen%s on %he Con#en%ion; u% %his gi#esli%%le weigh% %o %he .oin% %ha% %he @%rasbourg &our% is merel* la*ing down minimum guaran%ees; oreo#er! %heCon#en%ion s.e&i+i&all* au%horises &on%ra&%ing s%a%es %o gi#e +ur%her righ%s i+ %he* wish; $lso! i% seems.arado:i&al %o ha#e %he sel+-den*ing ordinan&e when %he &our%s ha#e %aen su&h e:%ensi#e .owers underse&%ion o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18; In i%s +a#our! i% &an be said %ha% %he sel+ den*ing ordinan&e has %head#an%age o+ relie#ing &our%s o+ %he need %o loo! sa#e on rare o&&asions! a% %he wa* &ons%i%u%ional &our%s ino%her .ar%s o+ %he world ha#e de#elo.ed &ons%i%u%ional righ%s; Those &our%s are de&iding &ons%i%u%ional righ%s+or %heir own so&ie%ies and %here+ore i% ma* no% be a..ro.ria%e %o %rans.lan% %hem %o our own =urisdi&%ion;oreo#er! i% is o+%en said %ha% %he im.lemen%a%ion o+ )uman 'igh%s $&% 18 has no% led %o a &ons%i%u%ional&risis; This mus% be due in .ar% %o %he res%rained a..roa&h whi&h %he =udges ha#e %aen %o de#elo.ing humanrigh%s =uris.ruden&e;

u% %he A%ae a&&oun%A .oin% illus%ra%es ano%her .oin%! whi&h I wan% %o mae; I% re+le&%s! and s.eas #olumesabou%! %he rela%ionshi. be%ween %he =udi&iar* and Parliamen%; There is an unwri%%en .rin&i.le o+ =udi&ialres%rain%; There is res.e&% +or %he will o+ Parliamen%! and an e:er&ise o+ =udgmen% b* %he =udges as %o when %o&on&re%ise %ha% res.e&% b* lea#ing a .ar%i&ular de&ision %o ano%her organ o+ %he &ons%i%u%ion; The A%aea&&oun%A .oin% ma* mean %ha%! i+ %he 4ni%ed Dingdom wan%s %o go +ur%her %han @%rasbourg! Parliamen% will

ha#e %o ena&% a domes%i& ill o+ 'igh%s; Tha% will be a ma%%er o+ .oli%i&ians; I% &ould! o+ &ourse! gi#e addi%ionalrigh%s! +or ins%an&e in %he area o+ +reedom o+ s.ee&h or housing; $ domes%i& ill o+ 'igh%s would re?uire agrea%

Camb. Law $.% # &2""'(% pp )'#*+"# at +"#

deal o+ %hough% b* =udges and i% migh% lead %o *e% +ur%her de#elo.men%s in s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion;

The %hird and +inal .oin% I wan% %o mae is %his; @%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion is an im.or%an% area be&ause e#er*e:er&ise in s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion in#ol#es! %o a grea%er or lesser degree! a woring ou% o+ %he &ons%i%u%ionalrela%ionshi. be%ween %he legisla%ure and %he indi#idual; Communi%* law and human righ%s ha#e &aused %he

=udges %o de#elo. new %e&hni?ues o+ s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion o#er %he las% *ears; an* issues whi&h+ormerl* did no% &ome be+ore %he &our%s are now doing so! +or e:am.le E%o %ae a re&en% e:am.le o+ m* ownF%he ?ues%ion whe%her i% would be a #iola%ion o+ %he Con#en%ion righ% %o +reedom o+ %hough%! &ons&ien&e andreligion %o hold %ha% a minis%er o+ religion was an em.lo*ee o+ a &hur&h i+ su&h a rela%ionshi. were &on%rar* %o%he religious belie+s o+ %he &hur&h in ?ues%ion; "o% in+re?uen%l*! %hough! I a&&e.%! no% alwa*s! issues o+ humanrigh%s and Communi%* law in#ol#e ?ues%ions o+ s%a%u%e law; @ome%imes i% is a ?ues%ion o+ s%a%u%or*in%er.re%a%ion some%imes i% is a ?ues%ion o+ woring ou% %he .ro.er s&o.e o+ a s%a%u%or* dis&re%ion; <hen %he&our% is dealing wi%h an* ?ues%ion o+ in%er.re%a%ion! i% digs dee. in%o %he s%a%u%or* language! .eeling awa* %hedi++eren% la*ers o+ %hining and woring ou% %he #arious .oli&* &hoi&es %ha% Parliamen% mus% ha#e made %omae %he .ro#ision %ha% i% did in +a&% mae; B#en i+ %he &our% &omes %o %he &on&lusion %ha% %he *nami& odelre?uires i% %o ado.% i%s own &on+orming in%er.re%a%ion! %ha% is! an in%er.re%a%ion whi&h is no% %he na%uralin%er.re%a%ion bu% whi&h is re?uired %o mae %he .ro#ision &om.a%ible wi%h Con#en%ion righ%s or Communi%*law! i% ma* well +ind in %he dee.er la*ers o+ %he legisla%ion a seam o+ ma%erial %o assis% i%; Indeed! i% ma*dis&o#er %ha% %here is a range o+ .oli&* &hoi&es and %ha% i% should be &au%ious abou% using %he in%er.re%a%i#e



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obliga%ion in se&%ion o+ %he )uman 'igh%s $&% 18; In%ensi#e s%a%u%or* in%er.re%a%ion o+ %his ind does no%alwa*s .ro#ide %he answer %o a .roblem! bu% i% ma* .ro#ide signi+i&an% guidan&e in some &ases; Tha% issome%hing %ha% we should all remember;

1 Chevron v. !atural :esources 7efense Council E18F 67 4@ 87;

2 :. @uintavalle4 v. 6ealth 5ecretar ,200 4D)L 1! ,200 2 $; C; 687;

1epper v. 6art ,1 $; C; ;

,2007 C; L; J; 67;

,2007 B<C$ Ci# 1;

6 Ci#il Pro&edure 'ule ;;

7 ,200 4D)L 0! ,200 2 $; C; 7;

8 ,200 4D)L 0! ,2-,;

,200 4D)L 26! ,200 2 $; C; 2! 0;

10 ,10 1 $; C; 6;

11 Cases C-7/01 %o C-0/01;

12 ,2006 B<C$ Ci# 2! ,2006 @; T; C; 122; Permission %o a..eal %o %he )ouse o+ Lords was re+used;

1 C-6/8 ,2000 B; C; '; 1-6007;

1 ,2007 B<C$ Ci# 620;

1 Assanid9e v. 8eorgia $.. no 710/01! 8 $.ril 200;

16 A$u+ dem <eg um 'i&h%ers%aa%A E2007F 62 Juris%en ei%ung! 8-88;

the changing judicial role human rights, co

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