TheBuddhistWheelSymbol

by

T.B.Karunaratne

BuddhistPublicationSocietyKandy•SriLanka

TheWheelPublicationNo.137/138Firstpublished:1969.

BPSOnlineEdition©(2008)

DigitalTranscriptionSource:BPSTranscriptionProject

Forfreedistribution.Thisworkmayberepublished,reformatted,reprintedandredistributedinanymedium.However,anysuchrepublicationandredistributionistobemadeavailabletothepubliconafreeandunrestrictedbasis,andtranslationsandotherderivativeworksaretobeclearlymarkedassuch.

Theplatesreproducedherearedrawingsbytheauthor.

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A

TheBuddhistWheelSymbol

llancientreligionshaveinthecourseoftimedevelopedmanysymbolstoexpressvariousdoctrinalconceptsvisually.Buddhismdoesnotlag

behindinthisspherebutinfacthasgivenrisetomanynewsymbolsinadditiontowhatithasderivedfromthecommonIndianheritage.Tothesesymbolswhichwereadoptedfrompre-BuddhistIndia,Buddhismhasgivennewinterpretationstosuititsownpurpose.Ofthese,thedhamma-cakka,theevermovingWheelofLaw,isthemostprominentsymboloftheBuddhists.

ThePalicommentariesofSriLankarefertoanumberofwheelsrecognisedbyBuddhists.Buddhaghosamentionssampatti-cakka,thewheelofhappiness,lakkhaṇa-cakka,thewheelsymbolonthesolesoftheBuddha’sfeet,rathaṅga-cakka,thechariotwheel,IriyāpathaCakka,thewheelofmovementorpostures,dāna-cakka,thewheelofliberality,ratana-cakka,theidealwheelofauniversalmonarch,dhamma-cakka,thewheeloflawoftheBuddha,andurasi-cakka,thewheeloftorture.[1]TothislistGurulugomi[2]addspraharaṇa-cakra,thediscus,asani-cakka,thewheelofthunderbolt,dāru-cakka,thewheel-right’swoodenwheel,andsaṃsāra-cakka,theWheelofLife.Thelastmentionedwheelisalsoknownasbhava-cakka,theWheelofBecoming.Inourdiscussionontheiconographyofthewheel,universallyacceptedasthedistinctivesymbolofBuddhists

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fromveryearlytimes,weareconcernedmainlywiththeratana-cakka,thedhamma-cakka,thelakkhaṇa-cakkaandthesaṃsāracakkaorthebhava-cakka.

Theratana-,dhamma,andlakkhaṇa-cakkasintheirunadornedformsareidentical,andarerepresentedinartinthelikenessofachariotwheel(rathaṅga-cakka),whereasintheirelaborateorperfectforms(sabbākāraparipūraṃ)theratana-cakkaandthedhamma-cakkaassumethesameformwhilethelakkhaṇa-cakkadiffersfromtheformerindetail.Thesaṃsāra-orbhava-cakka,differinginformaswellasinsignificance,isalaterdevelopment(seeChapterIV).

I.TheRatana-Cakka

Theratana-cakka,theidealwheel,isdescribedasthedivinewheelthatappearstoonewhoisdestinedtobeacakkavatti-rājā,auniversalmonarch.InthisconnectionitmustbementionedthattheBuddhaisconsideredthespiritualcounterpartofauniversalmonarch.Auniversalmonarchistheideallayman(āgārika-ratana).Heisthehighestamongthosewhoenjoyworldlypleasures(kāmabhogīnaṃaggo).Ontheotherhand,theBuddhaistheidealrecluse(anāgārika-ratana),thehighestamongthosewhohaveremovedthecoveringofdefilements(vivaṭṭacchadanānaṃaggo).BoththeBuddhaandtheuniversalmonarcharepossessedofthe

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mahāpurisa-lakkhaṇa,theauspiciousmarksofaGreatBeing.ItissaidthatapersonbornwithsuchmarksisdestinedtoeitherbeauniversalmonarchoraBuddha,anEnlightenedOne,dependingonthecourseoflifeeachonepreferstopursue.Auniversalmonarchisblessedwiththesevenuniquepossessions(sattaratana),namelytheidealwheel(cakka-ratana),theidealelephant(hatthi-ratana),theidealhorse(assa-ratana),theidealgem(maṇi-ratana),theidealwife(itthi-ratana),theidealhouseholder(gahapati-ratana),andtheidealcounsellor(parināyaka-ratana).[3]Ofthese,theidealwheelisthemostimportant,becausetheappearanceofthisisthefirstindicationthatthekinghasbecomeauniversalmonarch.

Itisstatedthatakinghavingperfectedthetenvirtuesofauniversalmonarchobservestheeightpreceptsonafull-moondayandthenretirestothetop-mostfloorofhismansion,whenthedivinewheelrisesfromtheeasternOceanandcomesthroughtheskylikeasecondfullmoon.Itcircumambulatesthemansionwherethemonarchawaitsitsarrival,andappearsclosetothewindowwithinhissight.Whenthemonarchseesit,hepaysitduehomageandsprinkleswateroveritfromagoldenvesselandwishesittogoforth.Onthecommandofthemonarch,thegreatwheelstartsonitsmissionandtheconquestoftheworldbegins.Fromthetimethecakka-ratanaappears,themonarchconcernedisentitledtothedesignationrājacakkavatti—thesovereignmoverofthewheel—andalongwithhisretinuehefollowsitthroughthesky.Whereverthewheelgoesthe

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kingsofthoseregionspayhomagetothewheelandacceptthesuzeraintyoftheuniversalmonarch.Justasauniversalmonarchcausestheidealwheeltoturn,theBuddhatoosetstheWheelofLaw(dhamma-cakka)inmotion.

TheMahāSudassanaSuttantaoftheDīghaNikāyadescribestheidealwheelofauniversalmonarchashavinganave(nābhi),thousandspokes(sahassārāni)andafelly(nemi)[4]WhenthesculptorsrepresentedthewheelsymbolontheAsokancapitalstheyseemedtohavefollowedthedescriptionasgiveninDīghaNikāya(Pl.II,Fig.2).Thisimpressionofthewheelsetthepatternforlatersculptorswhoelaboratedonit(Pl.II,Figs.3,4and5).

Theelaborateorperfectformofcakka-ratanawhichisidenticalwiththedhamma-cakkaisdepictedinartwithcertaindetailsthatarenormallynotfoundinordinaryformsofthewheelsymbol.[5]Thecomponentpartsofanordinarycakkaarethenave,thespokes,thefellyandnemimaṇi,thebubble-likefeaturesadheringtotherim,inbetweenthespokes.Ontheotherhand,atSāñchī,BārhutandAmarāvatītherearerepresentationsoftheperfectformofratana-cakkadisplayingcertainfeatures,ofwhichthemostcharacteristicaretheadornmentsroundthefellyofthewheel,whichtomyknowledge,noonehassofarinterpretedsatisfactorily.InthisrespectPāliandSinhaleseliteraryworksofSriLankagiveavividdescriptionoftheperfectformoftheratana-cakkaexplainingwhatthesefeaturesareandwhattheysignify.Forexample,inSumaṅgalavilāsinī,Buddhaghosa(5thcenturyA.C.)describes

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theperfectformoftheratana-cakkathus:

“Asthiswheelispossessedofdivinequalitiesitisdescribedas’dibbaṃ’;asithasthousandspokesitissaidtobesahassāraṃ;asithasanaveandafellyitissaidtobe’sanābhikaṃ,sanemikaṃ,’asitisperfectineveryrespectitisdescribedas’sabbākāra-paripūraṃ.’”

Thenave,byreasonofwhichthecakka-ratanaisdescribedashavinganave,ismadeentirelyofsapphire.Inthecentreofthenavethereisaholelinedwithsilver,andinitindentationcleanandshining,whichappearsliketheteethofasmilingface.Theouterrimofthenaveismadeofsilverandithastheresemblanceofafullmoonwithaholeinitscentre.Aroundtheholeofthenavedecorativelinesareshownclearly.Thusthenaveofthiscakka-ratanaisperfectineveryrespect.

Thespokes,byreasonofwhichthecakka-ratanaisdescribedashavingthousandspokes,areallmadeofsevenkindsofpreciousjewels.Theyshineliketheraysofthesun.Theknobsandthedecorativelineworkarewellmarkedonthem.Thusthespokesofthecakka-ratanaareperfectineveryrespect.

Thefelly,byreasonofwhichthecakka-ratanaisdescribedashavingafelly,ismadeofpureandpolished,deep-redcoral.Thecircularlinesdemarcatingthejointsofthefellyshinelikeastripofpurejambunadigoldreddishinhue.Thusthefellyofthecakka-ratanaisperfectineveryrespect.

Aroundthefellyofthecakka-ratanathereareonehundred

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coralshafts—oneshaftin-betweeneverysetoftenspokes.Thesecoralshaftsarehollowinsideandhaveholesonthesurfaceasinflutes.Whenthewindblows,theseshaftsproducenotesassweetasthemusicofthefivemusicalinstrumentsplayeduponbyatalentedmusician.Thesemelodiousnotesarelovely,enticing,desirable,andintoxicating.Surmountingtheseshaftsarewhiteumbrellas(chatta),andoneithersideofthesetherearetwospears(satti)towhichgarlandsarefastened.Thussurroundingthefellyofthecakka-ratana,thereareonehundredwhiteumbrellasandtwohundredspearssupportinggarlands.Insidethetwoholesoneithersideofthehubofthecakka-ratanatherearetwofacesoflions,fromthemouthsofwhichissueforthapairofpearlgarlandsasthickasthetrunksoftwomaturepalmtrees,andwhichareresplendentliketheraysofthemoon,surpassinginbeautytheheavenlyriver.Attheendofthesepearlgarlandstherearetwotusselswovenofredfluff,resemblingtheearlymorningsun.Whenthecakka-ratanatogetherwiththesetwogarlandsgoesforthrevolvingintheskyitappearsasifthreewheelsarerevolvingtogether.Thusistheidealwheelperfectineveryrespect.“[6]

ItmustbementionedthatoneofthekeywordsinthetextquotedabovehasbeenrenderedincorrectlyinthePāliTextSociety(P.T.S.)editionofSumaṅgalavilāsinīaswellasinMahābodhivaṃsa.Describingthefeaturesthatadornthefellyofthewheel,theP.T.S.textsrunasfollows:“Tassakhopanapavāladaṇḍassauparisetacchattaṃubhosupassesusamosarita-

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kusuma-dāmānāṃdvepantiyoti;evaṃsamosarita-kusuma-dāma-pantisatadvaya-parivāra-setacchatta-dhārana-pavāla-daṇḍa-satena…”[7]Accordingtothisreading,attendingonthewhiteumbrellatherearerows(panti)ofgarlands,andaltogethertherearetwohundredsuchrows.Evidentlythisconveysawrongidea.HerethecorrectreadingasfoundinSiameseandBurmesescripteditionsoftheparticulartextsisasfollows:“Tassakhopanapavāla-daṇḍassaupari-setacchattaṃubhosupassesusamosarita-kusumadāmadvesattiyoti;evaṃsamosarita-kusuma-dāma-satti-satadvaya-parivārasetacchatta-dhārana-pavāla-daṇḍa-satena…”[8]’Kusumadāma-satti’,meaningaspearbearinggarlands,asfoundinthelattereditions,iscorrectforitconveysthecorrectsense.Moreover,theSinhalesetranslationofMahābodhivaṃsaknownastheSinhalaBodhivaṃsaya(13thcenturyA.C.),translatesthecorrespondingpassagethus:“Epabaludaṇḍumattehidhavalcchatrayakädälayehielvanaladamaldamätiaḍayaṭidekekädekekäyimeseelvanaladamaldamätiaḍayaṭidesiyakinpririvaranaladadhavalacchatrasiyayakdarannāvu…”[9]Asevidencedbytheabovepassage,theSinhalaBodhivaṃsayaisclearonthispointandrendersthePāliword’satti’as’aḍayaṭi’(Sk.ardha-yasti)meaningashortspear.TheauthorofthePāliMahābodhivaṃsahasincorporatedinhisworkthepassagedirectlyfromSumaṅgalavilāsinīitself.Thereading’kusumadāma-panti’mayhavebeenascribe’serrorwhichtheeditorsoftheP.T.S.textshaveacceptedasthecorrectform.[10]Moreover,astheensuingpageswillshow,theiconographicalfeaturesofthewheelsymbolsalsoprove

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thecorrectnessoftheSiameseandBurmesescripteditionsofSumaṅgalavilāsinīandPāliMahābodhivaṃsa.

Thedescriptionofthecakka-ratanainSumaṅgalavilāsinīaswellasinthePāliMahābodhivaṃsaanditsSinhaleseversionclearlyindicatethataperfectformofthecakka-ratana(inthiscasedhamma-cakkaisalsoimplied)hasonehundredwhiteumbrellasattendedbytwohundredspearsbearinggarlandsrightrounditsfelly.NowletusfocusourattentiononsomeoftheactualrepresentationsofthewheelandotherrelevantdecorativeelementsdepictedintheearliestspecimensofBuddhistart,whichhaveabearingonourdiscussion.SomeoftheelaboratewheelsymbolsfromSānchi,BārhutandAmarāvatidisplaycertaindecorativeelementssuchasnandipādaortriratanasymbolsandsemi-circularfeaturesinalternatingpositionsrightroundthefellyofthewheel(Pl.II,Figs.3,4and5).

AttheoutsetitmustbementionedthatnowhereinIndianorSinhalesearthastheumbrella(chatta)andspear(satti)beendepictedinassociationwiththewheelsymbolexactlyasdescribedinthetextsquotedabove.Butthereareinstanceswherethismotifinseparateform—i.e.umbrellaattendedbytwospears(satti)bearinggarlandsorflagsisdepicted.BasreliefsfromSāñchīandSriLankashowstūpassurmountedbyumbrellasattendedbyspearsasdescribed(Pl.III,Figs.8and9).Sāñchīhasreliefswhereprocessionsetc.aredepictedshowingpeoplecarryingspearstowhichgarlandsarefastenedexactlyasdescribedinSumaṅgalavilāsinīandothertexts(Pl.III,Fig.11).Spearsinall

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theseinstancesinvariablyterminateinthetriple-pronged(triśūla)formcommonlyreferredtoasnandipādaortriratana.However,itmustbementionedthat’satti’canmeanaspearwithasingleblade(śūla)aswell.Inthisconnectionumbrellasdisplayingtwogarlandshangingfromeitherendofthecanopyarealsoimportant(Pl.III,Fig.12b).Thisformoftheumbrellascanbeinterpretedasanothermodeofrepresentingtheumbrellaandspearmotif.ItissignificantthatsuchumbrellasaredepictedassurmountingthewheelsymbolatSāñchīandelsewhere(Pl.VI,Fig.19).Bearingthesefactsinmindwhenwetracetheevolutionofthedecorativemotifsedgingthefellyofthewheelsymbolsunderdiscussion,wecanclearlyseetheconnectionbetweentheliterarytraditioninSriLankaandtheearliestspecimensofBuddhistartofIndia.

Indepictinganumbrellaonthefellyofawheel,ithasincourseoftimedegeneratedinform,asusualinart.TheumbrellaeveninitsmostelaborateformhasbeenalreadyhighlystylizedwhendepictedinearlysculptureatSāñchīandBārhut(Pl.III,Fig.12aandb).Itisusuallyflatandwheel-likeinshapeandclearlyshowsthespokesthatsupporttheribsoftheumbrella.Twogarlandsareshownashangingfromeitherside.Pl.III,Fig.12c,showsanumbrellafromacoin,wherethegarlandshaveapparentlymergedwiththeumbrellaproperthusgivingittheresemblanceofanarrowhead.Thespokesandtheshafttoohavelosttheirdistinctivefeaturesandhavebecomeasupportofthecanopytaperingdownwards.Pl.III,Fig.12dshowsthatthe

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heightoftheshafthasbeenfurtherdiminishedandtheumbrellaisreducedtoameresemi-circle.Allthatremainsofthespokesandtheshaftoftheumbrellaarethetwoarcheswithinthesemi-circle.Pl.III,Fig.12eshowsafurtherdevelopmentwheretheumbrellahaslostallitssignificanceandhasbeendepictedasaleafmotif.Pl.III,Fig.12fisasimilarconventionalisedumbrellafromaTibetandharma-cakra.Heretheshaftandthespokesarerepresentedbythreeshortlinesradiatingfromthecentre.Pl.III,Fig.12gshowsamodernadaptationofthesame.Ithaslostallvestigesofanumbrellaandismerelyasemi-circle.

Justastheumbrellainthispositiongraduallydiminishedinheightandultimatelylostallvestigesoftheshaftleavingasemi-circularbubbleoraleafornamenttorepresentthechatra(umbrella),itcanbeexplainedthatthespearwhichoriginallyboregarlands,alsolostboththegarlandsandtheshaftleavingthecharacteristicsymbolsatti,singleśūlaortriśūla(nandipādaortriratana)torepresentthespear(Pl.III,Fig.12a,b,c,dande).

Thisbriefintroductionexplainingtheconjecturalevolutionoftheumbrellaandspearmotifwillbeofassistanceinunderstandinghowtheelaborateumbrellasandspears,thelatterbearinggarlands,aroundthefellyoftheratana-cakkagraduallylosttheiroriginalformsandwerereducedtomoreorlessgeometricpatterns.Thusweseethatthebubbleandthetriangle(śūla)orthree-prongedspear(triśūla)patternedgingthefellyofthewheelisinfacttheconventionalisedumbrellaandspearmotifdescribedin

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Sumaṅgalavilāsinī.Hencethesesymbolscanbedescribedasperfectformsoftheratana-cakka,hereusedtorepresentthedhamma-cakka,theWheeloftheLaw.F.C.Maisey,A.Foucher,SirJohnMarshallandotherreputedscholarshaveidentifiedthesefeaturesasumbrellasandnandipādas.[11]ButasIhavepointedout,itisinthelightofSumaṅgalavilāsinīandotherliteraryworkspreservedinSriLankathattheirexactnatureandthesignificancecanbesatisfactorilyinterpreted.

Thefollowingexamplesofwheelsymbols,eachbearingacircleofhighlystylisedumbrellasandspearsedgingthefellyofthewheel,clearlyshowvariouswaysinwhichtheelaborateorperfectformsofthewheelhavebeendepictedinart.A.FoucherinTheBeginningsofBuddhistArthascitedanumberofwheelsymbolsfromancientIndiancoinsofwhichoneshowsknob-likeexternalfeaturesrightroundthefelly(Pl.IV,Fig.14).[12]Heidentifiesthesefeaturesasumbrellas.Heretheumbrellabeingthemoreprominentsymbolstandsaloneunaccompaniedbyspears.Pl.II,Fig.6showsaTibetandharma-cakrawheretheumbrellashavebeenreducedtosemi-circularfeatureswiththreeshortlinesradiatingfromthecentre,reminiscentoftheribsandtheshaftoftheumbrella.

Therecentadaptationsofthistypeofdharma-cakrashavedoneawaywiththislastvestigeandhaveretainedonlythesemicirclewhichismoreorlessliketheknob-shapedendofthespokesprojectingthroughthefellyofthewheel(Pl.II,Fig.7).Inspiteofthefactthatthesesemi-circularfeatures

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bearnoresemblancetoumbrellas,thereisnodoubtthattheyarederivedfromtheoriginalchatrasymbols.However,anyfurtherdistortion,forexampletheelongationofthechatrasymboltolookmorelikearod,isundesirableasitwilldefinitelyinterferewiththesignificanceofthewheelasasymbol.

Pl.II,Fig.4showsawheelfromSāñchīdisplayingchatta(umbrella)symbolsalternatingwithnandipādasortheso-calledtriratanasymbols.Herethenandipādaoccupiesexactlythesamepositioninwhich,accordingtotheSumaṅgalavilāsinīaccountoftheratana-cakka,spears(satti)bearinggarlandsaretobedepicted.Insomewheels,insteadofanandipāda,atriangularmemberisshown(Pl.II,Fig.3).Justasnandipādastandsforaspear(satti)terminatinginathree-prongedmember(triśūla),thetriangularfeaturetoostandsforaspearterminatinginasingleśūla.Inshort,thespear(satti)isrepresentedbyeitheraśūlaortriśūla.ItappearsthatBuddhistsreferredtonandipādaortriratanabythetermsatti(Sk.śakti).SirJohnMarshallmaintainsthatthedetailofumbrellasedgingthefellywasdirectlycopiedfromtheoriginalwheelfromSārnāth.[13]SirArthurCunninghamtoo,inhisconjecturalreconstructionofthewheelthatoncecrownedthearch(toraṇa)oftheBārhutstūpa,depictsitincorrectlyasabubbleinbetweentheumbrellas.[14]Evidentlyboththesescholarshavetreateditasameaninglesspieceofdecoration.Accordingtothetextscitedinthisconnection,thenumberofspearsshouldbetwicethenumberofumbrellas.Tobeexact,thereshouldbe

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onehundredumbrellasandtwohundredspears(satti)bearinggarlands.Butunlikeinaliterarydescription,inartiftwospearsaredepictedsidebysideitwouldinterferewiththeartisticrenderingofthedesign.Henceonaestheticgrounds,itispermissibletodepictonespearinplaceoftwomentionedinthetexts.ThusthesewheelswithanedgingofumbrellasandspearsonthefellyactuallyrepresenttheperfectformoftheWheel(sabbākāra-paripūra-ratana-cakka)oftheuniversalmonarch.AtSāñchī,BārhutandAmarāvatitheyareusedtorepresentthedhamma-cakka.

Inlaterrepresentationsofwheelsboththepatternandtheemphasisonthesymbolsshowamarkedchange.Intheexamplesmentionedearlier,thespear(satti)whetherassingle-pointed(śūla)orthreepronged(triśūlaornandipāda)weapon,isrepresentedonasmallerscalewhencomparedwiththeumbrella,toshowthatitoccupiesasubordinateposition.OntheotherhandtherearewheelsespeciallyfromAmarāvatidisplayingsattisymbolsveryprominently,whereastheumbrellahasbeenreducedtoaveryinsignificantandstylisedsemi-circularfeaturecrampedbetweentheformersymbols(Pl.II,Fig.5).Inanotherwheeltheumbrellahasbeentotallyconvertedintoaleafpattern,whichclearlyshowsthatbythe2ndcenturyA.C.somesculptorsinIndiahadalreadyforgottentheoriginalsignificanceofthesefeatures.Bythistimeitappearsthatthespear(satti)asasymbolhasgrowninimportanceandevensupersededtheumbrella.Justastherearewheelswithanedgingofumbrellasaroundthefelly,therearealsowheels

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whichdisplayspearheads(satti)inplaceofumbrellas(Pl.IV,Fig.16).Satti(spearhead)hasbeenusedhereinitstrulysymbolicform.

Theumbrellaandthespearhead,inalternatingpositionsaroundacircle,isfoundintheearliestspecimensofIndianart,asisprovedbytheimpressionsonancientcoinswherethisfeatureisveryclearlyrepresented(Pl.IV,Fig.15).[15]Heretheumbrellaandthespear-head(satti,triśūla,nandipāda)althoughhighlyconventionalisedareprominentlyshownwhilethewheel,amerediscwithoutspokes,iscomparativelyveryinsignificant.Neverthelessthetransitionfromthisformtothemoreelaborateformofthedhamma-cakkaisnotdifficulttotrace.

Itiswellknownthattheumbrellaisasymbolofsovereignty.Thusintheratana-cakkaofauniversalmonarchitsignifieshissovereignty.Spears(satti)bearinggarlandsstandinattendance(parivāra)onanumbrellaemphasizingitsimportanceasasymbol.Inthisrespectitmustbementionedthatsatti(Sk.śakti),alsosignifiesregalsplendourandpower.Itissaidthatauniversalmonarchwiththeassistanceofhisratana-cakkaconquerstheuniverse(ajitaṃjināti),[16]thusbringingintosubjugationothermonarchs.Thecircleofumbrellasattendedbysattis(spear-heads)edgingthefellyofthewheelsymbols,justdescribed,signifiesthissubjugationoftheuniversebytheuniversalmonarch.Here,thenumberhundredasmentionedinSumaṅgalavilāsinīisimportant,forancientwritersusuallyrefertohundredkingsrulingIndia.Thehundredkingshere

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symbolisedbyhundredumbrellas,generallystandforallthekingsoftheuniverse.WhenBuddhistsadoptedtheumbrellasymboltheytookforgrantedthesymbolismitoriginallypossessedandaddedsomethingmore—aspecificBuddhistsignificance.Buddhistsgenerallyrecognizethreekindsofumbrellas,namely,thehuman(mānusī),divine(dibba)andspiritualemancipation(vimutti).Thustheumbrelladepictedinassociationwithdhamma-cakkaactuallysignifiesvimutti-chatta.Theumbrellaandthespear-head(satti)motifonthefellyofthedhamma-cakkasignifiesthattheBuddhaassaddharma-cakravarti,theuniversalmonarchoftheNorm,hasconqueredtheworldandestablishedaspiritualoverlordshipovertheworld.Inbrief,theperfectformoftheWheel(ratana-cakka)signifiestheuniversalmonarch’ssovereigntyovertheUniverse,andtheBuddhistsadoptedthesameformofthewheeltosignifytheWheeloftheLawoftheBuddha.Althoughthewheelsymbolsdiscussedinthepreviouspagesconformtothedescriptionoftheidealwheelofauniversalmonarch,inarttheyhavebeenusedtodepictthedhamma-cakka.

Theabovediscussionontheiconographicalfeaturesofthewheelsymbol,Isuppose,provesthatitisquiteinconformitywiththetraditiontodepictumbrellasandspear-heads(satti)onthefellyofthedhamma-cakka,althoughinSriLankathistypeofwheelhasnotbeendiscoveredsofar.ThemoderndesignsofthewheelsymbolwithatraceofencirclingumbrellasarerecentadaptationsmostprobablybasedonTibetandharma-cakras.Apparentlythosewho

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designedthemwereunawareofthesignificanceoftheknob-likeprojectionswhicharereallythehighlystylisedumbrellasymbolsedgingthefelliesofthewheels.Next,thequestionariseswhetheritinterfereswiththeideaofmotion(pravartana)ofthewheeltodepicttheumbrellasandspear-heads(satti)onthefellyofthewheel.Althoughthewheelsymbolhasbeencreatedafterthecartwheel(rathaṅga-cakka),accordingtothetextsitissupposedtogorevolvingthroughthesky.Buddhaghosadescribesthisindetailthus:[17]“Thiscakka-ratanaproceedsthroughthesky,notveryhighbutjustabovethesummitoftrees,sothatthosewhoaccompanythecakka-ratana(throughthesky)areabletoenjoythefruits,flowersandtenderleavesofthetrees,attheirpleasure.Alsothecakka-ratanamovesataheightthatisneithertoohighnortoolowsothatpeopleonearthareabletopointoutandsay,’Thatistheking;thatishisdeputyandthatishiscommanderinchief!”Boththewriterswhodescribedthecakka-ratanainliteratureandtheartistswhodepicteditinartconsidereditasawheelthatissupposedtomovethroughthesky,andtheumbrellasandthespears(satti)bearinggarlandsthatadornthefellywerenotconsideredanimpedimenttoitsrevolvingmovement(pravartana).

Thefellyofanidealwheelisalsodescribedasstuddedwithgems(nemimaṇi).[18]Elsewhere,theyarereferredtoasmaṇika,meaningabowl-shapedgem.OntheAsokanwheelsthesearerepresentedasbubble-shapedornamentsattachedtotheinnersideoftherimofthewheel,inbetweenthe

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spokes.Samantakūtavaṇṇanāreferstospokesadornedwithpot-shapedandbubble-shapedornaments(ghaṭika-maṇikāvalīhisusanṭhitā).[19]InIndianarchitecture,sometimespillarsaredepictedasspringingfromorterminatinginvases(pūrṇa-ghaṭa)symbolicofabundance.Hereitisimpliedthatthespokesofawheelsymbolaredepictedaspillarswhichterminateinpotornaments.

Indescribingtheperfectformofthecakka-ratana,Sumaṅgalavilāsinīstatesthatinadditiontootherfeaturestheholesinthenaveofthewheelhavetwolionfacesfromthemouthsofwhichissueforthtwopearlgarlands.[20]Thelionfaceinthispositionhasbeenactuallydepictedinanarchsurmountingastūpa.Theindentationontheinnersideoftherimofthearcharoundthelionfaceisclearlyrepresented.(Pl.IV,Fig,17).

Dhamma-cakkaswhichdisplaygarlandshangingfromthewheelarealsometwith.Pl.VI,Fig.19showsadhamma-cakkashrineinwhichthegarlandshangingfromthenaveareprominentlydisplayed.Anotherdhamma-cakkafromSāñchīshowsthatgarlandsformanimportantfeatureintheschemeofdecorations(Pl.V,Fig.18).Fourgarlandsareshownashangingfromtwopegs(nāga-danta)abovethedhamma-cakkaandtwoothersfromthestemsoftwolotusbudsactingaspegs.Thewheelisdepictedassurmountedonaseatofthreelionsandfromthemouthsoftwooftheflankinglionsapairofgarlandsissueforththusbringingtoone’smindthedescriptioninSumaṅgalavilāsinī,whichsaysthattwopearlgarlandsissuefromthemouthsoftwolion

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headsthataresetintheholesoneithersideofthenaveofthewheel.

Itissaidthatthenaveofthecakka-ratanaisconstructedofsapphire(indra-nīla-māṇikya).TheDīghaNikāyaalsoreferstogemsadorningtherimofthewheel.BenjaminRowlandstatesthatthenavesofthewheelsonAsokancapitalswereoriginallysetwithgemsofvariouscolours.[21]Sumaṅgalavilāsinīdescribesthewheelasconstructedofpreciousjewels,stonesandmetalsofvariouscolours.[22]Itisstatedthattheholeinthenaveofthecakka-ratanaislinedwithsilver,thespokesareconstructedofsevenkindsofpreciousjewelsandthefellyofthewheelismadeofredcoral.Thusred,blue,white,andyellowareprominentlydisplayedintheschemeofcoloursemployedinthewheel.Thesecolourswhicharesymbolicalinpurposehavebeenintentionallyemployedthusenhancingthemagicalqualitiesofthewheel.

Althoughnosinglewheelsymbolhasbeendepictedexactlyastheperfectformofthecakka-ratanadescribedintheSumaṅgalavilāsinī,theinstancesofpearlgarlandshangingfromthehubofthewheel,garlandsissuingfromthemouthsoflionsformingtheseatonwhichthewheelisplacedinpositionandthefrontviewofthewheelwithgarlandsissuingfromeithersideofthehubaswellasfromthelionfacethatisframedwithinthedentedrimofthenave,areclearindicationsthattheartistsofancientIndiahavedepictedvariousaspectsoftheperfectformoftheratana-cakkaconformingtoacertainacceptedschemeas

20

reflectedinliterature.ThisclearlyprovesthatSumaṅgalavilāsinīhaspreservedatraditionthatwaswellknowninIndiaasearlyasthe1stcenturyA.C.orevenearlier.

II.TheDhamma-Cakka

Theiconographicalfeaturesofthewheeldescribedabovearethatoftheidealwheel(ratana-cakka)oftheuniversalmonarch.NeverthelesstherepresentationsofthePerfectformsofthewheelsymbolinBuddhistartthatconformtothedescriptionoftheratana-cakkaactuallydepictthedhamma-cakka,theWheelofLawoftheBuddha.NowhereinIndianarthastheperfectformoftheratana-cakka(i.e.thatoftheuniversalmonarch)beendepictedalthoughanumberofbas-reliefsshowingtheuniversalmonarchwithhissevenIdealPossessions(sattaratana)arefoundinIndiaaswellasinSriLanka.Intheseillustrationsthewheelsymbolisdepictedinitsunadornedform.[23]

TheearliestBuddhistmonumentsthathavethedhamma-cakkasymbolsaretheAsokanPillars.OfthesethemostimportantoneisfromSārnāth,thefragmentsofwhicharepreservedinanarchaeologicalmuseum.However,abas-relieffromSāñchīshowsexactlyhowthisAsokanpillarwouldhavelookedlike(Pl.V,Fig.18).TheWheelis

21

mountedonaseatofthreeadornedlionswhichinturnstandonacircularplinthadornedwithfouranimals,lion,elephant,bullandhorse.Inbetweentheanimals,foursmallerwheelsaredepicted.Theplinthismountedonalotus-shapedbell.Inlaterexamples,thedhamma-cakkaisdepictedasmountedonasatti(nandipāda)(Pl.I,Fig.1)andthelotus-shapedbellassumedtheshapeofapūrṇa-ghaṭa.Thiselaboratecapitalisplacedonatall,slightlytaperingpillar.CommentingonthesymbolismoftheSārnāthpillar,Dr.BenjaminRowlandsays,”TheSārnāthcolumnmaybeinterpreted,therefore,notonlyasaglorificationoftheBuddha’spreachingsymbolisedbythecrowningwheel,butalsothroughthecosmologicalimplicationsofthewholepillarasasymboloftheuniversalextensionofthepoweroftheBuddha’sLawastypifiedbythesunthatdominatesallspaceandalltime,andsimultaneouslyanemblemoftheuniversalextensionofMauryanimperialismthroughtheDharma.Thewholestructureisthenatranslationofage-oldIndianandAsiaticcosmologyintoartistictermsofessentiallyforeignoriginanddedicated,likeallAsoka’smonuments,tothegloryofBuddhismandtheroyalhouse.”[24]

Althoughthedhamma-cakkawasusedtodepictthedoctrineingeneral,itprimarilystoodforthefirstsermonoftheBuddha.ItisstatedthattheBuddhadeliveredtheDhamma-cakkaPavattanaSuttatothegroupoffivemonksattheDeerParkatBārānasi.Inearlyartthisincidentisillustratedbyawheelflankedbyapairofdeer.TheBuddhaaswellasthe

22

groupoffivemonkswasnotshown,inconformitywiththethenprevalenttradition.Butlater,whentheBuddhaimagescametobeused,wheneverthisincidentofthefirstsermonwasdepicted,thedhamma-cakkawithorwithoutthedeerwasdepictedontheseatoftheBuddha.InmostoftheGuptaandMathurāBuddhaimagesthismotifisrepresented.Later,withthedevelopmentof“Buddhology,”thissimplemotifdevelopedintoahighlycomplicatedformwherethedhamma-cakkaisshownassurmountedonapillarofwhichthebaseisintheworldofdivineserpents,wherethemaleandfemaleserpentsareshownaspayinghomagetoit.Twodivineserpentsareshownintheactofholdingthepillarinposition.Thewheelisshowninfrontviewwithtwogarlandshangingfromeithersideofthehub.Thepillarrisesthroughacavityintheearth’scrustanditsupperportionisshownasappearinginthehumansphere;twodevoteesandapairofdeerareseenpayinghomagetothewheel.Justabovethewheel,theBuddhaisdepictedinheroicdimensionsseatedonathroneattendedbydivinebeings.Heretoothegroupoffivemonksisnotrepresented.Twoadditionaldhamma-cakkasareseenatthebackgroundoneithersideoftheBuddhaimage.[25]

AtAmarāvati,anumberofbas-reliefsshowelaboratelycarveddhamma-cakkassurmountedonpillarsatthefootofwhichanemptyseatisprominentlydepicted.Onthefootstool,thefootprintsoftheBuddhaaredisplayed.ThesepillarsincompleteformsignifytheBuddhaandareiconographicallyrelatedtothefierypillarsdepictingthe

23

Buddha.Humanaswellasdivinebeingsareshownaspayinghomagetothemonumentwhichisanelaboratelycarvedpillaronwhichthedhamma-cakkaisprominentlydisplayed.[26]

Anumberofbas-reliefsfromSāñchīandBārhutshowthedhamma-cakkainashrine.InPl.VI,Fig.19,thedhamma-cakkaisplacedonaflatseatandaroyalumbrellaisraisedaboveit.Insidetheshrinetwomenareshownintheattitudeofworshippingthewheelwhilejustoutsidetheshrinepedestriansaswellaspeopleonelephants,horsesandchariotsareseencircumambulatingtheshrine.Evidently,theyformthefourfoldarmy—namelytheelephants,cavalry,chariotsandtheinfantry—ofthekingwhoisdepictedasvisitingtheshrineinachariot.

SirArthurCunningham,oninscriptionalevidence,describesthisbas-reliefasillustratingthevisitofKingPasenadīKosala,acontemporaryoftheBuddha.ItisbelievedthattheshrineisanillustrationofthepunyasālāheissupposedtohavebuiltfortheuseoftheBuddha.[27]However,thisillustrationandothersimilaronesbringtoone’smindthedescriptionofhowtheuniversalmonarch,accompaniedbythefour-foldarmyandhisretinue,followedthecakka-ratanaonitsvoyageofconquest.

Althoughthedhamma-cakkaprimarilysymbolisedthepreachingofthefirstsermonandtherebythedoctrineinitswidersense,itwasalsousedtorepresenttheBuddhahimself.Itiswellknownthatduringtheearliestphaseof

24

Buddhistart,theBuddhaortheBodhisattainhislastlifeonearth,wasneverrepresentedinhumanformbutbyasymbolsuchastheWisdomTree(bodhi),theWheeloftheLaw(dhamma-cakka),thestūpaorthefootprint(pāduka).Thusamongtherepresentationsofthedhamma-cakkainart,thereareafewthatcanbeinterpretedasiconicrepresentationsoftheBuddha.Forinstancemanyofthewheelsymbolsdepictedasplacedonapedestalorhousedinashrine,actuallyrepresenttheBuddha(Pl.VI,Fig.19).HerethedhammacakkacanbeinterpretedasdhammakāyaofthetrikāyadoctrineofMahāyānaBuddhism.Dr.ĀnandaCoomaraswamyhaspointedoutthatalthoughinthePālicanontheTrikāyadoctrinehadnotyetdeveloped,thereareoccasionalreferencesintheDīghaNikāyaandtheSuttaNipātatotheconceptofDhammakāya.IntheDīghaNikāyatheBlessedOneisspokenofasdhammakāyaorbrahmakāya[28]andintheSaṃyuttaNikāyatheBuddhasays“HewhoseesDhammaseesme,whoseesmeseestheDhamma.”[29]

III.TheLakkhaṇa-Cakka

Thelakkhaṇa-cakkaisdescribedastheauspiciousmarkonthesolesofthefeetoftheBuddha.ItissaidthatBuddha’spalmsarealsomarkedwiththewheelsymbol.Inits

25

unadornedformthelakkhaṇa-cakkaisidenticalwiththeordinaryformoftheratana-cakkaanddhamma-cakka(Pl.VII,Fig.20),butinitsperfectformitisahighlyelaboratesymbol,surpassingindetaileventheperfectformoftheratana-cakkaoftheuniversalmonarch.

Buddhaghosadescribesthelakkhaṇa-cakkathus:”CakkameansthewheelsonthesolesofthefeetoftheBuddha;thespokesandthefellyarementionedinthecanonicaltexts(i.e.Pāli);bysabbākāraparipūraṃthesespecialfeaturesareintended;inthecentreofthewheelthatisinthemiddleofthesolethereisthenave;surroundingthenavetherearethecircularlines;attheopeningofthenavethereisthecoveringsheath;theholeofthenaveisseen;alsotherearethespokesandthecircularlinesroundthespokes;thefellyisseen;thebowl-shapedgemsonthenaveareseen;allthesearementionedinthecanonicaltexts.Furtherdetailsarenotgiventhere;theseshouldbeknownasfollows:attendingonthewheeltherearethespear(satti),śrīvatsa(sirivaccha),conch(?),(nandi),svastika(sovatthi),ear-rings(vaṭaṃsaka),powderbox(vaḍḍhamānaka),pairoffish(macchayugala),auspiciousseat(bhaddapīṭha),elephantgoad(aṅkusa),mansion(pāsāda),triumphalarch(toraṇa),whiteumbrella(setacchatta),sword(khagga),palm-leaf-fan(tālavaṇṭhaka),clusterofpeacockfeathers(mora-hattha),flywhisk(vāla-vījanī),diadem(uṇhīsa),clusterofgems(maṇi-paṭṭha),garlandofflowers(sumana-dāma),bluewaterlilies(nīluppala),redwaterlilies(rattuppala),whitewaterlilies(setuppala),redlotus(paduma),whitelotus(puṇḍarīka),filled

26

vessel(puṇṇaghaṭa),filledbowl(puṇṇapāti),ocean(samudda,cakravāṭa)mountainrange(cakkavāla),Himalayaforest(Himavā),MountMeru(Sineru),moon(candimā),sun(sūriya),stars(nakkhatta),fourgreatcontinents(cattāromahādīpā),twothousandislandsthatsurroundthem(dveparittādīpāsahassāni)andtheuniversalmonarchtogetherwithhisretinue(rājācakkavattisaseno);alltheseareattendingonthewheel.”[30]Inlatertextsmoresigns,generallyreferredtoas108innumber,areadded.Forexample,inadditiontothoseenumeratedbyBuddhaghosainSumaṅgalavilāsinī,GurulugomiinDharmapradīpikāvamentionsasauspiciousmarks,animalssuchaslions,tigers,bullsaswellasmythicalcreatureslikekinnaras,makarās,garuḍās,variouskindsofbirdsanddivinebeingslikegodsofthesixheavens,BrahmasofthesixteenBrahmaworlds.[31]

Theperfectformoftheratana-cakkahasonlyafewoftheseauspicioussignssuchastheumbrella,spear(satti),andgarlandsattendingonitwhereasthisdefinitionofthelakkhaṇa-cakkashowsthatallthatisrepresentativeofthisUniverse,theauspicioussymbols,theearthwithitsfloraandfauna,theuniversalmonarchtogetherwithhissevenidealpossessions,theheavenlybodiessuchasthesun,moonandthestars,andfinallytheheavensandtheBrahmaworldsthemselves,aredepictedasattendingonthewheelsymbolsonthesolesofthefeetoftheBuddha.

Thelakkhaṇa-cakkaissymbolicofthesupremacyoftheBuddha.Buddhaghosaindescribingthequalityof

27

asādhāraṇa-ratana—extraordinarygem—withreferencetotheBuddha,saysthatbetweentheanimateandinanimateobjectsofvalue(ratana),theanimateonesaresuperior;amongtheanimatethehumanbeingsaresuperior;ofhumanbeingsmenaresuperiortowomenforthelatterattendonmen;ofmenrecluses(anāgārika-ratana)aresuperiortolaymenbecauserājā-cakkavatti,thehighestamonglaymen(āgārika-ratana),paysobeisancetorecluses;amongvariousgradesofreclusestheBuddhaisthehighest.Thelakkhaṇa-cakkadepictsthissupremacyoftheBuddha,for,fromtheinanimateobjectsofvalue(aviññāṇaka-ratana)tothehighestofthedivinebeingstheBrahmas,aredepictedasattendingonthelakkhaṇa-cakkaonthesolesofthefeetoftheBuddha.[32]

Inartthelakkhaṇa-cakkahasbeendepictedfromveryearlytimesinassociationwithFootPrints(pādukā)oftheBuddha,whichhavebeenusedtosignifytheBlessedOne.Inthesethewheelisidenticalwiththeordinaryformoftheratana-cakkaordhamma-cakka.However,inthelaterphaseofSāñchīandatAmarāvatiandMathurāelaborateformsofthelakkhaṇa-cakkaaremetwith.Pl.VII,Fig.20showsapādukāmarkedwiththelakkhaṇa-cakkaattendedbyaspear(satti),asvastika(sovattika),andanauspiciousseat(bhadra-pīṭha).Oneofthemostelaborateoftheearliestlakkhaṇa-cakkasisfromSriLanka(Pl.VII,Fig.22).Itdisplaysaspear-head(satti),anumbrella(chatta),aśrīvatsa(sirivaccha),anauspiciousseat(bhadra-pīṭha),aconch(saṅkha),aclusterofpeacockfeathers(mora-hatta)orapalmleaffan(tālavaṇṭhaka),standardsand

28

banners(dhaja-patāka),anelephantgoad(aṅkusa),afilledvase(puṇṇa-ghaṭa)andapairoffish(maccha-yugala)surroundingthewheelwhichisinthecentreofthesole,whilethesvastikaisrepeatedonthetipsofthefivetoes.However,themostcompleteformofthelakkhaṇa-cakkaisfoundintheFarEasterncountriessuchasSiam(Thailand)andCambodia.[33]AnelaboratelycarvedspecimenoftheBuddha’sfootprintfromAnkorWatinCambodiashowspracticallyallthe108auspicioussignsthatattendonthelakkhaṇa-cakka.

IV.TheBhava-Cakka

IntheṚgvedathewheelofSūrya,thesun,has12or5or360spokes,signifyingthemonths,seasonsordaysoftheyearrespectively.[34]Thusitsignifiestheyearasmeasuredbythesuninitscourse.WhenthewheelwasfirstusedasaBuddhistsymbol,itwasnotknownwhetherthecomponentpartsofthewheelsignifiedanyparticularaspectofthedoctrine.ItappearsthatitoriginallyrepresentedbroadlytheentiredoctrineandparticularlytheFirstSermonwhichisreallyasynopsisoftheTeaching.Itsthousandspokesreferredtointhetextsactuallydepictedtheraysofthesun,andtheearliestwheelsymbolshaveproportionatelyalargenumberofspokestodepictthisparticularfeature.Inlater

29

wheelsymbolsthenumberofspokesisgenerallyreduced,butapparentlytheydonotsignifyanyparticularaspectofthedoctrine.However,theTibetanWheelsymbolshaveeightspokeswhichmostprobablysignifytheEightfoldPath(ariya-aṭṭhaṅgika-magga),andthemodernwheelsymbolsgenerallyhavethesamenumberofspokes.

TheTibetanbhava-cakkaorsaṃsāra-cakka,theWheelofBecomingorWheelofLife,illustratesaparticularaspectoftheDhamma,namelythedoctrineofDependentOrigination(paṭicca-samuppāda)andtherebythedoctrineofrebirth.TheTibetanversionoftheWheelofLifeconformstothedescriptiongivenofitintheDivyāvadāna,[35]aBuddhistSanskritworkoftheSarvāstivādaschool.Thisworkdescribestheoriginofthebhava-cakkaandthemannerinwhichthepictureistobemade.TheWheelisshownasbeinginthegripofathree-eyeddemonwearingatiger’sskin,whosymbolisesimpermanence(aniccatā).Thewheelconsistsofthreeconcentriccirclesofwhichtheinnermost,correspondingtothenaveofthewheel,depictsthreeanimals,abird(doveorcock),asnakeandapig,eachcatchingthetailoftheanimalinfront,symbolisinglust,hatredanddelusionrespectively.Thenextcircle,whichisthelargestofthethree,correspondingtotheareaoccupiedbythespokesofawheel,isdividedintofiveorsixsegmentsinwhichthedestinies(gati)oflivingbeings,i.e.therealmsoftheirrebirth,areshownindetail.Thelastcircle,whichisthefellyofthewheel,isdividedintotwelvesectionsdepictingthetwelvelinksofDependentOrigination.[36]

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ThoughinTheravādaliteraturethereisnomentionofanactualpictorialexecutionofa”WheelofLife,”yettheconceptofcomparingDependentOriginationtoawheelisnotunknown.InthePathofPurification(Visuddhimagga),thefamouscommentatorBuddhaghosaĀcariyasays:

“Itisthebeginninglessroundofrebirthsthatiscalledthe’Wheeloftheroundofrebirths’(saṃsāracakka).Ignorance(avijjā)isitshub(ornave)becauseitisitsroot.Ageing-and-death(jarā-maraṇa)isitsrim(orfelly)becauseitterminatesit.Theremainingtenlinks(oftheDependentOrigination)areitsspokes(i.e.karmaformations[saṅkhāra]uptoprocessofbecoming[bhava]).”[37]

Inanotherpassageofthesamework,thecomponentsofthewheelareassociatedwiththetwelvelinksofDependentOriginationinaslightlydifferentway:

“Itshubismadeofignoranceandcravingforbecoming(bhavataṇhā);itsspokesconsistofformationsofmeritetc.(puññādi-abhisaṅkhāra);itsrimisageing-and-death;itisjoinedtothechariotoftripleexistence(ti-bhava)bypiercingitwiththeaxlemadeoftheoriginofcankers(āsava-samudaya).[38]ThisWheeloftheRoundofRebirthshasbeenrevolvingthroughouttimethathasnobeginning.”[39]

Elsewhereinthesameworkitissaid:

“Becoming’sWheelrevealsnoknownbeginning;Nomaker,noexperienceristhere;Voidwithatwelve-foldvoidness,andnowhereIteverhalts;foreveritisspinning.”[40]

31

Asithasbeenrollingonfromtimeimmemorial“itstimesarethree,i.e.past,presentandfuture.Thefirsttwo(ofthetwelve)factorsasgiveninthePālitext,namelyignoranceandformations,belongtothepasttime;thefollowingeight,beginningwithconsciousnessandendingwithbecoming,belongtothepresenttime;thelasttwo,birthandageing-and-death,belongtothefuturetime.”[41]

V.TheSignificanceoftheWheel

Inordertounderstandthesignificanceofthewheelitmustberememberedthatitwasinsomeformorotheroriginallyconnectedwiththesolardisc.IntheṚgveda,Sūryaisdescribedasachariothavingonewheel.[42]ItisthissolarsymbolconceivedasachariotwheelthatlaterbecametheweaponofVishnu,thedeifiedformofSūrya,theworld-conqueringdivinewheeloftheuniversalmonarchandtheWheelofLawoftheBuddha.Further,intheṚgveda,Mitra(anotherformofSūrya)isdescribedastheeyeoftheworld.Thusthesuntraversingthroughspaceisconceivedastheeyethatwatchesandilluminatestheentireworld.[43]Henceinonesensethewheel(cakka)aswellastheeye(cakṣu;Pāli:cakkhu)aresynonymous.InthisconnectionitisinterestingtonotethattherealisationoftheTruthisvery

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oftendescribedascakkhuṃudapādi—theeyeofwisdomdawned.Heretheeyeisthewisdom(paṭivedha-ñāṇa)

Inthisconnectiontheinterpretationoftheterm“turningofthewheelofDhamma”inthecommentariesofBuddhaghosaisofsignificance.Herethewheelisconceivedasintellect,knowledge,wisdom,insight(ñāṇa)whichistwofold—paṭivedha-ñāṇa,thewisdomofself-realisationoftheTruthanddesanā-ñāṇa,thewisdomofproclamationoftheTruth—bothofwhichareaprerogativeoftheBuddha.Paṭivedha-ñāṇaisfurtherexplainedasbornofintellect(paññābhāvitaṃ)andbringingthefruitofHoliness(ariyaphalāvahaṃ)tooneself.Ontheotherhand,desanā-ñāṇa,thewisdomoftheproclamationoftheTruth,isbornofcompassionandbringsforththefruitofHolinessinthedisciples(karuṇāphalabhāvitaṃsāvakānaṃariyaphalāvaham).Theformerissupermundane(lokuttara)andthelattermundane(lokiya).[44]

Paṭivedhañāṇaisfurtherexplainedasthatwhichisinthecourseofbeingrealised(uppajjamānaṃ)andthatwhichisrealised(uppannaṃ).[45]FromthetimewhentheBodhisattaasthehermitSumedhaatthefeetoftheformerBuddhaDīpaṅkararesolvedtoachievePerfection,uptothetimeofrealisationofthePathofArahatship(arahattamagga),thedhamma-cakkaisdescribedasbeinginthecourseofrealisation.ThemomentwhenhefinallyrealisedthefruitofArahatship(arahattaphala)attheBodhi-maṇḍala,thedhamma-cakkawasrealised.Similarly,desanāñāṇatooistwofold.Itisdescribedasbeingproclaimeduptothetime

33

Aññākoṇḍañña,oneofthegroupoffivemonkstowhomtheBuddhapreachedtheFirstSermon,reachedthefruitofArahatship.ThemomentwhenheobtainedthefruitofArahatshipthedhamma-cakkaisdescribedasproclaimed(pavattitaṃ).ThustheturningofthewheeloflawinBuddhismhasthesenseofrealising(paṭivedha-ñāṇa)andproclaimingthetruth(desanā-ñāṇa).

NowitisclearthatthewheelsymbolisusedtosignifythedoctrineaswellasmanyotherconceptsassociatedwithBuddhism.Astheidealwheeloftheuniversalmonarch,itassistshimtoconquertheworldbyrighteousmeans.Itishissymbolofpower(ājñā-cakra).InBuddhistdoctrineitsymbolisesthedoctrineaswellastheBuddhaasdhammakāya.Thenitsignifiesvariousotherconceptssuchasthecycleofbirths(saṃsāraorbhava)incloseassociationwiththedoctrineofDependentOrigination(paṭiccasamuppāda).ThusthewheelsymbolcametobeacceptedasthemostappropriatesymboloftheBuddhists,bothinphysicalaswellasmetaphysicalspheres.Hencetheancientsdescribedthewheel—bothinthesenseofratana-cakkaaswellasdhamma-cakkaas:

Richinornamentation,incalculableinvalue,Unparalleled,asightrarelyseen,Associatedsolelywithsupremebeings,It’saptlycalledRatana,agemsupreme.

Cittīkataṃmahagghañca—atulaṃdullabhadassanaṃ,

34

Anomasattaparibhogaṃ—Ratanaṃtenapavuccati.[46]

35

Plates

Fig.1:AperfectformoftheWheelsustainedbyaSatti(nandipāda),Sāñchī;1stcenturyA.C.

36

Fig.2:AsokaWheel,Sārnāth;3rdcenturyB.C.

Fig.3:Awheeladornedwithchattaandsattimotif,Sāñchī;1stc.A.C.

Fig.4:Eight-spokedwheel,adornedwithchattaandsatti

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motif,Sāñchī;1stcenturyA.C.

Fig.5:Wheeladornedwithchattaandsattimotif,Amarāvati;2ndcenturyA.C.

Fig.6:Tibetandharma-cakra.

Fig.7.Amodernwheelsymbol.

Fig.8:Stūpasurmountedwithchattaandsatti,thelatterbearingflags,Sāñchī;1stcenturyA.C.

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Fig.9:Stūpasurmountedwithchattaandkusumadāma-satti,Sāñchī;1stcenturyA.C.

Fig.10:Sattibearingaflag-detailfromabas-relief,Sāñchī;1stcenturyA.C.

Fig.11:Kusumadāma-satti;detailfromabas-relief,Sāñchī;1stcenturyA.C.

Fig.12:Adiagramshowingtheevolutionofthechattaandsattimotif.

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Fig.13:Solarsymbolfromacoin;3rdcenturyB.C.

Fig.14:Wheeladornedwithacircleofchattas,fromacoin;3rdcenturyB.C.

Fig.15:Chattaandsattimotiffromacoin;3rdcenturyB.C.

Fig.16:Wheeladornedwithsatti;1stcenturyA.C.

40

Fig.17:Lionfacewithinanarch—adetailfromabas-relief,Amarāvati;2ndcenturyA.C.

41

42

Fig.18:Wheelonalionpillaradornedwithgarlands,Sāñchī;1stcenturyA.C.

Fig.19:Dhamma-cakkashrine—abas-relieffromBārhut;2ndcenturyA.C.

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Fig.20:FootPrint,Amarāvati;2ndcenturyA.C.

Fig.21:FootPrint,Amarāvati;2ndcenturyA.C.

Fig.22:FootPrint,Anurādhapura;2ndcenturyA.C.

FigureSourcesFigs.13,14and15aredrawnafterFigs.5,6and13ofPlateIofTheBeginningsofBuddhistArtbyAlfredFoucher.

AllillustrationsfromSāñchīaredrawnfromphotographsappearinginTheMonumentsofSāñchīby

44

SirJohnMarshallandAlfredFoucher.

FortheoriginalsofFigs.20and21seeSculpturefromAmarāvatīintheBritishMuseumbyDouglasBarretteandTheBuddhistStūpaatAmarāvatīandJaggeyyapeṭabyJ.Burgess.

Fig.19isafteranillustrationfromTheArtofIndianAsiabyHeinrichZimmer.

Fig.22isafreehanddrawingafterapieceofsculpturefromtheNationalMuseumofSriLanka,Colombo.

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Notes

1. Papañcasūdani,Part2,p.27ff.(P.T.S.).

Sampattiyaṃlakkhaṇañca—rathangeiriyāpatheDāneratanadhammūra—cakkādīsucadissati.

2. DharmapradīpikāvaeditedbytheVenerableWeliwitiyeSorathaMahaThera,p.186.

3. DīghaNikāya,Vol.II,p.172,(P.T.S.).

4. Ibid.,p.172.

5. SirJohnMarshallandA.Foucher,TheMonumentsofSāñchī,Vol.3,PlateLXXIV,Fig3.a.

6. Sumaṅgalavilāsinī,Part2,p.617ff.(P.T.S.),(CommentarytotheMahāpadānaSutta).

7. Mahābodhivaṃsa,(P.T.S),editedbyS.ArthurStrong,p.68.

8. Mahābodhivaṃsa,SinhalesescripteditionbytheVenerableP.SārānandaThero,1898,p.206.

9. SinhalaBodhivaṃsaya,editedbytheVenerableBaddegamaDhammaratanaThera,pp.204–205.

10. Mahābodhivaṃsa,(P.T.S),p.67ff.Inafootnote’satti’is

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givenasavariantreading.

11. SirJohnMarshallandA.Foucher,TheMonumentsofSāñchī,Vol.I,p.189.

12. A.Foucher,TheBeginningsofBuddhistArt,PlateI.

13. SirJohnMarshallandA.Foucher,TheMonumentsofSāñchī,Vol.I,p.109.

14. SirArthurCunningham,TheStūpaofBārhut,PlateXVII.

15. A.Foucher,TheBeginningsofBuddhistArt,PlateI.

16. Papañcasūdani,PartIII,p.365.(P.T.S.).

17. Sumaṅgalavilāsinī,PartII,p.617ff.

18. Sumaṅgalavilāsinī,(P.T.S.),Vol.2,p.447.

19. Mahābodhivaṃsa,(P.T.S.)ed.byArthurStrongp.67.AlsoseeSamantakūṭavaṇṇanāeditedbytheVenerableM.ÑānissaraThera,p.765.

20. Sumaṅgalavilāsinī,(P.T.S.),Part.II,p.618.

21. SirBenjaminRowland,TheArtandArchitectureofIndia,p.41.

22. Sumaṅgalavilāsinī,(P.T.S.),PartII,p.618.

23. HeinrichZimmer,ArtofIndianAsia,Vol.2,Pl.37.

24. SirBenjaminRowland,TheArtandArchitectureofIndia,p.42.

25. HeinrichZimmer,IndianAsia,Vol.2,Pl.80.

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26. Ibid.,Vol.2,Pl.96.

27. SirArthurCunningham,TheStūpaofBārhut,p.110.

28. DīghaNikāya,(P.T.S.),Vol.III,p.84.

29. SaṃyuttaNikāya,(P.T.S.),Vol.III,p.120.

30. Sumaṅgalavilāsinī(P.T.S.),PartII,p.445.

31. Dharmapradīpikāwa,editedbytheVenerableWeliwitiyeSorathaMahāThera,p.5.

32. Paramatthajotikā,p.216,(Sinhalascriptedition).

33. J.R.A.S.(C.B.),Vol.XXXI,pp.384–387.Alsoseefootnote.

34. A.K.Coomaraswamy,TheElementsofBuddhistIconography.

35. Divyāvadāna,editedbyE.B.CowellandR.A.Neill,(1886),p.300.

36. Marg,Vol.XVI,No.4,pp.19ff.Platefacingp.25.

37. Visuddhimagga,(texted.P.T.S.),Vol.I,p.198.(ThePathofPurification,tr.byÑāṇamoli,VII.8).

38. SeeMajjhimaNikāya,Sutta2:”WiththearisingofcankersthereisthearisingofIgnorance.”

39. VisuddhiMagga,Vol.I,p.198,(Translation:Ch.VII,§7).

40. Ibid,Vol.II,p.576,(Translation:Ch.XVII,§273).

41. Ibid,Vol.II,p.578,(Translation:Ch.XVII,§287).

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42. A.A.Macdonell,TheVedicMythology,pp.31and88.

43. Ibid.,p.30.

44. Manorathapurāṇī,(P.T.S.),Vol.I,p.120.

45. Papañcasūdanī,(P.T.S.),Vol.2,p.26.

46. Sāratthapakāsinī,(P.T.S.),Vol.3.p.152.(CommentaryonSaṃyuttaNikāya)

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2TheBuddhistWheelSymbol 3I.TheRatana-Cakka 4II.TheDhamma-Cakka 21III.TheLakkhaṇa-Cakka 25IV.TheBhava-Cakka 29V.TheSignificanceoftheWheel 32Plates 36

FigureSources 44Notes 46

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