TheBorgiasandTheirEnemies

ChristopherHibbert

TableofContents

FrontCover

TitlePage

TableofContents

...

Copyright

Contents

Chapter1

Chapter2

Chapter3

Chapter4

Chapter5

Chapter6

Chapter7

Chapter8

Chapter9

Chapter10

Chapter11

Chapter12

Chapter13

Chapter14

Chapter15

Chapter16

Chapter17

Chapter18

Chapter19

Chapter20

Chapter21

Chapter22

Chapter23

Chapter24

Chapter25

Chapter26

Chapter27

Chapter28

Chapter29

Bibliography

Index

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DataHibbert,Christopher,1924–

TheBorgiasandtheirenemies:1431–

1519/ChristopherHibbert.—1sted.p.cm.

Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.

1.Borgiafamily.2.Italy—

History—15thcentury.3.Italy—History—

1492–1559.4.Nobility—Italy—Biography.I.Title.DG463.8.B7H532008945'.050922—dc22

2008003076ISBN978-0-15-101033-2

TextsetinRequiemTextDesignedbyLydiaD'moch

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FirsteditionACEGIKJHFDB

ContentsCHAPTER1TheCrumblingCity[>]

CHAPTER2ElectionsandCelebrations[>]

CHAPTER3AManofEndlessVirility[>]

CHAPTER4ServantoftheServantofGod[>]

CHAPTER5MarriagesandAlliances[>]

CHAPTER6TheFrenchinRome[>]

CHAPTER7TheConquestofNaples[>]

CHAPTER8TheBorgiaBull[>]

CHAPTER9FatherandChildren[>]

CHAPTER10TheDominicanFriar[>]

CHAPTER11Murder[>]

CHAPTER12AnotherHusbandforLucrezia[>]

CHAPTER13TheUnwantedCardinal'sHat[>]

CHAPTER14Cesare'sFrenchBride[>]

CHAPTER15Conquests[>]

CHAPTER16Jubilee[>]

CHAPTER17DukeoftheRomagna[>]

CHAPTER18TheNaplesCampaign[>]

CHAPTER19TheDukeandtheBorgiaGirl[>]

CHAPTER20Frolicsand

Festivities[>]

CHAPTER21TheNewBride[>]

CHAPTER22CastlesandCondottieri[>]

CHAPTER23TheDeathofthePope[>]

CHAPTER24Conclaves[>]

CHAPTER25CesareatBay[>]

CHAPTER26DuchessofFerrara[>]

CHAPTER27TheEndoftheAffair[>]

CHAPTER28TheDeathoftheDuchess[>]

CHAPTER29SaintsandSinners[>]

Bibliography[>]

Index[>]

Chapter1TheCrumblingCity

"OHGOD,HOWPITIABLEISROME"

"YOUMUSTHAVEheardofthiscityfromothers,"wroteavisitortoRomeinthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury.

Therearemany

splendidpalaces,houses,tombsandtempleshere,andinfinitenumbersofotheredifices,buttheyareallinruins.Thereismuchporphyryandmarblefromancientbuildingsbuteverydaythesemarblesaredestroyedinascandalousfashionbybeingburnedtomakelime.

Andwhatismodernispoorstuff....Themenoftoday,whocallthemselvesRomans,areverydifferentinbearingandconductfromtheancientinhabitants....Theyalllooklikecowherds.

Othervisitorswroteofmoss-coveredstatues,ofdefacedandindecipherableinscriptions,of"partswithin

thewallsthatlooklikethickwoodsorcaveswhereforestanimalswerewonttobreed,ofdeerandharesbeingcaughtinthestreets...ofthedailysightofheadsandlimbsofmenwhohadbeenexecutedandquarteredbeingnailedtodoors,placedincagesorimpaledonspears."

Thiswasthestateofthecitythathadoncebeenthecapitalofamightyempire;nowtwo-

thirdsoftheareainsidethewalls,whichhadbeenbuilttoprotectapopulationof800,000,wasuninhabited,acresofopencountrysideusedfororchards,pasture,andvineyards,anddottedwithancientruins,whichprovidedsafehidingplacesforthievesandbandits.Andthiswasthestateofthetruehomeofthepope,theleaderofthechurchwhocouldtracehispredecessorsbackinan

unbrokenlinetoSt.Peter,theapostleentrustedbyChristhimselfwiththecareofhisflock.

Formostofthefourteenthcentury,eventhepapacyhadabandonedRome.In1305,distressedbytheunrestandbloodydisturbancesinthecity,theFrenchPopeClementV(1305–14)hadsetuphiscourtinAvignon,intheramblingpalaceonthe

eastbankoftheRhône,whichisknownasthePalaisdesPapes.InRometherehadbeenconstantcallsforthepapacytoreturnfromitsFrenchexile.Mostrecentlythesecallshadcomefromanelderlywoman,whocouldbeseenalmosteverydayinthecrumblingcity,sittingbythedooroftheconventofSanLorenzo,beggingforalmsforthepoor.

ShewasBirgittaGudmarsson,thedaughterofarichSwedishjudgeandwidowofaSwedishnobleman,towhomshehadbeenmarriedattheageofthirteenandforwhomshehadborneeightchildren.FounderoftheBrigittines,shehadleftSwedenafterexperiencingavisioninwhichChristhadappearedbeforeher,commandinghertoleaveimmediatelyfor

Romeandtoremainthereuntilshehadwitnessedthepope'sreturn.AsshewentaboutRome,fromchurchtocrumblingchurch,housetoruinoushouse,sheclaimedtohavehadfurthervisions;bothJesusandhismotherMary,shesaid,hadspokentoher,andtheyhadstrengthenedherfaithintherestorationofthepopeandintheeventualsalvationofthecity.

Aroundthehousewhereshelivedstretchedthecharredshellsofburned-outbuildings,pilesofrottingrefuse,desertedpalaces,derelictchurches,stagnantswamps,fortressesabandonedbytheirrichowners,whohadgonetoliveontheirestatesintheCampagna,hovelsoccupiedbyfamiliesonthevergeofstarvation.Pilgrimstookhomewiththemstoriesofa

gloomycity,whosesilencewasbrokenonlybythehowlingofdogsandwolves,andtheshoutsoframpagingmobs.

InAvignonthepopesremaineddeaftothecallsfortheirreturn,heedlessoftheprayersthatthesaintlyBirgittaGudmarssonutteredsoferventlyandofthelettersthatthepoetFrancescoPetrarchwrote,describingthe

"rubbishheapofhistory"thatRomehadbecome.Thisonce-superbimperialcapitalwasnowalawlessruin,acitytornbyviolenceinwhichbelligerentfactionsparadedthroughthestreetswithdaggersandswords,wherehouseswereinvadedandlootedbyarmedbands,pilgrimsandtravellerswererobbed,nunsviolatedintheirconvents,andlonglinesofflagellantsfiledthroughthe

gates,barefoot,theirheadscoveredincowls,claimingboardandlodgingbutofferingnomoney,scourgingtheirnakedbloodybacks,chantingfrighteninghymnsoutsidechurches,throwingthemselvesweeping,moaning,bleedingbeforethealtars.

Goatsnibbledattheweedsgrowingupbetweenthestoneslitteringthepiazzas

andflourishingintheovergrown,rat-infestedruinsoftheCampoMarzio;cattlegrazedbythealtarsofrooflesschurches;robberslurkedinthenarrowalleys;atnightwolvesfoughtwithdogsbeneaththewallsofSt.Peter'sanddugupcorpsesinthenearbyCampoSanto."OhGod,howpitiableisRome,"anEnglishvisitorlamented,"onceshewasfilledwithgreatnoblesandpalaces,now

withhuts,wolvesandvermin;andtheRomansthemselvesteareachothertopieces."

In1362,whilePetrarchwasurgingthepapacytoreturntoRome,asixthFrenchmanwaselectedtothelineofAvignonpopes:theaustereandunworldlyUrbanV.EncouragedbyEmperorCharlesIV,whoofferedtoaccompanyhim,herecognizedthenecessityof

return,notonlyforthesakeoftheneglectedanddecayingcitybutalsoforthepapacyitself,nowindangeratAvignon,bothfromthemercenarybandsroamingthroughoutwesternEuropeaswellasfromtheEnglish,whowerefightingtheFrenchinwarsthatweretolastintermittentlyforahundredyears.

Fiveyearsafterhiselection,

UrbanVtravelledacrosstheAlps,kneltinprayerbeforethegraveofSt.Peter,andtookupresidenceinthestuffy,dismalroomsthathadbeenpreparedforhimintheVaticanPalace.HisvisittoRome,however,wasbrief.Hefoundthecityevenmoredilapidatedanddepressingthanhehadfeared;and,feelingthathecouldundertaketheroleofmediatorbetweenEngland

andFrancemoreeffectivelyfromAvignonthanfromRome,hewentbacktoFrancein1370.HavingignoredBirgittaGudmarsson'swarningthathewoulddieifheabandonedthecity,hethenfulfilledherprophecybyexpiringwithinjustafewmonthsofhisreturntothePalaisdesPapes.

Itwashissuccessor,GregoryXI,another

FrenchmanandthelastoftheAvignonpopes,whofinallymovedtheCuriabacktoRome,fearfulthattheChurchandherestatesinItalywouldbelosttothepapacyforever.Hediedthere,however,inMarch1378,littlemorethanayearafterhisreturn,andhisdeathprovokedapapalelectionofextraordinaryanimosity.TerrifiedbytheRomanmob,whichhadinvadedtheVaticanduring

thecourseoftheconclave,thecardinalschosetheNeapolitanBartolomeoPrignano,whotookthetitleofUrbanVI.TheFrenchcardinals,however,refusedtoaccepthim,declaringtheelectioninvalidandelectingtheirowncandidate,aFrenchman,naturally,ClementVII.TheGreatSchismhadbegun;thelameandwall-eyedClementVIIreturnedtoAvignon,while

theroughandenergeticUrbanVIremainedinRome.

Bynowitwasnotjustthesightofthecity,littlemorethanadecayedprovincialtown,thatdistressedvisitors.CorruptionwasrifeintheChurchandshockedthepilgrimswhocametoRometoreceiveindulgences,whichwerenowbeingdispensedonanunprecedentedscale.Abandoningindespairtheir

attemptstoformastrongandstablepoliticalstate,theRomansallowedUrbanVI'ssuccessor,thecleverandavariciousBonifaceIX,anotherNeapolitan,toassumefullcontroloftheircity,toturntheVaticanaswellastheenlargedCastelSant'Angelointofortifiedstrongholds,andtoappointhisrelationsandfriendstopositionsofpowerandprofit.Onhisdeathin1404,fearof

thepowerfulKingdomofNaplesledtotheelectionofanotherpontiffknowntobeongoodtermswiththeking:theineffectiveInnocentVIIfromtheAbruzzi,againstwhomtheRomansrousedthemselvestorevoltinatragicuprisingthatwastoendinhumiliatingretreat;andafterthedeathofInnocentVIIin1406,theelectionofGregoryXII,aVenetianwhoseemeddisposedtocometo

termswiththeanti-popeinAvignon,ledtotheinvasionofRomein1413bythekingofNaples,whowasdeterminednottolosehisinfluencebyendingtheGreatSchism.

Meanwhile,afreshattempthadbeenstartedtoendtheschism,whichhaddividedEurope,bysummoningacounciloftheChurchatPisa.Thecouncil'ssolutionwasto

chargeboththeAvignonandRomanpopeswithheresyandtodeposethem.IntheirplacethecouncilelectedacardinalfromtheislandofCrete,PetrosPhilargos,whotookthetitleofAlexanderVandwhopromptlyadjournedthecouncil,whosedecisionwas,inanycase,notrecognizedbyeitherofhisrivals.Therewerenowthreepopesinsteadoftwo,eachclaiminglegitimatedescentfromSt.

Peterandeachofwhomexcommunicatedtheothers.

AsecondattempttodisentangletheimbrogliowasnowmadebyEmperorSigismund,whosummonedanotherChurchcouncilatConstance.BythistimeanewpopehadappearedonthesceneintheunlikelypersonofBaldassareCossa,successorofAlexanderV,thepopechosenatPisa,whomhe

waswidelysupposedtohavemurdered.Onceapirateandthenadissolutesoldier,JohnXXIIIwassensual,unscrupulous,andextremelysuperstitious.HecamefromanoldNeapolitanfamilyandestablishedhimselfinRomewiththehelpofamutuallysuspiciousalliancewiththekingofNaples.OnJune8,1413,inbreachoftheirunderstanding,thekingattackedRome,drivingthe

popeoutofthecity.JohnXXIIIfledwithhiscourtalongtheViaCassia,besidewhichseveralprelatesdiedofexhaustionandtherestwererobbedbytheirownmercenaries.Yetagain,thecitybehindthemwasplundered.TheNeapolitansoldiers,uncheckedbytheircommander,setfiretohouses,lootedthesacristyofSt.Peter's,stabledtheirhorsesinthisancientbasilica,

ransackedsanctuariesandchurches,andsatdownamidtheirlootwithprostitutes,drinkingwinefromconsecratedchalices.

JohnXXIIItravelledtothecouncilatConstance,wherehefoundhimselfaccusedofallmannerofcrimes,includingheresy,simony,tyranny,murder,andtheseductionofsometwohundredladiesofBologna.

AfterescapingfromConstanceintheguiseofasoldieroffortune,hewasrecognized,betrayed,andbroughtbacktofacethecouncil,whichdeposedbothhimandtheAvignonpopeandwhich,oncetheGermansandtheEnglishhadunitedwiththeItalianstokeepouttheFrench,managedtoelectanewpope,theRomanMartinV.

MartinVwasamemberoftheColonnafamily,oneoftheoldbaronialdynastiesofRome.Whenhereturnedtothecityin1420underapurplebaldachin,jestersdancedbeforehimandthepeopleranthroughthestreetswithflamingtorches,shoutingtheirwelcomelongintothenight.HewastoreigninRomeforovertenyears,followedbytwomoreItalians,EugeniusIVand

NicholasV.Therewashopeatlastthatanewagewasdawningforthecity.

NicholasV,whohadbeenelectedin1447,inappearanceatleastlookedpeculiarlyunsuitedforhisroleasthechampionofthisnewage.Small,pale,andwithered,hewalkedwithstoopedshoulders,hisbrightblackeyesdartingnervousglancesaroundhim.Butno

onedoubtedeitherhisgenerosityorhiskindliness,justasallthosewhoknewhimpraisedhispietyandhislearning:"Heowedhisdistinctionnottohisbirth,"wroteonecontemporary,"buttohiseruditionandintellectualqualities."TheyalsopraisedhisdeterminationtoreconciletheChurchwiththesecularcultureoftheburgeoningRenaissance,sendinghisagentsallover

Europeandbeyondinhissearchformanuscriptsoftheliteraryandtheoreticalworksofantiquity,manyofwhichwerepreservedinmonasticlibraries,andthengenerouslyrewardingthehumanistscholarswhotranslatedandcopiedtheseancienttexts.

TheRomeofNicholasV,however,wasstillacrumbling,dirtymedievalcity,bitterlycoldinwinter,

whenthetramontanablewacrossthefrozenmarshes,unhealthyinsummerwhenmalariawasrife.Theinhabitants,alargeproportionofthemforeignersandmanyoftherestbornoutsidethecity,numberednomorethan40,000,lessthanatwentiethofthepopulationthathadlivedinRomeinthedaysofEmperorNero.Thecitywassmallalsobythestandardsofthetime—Florencehada

populationof50,000,whereasVenice,oneofthelargestcitiesinEurope,couldboastover100,000inhabitants.Rome,however,wasthetrueheartoftheChristianworld,andthosewhomadethelongpilgrimagethereeachyearprovidedthecitywithitsonehighlyprofitabletrade.

Atthebeginningof1449,NicholasVproclaimeda

HolyYearfor1450,andthesurgeofpilgrimswhocametoRometocelebratetheJubileebroughtimmenseprofitstotheChurch—notleastfromthesaleofindulgences.Somuchmoney,infact,thatNicholasVwasabletodeposit100,000goldensovereignsintheMedicibankandtocontinueconfidentlywithhisplanstorestorethecity.InthejudgementofEneaSilvio

Piccolomini,thecardinalofSiena,"hebuiltmagnificentedificesinhiscity,thoughhestartedmorethanhefinished."

ThefocusofNicholasV'snewChristiancapitalwasSt.Peter's,thechurchbuiltbyEmperorConstantineoverthetombofthefirstpopeandrestoredbyNicholas.HealsomovedhisofficialresidencefromtheLaterantothe

VaticanPalace,andtheinfluxofartistswhocametoRometoworkonhisprojectswassoontomakethecityaleadingcentreforgoldsmithsandsilversmiths,aswellaspaintersandsculptors.ItalsobecamehomeforatimetoFraAngelico,whodecoratedNicholasV'slovelyprivatechapelintheVaticanwithscenesfromthelivesoftwoearlyChristianmartyrs,St.StephenandSt.Laurence.

ThissmallandsaintlyDominicanfriarknelttopraybeforestartingtopainteachmorningandwassoovercomewithemotionwhenpaintingChristupontheCrossthattearspoureddownhischeeks.

Chapter2ElectionsandCelebrations

"THEREWASNOTAPLACEWHEREHORNS

ANDTRUMPETSDIDNOTSOUND"

SHORTLYAFTERTHEDEATHofNicholasV,onMarch24,1455,therewasheldinRome

theannualceremonyoftheExpositionoftheVernicle,thehandkerchiefthatwasallegedtohavebelongedtoSt.Veronica.TraditionhaditthatwhenshewipedthesweatfromChrist'sfaceonhiswaytoCalvary,hisfeaturesweremiraculouslyimpresseduponherhandkerchief.AfewdayslaterthosecardinalsresidentinRome,andsuchothersashadbeenabletoreachthe

cityintime,tookpartinthemagnificentprocession,accompaniedbythepapalchoirintoningthehymn"VeniCreatorSpiritus,"fromSt.Peter'stotheVatican,wheretheywouldchooseNicholasV'ssuccessor.Trumpetssounded;drumswerebeaten;thecardinalsenteredtheapartmentswheretheconclavewastotakeplace;thedoorswerelocked;theentrancesbrickedup;and

thediscussionsandargumentsbegan.

Hourafterhourthetalkswenton.Promisesweremade,veiledthreatsissued,bribesoffered.Nightfellandnodecisionwasreached.NoagreementwaspossiblebetweenthemutuallyantagonisticcandidatessupportedbytherivalRomanbarons,theColonnaandOrsinifamilies.Manyhoped

fortheelectionoftheelderly,frailJohnBessarion,whosufferedexcruciatinglyfromkidneystones,acommoncomplaintofthetime.HewasadistinguishedtheologianandhumanistwhohadbeenbroughtupasamemberoftheOrthodoxChurchbuthadrecentlyconvertedtoRome."ShallwegivetheLatinChurchtoaGreekPope?"askedoneoftheFrenchcardinalsintheconclave.

"Howcanwebesurethathisconversionissincere?"headded."ShallhebetheleaderoftheChristianarmy?"

Atlengthacompromisewasproposed:itwasdecidedtosupportthecandidatureofamanwhowouldprobablynotlivelong.Thenamesoftwoelderlycandidatesemergedinthediscussions;bothwereconsideredunobjectionable,althoughbothwere

unfortunatelySpaniardsand,therefore,notlikelytoproveapopularchoicewiththeRomanpeople,notoriouslyhostiletotheCatalans,asSpaniardsweregenerallyknown.Ofthesetwo,thelessobjectionablewasthemodestandscholarlybishopofValencia,anditwashewhowaseventuallychosentosucceedNicholasV.

Againthetrumpetsinthe

piazzaofSt.Peter'ssounded;acloudofsmokeroseintotheskyasasignalthattheconclavehadcometoaconclusion,anditwasgreetedwithshoutsbythelargecrowdgatheredthere;therecentlyerectedbrickworkwasknockeddown.Thedoorsopenedandthedeanofthecollegeofcardinalsappearedtoannouncetheconclave'sdecision:"Iproclaimtoyougreatjoy,"he

said,"wehaveanewpope,LordAlfonsodeBorja,BishopofValencia;hedesirestobeknownasCalixtustheThird."

TheBorjas,orBorgiasastheywereknowninItaly,wereafamilyofsomeconsequenceinSpain,descended,astheyclaimed,fromtheancientroyalHouseofAragon.Alfonso,bornin1378,wasthesonofthe

ownerofanestateatJátivanearValencia;hehadstudiedandthentaughtlawatLéridaand,attheageofthirty-eight,hadbeenappointedtotheprestigiouspostofprivatesecretarytoKingAlfonsoVofAragon,inwhoseservicehewastoremainforforty-twoyears.Hehelpedtoarrangetheabdicationoftheanti-popeClementVIII,thuspavingthewayfortheendingoftheGreatSchism,andwas

giventhebishopricofValenciaasarewardforhisservices.In1442hemovedtoNaples,stillintheserviceofhisking,whohadconqueredthecitytobecomeAlfonsoIofNaples.

Astheking'sprivatesecretary,hewascloselyinvolvedinthenegotiationstoreconcilehismasterwithPopeEugeniusIV,whorewardedAlfonsoBorgia

withacardinal'shatandthesplendidtitularChurchofSantiQuattroCoronati.BythetimeoftheconclaveofApril1455,hewaslivinginRome,anaustere,modest,andincreasinglygoutyoldmaninhislateseventies,insuchpoorhealththatitwasdoubtedthathewouldsurvivethearduousceremoniesofhiscoronation.TheseinvolvedalongserviceinSt.Peter'sduringwhichhe

wouldreceivefromthecardinalarchdeacontheTripleCrownandCross,theKeys,andtheMantleofJurisdiction.ThiscoronationwouldbefollowedbyalongprocessiontotheChurchofSanGiovanniinLaterano,where,inanotherlengthyceremony,thenewpopewouldbeenthronedasbishopofRome.

TheprocessionfromSt.

Peter'stotheLateran,knownasthepossesso,wasoneofthemostcolourfuland,totheRomanpopulace,excitingsightsthatthecityhadtooffer.Vaticanguardsandchoristers,precededbyfalconerswiththeirhawksandratcatcherswithdogstocleartheverminfromthelow-lyinglandbytheTiber,marchedalongthestreets,followedbythebearersofsweet-smellingherbs.Then

cametheofficialsofthegovernmentofRome,thebishopsandcardinals,and,finally,PopeCalixtusIIIhimself,ridingasaddlehorsebeneathacanopyofgoldsupportedbydignitariesandescortedbylancersandfootsoldiers,tokeepatadistancetheimportunatecrowdsofsightseers.

WaitingastheprocessionapproachedMonteGiordano

stoodarabbitogetherwithacrowdofhisfellowJews,who,ascustomdictated,offeredthepopeabejewelledcopyoftheTorah,thebookoftheJewishlaws.CalixtusIIIacceptedit,thenthrewittothegroundwiththetraditionalwords,"Thisisthelawweknow;butwedonotacceptyourinterpretationofit."Ashespoke,anumberofonlookersscrambledtotakepossessionofthebook

beneaththepalfreyandthehorsesoftheguards.

BythestepsoftheChurchofSanGiovanniinLaterano,CalixtusIIIkneltdownsubmissively,ashiswhite-and-goldvestmentswereremovedtobereplacedbyablacksoutane.Heraisedhishandsinagestureofbenedictionasafightbrokeout,asitsooftendid,betweentherivalsupporters

oftheconstantlyfeudingOrsiniandColonnafamilies.

Nosoonerhadhebeenelected,thenewpopenowsethisheartupontheorganizationofacrusadethatwouldfreeConstantinoplefromthegripoftheTurks,whohadcapturedthecityinMay1453."HevowedtofocusallhiseffortsagainstthehereticTurks,"wroteEneaSilvioPiccolomini,

whomCalixtusIIIcreatedthecardinalofSiena,"givingabsolutionforthesinsofallwhoenlisted."Thepope'sdeterminationsurprisedmany;itwaswellknownthathewassufferingincreasinglyfrompainfulattacksofgout,andithadbeenexpectedthathewouldcontinuetoliveaquietandpiouslifeintheVatican,ratherthanembarkonsuchanambitiousventure.

Moneywasraisedbytheimpositionoftaxesandbythesellingofworksofart,includingthepreciousbookbindingsthathadbeenboughtatsuchexpensebyNicholasV;CalixtusIIIwentsofarastopawnhisownmitreandsentnumerouspreachersarmedwithindulgencesalloverEurope;healsoputastoptovariousworksofrestorationandrebuildinginRome,whichhadbeen

initiatedbyhispredecessor.

Self-willed,parsimonious,andobstinate,CalixtusIIIwouldtoleratenooppositionfromthosecardinalswhowereopposedtohisbellicoseambitions,andintheendheraisedenoughfundstofinancethebuildingofgalleysandtomustertroopsfortheconductofaholywar.Yetwhilehissoldiersandsailorsenjoyedsomeminor

successes,includingthedefeatofaTurkisharmyoutsideBelgradeinJuly1456andthepartialdestructionofaTurkishfleetoffLesbosinAugustthefollowingyear,hisambitionswerenotsharedbyalltheEuropeanpowers,manyofwhomfailedtocontributeeithermoneyormentothescheme.Moreover,thefavourshebestoweduponhisrelationsandhisfellowSpaniards,the

hatedCatalans,hadbeguntocausewidespreadresentmentinRome.

Threeofhisnephewsreceivedspecialfavour.Twowerecreatedcardinalsbeforetheywerethirtyyearsold,andCalixtusIIIappointedoneofthem,RodrigoBorgia,tothepostofvice-chancelloroftheHolySee,themostinfluentialofficeinthepapalgovernment.Thethird,Pedro

LuisBorgia,elderbrotherofRodrigo,wasgiventhetitleDukeofSpoletoandappointedcaptaingeneralofthechurch,prefectofRome,andgovernorofRome'sgreatfortress,CastelSant'Angelo.

CalixtusIII'sdeathonAugust6,1458—justthreeyearsafterhiselevation,inthesmall,darkbedchamberwhereillhealthhadobligedhimtospendsomuchofhis

time—wasgreetedbyriotsinRome,inprotestagainstthedetestedCatalanswhomhehadsoprovocativelyindulged.OnceagainthecardinalsconvergedonRometoplaytheirpartinaconclaveatwhich,soitwashoped,apopewouldbeelectedinwhomthepapacyandRome,bynowindissolublyinterwoven,couldtakepride.

Atthisconclavethedivisionswithinthecollegeweregreaterthantheyhadbeenthreeyearsearlier:"Thericherandmoreimportantcardinals,"asEneaSilvioPiccolomini,thecardinalofSiena,recalled,"madepromisesandthreats,andsome,shamelesslyabandoningallvestigesofdecency,pleadedtheirowncasesforelection."Guillaumed'Estouteville,thewealthy

cardinalofRouen,offeredtemptingprizes:"NotafewwerewonoverbyRouen'sgrandiosepromises,caughtlikefliesbytheirgreed,"andtheyschemedallnightinthecommunallavatories,"beingasecludedandprivateplace."

Earlythenextmorning,thecardinalofSienawenttovisittheyoungSpaniardRodrigoBorgia,thevice-chancellor,toaskhimifhe,too,was

promisedtoRouen."Whatwouldyouhavemedo?"respondedBorgia,whohadbeenassuredbyd'Estoutevillethathewouldkeepthelucrativepostofvice-chancellorinreturnforhisvote:"Theelectioniscertain."Piccolominicautionedthetwenty-seven-year-oldRodrigo:"Youyoungfool,willyouputfaithinamanwhoisnottobetrusted?Youmayhavethe

promisebutitistheCardinalofAvignonwhowillhavethepost,forwhathasbeenpromisedtoyouhasalsobeenpromisedtohim,"hesaid,addingwisely,"WillaFrenchmanbemorefriendlytoaFrenchmanortoaCatalan?"

ThenextdayafterMass,thecardinalsassembledinthepapalchapeltocasttheirvotes,andwhentheyhad

writtentheirchoicesonslipsofpaper,theyrose,onebyone,inorderofrank,andwalkedacrosstothealtar,wheretheyplacedtheirvotesinthegildedceremonialchalice.Thevotingover,thecardinalsresumedtheirseatsandthenamesoneachballotpaperweresolemnlyreadout."Therewasnotacardinalintheroomwhodidnottakenoteofthosenamed,toensurethattherewasno

chancefortrickery."Muchtoeveryone'ssurprise,itwasfoundthatPiccolominihadamassedninevotes,d'Estoutevillehadjustsix,andseveralothershadoneortwo.Asneitherofthefront-runnershadachievedthenecessarytwo-thirdsmajority,thecardinalsdecidedtoseeifitwouldbepossibletoelectthenewpopethatmorningbythemethodknownas"accession."

"Allsatintheirplaces,silentandpale,asthoughtheyhadbeenstrucksenseless.Noonespokeforsometime,noonesomuchasmovedamuscleapartfromhiseyeswhichglancedfirsttooneside,thentotheother.Thesilencewasastonishing.SuddenlytheyoungRodrigoBorgiastoodup:'IaccedetotheCardinalofSiena,'heannounced."Butafterthisdeclaration,allfellinto

silenceoncemore,untiltwocardinals,reluctanttocommitthemselves,hurriedlylefttheothers,"pleadingthecallsofnature."

ThenanothercardinalrosetoannouncehissupportforPiccolomini.Yeteventhisdidnotsecurethenecessarytwo-thirdsmajority.Onemorevotewasstillrequired.Noonespoke;noonemoved.AtlengththeagedProspero

Colonnaroseunsteadilytohisfeetand"wasabouttopronouncehisvote"forthecardinalofSienawhen"hewasseizedaboutthewaist"bythewily,ambitiousFrenchmanGuillaumed'Estouteville,archbishopofRouen,andbyCardinalBessarion,whostillentertainedhopesofbeingelectedhimself.TheyrebukedCardinalColonnaharshly;andwhenhe

persistedinhisintentiontovoteforPiccolomini,theytriedtoremovehimfromtheroombyforce.Provokedbythisindignity,Colonna,whohadvotedford'Estoutevilleinthescrutiny,nowcalledoutinloudprotest,"IalsoaccedetoSienaandImakehimPope."

"YourHoliness,wearethankfulforyourelectionandwehavenodoubtsthatitisof

God,"CardinalBessarionequivocated,aftertheelectionhadbeenratifiedaccordingtocustom."Thereasonwedidnotvoteforyouwasyourillness;wethoughtthatyourgoutwouldbeahandicapfortheChurchwhichstandsinmuchneedofanactivemanwithphysicalstrength,"heexplained."You,ontheotherhand,needrest."Piccolominirespondedwithdignity:"Whatisdonebytwo-thirds

oftheSacredCollegeissurelytheworkoftheHolySpirit,"hesaid,beforeremovinghiscardinal'sredrobesanddonningthe"whitetunicofChrist."Whenhewasaskedbywhatnamehewishedtobeknown,heannounced"Pius,"andhiselectionwasproclaimedtothecrowdsgatheredinthepiazzainfrontofSt.Peter's.

ThatnightofAugust19,

1458,therewasgreatrejoicinginthestreetsandpiazzasofRome,asmenandwomencelebratedthenewsthatanItalianhadbeenchosenratherthanaFrenchmanoranotherSpaniard:

Therewaslaughterandjoyeverywhereandvoicescrying"Siena!Siena!Oh,fortunateSiena!Viva

Siena!"...Asnightfell,bonfiresblazedateverycrossroads...mensanginthestreets;neighbourfeastedneighbour;therewasnotaplacewherehornsandtrumpetsdidnotsound,noraquarterofthecitythatwasnotalivewithpublicjoy.Theoldermensaidtheyhadnever

seensuchpopularrejoicingsinRomebefore.

Piccolomini,prematurelyoldatfifty-three,hadupuntilnowledamoreorlessdissolutelife.Hewasthefatherofseveralbastardsandhaddistinguishedhimselfasadiplomat,orator,andwriterratherthanasachurchman;hewastheauthorof,amongotherworks,awidelyread

novel,EuryalusandLucretia;adistinguishedseriesofbiographies,OnFamousMen;hisownmemoirs;abookonthecorrectwaytoeducateyoungboys;andahistoryofBohemia—thislastworkhewrotewhilerestingatthefamousbathsatViterbo,wherehehopedtoeasehisgout"butnotexpectingacure,becausethisillness,onceithasbecomechronicandfirmlyrooted,is

onlyendedbydeath."

Hehadreceivedhiscardinal'shatatChristmas1456andjustovereighteenmonthslaterhadenteredtheconclavewithquietconfidencethathewouldbeelected;andwhilepreparedtopromotetheinterestsoffriendsandfamily,andtoindulgetheirwhims,inthemannerofsomanyofhispredecessors,hewasalso

determinedtobecomeaworthyoccupantofhisholyoffice.Heundertooktobearalwaysinmindthewordshehadspokentoafriendwhenhewasordaineddeaconandhadacceptedthatthechastityheconfessedtodreadmustnowreplacehisformerlicentiousness."Idonotdenymypast.Ihavebeenagreatwandererfromwhatisright,butatleastIknowitandhopethattheknowledgehasnot

cometoolate."

Likehispredecessor,hehadthesameoverridingambition:"Ofalltheintentionshehadatheart,therewasnonesodearasthatofincitingChristiansagainsttheTurksanddeclaringwaronthem."HediscussedatlengththemeansofachievingtheorganizationofacrusadethatcouldresisttheadvanceoftheTurksintoEuropewith

RodrigoBorgia,whosepositionasvice-chancelloroftheChurchPiusIIhadconfirmedwithinhoursofhiselection,ingratefulthanksforRodrigo'ssupportintheconclave.

Chapter3AManofEndless

Virility

"THEDANCESWEREIMMODEST

ANDTHESEDUCTIONOFLOVEBEYONDBOUNDS"

THEMOSTTALENTEDofCalixtusIII'snephews,RodrigoBorgiahadbeencreatedacardinalat

theageoftwenty-five.HehadmadeabriefstudyofcanonlawatBolognaUniversity,wherehetookhisdegreeafterlessthanayear'sresidence,which,sincethenormalcourseofstudywasfiveyears,ledtoawidespreadsuppositionthatmoneyhadexchangedhands,anotunusualoccurrence.

NordidRodrigoBorgia'sappointmenttotheinfluential

andlucrativepositionofvice-chancellorattheageoftwenty-seven,afteranequallybriefmilitarycareer,passwithoutangrycomplaint;norhadhisappointmenttohisuncle'svaluableseeofValencia.Yetithadtobeconcededthatwhilenepotismhadbeenlargelyresponsiblefortheseappointments,Rodrigowasahighlycompetentadministrator,"anextraordinarilyableman,"as

PiusIIcommented,andthatifindeedhedidtakeimmoderatecaretoensurethathistenureintheofficeofvice-chancellorwasanextremelyprofitableone—thankstothebribeshereadilyacceptedforallmanneroffavours,fromthearrangingofdivorcestothelicensingofincestuousmarriagesbymeansofforgeddocuments—itcouldnotbedeniedthatheperformedthedutiesofthe

postconscientiously.Hewasenormouslyrich,withatasteforextravagance;asJacopoGherardidaVolterracommented:

Borgia'svariousoffices,hisnumerousabbeysinItalyandSpain,andhisthreebishopricsofValencia,PortoandCartagenayieldhimavastfortune;anditis

saidthatthattheofficeofVice-Chancelloralonebringshimin8,000goldflorins.Hisplate,hispearls,hisclothesembroideredwithsilkandgold,andhisbooksineverydepartmentoflearningareverynumerous,andallaremagnificent.Ineednotmentionthe

innumerablebed-hangings,thetrappingsofhishorses...thegoldembroideries,therichnessofhisbeds,histapestriesinsilverandsilk,norhismagnificentclothes,northeimmenseamountofgoldhepossesses.

"Beautifulwomenare

attractedtohiminamostremarkableway,morepowerfullythanironisdrawntothemagnet,"wroteoneobserver.Hewasalso,intheguardedwordsofJohannesBurchard,wholaterbecamehismasterofceremonies,amanof"endlessvirility."Itwaswellknownthathissexualappetitewasconsumingandthatattractivewomenwhocametohimforadviceorfavoursweremore

thanlikelytotakepartinsuchorgiesasthosethatwerebroughttothenoticeofPiusII,whothusadmonishedhisvice-chancellorintheseterms:

WehavelearnedthatthreedaysagoalargenumberofwomenofSiena,adornedwithallworldlyvanity,assembledinthegardensof...

GiovannidiBichio,andthatyourEminence,incontemptofthedignityofyourposition,remainedwiththemfromoneo'clockuntilsixandthatyouwereaccompaniedbyanothercardinal....Wearetoldthatthedanceswereimmodestandthe

seductionoflovebeyondboundsandthatyouyourselfbehavedasthoughyouwereoneofthemostvulgaryoungmenoftheage....IshouldblushtorecordallthatIhavebeentold.Themerementionofsuchthingsisadishonourtotheofficeyouhold.Inordertohavemore

freedomforyouramusementsyouforbadeentrytothehusbands,fathers,brothersandothermalerelationswhocamewiththeseyoungwomen....ItseemsatpresentnothingelseisspokenofinSiena....Wearemoreangrythanwecansay....Yourbehaviourgivesa

pretexttothosewhoaccuseusofusingourwealthandourhighofficefororgies....TheVicarofChristhimselfisanobjectofscornbecauseitisbelievedhecloseshiseyestotheseexcesses....Yourulethepontificalchancellery;andwhatrendersyourbehaviourmore

reprehensibleisthatyouareclosetous,theSovereignPontiff,asVice-ChancelloroftheHolySee.Weleaveittoyourownjudgementtosayifitbefitsyourhighofficetoflauntwithwomen,todrinkamouthfulofwineandthenhavetheglasscarriedtothewomanwhopleasesyoumost,tospenda

wholedayasadelightedspectatorofallkindsoflewdgames....Yourfaultsreflectuponus,anduponCalixtus,youruncleofhappymemory,whoisaccusedofagravefaultofjudgementforhavingladenyouwithundeservedhonours.LetyourEminencethendecidetoputan

endtothesefrivolities.

Rodrigohadnointentionofputtinganendtosuch"frivolities";buthedidtakeconsiderablymorecareinthefuturenottotakepartintheminplacesorincompanyfromwhichreportswerelikelytoreachtheearsofthesternPiusII.SuchentertainmentsasthoseenjoyedinthegardenatSienawerenowtobeheld

withinthewallsofhisluxuriouspalace,whichthevice-chancellor'snewwealth,bothlegitimatelyandfraudulentlyacquired,enabledhimtobuildinRome.

DuringEasterweekin1462,agrandprocessionwasheldinRometoescorttheskullofSt.Andrew,brotherofSt.Peter,whichPiusIIhadacquiredaftertherelichad

beensavedfromtheTurksinvadingGreece."SuchcrowdshadblockedthestreetsthatthesoldiersguardingthePope,whowerearmedwithtruncheons,werehardlyabletoopenapathforhim."Thewholecitywasadorned.Narrowstreetswere"coveredwithcanopiesandbranchesofgreenerytoshadethemfromthesunandallthehousesweredeckedwithhangingsandtapestriesin

canopies,"wrotePiusII."EveryoneviedwitheachotherindoinghonourtotheApostle."Ofallthemagnificentlyornamentedpalacesalongtheroute,nonewasmorelavishlydecoratedthanthatofCardinalRodrigoBorgia.Asthepopewroteinhismemoirs:

Allthecardinalswholivedalongtherouteoftheprocessionhad

decoratedtheirhousessplendidly....ButallwereeclipsedincostandingenuitybythatofRodrigo,theVice-Chancellor.Hishugetoweringhouse,builtonthesiteoftheancientmint,wasbedeckedwithmarvellousandcostlytapestries....Hehaddecoratedhisneighbours'housesas

wellashisown,sothatthesurroundingsquarewastransformedintoasortofpark,filledwithmusicandsongandhisownpalaceseemedtobegleamingwithgold,suchastheysaytheEmperorNero'spalaceoncedid.

TheinterioroftheBorgia

palacewasequallysplendid.Onevisitordescribedtheever-increasingmagnificence:

Thewallsoftheentrancehallarehungwithtapestriesdepictingvarioushistoricalscenes.Asmalldrawing-room,alsodecoratedwithfinetapestries,leadsoffit.Thecarpetsonthefloorharmonize

withthefurniture,whichincludesasumptuousday-bedupholsteredinredsatinwithacanopyoverit,andachestonwhichisdisplayedalargeandbeautifulcollectionofgoldandsilverplate.Beyondthisdrawing-roomtherearetwomorereceptionrooms,oneofthemwithanother

canopiedday-bedcoveredwithvelvet,theotherwithasofacoveredwithcloth-of-gold.Inthislatterroomisalargetableonwhichisspreadafinevelvetclothandaroundwhichisasetoffinelycarvedchairs.

Inthispalaceanditsoutbuildingsandstables,as

manyastwohundredservants,severalofthemslaves,livedandworked,wearingthedarkmulberryredandyellowoftheBorgialivery.Inadditiontothegroomsandguardsanddomesticservants,therewerenumerouscourtiers,secretaries,andclerksinstalledintheroomsabove,aswellasthecardinal'slawyer,CamilloBeneimbene,discreetandreliable,the

repositoryofmanysecrets.

Inthesquareoutsidethepalaceonfestiveoccasions,thepopulacewasregaledwithallegoriesandpantomimes,fireworks,theroarofcannons,andthesavageryofbullfights,whilecupsofwinewereofferedtothecrowdsofspectatorsbyRodrigo'snumerousservants.

Despitethehugesums

expendeduponhispalaceanditsfurnishings,RodrigohadenoughmoneytospareforsuchgesturesasthesupplyandequipmentofagalleyfortheVenetianfleetinChristendom'swaragainsttheTurkishinfidels,andforgenerouscontributionstothecrusade,whichPiusIIwasplanningwithmissionaryzealandwhichheintendedtoleadinperson.AccompaniedbyRodrigo,heleftRomefor

Ancona,where,alreadyagravelyillman,hediedintheepiscopalpalaceonAugust15,1464.

Rodrigo,too,fellillatAncona,anotoriouslyunhealthycity,possiblywiththeplagueorwithsomesexuallytransmitteddisease."TheVice-Chancellorisstrickenwithillness,"thegovernorofAnconawasinformed,"andthisisits

symptom:hehaspaininhisearsandaswellingunderhisarm.Thedoctorwhohasseenhimsaysthathehaslittlehopeofcuringhim,especiallyconsideringthatashortwhileagohedidnotsleepaloneinhisbed."CertainlyonhiswaytoAncona,Rodrigohadnotstintedhimselfinenjoyingthemaskedballsandnocturnalpartiesthatweregivenathisrequestsothat

the"passageofthedignitariesoftheHolyChurch,"northeastacrosstheApenninestotheAdriaticcoast,wouldnot"depressthesociallife"ofthetownsthroughwhichhepassed.

Rodrigo,however,turnedoutnottobeasseriouslyillashisdoctorsfirstthought,andhewasbackinRomeintimetoattendtheconclavetochoosethenewpope.The

cardinals'choicethistimewasaVenetian,PietroBarbo,ahandsome,self-regarding,andpleasure-lovingmanwhohadoriginallyintendedbecomingamerchantlikehisrichfather;butwhenhisunclehadbeenelectedtosucceedMartinVasPopeEugeniusIV,hedecidedthattheChurchmightwellofferalifemoresuitedtohischaracter.Hisloveofdisplay,indeed,wassoonindulgedby

buildingafinepalaceincentralRome,thePalazzoSanMarco,nowthePalazzodiVenezia;hemovedthepapalcourttherein1466andlivedinthepalace,inostentatioussplendour,surroundedbyhissuperbcollectionofantiquecameos,bronzes,marblebusts,andpreciousgemsuntilhisdeathin1471.

Attheconclavefollowing

PaulII'sdeath,RodrigoplayedakeyroleinmanoeuvringtheelectionofFrancescodellaRovere,whotookthenameSixtusIV.Alarge,ambitious,gruff,andtoothlessmanwithahugehead,aflattenednose,andanintimidatingpresence,SixtusIVhadbeenbornintoanimpoverishedfishingcommunityinLiguriaandbecameaFranciscan,risingthoughtheranksoftheorder

tobecomeitsministergeneral."Thispopewasthefirst,"claimedNiccolòMachiavelli,"toshowjusthowmuchapontiffcoulddoandhowmanyactionswhichwouldhavebeencallederrorsinearliertimeswerenowhiddenunderthecloakofpapalauthority."Otherspraisedhisnobility,"notofbirthbutofcharacteranderudition,"andmanycommentedonhisfervent

devotiontotheVirgin.

Fromthemomentofhiselection,thisapparentlyausterefriarwasunremittingingrantingtohisrelationsoffices,money,andprofitablelordshipsinthePapalStates—thoselandsincentralItalythatbelongedtothepope,thePatrimonyofSt.Peter.Hesoonbecamenotoriousfortheparticularlylucrativeprefermentshelavishedupon

twoyoungnephews,PietroRiarioandGiulianodellaRovere,bothofwhomhemadecardinalswithinmonthsofhiselectionandappointedtonumerousabbacies,benefices,andbishoprics.Healsogaveredhatstoanotherfourofhisrelations,atotalofsixofthethirty-fourcardinalshecreatedduringhislongpontificate,notallofwhomwereasunworthyashisfamily.

ThetwonephewsplayedaprominentpartinthereceptionoftheyoungNeapolitanprincessEleonoraofAragonasshepassedthroughRomeinJune1473onherwaynorthtomarryErcoled'Este,theDukeofFerrara.SuchwasthegrandeuroftheapartmentsfurnishedforheratPietroRiario'spalaceatSantiApostolithat,assherecountedinalettertoher

father,thekingofNaples,evenherchamberpotwasavesselofgildedsilver."ThetreasureoftheChurch,"shewrote,inastonishment,"isbeingputtosuchuses."ThesumptuousbanquetPietrohostedforherlastedsixhours,arelentlesssuccessionofopulentdishes,eatentotheaccompanimentofmusic,poetry,anddancing:gildedandsilveredbreads,peacocks,piesfilledwithlive

quailthatranaboutthetablewhenthecrustwasremoved,awholebear,platesofsilveredeelsandsturgeon,andshipsmadeofsugarfilledwithsilveracorns,thedellaRovereemblem.

PietroRiarioandGiulianodellaRovere,whohadbothfollowedtheiruncleintotheFranciscanorder,rapidlyabandonedtheirvowstopovertyandchastityonce

theywerecardinals.Pietro,describedbyonecontemporaryasanotherCaligula,wasthepope'sfavourite;indeed,itwaswidelyrumouredthathewasinfactSixtusIV'sson.Withanincomeofover50,000ducatsayearfromhisbenefices,hecouldindulgefreelyintheluxuriesoflifeandflaunthismistress,whomheinstalledinhispalaceatSantiApostoli,whereher

shoes,reputedly,weresewnwithpearls.HediedsuddenlyinJanuary1474,leavingdebtsofover60,000ducats,aftersufferingseverestomachpainsthatmanythoughtweretheresultofpoisonbutweremoreprobablyduetoappendicitis.GiulianonowbecameSixtusIV'sright-handmaninthecollegeandstartedtobuilduphispositionatthepapalcourt,wherehewouldsoonbegintorivalRodrigo.

Yetforallhispersistentnepotism,SixtusIVwasagreatbenefactortoRomeandtotheRomanpeople;and,largelybymeansoftheheavytaxationofforeignchurchesandthesaleofecclesiasticaloffices,hewasabletocarryoutnumerouspublicworks.Streetswerepavedandwidened;atthesametimethenumerousconduitsofancientRome,whichhadoncebroughtfreshwaterto

hundredsofthecity'sfountains,wereclearedandonceagaingavetheRomanpeopleacleansupply.

Hundredsofchurcheswererepairedandrebuilt,somanyindeedthatSixtusIVwashailedbyhishumanistsasasecondAugustus,followinginthefootstepsoftheemperorwhohadfoundRomebuiltinbrickandleftitinmarble.HesoldoffPaul

II'smagnificentcollectionofvaluableantiquities,formoneyorforpoliticalfavour,andspenttheproceedsonimprovingthecityofRome.Afoundlinghospitalwasestablished;newpalacesappearedwheredesolateruinshadoncestood;thecity'smainmarketwasmovedtothePiazzaNavona,thesiteofancientRome'simperialcircus,theinfamousStadiumofDomitian.

TheUniversityofRome,theSapienza,wasre-formed;inpreparationfortheHolyYearof1475,thepopelaidthefoundationstoneofthePonteSisto,standingupinaboatashedroppedseveralgoldcoinsintothemurkywatersoftheTiber.Mostmemorablyofall,itwasSixtusIVwhowasresponsiblefortheSistineChapel,whichwasbuiltforhimbyGiovanninode'Dolciwithitswallsdecoratedwith

scenesofthelivesofMosesandChristbysomeofthemostgiftedartistsofhistime,includingBotticelli,Ghirlandaio,Perugino,andPinturicchio.

SixtusIVhadbeenquicktorewardRodrigoforhissupportintheconclave,promotinghimtothecardinal-bishopricofAlbanoandgivinghimthelucrativeabbeyofSubiaco,which

includedthelordshipofthesurroundingareaandacastlethatwouldprovidethecardinalandhisfamilywithapleasingsummerretreat.ThepopealsoappointedhimaspapallegatetoSpain,tosortoutthetrickysituationthathaddevelopedthereregardingtheconsanguineousmarriageofFerdinandofAragonandIsabellaofCastile,whichhadalreadytakenplaceusingaforged

papaldispensation,muchtothefuryofthearchbishopofSeville,whoopposedtheunionofthetwoSpanishkingdoms.

RodrigoleftRomeinMay1472andreceivedarapturousreceptioninValencia,hisepiscopalseat.InSpainhedisplayedhisintelligence,tact,discretion,goodhumour,andconfidencetodowhatwasnecessarytoregularize

themarriageandtonegotiatepeacewiththearchbishop,whowasplacatedwithacardinal'shat;healsogainedSpanishsupportforanothercrusadeagainsttheTurks.HeleftSpainfourteenmonthslater,butonhisjourneyhomehisgalleyranintoaviolentstormandwaswreckedoffthecoastofTuscany.HewastakentoPisatorecoverfromhisordeal,andwhiletherehewasinvitedasguestof

honourtoabanquet,wherehemetanattractiveandintelligentwomansometenyearsyoungerthanhimself,namedVannozzade'Catanei.

Acourtesanofcharmanddiscretionfromafamilyofthelessernobility,Vannozzade'Cataneiseemstohaveintriguedthecardinalfromtheverybeginningoftheiracquaintance.Soastofacilitatewhatwastobecome

alovingandlastingrelationship,Rodrigo'sconfidentiallegaladviserandnotary,CamilloBeneimbene,arrangedforhermarriagetoacomplaisanthusband,anelderlylawyercalledDomenicodaRignano,whocouldberelieduponnottomakeanyunwanteddemandsuponhiswife.

In1475,ayearafterRodrigohadmadehis

appearance,dressedintheredrobesbefittingacardinal,atthemarriageofhismistress,shegavebirthtoason,whowasnamedCesare—SixtusIVshowedhisapprovalofhisvice-chancellorbylegitimizingtheboy.SoonafterthisVannozza'swell-rewardedhusbanddied,andthewidowgavebirthtotwomoreofRodrigo'schildren—anotherboy,Juan,ayearyoungerthanCesare,andfour

yearsafterthatagirl,Lucrezia.Vannozzadidnotremainawidowlong;shewasmarriedtwiceagaintomenselectedbythecardinalandgavebirthtoJofrè,yetanothersonforRodrigo,andOttaviano,whomayormaynothavebeenhisprogeny.

Certainlytheirgood-naturedmotherprofitedfromthearrangement,beingabletoestablishherselfina

comfortablehouseinRomeandtobuyaplotoflandneartheBathsofDiocletianonwhichshehadanotherhousebuilt.ShealsoacquiredalucrativeinterestinthreeofRome'sbestinns,whileherthirdhusband,CarloCanale,madeahandsomeprofitfromhisappointmentasgovernorofRome'sprison,theTorreNuova,wheretheincarceratedmenwerechargedforsuchprivilegesas

theycouldafford.

Vannozza'swerebynomeanstheonlychildrenwhoweregenerallybelievedtohavebeenfatheredbyCardinalRodrigo.Therewereatleastthreeothers,allolderthanVannozza'soffspring,whowerewidelyassumedtobehis,althoughveryfewpeopleinRomeknewwhotheirmotherwas.Twoofthesechildrenweregirls—

oneofthem,Gerolama,havingbeenquietlymarriedintoanunassumingthoughnoblefamily,diedyoung;theother,Isabella,livedintooldage,dyinginthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,anobjectofmuchcuriositythatshehaughtilyignored.Thethirdwasason,namedPedroLuisafterRodrigo'sbrother,andhewascreatedDukeofGandíabut,likeGerolama,diedyoung,havingspent

muchofhisshortlifeasanapparentlyworthyofficerinthearmyinSpain.

Around1483,whenCesarewaseightyearsoldandhisbrotherJofrèstillababy,RodrigohadtakenhischildrenawayfromtheirmotherandplacedtheminthecareofhiscousinAdrianadaMila.Despiteherevidentcharmsandhisaffectionforher,Vannozza'sbackground

madeherunsuitablefortheupbringingoftheirfamily;Adriana,ontheotherhand,wasaSpanishnoblewomanandhadmarriedintooneofthemostpowerfulclansinRome,theOrsini.In1489herson,OrsinoOrsini,wasmarriedinRodrigo'spalaceinRometoGiuliaFarnese,abeautifulnineteen-year-oldgirlofverymodestfortune.Giulia—"laBella"asshewasknownthroughoutRome—

nowbecameRodrigo'snewmistress,whileherhusbandwithdrewtohisfamily'scountryestateatBassanello.

RodrigoseemedtobeobsessedbytheFarnesegirl,hislovelycarefreeyoungmistresswhonowlivedinahousesharedwithAdrianadaMilaandthechildrenofthepliable,good-naturedVannozza.Indeed,heappeared,forthefirsttimein

hislife,tobecapableofanintensejealousy,evenofGiulia'stiresomehusband,whomsheinsistedongoingtoseeinthecountryfromtimetotime,provokingRodrigotowritesuchlettersasthis:

Wehaveheardthatyouhaveagainrefusedtoreturntous[fromBassanello]withoutOrsini's

consent.WeknowtheevilofyoursoulandofthemanwhoguidesyoubutwewouldneverhavethoughtitpossibleforyoutobreakyoursolemnoathnottogonearOrsino.Butyouhavedoneso...togiveyourselfoncemoretothatstallion.Weorderyou,underpainofeternal

damnation,neveragaintogotoBassanello.

Evidentlyalarmedbythisletter,Orsinisenthiswifebacktothecardinal.AlthoughalmostfortyyearsolderthanGiuliaFarnese,Rodrigowasquiteasvirileashehadeverbeen;hissexualappetitewasstillsaidtobevoracious.Sumptuousaswerethemealsservedinhis

palace,heatesparinglyhimself,oftencontentinghimselfwithasinglecourse.AndwhileothercardinalswerecarriedaboutRomeonlittersorincarriages,hepreferredtowalk.Hehunted;hewrestled;heenjoyedfalconry;hetookprideinhaving"theslenderwaistofagirl."

SixtusIVhaddiedinAugust1484,andhis

successorwastheaffableandineffectiveGiovanniBattistaCibò,InnocentVIII,notamanofmuchdistinction.Havingobtainedthepapaltiarabyundertakingtograntfavourstovariouscardinalsthenightbeforehiselection,hewassoonreducedtocreatingvarioussupererogatoryofficesandsellingthemtothehighestbidder,tomeetthevastdebtsincurredbyhispredecessor.

HisfinanceswerefurtherstrainedbytheimportunitiesofseveralillegitimatechildrenandbyhisquarrelwithKingFerranteIofNaples,whorefusedtopayhispapaldues.

MeanwhileCardinalRodrigo'scareerprospered.Jovialandcarefreebynature,hewasneverthelessmostconscientiousinhisattendancetothebusinessof

hisofficeasvice-chancellor,anofficethathewastoholdinfivepontificates.

"Itisnowthirty-sevenyearssincehisuncleCalixtusIIIappointedhimacardinalandinthattimehenevermissedaConsistoryexceptwhenpreventedbyillness,andthatwasrareindeed,"hissecretarywastowritein1492."[Foralmostfortyyears]hewasatthecentreof

affairs....Hewellknewhowtodominate,howtoshineinconversationandhowtoimposehiswillonothermen.Also,majesticinstature,hehadtheadvantageoverothermen."

Healsobecamesteadilyricherandmoreinfluential,wellabletoaffordthebribesthathewouldneedtoofferdiscreetlyatthenextconclave."Altogetheritis

thought,"wroteJacopoGherardidaVolterra,"thathepossessesmoregoldandrichesofeverykindthanalltheothercardinalscombined,exceptingonlyd'Estouteville,"thewealthycardinalofRouen.

Rome,however,undertheeasygoingandunassertiveleadershipofInnocentVIII,knownas"theRabbit,"hadrelapsedintothekindof

anarchythathadbeenalltoofamiliaracenturybefore.Armedmenagainroamedthroughthecityatnight,andinthemorningsthebodiesofmenwhohadbeenstabbedlaydeadanddyinginthestreets;pilgrimsandevenescortedambassadorswereregularlyrobbedoutsidethecitygates;cardinals'palacesbecamefortifiedstrongholdswithcrossbowmenandartilleryatthewindowsand

onthecastellatedroofs.

Justicehadbecomeacommoditytosell,likeeveryotherfavourinthiscorruptcity.Amanwhohadmurderedhistwodaughterswaspermittedtobuyhislibertyfor800ducats.OthermurdererspurchasedtheirpardonsfromtheCuria,thepapaladministration,aswellassafe-conductpassesthatallowedthemtowalkthe

streetswitharmedguardstoprotectthemfromavengers.Whenanimportantofficialwasaskedwhymalefactorswerenotpunished,heansweredwithasmileinthehearingofthehistorianStefanoInfessura,"Ratherthanthedeathofasinner,Godwillsthatheshouldlive—andpay."

Duringtheunpleasantlyhotsummerof1492,Innocent

VIIIfellseriouslyill,unabletokeepdownanynourishmentotherthanmother'smilk.Amongthecardinalswhohadgathered,aswasthecustom,athisbedsidewereRodrigoBorgiaandGiulianodellaRovere,whoweresooninvolvedinaheatedargument.Rodrigovoicedhisdisapprovalofthepope'sdecisiontodistributethereservesofcashinthepapalcoffers—some47,000

ducats—tohisrelatives,andGiulianodefendedtheaction,which,afterall,hadbeenagreedbythecollege,andmadeaninsultingremarkaboutRodrigo'sSpanishheritage.Thevice-chancellorretortedthat,weretheynotinthepresenceofthepope,hewouldshowGiulianowhohewas,andtheunseemlyquarrelwouldhavequicklydeterioratedintoafighthadthetwonotbeenrestrainedby

someoftheircolleagues.

ItwassoonclearthatInnocentVIIIwasdying,andthesacredcollegewasmuchpreoccupiedwiththechoiceofasuitablesuccessor.Noscholarwasneedednow,stilllessasaint.Thenextpope,theyagreed,mustbeoneofstrongpersonalityratherthanmoralworth,amanwhocouldprotectthePatrimonyofSt.Peterfromitsrivalsand

enemies,andonewhocouldrestoreordertoRomeandinjectsomevigourintoitsartisticandscholarlylife.InnocentVIIIdiedonJuly25,1492,anditwaswiththesethoughtsinmindthatthecardinalsenteredtheVaticanonAugust6inordertoelecthissuccessor.

Chapter4ServantoftheServant

ofGod

"IAMPOPE!IAMPOPE!"

FORFOURGRUELLINGDAYS,thecardinalsplottedandnegotiatedandplacedtheirvotingslipsinthegildedchalice,locked,inthe

intolerablesummerheat,insidetheVaticanandliving,inconsiderablediscomfort,inthetinycubiclesthathadbeenerectedforeachcardinalintheSistineChapel.Intheeveningofthefourthday,rumoursbegantoseepoutoftheVaticanandintothestreetsandtavernsofRomethattheconclavewasindeadlock.ThecrowdsthathadgatheredsoexpectantlyonthepiazzainfrontofSt.

Peter'sbeneaththefirst-floorwindowsofthepalace,waitingfortheresultoftheelection,begantodisperseasnightfell.Thefewwhoremainedthereovernightwereastonishedwhen,shortlyafterdaybreakonthemorningofAugust11,1492,thelong-awaitedannouncementwasmade:"HabemusPapam!"

"DeoGratias!"camethe

responseandthen,fromthewindowabove,fluttereddownseveralpiecesofpaperonwhichwerewrittenthewords"WehaveforPope,AlexanderVI,RodrigoBorgiaofValencia."Thenewpopehimselfthenappearedatthewindow,wearingthelargestofthethreesizesofpapalrobesthathadbeenmadeinadvanceandlaidoutforthesuccessfulcandidate.Hewasclearlymuchexcited

byhisvictory;insteadofmodestlydeclaring"volo,"ascustomrequired,herepeatedlyshouted,"IamPope!IamPope!"

Hehad,itwassaid,spentlargesumsofmoneyinbecomingso.Asthesixteenth-centuryFlorentineauthorofTheHistoryofItaly,FrancescoGuicciardini,explained:

[Rodrigo]hadbeenacardinalformanyyearsandhadbecomeoneofthemostinfluentialmenatthepapalcourt;hissuccessiontothepapacywasduetotheconflictbetweenCardinalAscanioSforzaandCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,butprincipallyhis

electionwasduetothefactthathehadunashamedlyboughtthevotesofmanycardinalsinamannerthatwasunprecedentedinthosetimes,usingnotonlymoneybutalsothepromiseofhisofficesandbenefices,whichwereplentiful.

Therewere,indeed,

widespreadrumoursthathehadpaidbribestonofewerthanthirteencardinals,includinghismainally,CardinalAscanioSforza,brotheroftheDukeofMilanandperhapsthemostpapabileofallthecardinals.InreturnforrelinquishinghisownambitionstofurtherthoseofRodrigo,Ascaniowaspromisednotonlygold,whichwasreportedtohavebeensentundercoverof

darknesstoAscanio'spalaceonfourheavilyladenmules,butalsotheinfluentialandlucrativeofficeofvice-chancellor,whichRodrigowouldhavetosurrenderifhebecamepope.Andalongwiththejobwouldcometheofficialresidence,Rodrigo'smagnificentpalace,knownastheCancelleriaVecchia.(ItisnowthePalazzoSforza-Cesariniandwascompletelyrebuiltin1888tothedesigns

ofPioPiacentini,whoretainedjustonesideoftheelegantfifteenth-centurycourtyard.)

AccordingtoBurchard'saccount,"Onlyfivecardinalswishedtoreceivenothing,namelythecardinalsofNaples,Siena,Lisbon,SanPietroinVincoliandSantaMariainPorticu;theyalonerefusedthegratuities,sayingthatthevotestoelectapope

shouldbegivenfreelyandshouldnotbepurchasedwithpresents."Intheend,however,accordingtotheFlorentineambassador'sreportoftheelection,therewasonlyonedissentingvoiceintheconclaveandthatwasSixtusIV'snephewGiulianodellaRovere,thecardinalofSanPietroinVincoli.

Yeteventhosewhohadbeenmostreadytocondemn

themethodsbywhichthenewpopehadsecuredhiselectionwerenowforcedtoconcedethat,guiltyashemaywellhavebeenofsimony,bribery,andsexualincontinence,AlexanderVIwasbothconscientiousandcompetentinthedischargeofhisduties.Approachable,affable,andgood-natured,hewasalsodeterminedtoputastoptotheriotouslawlessnessintowhichRome

hadfallenduringthepontificateofhispredecessor,InnocentVIII.

Accordingly,duringSeptember1492,asBurchardoutlined,"heestablishedabodyofprisoninspectors;healsoappointedfourcommissionerswhomhechargedwithlisteningtoallthosewhohadcomplaintstomakeinRome;similarlyhereorganizedthefunctionsof

thegovernorofthecityandhisofficers."Thepope"alsodecidedthathewouldholdanaudienceeveryTuesdaywhichwouldbeopentoallcitizens,menandwomen;hehimselflistenedtotheircomplaintsandrenderedjusticeinanadmirablemanner."Itwasnotlong,therefore,beforeorderwasrestored;andtheRomanscouldlookforwardtothepontificateofamanwitha

highlydevelopedtasteforceremonyandpageantry.

"Therewasanincrediblecrowdofprelates,"wroteBernardinoCorio,theMilanesechronicler,describingthesceneoutsideSt.Peter'sonAugust27,1492,thedayofAlexanderVI'scoronation."Itwasamostwonderfulthingtoseeforeachprelatewaswearinghismitreandeachwas

clothedaccordingtohisparticularoffice;oneafteranotherthecardinalsapproachedthePopetokisshisfeet,hishandandhismouth."

Ledbythepapalcavalry,theprelates,cardinals,andforeignambassadorsthentookpartinthepossesso,theceremonialprocessionthroughthestreetsofRomeoutintotheuninhabitedarea

andonthroughfieldsandorchardstotheChurchofSanGiovanniinLaterano.AscanioSforza,thenewvice-chancellor,wasattendedbytwelvepages,"eachdressedindoubletsofcrimsonsatinandpurplecapes,carryingbatonsandbearingthearmsofhisfamily."Altogethertherewere"sevenhundredpriestsandcardinalswiththeirretinuesinsplendidcavalcadewithlonglances

andglitteringshields."

Ridingasnow-whitehorsesatAlexanderVI,"sereneofcountenanceandsupremelydignified,"wroteanotherwitnessoftheparadewithfulsomehyperbole."Howwonderfulishistranquilbearing,hownoblehisface,howopen,howfrank.Howgreatlydoesthehonourwefeelhimincreasewhenwebeholdthedignityofhis

bearing....Heshowedhimselftothepeopleandblessedthem....Hisglancefelluponthemandfilledeveryheartwithjoy."

Itwasastiflinglyhotday;thecrowdsliningtherouteweredescribedasimmense;theairwasthickwithdustthatthestreetsweepershadvainlytriedtoallaywithbucketfulsofwater;itwas"almostimpossibletoseethe

sky."TheroutefromtheCastelSant'AngelototheLaterantooktheprocessionpasttheruinsoftheColosseum,thegreatamphitheatrebuiltbyEmperorVespasian,whereonceaudiencesoffifty-fivethousandhadthrilledtogladiatorialgamesandotherspectacles;itscavernousvaultsnowconvertedintoworkshopsandstorerooms.Theypassedthrough

enormoustriumphalarchesspeciallyerectedfortheoccasionanddecoratedwithrepresentationsofahugeblackbullgrazingonagoldenfield,thestrikingemblemoftheBorgiafamily,whichcouldalsobeseenontheflags,pennants,andgonfalonswavinginthehandsofthecheeringcrowds.

Thefestivitiesover,AlexanderVIsurveyedhis

achievements.Hewasnow"SovereignPontiff,servantoftheservantsofGod,supremeLordofRomeandofthePapalStates."AspopeandVicarofChrist,hewasalsopresidentoftheRomanRota,thecourtofappealfortheecclesiasticalaffairsofChristendom,andoneofthemostpowerfulrulersinEurope.HisownrealmstretchednorthofRomeasfarasBolognaandRavenna,

fromCivitavecchia,ontheshoresoftheMediterranean,toAnconaandRiminiontheAdriaticcoast.ThePatrimonyofSt.Peterwouldyieldhimanannualincomeofsome100,000florinsayear,asumthathadrecentlybeenmuchincreasedbythediscoveryofrichdepositsofalum(asulphateofaluminiumandpotassiumessentialtothetanningandclothingindustries)inthehillsnorth

ofRomeatTolfanearCivitavecchia.

TheseTolfadepositshadbeendiscoveredbyaFlorentine,GiovannidiCastro,whohadwrittentoPiusIIofhisbeliefthatthisdiscoverywouldsaveenormoussumsinthewayoftollsthatItalianmerchantshadhithertobeenobligedtopaytotheauthoritiesinAsiaMinoreversincethe

Europeanalummineshadbeenexhausted.

HolyFather[GiovannidiCastrohadwritten],todayIbringyouvictoryovertheTurks.Everyyeartheyextortmorethan300,000ducatsfromtheChristians...becausethealumminesofLiparihavebeenworkedout.

TodayIhavefoundsevenmountainssorichinalumthattheycouldfurnishsevenworlds.YouwillbeabletosupplyenoughalumtodyetheclothofthewholeofEuropeandthussnatchawaytheprofitsoftheinfidel.

Sincethisletterwaswritten,thealumminesnorthof

Romehadcontributedhandsomelytotheincomeenjoyedbythepapacy.WhilenotaslargeasthatofseveralotherEuropeanstates,itwasnowsufficientforthebalancingofthepapalbudget,whichhadbeenmuchindebtinthetimeofAlexanderVI'spredecessors.TheminesalsohelpedtomaintainasmallarmyfortheprotectionofthePapalStatesandcontributedtothegiftsthatthetreasurer

oftheApostolicChamber,thepope'scousinFranciscoBorgia,wasauthorizedtopassontoHisHoliness'sindulgedchildren,aswellastotheexpensesoftheelaborateentertainmentsprovidedatthepapalcourt.

Powerfulandpossessedofthesumsneededtoexercisehisauthority,AlexanderVIwasafortunateman,indeed.Hewasnowsixty-oneyears

old;hehadgrownratherfatinrecentyears,andhislargeandfleshynoseseemedmorepronouncedthanever.Yetheremainedanattractivemancapableofexercisinggreatcharm,livelyinconversation,attentive,andresponsive,withaningratiatingmannerandreadysmile,asensualnature,acommandingpresence,andasonorousvoice."Heishandsome,ofamostgladcountenance,"his

tutorhadwrittenofhim,and"heisalsogiftedwithhoneyedeloquence."JacopoGherardidaVolterraobservedofhimthathewasblessedwitha"powerfulintellectandgreatimagination,"adding,"Heisbrilliantlyskilledintheconductofaffairsofstate."

ThehistorianFrancescoGuicciardinijudgedhimtobeamanwho

possessedsingularcunningandshrewdness,excellentperspicacity,amazingpowersofpersuasion,andanincredibleagilityandconcentrationwhendealingwithaffairsofstate;butthesequalitieswerefaroutweighedbyhisvices:themostobscenemanners,

hypocrisy,immodesty,mendacity,infidelity,profanity,insatiablegreed,unrestrainedambition,apredilectionforviciousnessthatwasworsethanbarbaric,andaferventhungertoexalthismanychildren,amongwhomtherewereseveralnoless

repellentthanthefather.

MensoonlearnedthatitwasdangeroustocrossAlexanderVIandnevertobelessthanwaryinhispresence.Thiswasanambitiouspope,powerful,rich,politicallyastute,anddeterminedtoestablishhisownfamilyintheranksofEurope'srulingelite.

Chapter5MarriagesandAlliances

HEWOULD"SHOWTHEMWHOWASPOPE

AND...WOULDMAKEMORECARDINALS,

WHETHERTHEYLIKEDITORNOT"

LIVINGINTHELUXURIOUS

surroundingsofPalazzoMontegiordano,theOrsiniresidenceinRome,underthecareofAdrianadaMila,Rodrigo'schildrenhadgrownupprotectedfromtheviolenceandsqualorofthecitybeyonditswalls.ItseemsthatLucreziareceivedherearlyeducationfromtheladiesofthehousehold,fromSpanishtutors,fromapriestwhopresidedoverthechildren'sschoolroom,and

fromthenunsofanearbyconventtowhichshewasregularlyconducted.WhileshespokeSpanishwithherbrothersandherfather,shewasalsofluentinItalianandFrench,aswellasLatin,andknewsomeGreek;hersyllabushadincludedrhetoricandhumanistliterature;sheenjoyedreadingpoetryandwroteherownverses.Shewasalsoanaccomplisheddancerand,indeed,regularly

tookpartintheexhibitionsofValenciandancingarrangedbyRodrigofortheentertainmentofhimselfandhisguests.Shewasahappy,cheerful,andprettychild,adoredbyallherfamily.

Likeothergirlsofnoblebirth,Lucreziawasexpectedtomarryyoung,toamanofherfather'schoicewhoseconnectionswouldbebeneficialtothefamily.In

1490,whenshewasjusttenyearsold,shewasbetrothedtoayoungSpanishnobleman,somefifteenyearsolderthanherself,DonJuandeCentelles.Theproposedmarriagewas,however,abandonedayearlaterwhenanothermoredesirablesuitorappearedintheformofaSpanishgrandee,DonGasparodiProcida,theCountofAversa,whoselawyersenteredintonegotiationswith

thoseofthecardinal.TheselawyerswerestillnegotiatingthedetailsofthemarriagecontractwhenRodrigowaselectedpope.Nowhecouldsethissightsmuchhigherand,accordingtoBurchard,gavetheyoungman"3,000ducatstobuyhissilenceandbreakthecontract";thepope,hecontinued,"intendedthustoraisethestatusofhisdaughter."AlexanderVI'schoiceofbridegroom,

however,wouldbeonewhoalsobroughtsignificantpoliticaladvantagesforhimself.

OnFebruary12,1493,inaceremonyattheVatican,Lucreziawasformallybetrothed,byproxy,toGiovanniSforza,LordofPesaro,awidowertwiceheragebutcousintoLudovicoSforza,rulerofMilan,andtohisbrotherCardinalAscanio,

thevice-chancellor.

Fourmonthslater,onJune9,GiovanniSforzaarrivedinRomeforthemarriage,accompaniedbyfortypackanimalsandsome280horsemen,allrichlydressed.HemadehisofficialentranceintothecitythroughthegateofSantaMariadelPopolo,welcomedbyalargecrowdandescortedtotheVatican,whereheceremoniallykissed

thepope'sfoot.

Themarriagetookplacethreedayslater,onJune12,when,accordingtoBurchard,"theillustriousGiovanniSforza,CountofCotignolaandLordofPesaro,tookashislegitimatewife,LucreziaBorgia,virgin,inhertenthyear,orthereabouts"—Burchardwas,unusuallyforhim,misinformedaboutherage;shehadinfactcelebrated

herthirteenthbirthdayafewweeksearlier.Onthemorningofherwedding,inobediencetotheinstructionsoftheirfather,Lucrezia'sbrotherJuanescortedtheyoungbridefromtheresidenceofGianbattistaZen,cardinalofSantaMariainPorticu,whereshewasthenliving,totheVaticanPalace.Hertrainwascarriedbyoneblackgirl,whileanothercarriedthatofherprincipal

attendant,agranddaughterofInnocentVIII.Theywerefollowedbywellover150Romanladies,ledbyGiuliaFarnese,aptlydescribedbyAlexanderVI'smasterofceremonies,JohannesBurchard,inhisaccountoftheevent,as"theconcubineofthePope."

Theprocessionofladiesenteredtheroomwherethepopesatonhisthrone,

accompaniedbytencardinals,fiveseatedoneachsideofhim,aswellasseveralpriestsanddeacons.Astheladiesfiledpastthepapalthrone,muchtotheannoyanceofthemasterofceremoniesmostofthemfailedtogenuflect,despitehisscolding,thoughhewaspleasedtoseethatLucreziadidobservethiscustom.ThenJuanandLucreziaapproachedtokissthepope's

foot,followedthistimebyalltheladies.Brotherandsisterremainedontheirknees,whiletherestoftheladiesmovedbacktowardthewall.HerealsostoodCesare,seeminglyannoyedbytheprominentrolethathisyoungerbrotherhadbeenaccordedintheceremony.

AlexanderVI'strustedlawyer,CamilloBeneimbene,nowsteppedforwardto

addressthetwenty-four-year-oldbridegroom,GiovanniSforza,whokneltonacushionnexttohisbride."MostworthyLord,"beganthenotary,"IbelievethatYourLordshiphasrecentlyundertakentomarrytheillustriousDonnaLucreziaBorgia,whoisherepresent,andthatyourproctorhassubmittedthematrimonialcontractinyourname....Areyoureadytoaccept,anddo

youpromisetoobservewhathasbeencontracted?"

"Iperfectlyunderstandthetermsofthecontractandacceptthem,"thebridegroomresponded,"andherebypromisetoobserveandundertakeallitsobligations."ThenCamilloasked,"MostworthyLord,doyouagreetotaketheillustriousLucreziaBorgiaherepresenttobeyourlawfulspouse?""Iwill,"

hereplied,"mostwillingly."

ThecardinalsandtheotherspresentwereenjoinedtobewitnessestoSforza'soath,andthebridewasthenaskedifshewaspreparedtobecomehis"lawfulspouse."Shealsoreplied,"Iwill."ThebishopofConcordiathensteppedforwardandplacedaringontheringfingerofthebride'slefthandandanotheronthesecondfingerwhile

NiccolòOrsini,CountofPitiglianoandcaptaingeneralofthepapalarmies,heldadrawnswordovertheheadsofthecouple.Therefollowedasermonbythebishopaboutthesacramentofmarriage.

ThebridewasthenescortedbyJuanBorgiaintotheSalaReale,speciallyhungfortheoccasionwithlavishsilks,velvets,andtapestries,whereAlexanderVIandhis

mistress,GiuliaFarnese,playedhosttothebridegroomandthebride'sladies."Anassortmentofallkindsofsweets,marzipans,crystallizedfruitsandwineswereserved,"notedBurchard,and"over200disheswerecarriedinbythestewardsandsquires,eachwithanapkinoverhisshoulder,offeringthemfirsttothePopeandhiscardinals,thentothebridalcoupleand

lastlytheguests.FinallytheyflungwhatwasleftoutofthewindowtothecrowdsofpeoplebelowinsuchabundancethatIbelievemorethan100poundsofsweetmeatswerecrushedandtrampledunderfoot."

Thepartywasalivelyandlecherousaffair.ThediaristStefanoInfessuranotedthatintheirexcitement,someofthemaleguests"threwthe

sweetmeatsintothecleavagesofmanyladies,especiallythegood-lookingones,"andthosecardinalswhoremainedbehindtodinewiththepopeandhismistresswereeachseatedbetweentwoprettygirls.TheguestswereregaledwithwhatBurcharddescribedas"aseriesofentertainments,"includingacomedyperformedwith"suchelegancethateveryoneloudlyapplauded"theactors;

Infessurareportedthat"lasciviouscomediesandtragedieswereperformedwhichprovokedmuchlaughterintheaudience."

Oncedinnerwasover,AlexanderVIhimselfaccompaniedhisdaughterandherhusbandtothepalaceofSantaMariainPorticubythegrandstepsleadinguptotheBasilicaofSt.Peter's."Therethegroomtook

maritalpossessionofhisbride,"reportedInfessura,adding,ratherenigmatically,that"IcouldtellyoumanyotherthingsbutIwillnotrecountthembecausesomearenottrueandthosethatare,areanywayunbelievable."

ThismarriagehadbeenarrangedintheshadowofabitterquarrelbetweenKingFerranteofNaplesandLudovicoSforza,rulerof

Milan.Ludovicowasa"wiseman,"intheopinionoftheFrenchchroniclerPhilippedeCommynes,"butverytimorousandhumblewhenhewasinawe,andfalsewhenitwastohisadvantagetobeso;andthisopinionIdonotholdbyhearsaybutasonethatknewhimwell,havinghadmuchbusinesstodowithhim."Handsomeinhisway,despitetheugly,massivenosetobeseeninthe

portraitattributedtoLeonardodaVinci,hewasknownasIlMoroonaccountofhiscunningandhisresourcefulnature,whichweregenerallysupposedtobecharacteristicsoftheMoorsofNorthAfrica.Hewasalsogreedyforpower.WhenhisbrotherDukeGaleazzoMariawasassassinatedin1476,leavinghisseven-year-oldnephew,GianGaleazzo,asheir,

LudovicohadseizedcontrolofMilantoruleintheyoungduke'sname.Togetherwithhisbeautifulandcleverwife,Beatriced'Este,LudovicopresidedoveranimpressivelysplendidcourttowhichLeonardowaswelcomedaspainterandmusician,aswellasmilitaryengineer.

ThesicklyandinsipidGianGaleazzowasnottootroubledbythisdeprivation,

whichallowedhimthetimeandopportunitytohuntinthepleasantcountrysidearoundthecastleofPavia,wherehewasconfined.Hisambitiouswife,IsabellaofAragon,granddaughterofKingFerrante,however,wasfarfromsatisfiedwiththisarrangementandjealouslyresentedthepositionthatBeatriceoccupiedaswifeof"theMoor,"apositiontowhichsheherselffeltentitled

asthewifeoftherightfulduke.In1493shewrotealetterofbittercomplainttoherfatherinNaples:

Everythingisinhis[GianGaleazzo's]power,whileweareobligedtoliveasthoughwewereprivatepeople.YetLudovico,notGiangaleazzoisDuke.Hiswifehaslately

givenbirthtoasonwho,everyonethinks,willsucceedtothedukedom.Royalhonourswerepaidtohimatbirthwhileweandourchildrenaretreatedwithcontempt.WelivehereinMilanatrisktoourverylives....Ifyouhavefatherlycompassion...Iimploreyoutocometoourhelpand

deliveryourdaughterandson-in-lawfromthefearofslavery,restoringthemtotheirrightfulplaceintheworld.

Isabella'sfatherwouldwillinglyhaverespondedtothiscall,buthergrandfather,KingFerrante,advisedcaution.BothsidesappealedtoAlexanderVIforpapalsupportintheirquarrel.At

firstthepopewasinclinedtosupporttheSforzasintheirendeavour;afterall,theirswasafamilyintowhichhisdaughterwastobemarriedand,indeed,wasmarriedonJune12,1493.

SoonafterLucrezia'swedding,however,anenvoyoftheSpanishsovereigns,FerdinandofAragonandIsabellaofCastile,arrivedinRomeandtoldthepopethat

hismasterandmistresssupportedtheSpanishclaimtoNaples.Theyproposedadoublealliance:AlexanderVI'ssonJofrèshouldbecomePrinceofSquillace,aNeapolitangrandee,andbemarriedtoSancia,theillegitimatedaughterofKingFerrante'sson,whileJuanBorgia,thepope'ssecondandfavouriteson,whohadinheritedtheSpanishtitleDukeofGandíaafterthe

deathofhishalf-brother,shouldnowmarryMariaEnriquez,acousinofKingFerdinand.

InAugustJuanleftforSpain,accompaniedbyfourgalleysladenwithjewelsandluxuriousfurnishingsforhisnewpalace.ByNovemberreportswerereachingRomeofhismisbehaviour,hismistreatmentofhisnewwife,hisreluctancetoconsummate

themarriage,hisextravagance,andhisgambling."TrytofulfilthehopewhichHisHolinesshasalwaysfoundeduponyou,"Cesarewrotetohisbrother,adding,"Ifyouhavemyownfeelingsatheart,doseethatthesereports,whichgiveHisHolinesssomuchpain,shouldcease."

Inasubsequentletter,Cesarewroteoftheirfather's

decisionthattheirbrotherJofrèwastobegrantedthetitleofPrinceofSquillaceandanincomeof40,000ducatsayear,andthatJuanshouldaddtheNeapolitantitleofPrinceofTricaricotohisSpanishdukedom.

Thisagreementwasreachedtenortwelvedaysago[CesaretoldJuan]andyourGracewillbeamazedthatI

shouldnothaveinformedyouofitearlierbut,findingmyselfsomewhatindisposedwhentheaforesaidagreementswerereached,IleftforthebathsatStigliano,whereIhavebeenuntilyesterday,returninginhealthbyGod'sgoodgrace....Wehavereason,myLord

brother,tokissthegroundonwhichHisHolinesswalksandtoprayalwaysforthelifeofhimwhohasmadeussogreat;andthereforeIprayyoutoseekcontinuallytoserveandpleaseHisHoliness,inamannerthatyoumayshowhimonourbehalfourgratitudeineverywaythatwecan.

WhilethearrangementsforJofrè'smarriagetoSanciawerebeingmade,negotiationswerealsoinprogresstoarrangeacardinal'shatforCesare,tojoinhiscousinJuanBorgia-Lanzol,whohadbeencreatedcardinalofMonrealeafortnightafterAlexanderVI'selection.AsCesarehadbeendeclaredlegitimatebySixtusIV,thetwocardinalsentrustedwithestablishing

hisstatuswereabletodeclarethathewaseligibleforadmissiontothesacredcollege;andsohewasadmittedattheageofeighteen,thoughhewasnotyeteveninholyorders,whichhewouldtakethefollowingyearinHolyWeek,andwasadmittedly"veryyounginallhisactions."

"Suchdiscordhasneverbeenseen,"wrotethe

MantuanambassadorwhenthelistofproposednewcardinalswasplacedbeforethecollegeonSeptember18,1493.Inanattempttogaincontrolofthecollege,AlexanderVIwantedtoflooditwithhisowncandidatesbycreatinganunprecedentedthirteennewredhats.ThreeoftheproposedcandidateswereAlexanderVI'ssecretaries;anotherwasAlessandroFarnese,"brother

ofGiulia,thePope'sconcubine,"asBurchardrecorded;andanotherwasCesare,"thePope'sson."Thecollegeobjectedinthestrongestterms;uponbeingtoldthatseveralcardinalsstronglyobjectedtoacertainnameonthelist,AlexanderVIangrilydeclaredthathewould"showthemwhowasPope,andthatatChristmashewouldmakemorecardinals,whethertheyliked

itornot."Amajorityofthecardinalsdidnotlikethiselevationofamereboytothecollege.

Twodayslater,onSeptember20,elevencardinalsarrivedfortheconsistorymeeting,andsevenofthosepresentagreedtovotetheissuethrough;theotherfour,reluctanttobepartytothisunprecedentedact,allabstained.Tenmore

cardinals,ledbyGiulianodellaRovere,showedtheiroutrightoppositiontotheschemebyrefusingtoattendtheconsistory.ThedecisiontogiveCesareacardinal'shatwasgreetedwithcriesofoutrage.TheviolentGiulianodellaRovere,alongtimeenemyofAlexanderVI(andwholaterwastobecomepopehimselfasJuliusII),wassaid"tohowlwithrage,"sofurious,indeed,thathehad

totaketohisbedwithahighfever.AndwhenAlexanderVIinvestedCesarewithhisredhatinagrandceremonyinSt.Peter'sandassignedhimhistitularchurchonSeptember23,Giulianoandhissupportersrefusedtoplaytheircustomarypartintheproceedings.

AlexanderVI'snarrowvictoryreflectedjusthowinsecurehispositionwas

duringthoseearlydaysofhispontificate.Herealizedthathewouldhavetotreadcarefullyifheweretobenefitfromhisposition.TherewasalsothefearthathisenemyCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,aformidableopponent,mightwellcallforacouncilthatwouldhavethepowertodeposehim.AlreadydellaRoverewasaccusinghimoftryingtogaincontrolofthecollegeofcardinalsby

fillingitwithSpaniardsandotherforeigners.AlexanderVIalsoneededtoproceedcautiouslyinhisrelationswithFrance,wheretheSpanishmarriagealliancesoftwoofhischildrenwerecausingdueunease.

Asiftoechotheprecariousnessofhisposition,thestormsthatautumnweremoreviolentanddramaticthanusual.

TorrentialraincausedhugedamageinthefieldsandvineyardsaroundRome,andtheTiberburstitsbanks,floodingthecitystreets."Boltsoflightningstruckinmanyplaces,"Burchardrecorded,"andonehittheVaticanpalaceintheveryroominwhichthePopewasinatthatprecisemoment;hewassoshockedandterrifiedthathelostthepowerofspeech;twoofhisservants

lostconsciousness";luckilytheyallrecovered.

ThatautumnplaguealsobrokeoutinRome,brought,itwaswidelybelieved,bytheJewswhohadbeenexpelledfromSpainbyFerdinandandIsabellaandwhohadtakenrefugeinRome,settinguptheirtentsinacampoutsidethecitywallsbythegateleadingoutontotheViaAppia.Asthedeathtoll

climbedintothehundredsandclaimedonecardinalasavictim,AlexanderVIdecidedtomovethepapalcourttoViterbo.AppointinghisnephewthecardinalofMonrealetotakechargeofRomeinhisabsence,thepopeandhishugeentourage,whichincludedahorsecarryingtheTabernacleoftheEucharist,leftthecity;theystayedafewdaysatAlexanderVI'scastleatNepi

andattheBellInnatRonciglionebeforearrivingattheirdestination.ThepopeandhiscourtstayedatViterbo,whereAlexanderVIcouldindulgehispassionforhuntinginthewoodedhillsaroundthecity,forsixweeks,accompaniedbyeighteencardinals,oneofwhomwasCesare.GiulianodellaRoverewasconspicuousbyhisabsence.

OnDecember18,thedaybeforehisreturn,aproclamationwasreadoutinRome"totellalltheinhabitantstobepresenttomorrowonthereturnofHisHoliness,"reportedBurchard."Eachmustcleantheareaofstreetinfrontofhishouse,hangoutalltheirtapestriesandotheritems,anddoallnecessarytohonourthePope,asishisdue."

Chapter6TheFrenchinRome

"TWICEOURGREATGUNSWEREREADY

TOFIREONCASTELSANT'ANGELO"

FRANCESCOGUICCIARDINI

describedItalyas"neverhavingenjoyedsuchprosperityorknownso

favourableasituationasthatinwhichitfounditselfintheyearsimmediatelybeforeandafter1490."Hecontinued:

Thegreatestpeaceandtranquillityreignedeverywhere....NotonlydidItalyaboundininhabitants,merchandiseandriches,butshewasalsohighlyrenownedforthemagnificence

ofmanyprinces,forthesplendourofsomanymostnobleandbeautifulcities,astheseatandmajestyofreligion,andflourishingwithmenmostskilfulintheadministrationofpublicaffairsandmostnoblytalentedinalldisciplinesanddistinguishedandindustriousinallthe

arts.NorwasItalylackinginmilitarygloryaccordingtothestandardsofthetime,andadornedwithsomanygiftsthatshedeservedlyheldacelebratednameandareputationamongallthenations.

HadGuicciardinidescribedItalyasitwastobecomeafewyearslater,duringthe

pontificateofAlexanderVI,hewouldhavepaintedalesscomfortingpicture.ThequarrelbetweenKingFerranteIofNaplesandLudovicoSforzaofMilanwastohavefarwiderpoliticalimplications,involvingFranceandSpain,eachofwhichlaidclaimtoNaples,anditnowbroughtthethreatofimminentwar.For,inordertodisposeofhisenemy,LudovicoSforza

decidedtosuggesttoKingCharlesVIIIofFrancethatheshouldinvadeItalytoasserthisclaimtoNaples,asheirtotherightsoftheHouseofAnjou,whichhadbeenoustedfromNaplesbyFerranteI'sfather,AlfonsoofAragon,somefiftyyearsearlier.

CharlesVIII'sbeliefthathewastherightfulkingofNapleshadbeen"instilledin

himfromanearlyage,sothatitwasalmostaninnateinstinct,andithadbeennourishedundertheguidanceofseveralcloseadvisers,"soGuicciardinisaid,andthesemenplayedonhisvanityandhisyouthfulinexperience,suggestingthat,byenforcinghisclaimtothekingdom,hewould"surpassthegloryofhisancestors,"andthat,havingtakenNaples,itwouldbejustasimplesteptoseize

theHolyLandfromtheTurks.

OnJanuary25,1494,FerranteIdied,"withoutthelightofgrace,withoutthecrossandwithoutGod,"asBurchardstated."On21JanuaryhevisitedthebathsatTripergolebecausehedidnotfeelwell"—Tripergole,oncefamousforitssulphurbaths,wasburiedafteravolcaniceruptioncovereditwithlava

in1538.OnthefollowingdayFerrante"returnedtoNaplesand,ondismountingfromhishorseinthecourtyardofCastelNuovo,sufferedafaintingfit;threedayslaterhedied,withoutconfessionandwithoutreceivingthesacraments."This,soitseemed,washisownchoice:"Althoughhisconfessor,aFranciscanfriar,cameintothebedroomand,standingbeforehim,urgedhimto

repentofhissins,"FerranteIrefusedtodoso."Thefriar,itwassaid,didnotseeasinglesignofrepentancefromtheKing."

FerranteIdiedattheageofseventy,loathedbyhissubjectsforthecruelwayhehadexercisedhisauthority.Therewas,however,littletalkofpoison;manyinItalythoughtitlikelyhehaddiedofmiseryattheprospectof

seeinghiskingdomseizedbythepowerfularmiesofCharlesVIII,whichwerepoisedtoleaveFranceontheirlongmarchtoconquerNaples.

CharlesVIIIwasjusttwenty-fouryearsold,andhewasthe"ugliestman"thatoneobserverhadeverseen,"inall[his]days—tiny,deformedwiththemostappallingfacethateverman

had."ThechroniclerPhilippedeCommynesaddedthat"neitherhistreasury,norhisunderstanding,norhispreparationsweresufficientforsuchanimportantenterpriseastheconquestofNaples."Commynesbelievedheneversaidawordtoanyonethatcould"inreason,causedispleasure."Thisunprepossessingbutadventurousyoungmonarchalsohadthemostgrandiose

ideas;hewascontemplatingamarchuponNaplesnotonlytotakepossessionofhisancestor'sthronebutalsotogoonfromtheretoconquerJerusalemand,ontheway,toreformthecorruptpapacyofAlexanderVI.

InItaly,wheretheforthcomingconflictnowseemedinevitable,reactionsvaried.LudovicoSforzapromisedhissupport,asdid

hisfather-in-law,theDukeofFerrara,andhiscousinGiovanniSforza,husbandofLucreziaandLordofPesaro,whosentdetailsofpapaltroopdeploymentstoMilanwiththewarningthat"ifanywordofwhatIamdoingisknown,Iwillbeinthegreatestdanger."TheRepublicofVeniceremainedneutral;FlorenceandthePapalStateswerebothill-equippedtofightawar;the

NeapolitanarmywasamoreformidableforcethananyotherinItaly,butithadnohopeofhaltingtheFrenchadvanceonitsown.

TheissuehadbecomeevenmorecomplicatedforAlexanderVIsinceFerranteI'sdeathinJanuaryandthesuccessionofAlfonsoIIasthenewking.Thepopenowfacedastarkchoice—Napleswasapapalfiefandhehad

eithertocrownAlfonsoIIortoagreetothedemandsofCharlesVIIItoinvesthimastherightfulruler.

ThroughoutMarchAlexanderVIsoughttoplacatebothsides;hesentCharlesVIIIthepapalrose,amarkofhisfavour,butwhentheambassadorsofAlfonsoIIarrivedinRome,theirFrenchcounterpartsmadeapoint,astheyhadbeenorderedtodo,

ofpointedlyrefusingtomeetthem.ByEaster,whichfellonMarch30thatyear,itwasclearthatAlexanderVIhaddecidedinfavourofhisalliancewithNaples.AttheGreatMassinSt.Peter'sonEasterSunday,ledbythepopeinperson,itwasthecardinalofNapleswhoactedashisassistant."ThePopegavecommuniontoallthecardinal-deacons,exceptfortheCardinalofValencia,who

wasabsent,"notedJohannesBurchard,usingthetitlebywhichCesarehadchosentobeknowninthecollege,and"afterwardstheLanceofChristwasshowntwicetothepeopleandtheVerniclethreetimes."

OntheTuesdayafterEaster,AlexanderVIwenttotheChurchofSantaMariasopraMinervatohearMass,whichwascelebratedbythebishop

ofConcordia.CardinalAscanioSforzamadeawittyaside,recordedbyBurchard,totheeffectthat"whenthePopeisinconcordwiththeKingofNaples,heaskstheBishopofConcordiatocelebratethemass;thePope,whooverheardthisremark,askedmetotellAscaniothathischoicehadnotbeenpremeditatedbutthatithadbeencoincidence."AlexanderVIthenquipped,muchtothe

discomfitureofhisvice-chancellor,that"whenthereispeacebetweenHisHolinessandLudovicoSforza,"thepopewould"havemasscelebratedbytheBishopofPace"—paceistheItalianforpeaceandalsotheLatinnamefortheSpanishcityofBadajoz.

Thecollegeofcardinalswasdeeplydividedbythequarrel,AlexanderVI'sSpanish

cardinalsfirmlyopposingtheFrenchparty,ledbyCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,thepope'sinveterateenemy,andthoseloyaltoMilan,notablyAscanioSforza.AlexanderVIwasevenapproachedbyoneofdellaRovere'ssupporters,whothreatenedhimbluntlythatifhedidnotagreetothecrowningofCharlesVIIIaskingofNaples,itwouldnodoubtbecomenecessarytosummon

acounciltoinvestigatethechargethatthepopehadbeenguiltyofsimonyinsecuringhiselectiontohighoffice.Whetherornotpersuadedbythisthreat,AlexanderVIwasinducedtoagreethatCharlesVIIIshouldbecrownedinNapleswhentheFrencharmyenteredthecity.

TheissueofcrowningAlfonsoIIaskingofNapleswasdiscussedatlengthina

secretconsistorythatlastedeighthours;itwasfinallyagreedthatthepope'snephew,thecardinalofMonreale,wouldbeappointedlegatetoNaplesandwouldgothereto"anointandcrown"Alfonsoasking.TwodayslaterBurchardhimselfleftforNaplestomakethenecessarypreparations;ordersforthereceptionofthelegate,forthecarryingofthebaldachin,the

itinerarytobefollowedforthecardinalofMonreale'sentryintoNaples,andhisprocessiontothecathedralwerealllistedbythemethodicalmasterofceremonies,togetherwith"therolesofthelegateandtheKingonthedayofthecoronation."

OnApril30BurchardhadanaudiencewithAlfonsoIIinordertoexplaintohimthe

detailsoftheceremonyandtofixthedate,whichwastobeMay8,chosenbythekingbecauseitwastheFeastoftheAscension.

Thedaybeforethecoronation,ingratefulthankstoAlexanderVIforhissupport,AlfonsoIIannouncedhisgiftstothepope'schildren.CesarewasgivenlucrativeNeapolitanbenefices;Juanwastoget

fiefsandtheofferof33,000ducatsayeartoserveasacondottiereforNaples;JofrèwasgivensixNeapolitanfiefs,worth4,000ducatsayear,includingtheprestigioustitleofPrinceofSquillace,andthekinginvestedhimasaknightoftheroyalchivalricOrderoftheErmine.Healsoratifiedthemarriagecontractbetweenhisillegitimatedaughter,SanciaofAragon,andthe

twelve-year-oldJofrè,who,asPrinceofSquillace,carriedthecrownduringthecoronationceremony.

Threedayslater,asraincascadeddownintorrentsoutside,JofrèandSanciaweremarriedinthechapelofCastelNuovo.Aftertheweddingbanquet,thecouplewereaccompaniedtotheirbedchamber,"wheretheirbedhadbeenprepared,"reported

Burchard.

ThelegateandtheKingremainedwaitingoutside;thenewly-wedswerenowundressedbymaids-of-honourandplacedtogetherinthebed,thegroomontherightofthebride.Whenthetwo,nownaked,hadbeencoveredwiththesheetsandblanket,the

legateandtheKingentered.Intheirpresence,thenewly-wedswereuncoveredbythemaids-of-honourasfarasthenavel,orthereabouts,andthegroomembracedhisbridewithoutshame.ThelegateandtheKingremainedthere,talkingbetweenthemselves,forabout

halfanhourbeforeleavingthecouple.

Burchard,meanwhile,hadtakentheopportunitytodosomesightseeingaroundtheBayofNaples,visitingvarioussitesofinterest,includingthehotspringsatPozzuoliandthesulphurandsaltbathsatBagnoli,beforeleavingNapleswithafour-year-oldmule,namedIdrontina,whichhewasgiven

asapresentbytheking,togetherwith100goldducatsingratitudeforservicesrendered.

OnJuly12AlexanderVI,accompaniedbyseveralcardinals,includingthenineteen-year-oldCesare,leftRomeforTivoli,whereheintendedtostayafewdaysinordertoescapethestiflingsummerheatandtoattendameetingwithAlfonsoIIatthe

nearbyfortressofVicovaro,acastlebelongingtoVirginioOrsini,oneofthecondottiericaptainsfightingwiththeNeapolitanarmy.TheydiscussedatlengththemeasuresthatwouldbeneededforthedefenceofNaplesagainsttheFrench.Aplanofactionwasagreedupon;but,beforeitcouldbeputintooperation,animmenseFrencharmy,thirtythousandstrongwithforty

powerfulcannons,underthepersonalcommandofCharlesVIII,crossedtheAlpsinearlySeptemberandstarteditslongmarchsouth.

InRomeAlexanderVI'sopenalliancewithNaplesandSpainmadelifeveryuncomfortableforthesupportersofMilanandFrance,notleastinthecollege.CardinalGiulianodellaRoverehadfledto

FranceinApril;CardinalAscanioSforzaleftattheendofJune.Withtheplagueraging,thecelebrationsfortheanniversariesofInnocentVIII'sdeathandofAlexanderVI'saccessionwerebothcancelled,addingtothepallofdreadthathungoverthecity,andwhichgrewdailyasnewsbulletinsofCharlesVIII'sslowbutrelentlessapproachweredelivered.Therehadbeenamomentof

hopesoonaftertheFrenchcrossedtheAlpswhenitwaslearnedthatCharlesVIIIhadtakentohisbedinAsti,sufferingfromsmallpox;butthemomentwasbrief,andthekingsoonrecoveredenoughtocontinueonhisway.

Guicciardinirecordedmanysignsandportentsofimpendingdoomthatwereseenataboutthistime:

InPugliaonenightthreesunswereseeninthesky,surroundedbycloudsandaccompaniedbyterrifyingthunderandlightning.IntheterritoryofArezzohugenumbersofarmedsoldiersridingenormoussteedswereseenformanydayspassingacrosstheskywithaterribleclashof

trumpetsanddrums.AlloverItalyholyimagesandstatueswereseentosweatandeverywheremonstrousbabiesandanimalswereborn...whencethepeoplewerefilledwithunbelievabledread,frightenedastheyalreadywerebythereputationofFrenchpower.

TheFrenchtroopsmetwithlittleopposition;itwassaidthattheyconqueredItalywiththebitsofchalkthatthequartermastersusedinordertomarkthedoorsofthehousestheyoccupiedontheirmarchsouth.Certainlythearmywasoneofthemostpowerfuleverassembled,anditwas"provisionedbyalargequantityofartillery,"wroteGuicciardini,"ofatypeneverbeforeseeninItaly."The

Frenchhaddevelopednewweapons:"Thesewerecalledcannonandtheyusedironcannonballsinsteadofstone,asbefore,andthisnewshotwasconsiderablylargerandheavierthanthatpreviouslydeployed."Notonlyweretheymorepowerfulthananythingseenbefore;theywerealsomoremanoeuvrable;themassivecannonsweretransportedtoItalybyshipandunloadedin

theharbouratGenoa,wheretheywereloadedontospeciallymadeguncarriages."Thisartillery,"concludedGuicciardini,"madeCharlesVIII'sarmyformidable."

AfteroutflankingtheweakresistanceoftheNeapolitanforcesintheRomagnaandroutingtheNeapolitanfleetatRapallo,theycrossedtheApenninesinOctoberandseizedthefortressofSarzana,

oneofFlorence'skeyborderdefences.AlexanderVIappointedthecardinalofSiena,FrancescoTodeschiniPiccolomini,aslegatetoCharlesVIIItonegotiate,butCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,whohadjoinedtheFrenchcamp,persuadedthekingnottomeethim.

OnNovember17CharlesVIIIenteredFlorenceintriumph,tothewildcheersof

theficklepopulace,forwhomthearrivaloftheFrencharmyhadbeenthecatalystthathadenabledtheexpulsionofthedetestedPierode'Medici,whohadarrogantlyexercisedhisauthorityinthecitysincethedeathofhisfather,LorenzoilMagnifico,twoyearsearlier.AftersigninganalliancewithFlorence'snewrepublicangovernmentonNovember26,CharlesVIIIandhistroopscontinuedtheir

marchsouth,sackingandpillagingtheTuscancountrysideastheywent.

AfewdayslaterinRome,AlexanderVIarrestedthoseprominentsupportersoftheFrenchwhoremainedinthecity,includingCardinalAscanioSforzaandtheillegitimatesonofthegreatCardinald'Estouteville,imprisoningtheminapartmentsontheupperfloor

oftheVaticanPalace.ThoughtheroomswerecomfortableandtheprisonerswereallowedtoattendMassintheSistineChapel,theywereheavilyguarded.ThatsamedayAlexanderVIinformedtheambassadorsofFrance,whohadcometoRometoseekfreepassagefortheFrencharmythroughthePapalStates,thattheirrequestwasrefused.CharlesVIIIignoredthepopeand

continuedtomarchsouth;amonthafterarrivinginFlorence,theinvadingarmycapturedCivitavecchia,animportantportinsidepapalterritory,whiletheOrsinisurrenderedtheirfortressatnearbyBracciano.

NearViterbothevanguardoftheFrencharmy,underthecommandofYvesd'Alègre,cameacrosstwoobviouslywell-to-dowomen.Oneof

theseturnedouttobeGiuliaFarnese,AlexanderVI'sbeautifulmistress,whowasreturningtoRomefromavisittoherhusbandonhiscountryestate.TheotherwasAdrianadaMila,herfriendandthepope'scousin,whohadbeenentrustedbyhimwiththecareofhischildren.Amessengerwassenttothekinginforminghimofthisunexpectedencounter,andCharlesVIIIdeclaredthatthe

Frenchdidnotfightagainstwomen;butYvesd'Alègresawnoreasonwhymoneyshouldnotbemadeoutofthecaptiveswhohadsounexpectedlyfallenintohishands,andheaccordinglydemanded3,000ducatsfortheirrelease.

AlexanderVIastutelyagreedimmediatelytopaythisransom,andthetwowomenweresentontoRome

underanescortoffourhundredsoldiers.LudovicoSforzawasnotpleased:"Theseladies,"hedeclared,"couldhavebeenusedasafinewhipforcompellingthePopetodoallthatwasrequiredofhim,forhecannotlivewithoutthem.TheFrenchreceivedamere3,000ducatsforthemwhenhemightwellhavepaid50,000orevenmoretohavethemback."

WiththemainbodyoftheFrenchdrawingeverclosertoRome,thecitygrewincreasinglyfearful;housesandpalacesofknownsupportersofFrancewereransacked.AlexanderVIhadbeenadvisedtoescapefromRomewhilehecouldstilldoso;but,forthefirsttimeinhislife,heseemedutterlyirresolute.HehadcalledinNeapolitantroopsonlytodismissthem;hehadrepeated

hisrefusaltoallowtheFrenchfreepassagethroughthePapalStatesonlytorescindtheorder;ononeoccasionhefainted.

FinallythepopedecidedtostayinRomeandbegantoconsiderthewaysinwhichhemightsecureanagreementwithCharlesVIII.FirsthesetaboutorderingthedefenceofthecityandsummonedBurchardtogetherwitha

numberofothermembersoftheGermancolonylivinginRometoanaudience,toaskfortheirhelp.Heoutlinedthe"insolentbehaviour"oftheFrenchkingandhisinvasionofthePapalStates;"hedidnotanticipateasiegebytheFrench,"hesaid,butwouldwelcomeanyhelpthattheGermannation,"inwhomhehadgreatconfidence,"mightbeabletocontributetothedefenceofRome.Burchard

continuedhisaccount:

HisHolinesssuggestedthatweshouldappointconstablesandofficers...andarmthemwithweaponsandissuealltherequisiteorderssothat,whenthetimecame,theywouldbeabletodefendthemselvesandthe

Popewouldbeabletousethismilitiawithinthecity,althoughnotoutsidethewalls.

Intheend,Burchardfailedtopersuadehiscompatriotstoagreetotheformationofthishighlyirregularmilitia;theyfeltbound,theysaid,totheirpromisetoobeythecaptainsoftheirneighbourhoodwatches,whichwaswhatusuallyhappenedinan

emergencysuchasthis.Norwasthecommanderofthepapaltroops,VirginioOrsini,cousinofthelovelyGiulia'shusband,anymoreencouraging;hechosetooffernoresistancetotheFrench,whowere,heconsidered,irresistible.

Withcharacteristicstyle,AlexanderVIannouncedthathewoulddefendCastelSant'Angelowiththetroops

athisdisposaland,ifattacked,wouldstandonitswallsinfullcanonicals,carryingtheBlessedSacrament.HewouldnotleaveRome,hesaid,tobecomeaprisonerinNaples;hewasdeterminedtoremainandattempttocometotermswiththeFrenchking.WorknowstartedonadeepditchtosurroundCastelSant'Angelo,whichinvolvedthedemolitionofseveralhouses.

"OnThursday18December,"wroteBurchard,"allthePope'spossessions,includingevenhisbedanddailycredence-table,wereassembledforremovalfromtheVaticanPalacetoCastelSant'Angelo,thevestmentsfromSt.Peter's,allthemoneychestsfromthesacristy,thepalaceweaponsandstoresoffood,andallthepapalbelongingsweresenttothecastle,whilstthecardinals

alsopreparedtomove."

BelowthewallsofCastelSant'Angelo,thecitywasnowinanuproaraspeoplefledintothecountry,havingburiedorotherwisehiddentheirvaluablestosavethemfromlootersandpillagingsoldiers."Thediscontentofthepeopleisatitsheight,"wrotetheMantuanenvoyFioramonteBagolo."Thelootingisfearful,themurders

innumerable;onehearsmoaningandweepingoneverysideandnever,inthememoryofman,hastheChurchbeeninsuchanevilplight."Allthosewhocouldaffordtodosowerepackingtheirvaluablesintocarriagesandleavingthecity.LookingoutthroughthewindowsoftheVatican,AlexanderVIandhissonCesarewatchedtheenemytroopsmassingonMonteMario,justnorthof

thepalace,thankfulthatthey,too,hadtakentheprecautionoflockingtheirtreasuresawayinCastelSant'Angeloandwerereadyforflight.

Meanwhile,asrumoursspreadoftheatrocitiesthattheFrenchwouldinflict,CharlesVIIIattemptedtoappeasethefearsoftheRomans.TheFrenchCardinalBertrandPerauld,whohadbeenrefusedentryintothe

cityonDecember22,washeardtosaythatthetroops"wouldnottakeahenoraneggorthesmallestitemwithoutpayingforitinfull."ThenextdayhewrotetotheGermancolonysayingthattheinvasionwouldonlyhappeniftheking's"enemies,"bywhichhemeantAlexanderVIhimself,"continuetoremaininRomeandpreventanagreement."Moreover,heinsisted,"His

Majestypromisesthathistroopswilldonoharmtoanyprostituteinthecity,nortoanyotherperson,wherevertheyarefrom,unlesstheyfightagainsttheKingandhisfollowers."

WiththecityalmostsurroundedbyFrenchtroops,thecelebrationsfortheFeastoftheNativitycontinuedwithsurprisingnormality:Burchardrecordedthatthe

popehimselfwaspresentintheSistineChapelforVespersonChristmasEve.IthadbeenexpectedthatthecardinalofMonrealewouldcelebrateHighMassintheSistineChapelonChristmasDay,butbeforedawnbrokethatmorning,acourierhadarrivedwithanurgentmessageforAlexanderVItosaythatCharlesVIIIdesiredapeacefulagreementwiththepopepriortotheking'sentry

intothecity.HavinginformedthecardinalsassembledintheSaladelPappagallothatheintendedtoallowCharlesVIIItoenterRome,thepopedispatchedthecardinalofMonrealetoagreetotermswiththeking,wholikewisesenthisenvoystotheVaticanforthesamepurpose.AtMassintheSistineChapelthenextday,theFeastofSt.Stephen,Burchardfacedanawkward

situation,beingobligedtoorganizeseatingnotonlyfortheseFrenchenvoysbutalsofortwoambassadorsofthekingofNapleswhowereinRome:

Thelatterdidnotwishtodisputetheirseatswiththenewarrivals,andwithdrew,claimingnottoknowwhotheywere,butwhenonthePope's

orders,IhadexplainedtothemthattheywereambassadorsfromtheKingofFrance,theNeapolitansresumedtheirseatsandgavetheothersprecedenceinposition.AgreatmanyotherFrenchmancameinaswell,andsatdownquiteindiscriminatelynexttotheclericson

theirbenches.Imovedthemawayandgavethemmoresuitableplaces,butthePopedislikedwhatIwasdoingandsummonedmeangrilytosaythatIwasdestroyingallhiseffortsandthatIwastopermittheFrenchtostandwherevertheywanted.Irespondedina

soothingmanner,sayingthatGodknew,hewasnottobecomeupsetovertheissuebecauseIunderstoodwhathewantedandwouldspeaknotanotherwordtotheFrenchmen,wherevertheysatinthechapel.

OnDecember31AlexanderVIsenthismasterofceremoniestoCharlesVIII:

"OntheordersofHisHoliness,"Burchardwrote,"IrodeouttofindtheKingofFranceinordertoacquainthimwiththeceremonialthatwouldaccompanyhisreceptioninthecityandtohearhisownwishesandtodoallHisMajestyorderedmetodo."Becauseofthepouringrain,theroadscloggedwithmud,"andthespeedatwhichHisMajestywasriding,"Burchardwasunabletogreet

thekingasformallyashewouldhavewished.InanswertoBurchard'squestions,CharlesVIIIreplied"thathewantedhisentryintothecitytobeconductedwithoutanypomp."Hedid,however,invitethemasterofceremonies"tocontinueridingwithhim,andforaboutfourmilesorsohetalkedwithmecontinually,askingmequestionsaboutthehealth

ofthePopeandthecardinals."Burchardnotedtheking'sparticularinterestinAlexanderVI'ssonCesare,askingmanyquestionsabouthissituationandhisstatus"andmanyotherthings,toallofwhichIwasscarcelyabletogiveappropriateanswers."

Meanwhile,themainbodyofKingCharles'sarmyenteredRomeataboutthreeo'clockintheafternoonofthe

lastdayofDecember.AlexanderVIandhisfamilytookshelterinCastelSant'Angelo,whileGiuliaFarnesewasspiritedoutofthecitybyherbrother,CardinalAlessandroFarnese.Theseprecautionsprovedunnecessary."TwiceourgreatgunswerereadytofireonCastelSant'Angelo,"wrotePhilippedeCommynes,"butonbothoccasionstheKingopposedit."

IttooksixhoursfortheFrencharmytofilethroughthegateatSantaMariadelPopolo,anditwaslongafterdarknesshadfallenthatthelaststragglersenteredthecity.Byflickeringtorchlightandthegleamoflanterns,themenandhorsesmarchedthoughthenarrowstreets,muddyandwetinthepouringrain:SwissandGermaninfantrycarryingbroadswordsandlonglances,

Gasconarchers,Frenchknights,Scotsarchers,artillerymenwithbronzecannonsandculverins.EscortedbycardinalsAscanioSforzaandGiulianodellaRovere,andsurroundedbyhisbodyguardandhismagnificentlydressedcourtiers,rodeCharlesVIIIhimself,ashort,uglyyoungmanwithahugehookednoseandthickfleshylips,constantlyopen.

"Therewerefires,torchesandlightsineveryhouse,"Burchardrecorded,"andpeoplewereheardshouting'France!France!'and'Vincoli!Vincoli!'"continually(SanPietroinVincoliwasthetitleofCardinalGiulianodellaRovere).AtthePalazzoVenezia,thegreatpalacebuiltbyPaulIIatthefootoftheCapitolHillandnowtheresidenceofCardinal

LorenzoCibò,thekingdismountedandwasusheredinsidebyhishost.Helimpedintothediningroomandsatbythefireinhisslippers,whileaservantcombedhishairandthewispyscatteredstrandsofhisreddishbeard.Foodwasplaceduponatable;achamberlaintastedeverydishbeforethekingate,andtheremainswerethrownintoasilverewer.Fourphysicianslikewise

testedthewineintowhichthechamberlaindangledaunicorn'shornonagoldenchainbeforeHisMajestyraisedthecuptohislips.

CardinalCibòhadpreparedhisbestapartments"forhousingtheambassadorsandotherFrenchmen,"commentedBurchard,addingthatthedignitaries"wereprovidedwithplentyofstrawbeds,butInoticedthatthese

sacksofstrawwerenevercleaned;tallowcandleshungfromthedoorsandfireplaces,and,eventhoughthewallsweredecoratedwithbeautifultapestries,theplaceresembledapigsty."

DespiteCharlesVIII'SprotestationsthathistroopswouldrespecttheRomansandtheirproperty,theydidcausealotoftrouble.Burchardreportedthat"on

theirwayintothecitytheFrenchtroopsforcedanentranceintohousesoneithersideoftheroad,throwingouttheirowners,horsesandothergoods,settingfiretowoodenarticlesandeatinganddrinkingwhatevertheyfoundwithoutpayinganything."OnThursday,January8,herecorded,"thehouseofPaoloBranco,aRomancitizen,wasplunderedandransackedbytheFrenchwhokilledhistwo

sons,whilstothers,includingJews,weremurderedandtheirhousespillaged;eventhehouseofDonnaVannozzaCatanei,themotherofCardinalCesareBorgia,didnotescape."

EvenpooroldBurchardhimselfwastosufferatthehandsoftheunrulysoldiers:"WhenIreturnedtomyhouseaftermass,IfoundthattheFrenchhadentereditagainst

mywill,"hewailed."Theyhadtakenoutsevenoftheeighthorses,mulesandassesthatIhadinmystableandhadbilletedintheirplacesevenoftheirownmountswhichwerebusilyeatingmyhay."Hisrooms,aswellasthoseofhisservants,hadallbeenrequisitionedbyFrenchnoblesandtheirretinues.EventuallyCharlesVIIIwasforcedtoissueanorderforbiddinghistroopsfrom

forciblyenteringhousesonpainofdeath.

WhileAlexanderVIplayedawaitinggamefromthecomfortandsecurityofhisapartmentsinCastelSant'Angelo,wherehewasensconcedwithCesareandseveraloftheNeapolitancardinals,CharlesVIIIspenthistimereceivingvisitsfromvariouscardinalsanddealingwiththedelugeofcomplaints

abouthistroops.Oneday,escortedbyacompanyofsoldiers,hewasconductedonatourofRometoviewthesightsofthecity:onanotherherodeouttotheBasilicaofSanSebastianowithhishousehold.

ItwasnotuntilJanuary16thatthetworulersfinallycameface-to-face.ThatdayCharlesVIIIrodeacrossRometoSt.Peter's,wherehe

heardMassintheFrenchroyalchapel,whichhadbeenrestoredbyhisfather,LouisXI,andwasdedicatedtoSt.Petronilla,thedaughterofthefirstpope."Ifmymemoryiscorrect,"recordedBurchard,"themasswasnotsung."Thekingwasthenescortedtothepapalpalace,wherethelavishroomsofAlexanderVI'sapartmentshadbeenpreparedforhimandhissuitetodine.Thepope,meanwhile,wason

hiswayfromCastelSant'AngelototheVaticaninhisceremoniallitter.Theambitioustwenty-four-year-oldmonarch,describedbyGuicciardinias"notparticularlyintelligentwithregardtopoliticalaffairsandcarriedawaybyhisferventwishtoruleandhisthirstforglory,"wasabouttobeoutwittedbythewilypope.

"OnbeingtoldofHis

Holiness'sapproach,"wroteBurchard,theeageryoungking,notwellversedinthesubtletiesofachievingdiplomaticadvantage,"hurriedtotheendofthesecondprivategardentogreethim."Catchingsightofthepope,heapproachedhimandtwicegenuflectedbeforehim:"AtfirstHisHolinesspretendednottoseethisgesturebutwhenHisMajestycamecloserandwasaboutto

genuflectforathirdtime,thePoperemovedhiscapand,holdingouthishandtorestraintheKingfromkneeling,kissedhim."

AlexanderVI'sinformalitywascalculated,aswashisapparentinsistenceontheequalitythatwasseentoexistbetweenthetworulers."Atthistheirfirstmeeting,"Burchardcontinued,"bothmenwerebareheadedandthe

KingkissedneitherthePope'sfootnorhishand.HisHolinessrefusedtoplacehiscapbackonhisheaduntiltheKinghadreplacedhisownhat,buteventuallytheybothcoveredtheirheadssimultaneously."LaterthatdayAlexanderVIdisplayedasimilardeferencewhen,havingaccompaniedCharlesVIIItotheSaladelPappagallo,hedeclinedtositdownuntilhisguesthaddone

so.

AlexanderVIalsoaccededtoCharlesVIII'srequesttogiveacardinal'shattoGuillaumeBriçonnet,thebishopofSt.-Maloandatrustedmemberoftheking'sPrivyCouncil,andtoinvesthimimmediately.Burchardwassentoffforthwithtofindacardinal'shatandrobe."ThehatwassuppliedbyCardinalCesareBorgia,"he

remarked,"andthecloakwasborrowedfromtheroomsofCardinalPallavicini."Allthecardinalspresentwerenowseatedasifforaconsistory,andAlexanderVI,accordingtoBurchard,"saidhewashappytoagreetotheKing'srequestprovidingthecardinalsalsoconsideredtheoccasionsuitable."

Onebyonethecardinalsgavetheirconsent,andthe

popedulyinvestedBriçonnetwiththeinsigniaofhisnewrank."WhenthishadbeendonetheCardinalofSt.-MalokissedthePope'sfootandhand,andthen,raisedupbythePope,hereceivedthekissonthemouth,"notjustfromAlexanderVIbutalsofromalltheothercardinalspresent.

AlexanderVIhimselfnowrosefromhisseatandsaidthathewishedtoescortthe

kingbacktotheroyalapartments,butthisCharlesVIII"categoricallyrefusedtoallow."Hewasthereforeaccompaniedbythecardinalsasfarastheentrance,wheretheylefthim.ThedoorswereguardedbyScottishmercenaries,whohadthespecialdutyofguardingtheFrenchkingandallowednonetoenterexceptformembersoftheroyalhousehold.

Twodayslater,onJanuary18,havingmanagedneatlytosidesteptwoofCharlesVIII'sdemands—thecallingofacounciltoaddresstheissueofthereformofthechurchandpapalrecognitionofhisclaimtoNaples—AlexanderVIdidgivehimformalpermissiontopassfreelythroughthePapalStates,asomewhatPyrrhicvictoryfortheyoungking,whoalreadyheldmostoftheterritorynorthofRome

andknewthatthepopedidnothavetheforcesnecessarytopreventhimfromtakingtherest,ifhewantedit.Inreturn,thepopehadextractedapromisefromCharlesVIIIthathewouldprofesshisobediencetothepopeinpublic.

ThiswasadiplomatictriumphforAlexanderVI.Amonthearlierhehadbeenundersiege,hiscityinan

uproar,hisholdonpowertenuousatbest;nowhehadfullyreestablishedhisauthority.Thetermsoftheagreementwereformallyreadoutandwrittenup,"inFrenchforHisMajestyandinLatinforthePope."

Chapter7TheConquestof

Naples

"THEYRAPEDTHEWOMEN,THENROBBEDTHEM"

OVERTHENEXTFEWDAYS,CharlesVIIIwasseentoadheretohissideofthebargain.OnJanuary19,1495,Burchard

noted,"theSalaRegiaintheVaticanwaspreparedinthetraditionalwayforthepublicconsistoryinwhichtheKingofFrancewouldtakehissolemnoathofobedience."Wheneverythingwasready,thepopeaskedBurchardtoinformtheking,"whomwefoundbesidethefireinhisroom,wearinghisdoubletandhisbootsstillnotlaced."Onbeingtoldthathispresencewasrequested,the

king,wiserthanbefore,repliedthathestill"hadtodress,andwhenhehaddoneso,heintendedtohearmassinSt.Peter's,andthentodineandthatafterthishewouldcometoHisHoliness."Whenthecardinals,whoweretoescortCharlesVIIItotheSalaRegia,arrivedathisrooms,theyfoundhimstillattableandwereforcedtowait,seatedonthewindowseats.Hefurtherdelayedby

insistingthatBurchardrepeatagainandagaintheorderoftheceremony,anditwassometwohoursbeforetheroyalpartyfinallyarrived.

InthemagnificentsettingoftheSalaRegia,designedspecificallyforthereceptionofkingsandemperors,ortheirambassadors,CharlesVIIIaddressedthepope:"MostHolyFather,"heintoned,"Ihavecometo

renderhomageandreverencetoYourHolinessinthesamewayasmypredecessorstheKingsofFrancehavedone."OnJanuary28,whenCharlesVIIItookleaveofAlexanderVI,theypartedinsincereamityor,asCardinalGiulianodellaRoverethought,inabjectsurrenderonthepartoftheking.Themasterofceremoniesdescribedtheirparting:

KingandPoperemainedclosetedtogetherforashorttime,andwerethenjoinedbyCesareBorgiaforafurtherquarterofanhourafterwhichHisMajestywasescortedbythePopeandhiscardinalsasfarasthepassageleadingtotheupperapartmentsofthepalace.Therethe

Kingkneltdown,bareheaded,andthePope,removinghisowncap,kissedhim,butrefusedquitefirmlytoallowtheKingtosmotherhisfeetwithkisses,whichHisMajestyseemedtowanttodo.TheKingthendeparted.

LeavingwithCharlesVIII,

toaccompanythekingtoNaplesintheguiseofapapallegate,thoughinrealityahostageforAlexanderVI'sgoodbehaviour,wasCesare.Hekeptthekingwaitingwhilehereturnedbrieflytohisapartments:"AtlastCesareappeared,wearinghiscardinal'shat,and,withHisHoliness'spermission,mountedhishorsebesidetheKing.ToHisMajestyhepresentedsixexceedingly

beautifulhorses,whichstoodreadyathandwithbridlesbutnosaddles,andthenboththeKingandCesaredeparted."

ThateveningacourierarrivedwithnewsforAlexanderVIthatKingAlfonsoIIhadfledfromNaples—"outofsheercowardice,"commentedthecontemporaryFrenchchroniclerPhilippedeCommynes—loadingfour

galleyswithtreasureinorder,sotheletterreported,tosailtoSicilyandthentoSpain,torecruitforcesagainsttheFrench.

Thefollowingevening,January29,camethenewsthat,infact,AlfonsoII,whohadonlybeencrownedbythepope'snephewthecardinalofMonrealejustninemonthsbefore,hadnowabdicatedinfavourofhisson,FerranteII,

whohad,onhisfather'sorders,contractedmarriagetoIsabellaofAragon,hisfather'ssister,"thathehadriddenthroughNapleswherehehadreceivedoathsofhomagefromall,"andthathehadsetfreeallthosenoblesimprisonedbyFerranteIandAlfonsoII,exceptforthoseknowntobeassociatedwiththeFrench,andthesehehadexecuted.

OnJanuary30couriersarrivedwithevenmoredramaticnewsfromNaples,thistimeconcerningCesare.AsBurchardrecorded:

OnFriday30JanuarythePopewasinformedthattheCardinalofValence,disguisedasaroyalfootman,hadescapedfromtheFrenchKing'scourtat

Velletri.Itwasindeedtrue.TheCardinalhadspentthenightinthehouseofAntonioFlorès,auditoroftheRota,wherehehadgoneimmediatelyonhisarrivalinRome.WhenhehadleftthecityinthecompanyoftheKinghehadtakennineteenpackanimalswithhim,allrichlycaparisonedandsoit

seemed,ladenwithobjectsofvalue,butonlytwoofthesehorses,infact,carriedplateandothercostlyitems.Onthefirstdayoftheirjourney,whiletheKingandtheCardinalwereridingtowardsMarino,thesetwohorseslaggedbehindtherestandthateveningreturnedtoRome.The

Cardinal'sservantshaddeclaredtotheFrenchcourtofficialsthattheanimalshadbeencapturedandstrippedoftheirloads.TheotherseventeenarrivedatthecourtandaftertheCardinal'sflight,thechestshadbeenopenedandwerefoundtobeempty.Well,atleastthatis

whatIwastold,butIthinkitwasnottrue.

WhenhelearnedofCesare'sdisappearance,CharlesVIIIwasfurious."AllItaliansarefilthydogs,"hewasquotedashavingsaid,"andtheHolyFatherisasbadastheworstofthem."ThekingsuspectedthatAlexanderVIknewverywellwherehissonwasandthathehadbeentoldbeforehandofCesare's

attempttoescapeassoonasopportunityoffered.Thepopedid,however,sendhissecretarytoCharlesVIIIwithhissincereapologiesforhisson'sbehaviour.

BythemiddleofFebruary,CharlesVIIIhadenteredCapua,where,soitwassaid,strangeportentshadappeared."Onenightashesleptinhischamber,"reportedBurchard,"hewas

wokentwicebyadreadfulvoice;heopenedachestwhichwasinhisroomtofindabannerstandingerectand,inhisterror,madeavowthathewouldnotreturntoFrancewithouthavingtakentheHolyLandandreconqueredthetombofChristinJerusalem;healsopromisedtobuildandendowachapelinNaplesinhonouroftheHolyGhost."

CharlesVIIIenteredNaplesonFebruary22,slippingquietlyintothecitytolodgeintheCastelCapuano,becausethethreeotherroyalcastles,includingCastelNuovo,remainedinthehandsoftroopsloyaltoFerranteII.AsaFrenchchroniclerobserved:"OnSunday,afterhehadenjoyedanexcellentdinner,[theking]putonhisrobesofstateand,withjoynotrancourenteredthecityin

pomp,thusdisplayinghispowerthere,althoughhedidnothaveaproperentryonthatday."Guicciardinireportedtheviewofthepopulace:"Thereputationofthelasttwokingswassoodiousamongallthepeopleandalmostallthenobles,andtherewasmucheagernessfortheFrenchregime."

CharlesVIIIwasintentuponenjoyinghimselfin

Naples.Thecitywas,hedeclared,"anearthlyparadise."Hewascertainly,"asoneofthemostlasciviousmeninFrance,"findingplentyofopportunitytoindulgehis"fondnessforcopulation"andof"changinghisdishes"sothat"oncehehadhadawoman,hecarednomoreabouther,takinghispleasurewithfreshones."Hissoldierswereequallylascivious,andhavingmade

themselveshatedinRome,theynowbecamedetestedinNaples,despitethewelcometheyhadfirstreceived.AsGuicciardinicommented:

ThenaturalarroganceoftheFrench,exacerbatedbytheeaseoftheirvictory,asaresultofwhichtheyhadahighlyesteemedopinionofthemselvesandno

respectwhateverforanyItalian.TheyseizedlodgingsinNaplesandinotherpartsofthekingdomwithinsolenceandviolenceandwherevertheirtroopswerequarteredtheywerehated;everywheretheytreatedtheirhostssobadlythatthefriendlywelcomewithwhichtheyhadbeen

receivedwasnowchangedintoburninghatred.

TheFrenchwere"stupid,dirtyanddissolutepeople,"anotherItalianobserverdecided,andheadded:

Theywereconstantlyafterwomen....Theirtablemannersweredisgusting....Wheneveroneof

thementeredthehouseofaNeapolitan,theyalwaystookthebestroomsandsentthemasterofthehousetosleepintheworst.Theystolewineandgrainandsoldthematthemarket.Theyrapedthewomen,thenrobbedthem,pullingtheringsfromtheirfingers,and,ifany

womanresisted,theywouldcutoffherfingerstogetattherings....Evenso,theyspendmuchtimeinchurchpraying.

ThearrivaloftheFrench,moreover,coincidedwiththefirstdramaticepidemicofsyphilis,whichwasknownasthe"morbogallico"or"malfrancese"bytheItalians,andas"lemaldeNapoli"bythe

French.Thisfoulvenerealdisease—"sohorriblethatitoughttobementionedasoneofthegravestcalamities,"wroteGuicciardini—arrivedinEuropein1494,probablybroughttoEuropefromtheWestIndiesorAmericabyChristopherColumbus'ssailors.Itsoonspread,andthedoctors,confrontingthediseaseforthefirsttime,wereperplexed;indeed,asGuicciardininoted,"they

oftenappliedinappropriateremedies,manyofwhichwereharmfulandfrequentlyinflamedtheinfection."InRomeitwassovirulentthatseventeenmembersofAlexanderVI'sfamilyandcourt,includingCesare,hadtobetreatedforitwithinaperiodoftwomonths.

ForalmosttwomonthsafterheescapedfromtheFrenchcourtatVelletri,nothing

reliablewasheardaboutCesare;andthenhereappearedoncemore,asadeusexmachina,inRome,where,withhiscustomaryskillinsuchmatters,hesetaboutorganizinganattackupontheSwisstroopswhohadbeenleftbehindinthecitywhentheFrencharmymarchedsouthforNaples.ThetroopswereattackedinthepiazzainfrontofSt.Peter'sbyalargebodyof

Spaniardswhokilledovertwentyofthemandwoundedseveralmore.

SomesaidafterwardsthatalltheseviolentactswereorderedbyCesareBorgia[commentedBurchard]becausetheseSwisssoldierswereintheserviceoftheFrenchand,withviolenceandwithout

cause,hadsackedandplunderedthehomeofhismother,robbingherof800ducatsandothervaluablepossessions.

Certainly,Cesarehadalreadyacquiredareputationforneverforgivingwhathetooktobeawrongandforsavagelypunishinganyonewhocrossedhiminanyway;andhavingescapedfrom

CharlesVIII'scustody,hewasnowconsideringwaysinwhichhemightharmtheFrenchking.

Despitethespreadofsyphilis,theilldisciplineofhistroops,andtheneedtogetbacktoFrancebeforeanemergingallianceofItalianstates,headedbyAlexanderVI,couldmarchagainsthim,CharlesVIIIwasreluctantlyobligedtoturnhisbackon

thepleasuresofNaples.Itwasnot,however,untiltheendofthethirdweekinMay1495thathebeganthelongmarchnorth.HearrivedinRomefourdayslater,expectingtobeabletohaveanaudiencewithAlexanderVI,whohehopedwouldgiveformalrecognitionofhisconquestofNaplesandinvesthimasking,buthefoundonlyCardinalAntoniottoPallavicini,whohadbeenleft

inchargeofthecity.Thewilypopehadremovedhimself,togetherwithnineteencardinals,overfourthousandtroops,andtheentirepapalcourt,firsttoOrvietoandthen,whentheFrenchkingthreatenedtofindhimthere,ontoPerugiaandoutofharm'sway.

Meanwhile,theforcesoftheHolyLeagueweremassinginLombardytoattackthe

FrenchastheymadefortheAlpinepasses.BytheendofJune,thereturningarmyhadcrossedtheApennines,butonJuly6theirmarchwasbroughttoasuddenhaltatFornovo,bythebanksoftheriverTaro,wheretheyencounteredthemercenarytroopsoftheHolyLeagueunderthecommandofFrancescoGonzaga,theMarquisofMantua.Thebattlewasfiercebutbrief,

lastinglessthanonehour,withlittlechancefortheFrenchtousetheirinvincibleartillery;theFrenchlostjusttwohundredmen;theHolyLeaguecountedoverthreethousanddead."ThepalmofvictorywasgenerallyawardedtotheFrench,"wroteGuicciardini,"becauseofthegreatdifferenceinthenumberofcasualties"and"becausetheyhadwonfreepassagetoadvance,which

wasthereasonthatthebattlehadbeenfought."

However,sincehewasleftinpossessionofthefieldandhadcapturedpartoftheFrenchbaggagetrain—whichincludedapieceoftheHolyCross,asacredthorn,alimbofSt.Denis,theblessedVirgin'svest,andabookdepictingnakedwomen"paintedatvarioustimesandplaces...withsketchesof

intercourseandlasciviousnessineachcity"—theMarquisofMantuaclaimedthevictory.ThepoetsathiscourtinMantuacelebratedthesuccessofhisventureinepicverseandprose,andthemarquis,forhispart,beganbuildingavotivechapelinthecity,commissioninghiscourtpainter,AndreaMantegna,topainthisMadonnadellaVittoria(nowintheLouvre),

withhimselfinarmourkneelingatthefeetoftheVirgin,flankedoneithersidebythewarriorsaintsSt.MichaeltheArchangelandSt.George.

ButtheFrencharmy,thoughbattered,weary,andill,wasstillapowerfulforceandhadnotbeenbeaten.Accompaniedbymules,onetoeverytwomen,loadedwithtreasure,itmoved

unimpededtowardtheAlpsandreachedFranceinsafety.TheItalianswereshockedbytherealizationthat,foralltheirvirtues,talents,wealth,pastglory,andexperience,theyhadbeenunabletowithstandtheruthlessmenfromthenorth,andAlexanderVI,soproudofhisstaminaandpronetocomparinghisstrengthtothatofthebullontheBorgiacoat-of-arms,hadbeenunableto

withstandthemightofaforeignking.

Chapter8TheBorgiaBull

"MANYAREASSISTEDBYFORTUNEWITHOUT

BEINGENDOWEDWITHTHENECESSARYTALENT"

SOONAFTERHISELECTION,AlexanderVIbeganplanninganewsetofrooms,seveninall,forhispersonaluseinthe

Vatican,andtodecoratetheminamannerthatwouldsuithisostentatiousandluxurioustastes.Theresultingsetofapartments,knownastheAppartamentoBorgia,hassurvived,withtheexceptionofoneroomthatwasdestroyed,anditisstilloneofthehighlightsofthetourofthepapalpalace.

Withtheirornateceramic-tiledfloors,theroomshavea

boldlySpanishappearance—indeed,thetileswereorderedbythepopespeciallyfromSpain—andtheirlavishlygildedstuccodecorationmadeamarkedcontrasttothemodestlyausterechapelpaintedforNicholasVbytheFlorentineFraAngelico.

Despitehistasteforlavishsurroundings,AlexanderVIwasnotoriouslyfrugalatmealtimes,rarelyhaving

morethanonecourse,accordingtotheFerrareseambassadorGiovanniBoccaccio,whosaidthatcardinalsavoideddiningwiththepopeiftheypossiblycouldbecausehistablewassoparsimoniouscomparedwiththeirown,particularlyduringLentandonFridays,whensardineswerecommonlyservedathistableinsteadofthemeatdishesotherwiseprovidedbythe

papalhousehold'ssixcooks.

Thefashionforgildedstuccowasanewone,andithadbeeninspiredbythediscovery,neartheColosseum,oftheremainsoftheGoldenHouseofNero,thepalaceoflegendaryopulencebuiltbytheemperor,whoseCircushadonceresoundedtotheroarsoftheRomanpopulaceintheplacewheretheVaticannow

stood.

Visitingtheruinswasnoeasymatter;armedwithtallowcandlesandlunchboxespackedwithham,bread,apples,andwine,artistsandothersinterestedintheremainsofantiquitycrawledintoanarrowopeninginthesideoftheEsquilineHillandintoevensmallerpassages,filthyandpitch-black,thathadbeen

excavatedbelowthevaultsofthepalace,wheretheylittheirtorchestocatchaglimpseoftheglitteringstuccoesandfrescoesthatdatedbacktoimperialRome;and,intheirexcitement,manylefttheirownsignaturesonthewalls.

ThepainterchosenbyAlexanderVItodecoratehisapartmentswasoneBernardinodiBettodiBiagio,betterknownas

Pinturicchio,thegiftedpainterfromPerugiawhohadestablishedareputationinRomeastheleadingpainterofworksinthenew"imperialstyle."He,too,musthavecrawledthroughthefilthydarkpassagewaysintoNero'spalace,althoughhedidnotleavehissignatureamongthegildedstuccowork.

GiorgioVasariwaslessimpressedwithhistalents:

Evenasmanyareassistedbyfortunewithoutbeingendowedwiththenecessarytalent,so,onthecontrary,thereareinfinitenumbersofmenofabilitywhosufferfromanadverseandhostileFortune...itpleaseshertouseherfavourtoraisecertainmenwhowouldneverbe

knownbytheirownmerit,asisthecasewithPinturicchioofPerugia.

Pinturicchio'sworkforthepope,however,muchpleasedhispatron,whorewardedtheartistwithgrantsoflandinthePapalStates.AlexanderVI'sapartmentsareaforcefulmonumenttotheBorgiafamily.Borgiasymbols,mostemphaticallytheBorgiabulls

—inonedepictionmountedbyacupid—striketheeye,asdothesymbolsoftheHouseofAragonfromwhichthepopechosetotracehisancestry.Morebizarrely,ontheceilingoftheso-calledSaladeiSantiwereimagesoftheancientEgyptiandeitiesIsisandOsiris,fromwhom,accordingtooneofthepope'ssecretaries,AlexanderVIcouldalsotracehisdescent.

Theroomshadotherfamilyconnections.LucreziawasportrayedasSt.CatherineofAlexandria,defeatingthepaganemperorbytheforceofherargument;JofrèandSanciaappearasayoungcoupleinthecrowdbehindher,whileJuan,DukeofGandía,canbeseen,superblydressedashealwayswasinlife,astrideawhitecharger,andCesareglaresoutofthepicturefrombehindthe

throneofthedisputingemperor.

AlexanderVIhimselfappearsinthefrescooftheResurrection,witnessingthisdramaticmomentinanattitudeofprayer,gorgeouslyattiredinanembroideredandbejewelledchasuble,withaskullcapoverhisbaldinghead,hishandsclaspedinprayer,histiaraonthegroundbeforehim.Overthedoorof

oneroom,PinturicchiopaintedanotherportraitofAlexanderVI,thistimeadoringabeautifulVirgin,towhom,accordingtoVasari,hegavethefaceofGiuliaFarnese.

WhilePinturicchioandhisassistantswereatworkintheVaticanPalace,painters,sculptors,andbuilderswerealsobusyelsewhereinRomeatAlexanderVI'sbehest.At

St.Peter'stheyfinishedthegrandfountaininthepiazza,whichhadbeenstartedbyInnocentVIII,andadorneditliberallywiththeBorgiabulls.TheyalsoaddedasecondstoreytotheBenedictionloggiaattheendofthepiazza,where,afewyearslater,thepopewouldnarrowlyavoidbeinghitbyanirontorch-holderthatfelldownwhilehewaswatchingabullfight;andtheybuilta

newroadfromCastelSant'AngelototheVatican,whichthepopenamedViaAlessandrina(nowBorgoNuovo).

AlexanderVIalsocommissionedrepairstoseveralchurchesinRome,includingSanGiacomodegliSpagnuoli,thechurchfavouredbytheSpanishcolonyinthecity;asacardinalhehadspenta

considerablesumonanelaboratemarblereliefoftheVirginandchildforthehighaltarinSantaMariadelPopolo,withtheBorgiabullsprominentlyondisplayonshieldsheldbyputti(nowinthesacristyofthechurch).Mostmemorably,healsopaidforamagnificentgildedceilingfortheBasilicaofSantaMariaMaggiore,hisfinancialcontributionmarked,onceagain,by

liberalquantitiesofBorgiabulls;thegold,itwassaid,wasthefirsttohavecomefromtheminesofPeruandhadbeenpresentedtothepopebyFerdinandandIsabellaofSpain.

ThemostfamousworkofartfromAlexanderVI'spontificate,however,wasthePietàbyMichelangeloBuonarotti,commissionednotbyhimbutbytheambassador

ofthekingofFrance.MichelangelohadarrivedinRomefromFlorenceonJune25,1496,toworkunderthepatronageofCardinalRaffaelloRiario,whohadspent200ducatsonalife-sizesleepingcupidbythesculptorundertheimpressionthatitwasaworkbyoneofthefamoussculptorsofantiquity.

Soonafterhisarrivalinthecity,"abroadfieldinwhicha

manmaydemonstratehisworth,"ashedescribedit,MichelangelocalleduponCardinalRiarioinhisgrandpalace,built,itwasrumoured,withthemoneyhehadmadegamblingwithFranceschettoCibò,thesonofInnocentVIII.Thecardinalaskedthesculptorifhecouldproducesome"beautifulwork"forhiscollection:"IrepliedthatImightbeabletomakesuchsplendidworksas

hepossessedinhispalace,"Michelangelorecorded,"butwewouldseewhatIcoulddo;sowehaveboughtapieceofmarbleforalife-sizefigure,andIshallstartworkonitnextMonday."

TheresultofthiscommissionwastheplumpanddrunkenBacchusthatcannowbeseenintheBargelloinFlorence.Thesubjectandthetreatmentevidentlydid

notpleasethecardinal,who,itseems,rejectedit,anditwaslatertobeseenamongtheantiquepiecesinthegardenofJacopoGalli,Michelangelo'sbanker.

Michelangelo,however,soonfoundanotherpatronintheFrenchCardinalJeanBilhèresdeLagraulas,whocommissionedthePietàforhistombintheFrenchroyalchapelinSt.Peter's,

dedicatedtoSt.Petronilla,andprovidedhimwithaletterofrecommendationtotheofficialsofthesmallrepublicancity-stateofLucca,throughwhichthesculptorwouldhavetopassonhiswaytothewhitemarblequarriesofCarrara:"WehaverecentlyagreedwithmasterMichelangelodiLudovico,Florentinesculptorandbearerofthisletter,thathemakeforusamarble

tombstone,namelyaclothedVirginMarywiththedeadChristnakedinherarms,toplaceinacertainaltarwhichweintendtofoundinSt.Peter'sinRome,"rantheletter,explainingthatMichelangelo"waspresentlyrepairingtothosepartstoexcavateandtransportherethemarblesnecessaryforsuchaworkandwebegyourlordships...toextendtohimeveryhelpandfavourinthis

matter."

ThefinishedPietà,describedas"themostimportantartisticcommissionoftheage,"andnowtobeseeninSt.Peter's,wasbeingadmiredbyagroupofvisitorsfromLombardy,sothestorygoes,whenMichelangelohappenedtobepassingby.Heheardoneofthegroupexplaintotheothersproudlythatthefineworkwasby

"ourGobboofMilan."Michelangelosaidnothing,butlaterhereturnedtoSt.Peter'sinthemiddleofthenightand,bythelightofalamp,carvedhisnameonthebandthatrunsdiagonallybetweentheVirgin'sbreasts.

Proudashewasofthiswork,Michelangelo,the"statuariofiorentino,"wasnothappyintheRomeofPopeAlexanderVI,whichhe

describedasviolentandmaterialistic,andwasrelievedwhenthetimecameforhimtoreturntoFlorence."Heretheymadehelmetsandswordsoutofchalices,"hewroteofRomeatthistime.

TheysellthebloodofChristbybucketfuls

Andcrossandthornsarelancesandshields

AndevenChristallpatienceloses

Butlethimcomenomoretothesecitystreets

Forherehisbloodwouldflowuptotheverystars

NowthatinRometheysellhisskin

Andtheyhaveclosedtheroadstoallgoodness.

AlexanderVI'smostexpensiveprojects,onwhichheexpendedhugesums,werethefortificationsthathecommissionedindefenceofthepapalterritories.InthePapalStateshebuiltandmaintainednumerouscastlesandotherdefences,aswellasfinancingasmallfleetof

galleys,whichwereneededtoprotectthecoastsfrompirates,andtakingthenecessarymeasurestoensurethattheroadsthroughouthisterritorieswerekeptasclearaspossiblefrombrigands.Largesumswerealsospentonmilitaryequipment,particularlyonartillery,whilemanythousandsofducatswereexpendedoncrusadingfundsandsubsidiestoVeniceforfleetsdeployedagainstthe

Turks.

HealsospenthugesumsofmoneyinthereconstructionofthepapalfortressinRome,CastelSant'Angelo,givingitafarmoreimposingexternalappearance.OriginallyconstructedasamausoleumfortheEmperorHadrian,ithadfallenintodisrepairandeventualruinafterthecollapseoftheRomanEmpire,andinthetwelfth

century,itbecameafortressoftheColonnafamily.LaterintheMiddleAges,ithadprovidedbuilderswithaquarryofvaluabletravertinestone.

ThestorywentthatsometimeinitshistorythearchangelMichaelhadappearedontopofthisvastedificeandwasseentoreturnhisswordtoitssheathasasignthatanoutbreakofthe

plagueinRomewasnowover.AstatueofthearchangelwasaccordinglyerectedonthesummitofthebuildingwhereonceanimmensestatueofHadrianhadstood.Andwhenthebuilderswerediggingthefoundationsforthenewworks,theyfoundacolossalbustoftheemperor,whichAlexanderVIremovedtohiscollection.

Thishugecastle,theprincipaldefenceoftheVaticanandSt.Peter's,wasconsideredtobeimpregnable;andsoonafterhebecamepope,AlexanderVIapproachedAntoniodaSangallo,theFlorentinearchitect,withacommissiontotransformtheinteriorofthebuildingintoaluxuriousresidence,towhichhemightretreatintimesoftrouble.Itwasonlyaquarterofamile

orsofromtheVatican,anditcouldbeapproachedinsafetyfromtherebyawalkwayraisedabovetheroofsoftheinterveninghouses.

PinturicchiodecoratedtheinterioraslavishlyashehadtheBorgiaapartmentsintheVatican,andthistimetheBorgiabullswereaccompaniedbyscenesfromthelifeofthepopehimself,hisachievements,and,of

course,hisfamily.OneroomcontainedscenesofAlexanderVI'sdiplomatictriumphoverthenaiveCharlesVIII,mostofwhichshowedthekingsubmittinginsubservientfashiontopapalauthority,notablyhisoathofobedienceswornsopubliclyintheSalaRegia.

Sothatthepopecouldholdoutinthecastleifnecessary,Sangallowasinstructedto

provideitwithlargestorehousesforgrainandoilaswellaswithdungeonsfortheincarcerationofenemiesandprisoners.ItwasinoneofthesethatthesculptorBenvenutoCelliniwastobeimprisoned,alongwith,soheclaimed,"spidersandmanyvenomousworms."

Theyflungmeawretchedmattressofcoarsehemp[Cellini

laterwrote],gavemenosupperandlockedfourdoorsuponme.Inthreedaysthatrottenmattresssoakedupwaterlikeasponge....ForonehourandahalfeachdayIgotalittleglimmeringoflightwhichpenetratedthatmiserablecavernthroughaverynarrowaperture.Onlyforso

shortaspaceoftimecouldIread;fortherestofthedayandnightIlivedindarkness.

Farabovethesemiserablecells,SangalloandPinturicchiocreatedapartmentsinwhichAlexanderVIcouldlivecomfortablyandworkundisturbed;andabovethese,ontheroofofthecastle

overlookingtheTiber,therewas,foratime,agarden;andherethepopecouldoccasionallybeseentakingtheair,walkingwithhissecretaries,orplayingwithhischildren.

Chapter9FatherandChildren

"MOTIVATEDBYHISUNBOUNDEDGREED

TOEXALTHISCHILDREN"

"EVENMORETHANBYangerorbyanyotheremotion,thePopewasmotivatedbyhisunboundedgreedtoexalthischildren,whomheloved

passionately,"wroteGuicciardini;unlikehispredecessorsonthethroneofSt.Peter's"whooftenconcealedtheirinfamousbehaviourbydeclaringtheirchildrentobenephews,hewasthefirstpopetoannounceanddisplaythemtothewholeworldashisownoffspring."

AtthetimeoftheFrenchinvasion,Cesarewastheonly

oneofAlexanderVI'schildrenwithhiminRome.HisbrotherJuanhadsailedforSpaininAugust1493,tomarryMariaEnriquez,cousinoftheSpanishking,whileLucreziahadleftforPesaroninemonthslatertojoinherhusband,GiovanniSforza,LordofPesaro.Jofrèandhiswife,Sancia,hadbeeninNapleswhenCharlesVIIIinvadedandtheyescapedtotheislandofIschia.Withthe

threatofwaroverforthepresent,theyallcamebackhomeandbytheautumnof1496AlexanderVIwasonceagainsurroundedbyhisfamily.

Cesare,bynowtwenty-oneyearsold,waswidelyrecognizedasthemostpowerfulcardinalinthecollegeandasthemostunscrupulous.Hisinterestsandambitions,however,were

farfrompriestly,andhisclotheswerethedoubletsandhoseofasecularprince,notamaninholyorders.HelivedinsplendourinanapartmentonthesecondflooroftheVaticanPalace,laterthesiteoftheRaphaelStanze,inroomsthatwereimmediatelyabovethoseofhisfather,thetwosuitesconnectedbyaprivatewindingstaircase.Hewasfrequentlyseeninthecompanyofthepope,who

camemoreandmoretorelyuponhim,andhisinfluenceinRomegrewdaily,especiallyamongthosewhoconsideredtheirinterestswouldbebestservedforthemomentbybeingongoodtermswiththeBorgias.

LucreziawasdeeplyattachedtoherbrotherCesare,wholovedherperhapsmoredevotedlythanhecouldbringhimselftolove

anyoneelse.Shewas,however,likealmosteveryoneelse,waryofherbrotherandhissadisticstreak;once,itwassaid,heinvitedhertostandbesidehimonabalconyattheVaticanwhileheshotatagroupofcriminalsdrawnupastargetpracticeinthecourtyardbelow.

LucreziahadbeeninPesarowhentheFrenchinvadedbut

hadreturnedtoRomeattheendofJunethepreviousyear,daysbeforetheBattleofFornovo.Bynowahappy,lively,attractiveyoungwomanagedsixteen,shewasthankfultobebackatherfather'slivelycourtaftertheprovincialdullnessofPesaro.ShewassoonjoinedbyherhusbandandthecoupletookupresidenceatthepalaceatSantaMariainPortico,closebytheentrancetothe

Vatican.

InMay1496JofrèalsoreturnedtoRome,bringingwithhimhiswife,Sancia.Thearrivalofhissonanddaughter-in-1awgaveAlexanderVIanopportunitytoindulgeinoneofthosepageantshesomuchenjoyed.ThecoupleenteredthecitythroughthegateofSanGiovanniinLaterano,whichthemasterofceremonies

described:

Thecaptainofthemilitiawenttomeetthemwithsome200ofhismen-at-armsandthehouseholdsandservantsofallthecardinals,exceptforthoseoftheprelatesofthePope,werealsotheretoreceivethem.Allthecardinalshadbeeninvitedthat

morning,bythecouriersofthePopeactinginthenameoftheCardinalofValence,tosendtheirchaplainsandsquires,butnottheirprelates,toreceivehisbrotherJofrèonhisentryintothecity.Allaccededtothisrequest.LucreziaSforza,daughterofHisHolinessandwifeof

theillustriousGiovanniSforza,LordofPesaro,alsowenttothesaidgatetomeetDonJofrè,herbrother.Shewasaccompaniedbysometwentyladiesandprecededbytwopagesonhorsebackwearingcapes.Oneofthehorseswascoveredinamagnificentcloth-of-

goldcaparison;theotherinacaparisonofredvelvet.LucreziareceivedDonJofrèandhiswifewithaffection.

Almostthirtymulestrailedbehindthem,loadedwiththeirluggage,conspicuouslydisplayingJofrè'scoat-of-arms.ThehugeprocessionwounditswaypasttheColosseum,throughthe

CampodeiFiori,acrossthebridgeatCastelSant'Angelo,andupAlexanderVI'snewroad,theViaAlessandrina,totheVatican,wherethepopereceivedthemformallybutnodoubtwithwarmthfromhisthroneintheSaladeiPontefici.

GianCarloScalona,theMantuanambassador,wasnotsoimpressedwithSancia,afterallthereportsfrom

Naplesextollinghercharmsandherbeauty."Indeed,theLadyofPesaro,"asLucreziawasknown,"surpassedherbyfar."Hecommented,however,thatthetwenty-two-year-oldbridehad"glancingeyes,anaquilinenoseandisverywellmadeup."HedidnotmakedirectmentionofSancia'sreputationforextremelylouchebehaviour,thoughhedidreporttohismasterthattheRomanshad

judgedherladies-in-waitingtobe"afinecrop."InNaplesreportsofasuccessionofyoungmenwhohadbeenseenenteringherbedchamberhadreachedthestagewhereherstaffhadbeenobligedtoinsistthatonlyonemaleservant,"areliableandelderlyman,over60yearsold,"hadaccesstotheroom.

Scalona'sopinionofthemuch-youngerJofrèwasfar

frombeingfavourable;hewas"lascivious-looking,"butsmall,"anddark-skinned,14or15yearsoldwithlongreddishhair."Hisimmaturitymaywellexplainwhy,astheVenetiandiaristMarinSanudoreported,Jofrèhadstillnotconsummatedhismarriage.ItwasnotlongafterthecouplearrivedinRomethatrumoursbegantocirculatetotheeffectthatSancia,frustratedbyJofrè's

impotence,hadsuccumbedtoCesare'scharmsandhadbecomehismistress.

WhetherLucreziaknewaboutSancia'srelationshipwithCesareornot,thetwogirlssoondevelopedaclosefriendship.Indeed,theygotontogetherextremelywellandwereoftentobeseenrompingaboutjustlikehigh-spiritedschoolgirls.TwodaysafterSancia'sarrival,they

attendedMassinSt.Peter'stocelebratetheFeastofPentecost,withasermongivenbyaSpanishchaplainthateventhedutifulBurcharddescribedas"toolongandboring,whichdispleasedthePope."Thegirlswereseen,muchtoBurchard'sdisapproval,toleavetheirseatsduringthetediousservicetogouptogethertothechoirreservedfortheirladies,andtochatterand

laughtogether,oblivioustotheboringsermon.

InAugust1496Juan,DukeofGandía,returnedtoRome,onthesummonsofhisfather,leavinghissonandhispregnantwifeinSpain,tobewelcomedtothecitybyaneven-largergaggleofcardinals,ambassadors,soldiers,andofficialsthanhadgreetedJofrèandSancia.Thetwenty-year-oldJuancut

afarfinerfigurethanJofrè.Magnificentlyclothedinalongmantleofgoldbrocadeandajewel-encrusteddoubletofbrownvelvet,heworeascarlethathungwithpearlsandrodeabayhorseadornedwithtinklingsilverbells.Hewasaccompaniednotonlybyhissquiresbutalsobyanunrulycrowdofdwarfsandbuffoons.

Itwassoonapparenttothe

RomansthatCesareandJuandetestedeachother.JuanwasjealousofCesare,whoseemednowtobewidelyrecognizedastheirfather'sright-handman,whileCesare,theelderofthetwo,burnedwithresentmentattheindulgenceshowntohisself-regardingandfarlesstalentedbrother,whowasclearlytheirfather'sfavourite.OtherthanAlexanderVI,veryfewcaredforJuan,whowasdescribed

bytheAragonesechroniclerGeronimoZuritaashavingbeena"spoiltboy"andasbeingnow"averymeanyoungman,fullofideasofgrandeur...haughty,cruelandunreasonable."HecouldbeseenswaggeringaboutRomeinhisgorgeousattire,excessivelyproudofhisfigure.Likehisfather,hehadconsiderablesexappeal—itwaswidelyrumouredthatSanciagaveherfavoursto

bothherhusband'sbrothers,furtheraggravatingCesare'sanimosity.

Cesare'sdislikeofhisbrotherwasincreasedwhenJuan,althoughquiteunsuitedtosuchaposition,waschosenbyAlexanderVItobesecond-in-commandtoGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,DukeofUrbinoandcaptaingeneralofthepapalarmies,whichthepopeintendedto

throwagainsttheOrsini,atroublesomefamilywhohadsidedwiththeFrenchintheirrecentcampaigninItalyandnowcontrolledmuchoftheRomanCampagnanorthandsouthofthecity.

OnOctober26,1496,thetwodukes,dressedinfullarmour,receivedtheirbannersofofficefromthepopeinSt.Peter's,andthefollowingdaytheymarched

northagainsttheOrsinicastles.Nofewerthantenofthesewerecapturedwithinamatterofweeks.ButatBracciano,wheretheformidableBartolomeod'Alvianowasincommand,thecampaignfaltered.GuidobaldodaMontefeltrowaswounded,notseriouslybutbadlyenoughfortheincompetentJuantobeobligedtotakeovercommand.TheOrsini

ridiculedhimbysendingadonkeyintohiscampwithaplacardtiedarounditsneckdeclaring:"IamtheambassadoroftheDukeofGandía,"andanotherinsultingmessagescrewedupandinsertedintotheanimal'sanus.

TwoassaultsonthecastlehadfailedwhenareportreachedJuanthatarelievingforcecommandedbyCarlo

OrsiniwasmarchingonBracciano,andheunwiselydecidedtoraisethesiegeandgoouttoconfrontOrsiniintheopenfield.OnJanuary24,1497,thepapalforceswereroutedatSoriano.Thearmywas,inthewordsofBurchard,"heavilydefeatedingreatdishonour."Moreover,"theDukeofUrbinowascaptured,"hecontinued,and"somefivehundredofoursoldierswere

killedandmanymorewounded,whiletheOrsinicapturedallourcannonandutterlyscatteredourforces."

Juan,whowasslightlywoundedintheface,rodebacktoRome.Aweekorsolater,AlexanderVI,whohadbeensoillwithworrythathehadnotbeentoMassonChristmasDay,wasforcedtomakepeacewiththeOrsiniontheirterms.Hehadtogive

upallthecapturedcastlesonpaymentofanindemnityof50,000ducats,whichtheOrsinihopedtoraisebydemandingaransomofthatamountforthereleaseofGuidobaldodaMontefeltro.

DespitehisfailureatSoriano,Juanwassoonafterwardsentincommandofanotherpapalarmy,thistimetobesiegethefortressofOstia,southeastofRome,

whereaFrenchgarrisonstillremainedincontrol.ThistimeAlexanderVIturnedforhelptotheSpanishmonarchs,FerdinandandIsabella,whosenttheirhighlyexperiencedandsuccessfulcommanderGonsalvodiCórdobatohisaid,aswellasacorpsoftrustworthySpanishtroopsfromNaples.OstiasurrenderedonMarch9,andthepapaltroopsmarchedintriumphbacktoRome,where

JuanenragedGonsalvodiCórdobabyclaimingequalcreditforthesuccessatOstia.Gonsalvowasrewardedwithapapalorderofchivalrywhile,muchtotheSpaniard'sannoyance,JuanwasgiventheduchyofBeneventotoaddtohislistoftitles.Cesarewasalsoangeredbythefavouritismbeingshowntohisbrother,buthewascarefulnottoshowhisfuriousjealousy.

Chapter10TheDominicanFriar

"YOURHOLINESSISWELLADVISED

TOMAKEIMMEDIATEPROVISIONS

FORYOUROWNSALVATION"

IN1481GIROLAMOSAVONAROLA—asmall,spare,uglymanagedtwenty-nine,withthickredlipsandanimmense

hookednose—hadarrivedinFlorencetobecomepreacheratthechurchandprioryofSanMarco.Hegraduallyacquiredsoterribleapoweroforatorythatcongregationssathorrifiedandspellboundbyhisvividimages,hiswarningsofthehorrorstobefacedbythoseinhisaudiencewhodidnotrepentoftheirsins.

"Beholdtheswordhas

descended,"hehaddeclaimedwhenKingCharlesVIII'sarmieshadmarchedonNaples."Thescourgehasfallen.Thepropheciesarebeingfulfilled.BeholditistheLordGodwhoisleadingonthesearmies....Hewillunleashagreatfloodovertheearth....ItisGodwhoforetoldit.Nowitiscoming!"

Thepeoplehadlistenedtohiswordsinsilentfear,

waitingforthefalloftheswordoftheLordthathungsothreateninglyoverthem."ADominicanfriarhassoterrifiedalltheFlorentinesthattheyarewhollygivenuptopiety,"theMantuanenvoyhadreportedsardonically."Threedaysaweektheyfastonbreadandwater,andtwomoreonwineandbread.Allthegirlsandmanyofthewiveshavetakenrefugeinconvents,sothatonlyold

womenarenowtobeseenonthestreets."

HisclaimthatFlorencehad"nootherKingbutChrist"appealedinparticulartothosecitizensdisgustedbythecorruptMediciregimeandwhoyearnedforareturntothecity'searlierrepublicanvalues.WhenCharlesVIIIinvadedItaly,itwasnotjustNaplesthatsuffered.WhenPierode'Medicisurrendered

theFlorentinefortressestothekingwithoutpermissionfromthegovernment,theSignoria,FlorencerevoltedandexpelledtheMedici,settingupanewgovernmentwithanewChristianconstitution.

GodhadcalleduponSavonarolatoreformtheChurch,andhe,withcrucifixinhand,calledupontheSignoriatosupporthiminhis

mission.Hecommandedthecitizenstofast,tocastasidetheirshowyclothesandornaments,toselltheirjewelsandgivethemoneytothepoor,toremovesilvercandlesticksandlavishilluminatedbooksfrommonasteriesandchurches.Hecalledupon"blessedbands"ofchildrentomarchthroughthestreets,theirhaircutshort,bearingcrossesandolivebranches,singing

hymnsandcollectingalmsforthepoor,toenterhousesandsearchoutobjectsofvanityandluxury,tourgetheirparentstoabandontheirevilwaysandfollowthepathsofvirtue,toreporttotheauthoritiesallinstancesofscandalousvice.

TheFlorentineslistenedandmanyobeyed.Courtesansstayedindoors;gamblersconcealedtheircardsand

theirdiceboxes;fashionableladieswalkedthestreetsdressedinquietsobercolours;balladeersclosedtheirbooksofribaldsongs.

InRomeAlexanderVIwasgrowingincreasinglyconcernedabouttheactivitiesandinfluenceofSavonarola;andoncetheFrenchhadwithdrawnfromItalyaftertheBattleofFornovo,hesummonedthetroublesome

priest,nowpriorofSanMarco,toRome.SavonarolarepliedthatitwasnotGod'swillthatheshouldgo.Thepope,slowlyabandoninghopethattheprior'swildenthusiasmwouldsoonerorlaterwearitselfout,forbadehimtopreachanymore.ButSavonarola,afterinstructingoneofhisdisciplestopreachinhisstead,soonresumedhissermonsinthecathedralinFlorence.

AlexanderVIwaspatient."WeareworriedaboutthedisturbedstateofaffairsinFlorence,themoresointhatitowesitsoriginstoyourpreaching,"hewrotetothefieryDominican.

ForyoupredictthefutureandpubliclydeclarethatyoudosobytheinspirationoftheHolySpiritwhenyoushouldbe

reprehendingviceandpraisingvirtue.Suchpropheciesmayeasilylurethesimple-mindedawayfromthepathofsalvationandtheobedienceduetotheHolyRomanChurch.Propheciesliketheseshouldnotbemadewhenyourchargeistoforwardpeaceandconcord.Moreover,theseare

notthetimesforsuchteachings,whicharecalculatedtoproducediscordevenintimesofpeace,letaloneintimesoftrouble.

ThepopewentontosaythathehadresolvedtocallthefriartoRomeagain,eithertopurgehimselfofthechargesorsufferpunishmentforhisbehaviour.

Since,however,wehavebeenmosthappytolearnfromcertaincardinalsandfromyourletterthatyouarereadytosubmityourselftothereproofsoftheChurch,asbecomesaChristianandareligious,wearebeginningtothinkthatwhatyouhavedonehasnotbeen

donewithanevilmotive,butfromacertainsimple-mindednessandazeal,howevermisguided,fortheLord'svineyard.Ourduty,however,prescribesthatweorderyou,underholyobedience,toceasefrompublicandprivatepreachinguntilyouareabletocome

toourpresence,notunderarmedescortasisyourpresenthabit,butsafely,quietlyandmodestly,asbecomesareligious,oruntilwemakedifferentarrangements.

AlexanderVIthendecreedthattheTuscanDominicans,whohadbeengrantedtheirindependence,shouldnowreverttopapalcontrolasa

preliminarysteptowardsendingthe"pestilentialheretic"toanothermonasteryfarawayfromFlorence.ThepriorofSanMarcodeclaredthatthepopehadnoauthorityinthematter.AlexanderVIhadnoalternativebuttoexcommunicateSavonarolaforthisattackonhissupremeauthorityaspope.

Whennewsoftheexcommunicationarrivedin

FlorenceinJune1497,Savonarolaremainedsilentforseveralmonths,prayingforguidance.ThenheannouncedthatGod'swordhadbeenvouchsafedtohim,andonChristmasDayhecelebratedHighMassinthecathedral.

"IcannolongerplaceanyfaithinYourHoliness,"Savonarolarepliedtoathreattoplacethewholecityunder

aninterdict,unlesstheSignoriaeithersentthepriortoRomeorhadhimthrownintoprisoninFlorence."Youhavenotlistenedtome,"hecontinued."ImusttrustmyselfwhollytoHimwhochoosestheweakthingsofthisworldtoconfoundthestrong.YourHolinessiswelladvisedtomakeimmediateprovisionsforyourownsalvation."

TheSignoria,treatedwithequalhigh-handedness,hadbynowcometobelievethatthequarrelwasgettingoutofhand.Savonarola'sopponentswerebecomingmoreoutspokeneverymonth;andtheclergywerebecomingconcernedabouthisconstantinsistencethathiswasthevoiceofGod.TheFranciscans,inparticular,longantagonizedbytheDominicans'claimtoa

specialrelationshipwiththeAlmighty,weredemandingthatthepriorofSanMarcoshouldoffersomeproofofGod'sexceptionalfavour.

Savonarolacontinuedtopreach.SoonafterdeliveringseveraldramaticsermonsduringLentin1498,hewasarrestedbyaguardandtakentoacrampedcellinthePalazzodellaSignoria,knownwithgrimhumouras

theAlberghettino,"thelittleinn."Fromtherehewastakentobetorturedbythecity'srack-master.

Ambiguouslyheconfessedallthatwasrequiredofhimwhilesufferingthedreadfulagoniesofthestrappado,butassoonasthestrapshadbeenreleased,heretractedhisconfession.Hewastorturedagainandrecantedagain.Intheendhewasfoundguilty

ofheresyandcondemnedtodeath,togetherwithtwoofhismostdevoteddisciples.MessengersweresenttoRomeforpermissiontocarryoutthesentence.AlexanderVIinreturnsentcommissionerstoFlorencetoreviewthecase.Thecommissioners,intheirturn,orderedthattheaccusedshouldbetorturedoncemoretoextractfurtheradmissions.Thesentencewasthen

confirmedandordersweregivenforSavonarolaandhistwofellowfriarstobehangedinchainsandburned.

Animmensepileofbrushwoodwasprepared;agallowswaserectedinitscentre;andahighplatformwasbuiltfromthedoorofthePalazzodellaSignoriatothegallows'ladder,sothatallwhohadbeendisappointedbythecancellationofthe

ordealmightbecompensatedbyaviewofthethreeDominicansbeingconductedtotheirdeaths."Theywererobedinalltheirvestments,"LucaLanduccienteredinhisdiaryundertheheadingofMay22,1498:

Theseweretakenoffonebyonewiththeappropriatewordsforthedegradation....Thentheirfacesand

handswereshavedasiscustomaryinthisceremony....Whenallthreehadbeenhangedafirewasmadeontheplatformuponwhichgunpowderwasputandsetalight,sothatthesaidfireburstoutwithanoiseofrocketsandcracking.Inafewhourstheywereburnt,theirlegsandarmsgraduallydropping

off.Partoftheirbodiesremaininghangingtothechains,aquantityofstoneswerethrowntomakethemfall,astherewasafearofthepeoplegettingholdofthem.

Chapter11Murder

"HISHOLINESS...THINKSOFNOTHINGBUT

THEWAYINWHICHHEMAYSAFELY

LAYHANDSONTHEGUILTYMEN"

"ONWEDNESDAY14JUNE1497,"soJohannesBurchardcarefullyrecorded,

CardinalCesareBorgiaandDonJuanBorgia,DukeofGandía,bothdearsonsofHisHoliness,hadsupperwithDonnaVannozza,theirmother,andsomeotherguests,inhervillanearthechurchofSanPietroinVincoli.Afterthemeal,andsincenightwascomingon,the

CardinalsuggestedtohisbrothertheDukethattheyshouldreturntotheVatican;andsotheymountedtheirhorsesandleftwithonlyoneortwoservantstoaccompanythem.TheyrodetogetheralmosttoCardinalAscanioSforza'spalace,whichhadbeenbuiltbyHis

Holinesswhenhewasvice-chancellor.AtthispointtheDuketoldhisbrotherthathewantedtogooutinpursuitoffurtherpleasurebeforegoingbacktothepalace.

Juan,therefore,lefthisbrother,dismissedthefewservantshehadwithhim,exceptforafootmanandamysteriousmaninamask

whohadjoinedJuanduringthesupperpartyathismother'sandwho,moreover,hadbeentoseeJuanattheVaticanalmosteverydayforthepastmonth.

Juanmaderoomforthismaskedmantoridebehindhimonhismule,andtheyrodeofftogethertothePiazzadegliEbrei,whereJuantoldthefootmantowaitthereanhourandthen,ifhehadnot

returned,togobacktotheVatican.Soonafterwardthefootmanwasattackedandbadlywounded.Discoveredinapoolofblood,hewasdraggedintoanearbyhouse,whoseownerwassofrightenedthatherefusedtoreportwhathadhappeneduntilthenextmorning,bywhichtimethemanwasdead.

BynowJuan's

disappearancewascausingconsternationattheVaticanPalace.AlexanderVIhopedthatperhapshehadspentthenightwithawomanandhadnotwantedtobeseenleavingherhouseindaylight.ButthelongerAlexanderVIwaitedforhisson'sreturn,themoreanxioushebecame.

HemadeurgentenquiriesintheareawhereJuanwasknowntohavebeenthenight

before.OneofthosequestionedwasatimbermerchantwhosepracticeitwastohavehiswoodunloadedfromboatsintheTibernotfarfromthehospitalofSanGirolamodegliSchiavoni.Thismansaidthathehadbeenkeepingawatchonadeliveryoftimberwhen,closetomidnight,hesawtwomenwalkdowntotheriverbank,wheretheylookedabout

them,presumablytoseeifthecoastwasclear.Shortlyafterwardtwoothermenstealthilyapproachedthewater,wheretheywerejoinedbyamanonawhitehorse,whichappearedtohaveacorpseslungacrossitsback.Heandthefourothermenthenmovedsilentlyalongtheriverbank,haltingjustpastaplacewheresewageandrubbishwerecustomarilythrownintothewater.

HerethedeadbodywaspulledfromthehorseandhurledintotheTiber.Theriderwhohadbroughtitthenaskedtheothersifithadsunk.Hewasassuredthatithad;but,noticingthecorpse'scloakstillfloatingonthesurface,hethrewstonesatituntilithaddisappearedfromview.Thefivementhenlefttherivertogetherandweresoonlosttosight.

Allthisthetimbermerchantrelatedwhenquestioned.Askedwhyhehadnotreportedtheseeventsearlier,herepliedthathemusthaveseenatleastahundredbodiesthrownintotheriveratthatpointandhadneverthoughtmuchaboutit.

Fishermenandboatmenwerenowcalledupandorderedtodragtheriverbed.TheysoonfoundJuan'sbody.

Itwasfullydressed,withapursetuckedintoabelt,whichstillcontained30ducats.Hehadbeenstabbedrepeatedlyinhisbody,legs,andhead.

ThecorpsewasthentakentoCastelSant'Angelo,whereitwasstripped,washed,anddressedinmilitaryuniformbeforebeingtakentotheChurchofSantaMariadelPopoloinaprocessionledby

overonehundredtorchbearers,ecclesiastics,andmembersofthedeadman'shousehold,all,soBurchardrelated,"marchingalong,weepingandwailingandinconsiderabledisorder."

AlexanderVIwasdistraught,"shuttinghimselfawayinaroomingriefandanguishofheart,weepingmostbitterly....FromtheWednesdayeveninguntilthe

followingSaturdaymorning,heateanddranknothing,whilstfromThursdaymorningtoSunday,hewasquietfornominuteofanyhour."

OntheMonday,June19,thepopemadeasolemnannouncementataspecialconsistorycalledforthatmorning:

TheDukeofGandía

isdead.Agreatercalamitycouldnothavebefallenusforweborehimunboundedaffection.Lifehaslostallinterestforus.ItmustbethatGodpunishesusforoursins,fortheDukehasdonenothingtodeservesoterribleafate.

WHENHEHADRECOVEREDfromthe

firstpangsofgrief,thepopedeterminedtoreformtheCuria,thepapalgovernment."WeareresolvedwithoutdelaytothinkoftheChurchfirstandforemost,andnotofourselvesnorofourprivileges,"heannounced,addingthat"wemustbeginbyreformingourselves."ForyearstheCuriahadbeenallowedtobecomelaxandcorrupt,mannedbyofficialswhoweresteadilyenriching

themselvesattheChurch'sexpense.Heestablishedareformcommissionthatproducedahighlycriticalreport.Hisenthusiasmsoonevaporated,however;andhavingorderedthearrestofoneofhismoreself-servingofficials,BartolomeoFlores,thearchbishopofCosenza,AlexanderVIquicklyabandonedhisproposedprogrammeofreformandhelpedhimselftomuchofthe

fortunethatthearchbishophadmanagedtoaccumulate.

Flores,deprivedofhissee,wastakenfromhisdungeontoacellinCastelSant'Angelo,wherehewasrequired"towearagownofcoarsewhiteclothandaheavywhitecap,tosleeponastrawmattress,tobecontentwithonecaskofwaterandthreeloavesofbreadaday,onejugofoilandalamp,a

breviary,aBibleandacopyoftheEpistleofSt.Peter."Hediedinhisdampcellsoonafterhisincarcerationthere,andhisbodywastakentotheChurchofSantaMariainTranspontina,andthereburied"withoutanytorches,mourners,churchceremonyorservice."

Meanwhile,severalmenhadbeenquestionedaboutJuan'smurder.AlexanderVIhad

sorelymissedhisfavouritesonwhileJuanhadbeeninSpainandhadcalledhimbacktoRome,appointedhimtocommandthepapalarmies,unsuitedthoughhewastosuchachallenge,andhadgivenhimwhatwasconsideredtheundemandingtaskofturningthetroublesomeOrsinifamilyoutofthecastleatBracciano.

Juan'sfailureatBracciano

andhisseductionofSancia,Cesare'smistress,hadinfuriatedCesare,fuellinghisjealousdislikeofJuanastheobviousfavourite,thoughunworthyandconceitedsecondson.JofrèalsohadcausetofeelaffrontedatJuan'sbehaviour.NorwerethetwobrotherstheonlymensuspectedofJuan'smurder,forthiswasamanwithmanyenemies,particularlyamongtheOrsiniandtheirallies.

Afewweeksafterthemurder,onJuly1,theFlorentineenvoyinRomereportedthatsinceAlexanderVInolongershowedmuchinterest"astothemanguiltyofthemurder,"itwas"heldtobecertainbeyondanydoubtthatHisHolinesshasnowdiscoveredthetruth,andthathethinksofnothingbutthewayinwhichhemaysafelylayhandsontheguiltymen."Andlaterthatyear,

ManfredoManfredi,theMantuanambassador,toldtheDukeofFerrara:"Itseemsthat,morethanever,thePopegivessignsofblamingtheOrsiniforthemurderofhisson;anditisbelievedthatheisdisposedtoavengeit."Atthesametime,itwasreportedfromVenice:"HisHolinessintendstoruintheOrsinibecausetheycertainlycausedthedeathofhisson,theDukeofGandía."

Soonafterthesesuspicionswerevoiced,itbecamegenerallyacceptedinVenicethatCesare,ratherthantheOrsini,wasresponsibleforthemurder.SanciaofAragonseemstohavesuspectedCesare,andthiswasalsocommongossipinSpain,wherebothQueenIsabellaandMariaEnriquez,Juan'swidow,wereinclinedtobelievethatthecirculatingstoriesofCesare'sguiltwere

probablytrue.

AsforAlexanderVI'sopinionoftheidentityofthemurdererofhisson,thepopedidnotcommithimself,buthedidexculpate,foronereasonoranother,mostofthoseuponwhomsuspicionhadfallen.AmongthesewereGiovanniSforzaandhisuncleAscanioSforza,whowasknowntohavequarrelledrecentlywiththeDukeof

Gandía,andGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,theDukeofUrbino,whohadfoughtwithJuanagainsttheOrsinibut,afterbeingtakenprisoner,hadbeenlefttolanguishinprisonuntilransomwaspaidbyhisloyalsubjects.

Chapter12AnotherHusbandfor

Lucrezia

"SHEWASPREPAREDTO...SUBMITHERSELF

TOTHEEXAMINATIONOFMIDWIVES"

LUCREZIARECEIVEDTHENEWSofherbrother'shorrificmurderinherroomsinthe

DominicanconventofSanSisto,atranquilplacesituatedontheViaAppia,oppositetheBathsofCaracalla,surroundedbyorchardsandvineyards,andsomedistancefromthecentreofRome.ShehadtakenrefugehereonJune4,tendaysearlier;when,shortlyaftershearrived,papalguardscametoconducthertotheVatican,theabbessassuredthemthatLucreziawasstayingintheconventat

herownrequestandpersuadedthemtoleaveherinpeace.

Herdesirehadbeentoescapethestoriesthatwerespreadinglikewildfirethroughthecitytoexplainwhyshehadbeenabandonedbyherhusband,GiovanniSforza.Onereportmentionedthatshehad"leftthepalaceandgonetoaconvent,"addingominously,"Somesay

shewillturnnun,whileotherssaymanyotherthingswhichonecannotentrusttoaletter."Rumoursofherincestuousrelationshipswithherbrothersandevenherfather,thepope,abounded;withindaysofthemurder,Giovanniwassuspectedofcommittingthecrime"becausetheDukeofGandíahadhadcommercewithhiswife."

AtthetimeofJuan'smurder,however,GiovanniwasnotinRome.ThealliancebetweentheBorgiasandMilan,whichhadseemedsuchanexcellentideathreeyearsbefore,hadnowlostitsappeal,andthepopewasdeterminedtoendit.ThreatenedandtauntedbytheBorgiabrothers,fearfulforhisverylife,andworriedthathemightbeobligedtorepaythe31,000ducatshe

hadreceivedasLucrezia'sdowry,thelacklustreGiovannihadfledRomeonGoodFriday,March24,forPesaro.Hisfearshadgrownwhen,afterbeggingLucreziatojoinhim,she—encouragedbybothCesareandthepope—hadrefusedtodoso.ThesefearshadbeenrealizedattheendofMay,afortnightbeforeJuan'sbrutalmurder,whenAlexanderVI'slawyerhadarrivedinPesarotoserve

himwithawritfordivorce.

AtfirstithadbeenthoughtthatsinceLucrezia'sfirstbetrothaltoGasparodiProcida,theCountofAversa,hadnotbeenformallydissolvedatthetimeofhermarriagetoSforza,itwouldbepossibletousethesegroundstoclaimthatthemarriagewasinvalid.Butthisweakexcuseprovedunacceptabletothewily

lawyersinvolvedinthecase.Soitwasdecidedinsteadtoarguethatthemarriage,whichhadtakenplacein1493whenLucreziawasjustthirteenyearsold,hadneverbeenconsummated,thusleavingheravirginandfreetotakeanotherhusbandmoretoherfather'spoliticaltaste.

Lucreziadulysignedadeclarationtotheeffectthat"afterthreeyearsofmarriage

...withoutsexualrelationsorcarnalknowledge,shewaspreparedtoswearonoathtothisandtosubmitherselftotheexaminationofmidwives."AlexanderVInowinsistedthatGiovannimakeapublicdeclarationthathewasimpotent,ahumiliatingprospectandacruelone.

TheunfortunateGiovanniwasunderstandablyfurious,

dismissingtheallegationasabsurd.Hewasfarfromimpotent,heprotested;hehad,heinsisted,madelovetohiswifeoncountlessoccasions.Moreover,hepointedoutthathisfirstwifehaddiedinthecourseofgivingbirthtotheirchild.FinallyheapproachedhisuncleLudovicoSforzaforhelp,butthedukedidnottakehimseriously.HesuggestedGiovannishould

provehisvirilitywithLucrezia,somewhereoutsideRome,withwitnesseswhocouldobservetheevent;orapublicdemonstrationcouldbearrangedwithsomecomplaisantladyinMilan,withthepapallegate,thecardinalofMonreale,whowasoneofAlexanderVI'snephews,asawitness.

Giovanninowdeclaredthatthepopewantedtogethim

outofthewaysothathecouldenjoyhisdaughter'sbodymoreconvenientlyhimself.Moreover,hehintedthatwhilehehadnotbeenallowedtoshareabedwithLucrezia,nowagedseventeen,bothherfatherandherbrotherCesarehaddoneso.Therumoursofincest,asinasoffensivethenasitisnow,spreadlikewildfirethroughRomeandallofItaly.BornoutofGiovanni's

desireforrevengeonthefamilywhoweretauntinghimsounfairly,thestorystuck.

ManywhosawLucreziainpublic,smilinginthecompanyofheradoredandadoringfamily,foundthesensationalrumourseasytobelieve,astheydidwhenthepopeleftherinchargeofpapalaffairswhilehewasabsentfromRome.Yetitwas

unusualforadaughtertobegiventhisresponsibility,thoughnotbecauseshewasalady—therulersofItaly'scourtsregularlylefttheirwivesinchargeoftheiraffairswhiletheywerefighting,earningtheirlivingsasmercenarysoldiers,andthepopewasdoingnomorethanleavingthereinsofpowerinthehandsofthepersonuponwhoseloyaltyhecouldrelyutterly.Andthosewhosaw

herinthecircleofherhouseholdfoundthepersistenttalkofincestdifficulttocredit.Sheseemedtoodemure,tooinnocent.

Cesare,meanwhile,hadofficialdutiestoperform.AweekbeforeJuan'sassassination,thepopehadnominatedhisson,stillafewmonthsshortofhistwenty-secondbirthday,totheprestigiouspositionofpapal

legate"toanointandcrownthemostsereneFederigoofAragon"askingofNaples.HearrivedinCapua,wherethecoronationwastotakeplace,ingoodtimefortheevent,whichwasplannedforAugust6,1497,enteringthecitywithanimposingcavalcadethatincludedsevenhundredhorsesaswellasnumerousservants,guards,prelates,andastragglingcrowdofcampfollowers.

Unfortunatelyhewassuddenlytakenillsoonafterhisarrival,andthecoronationhadtobepostponed.Herecoveredquickly,however,fromthisillness,whichwasrumouredtobesomesortofvenerealcomplaint,andonAugust11,gorgeouslyattiredinredvelvetandcloth-of-gold,hewascarriedinoneofhisfather'spapalchairstothecathedral,whereheplayedhispartinthedelayed

ceremonywithdignifiedcomposure.

CesareobviouslyenjoyedhisstayinCapuaandNaples,wherehewalkedaboutthecityinhissplendidclothes,clearlyrelishingtheattentionsofanadmiringandenviouspopulace;and,soitwassaid,castinglasciviouseyesonthedaughteroftheConted'Aliffe,onwhomhespenttheenormoussumof200,000

ducatswithacarelessextravagancethathadbynowbecomecustomary.Hefellillagain,soonafterhisreturntoRome,andthistimethegossipswerequicktoidentifyhiscomplaintassyphilis,theFrenchdisease,soIsabellad'Estewasinformedbyheragent,Donatode'Preti,whowrotetoherfromRometosaythat"MonsignorofValenciahasreturnedfromNaplesaftercrowningKing

Federigoandheisnowsickwiththemorbogallico."Cesare'spersonalphysician,GasparTorella,wouldgainenoughexperienceofthediseasetowriteatreatiseonit,whichhededicatedtohispatient.

CesarehadreturnedtoRomeonSeptember5andhadriddendirectlytotheVatican,whereheandhisfatherspentseveralhours

closetedinprivatediscussion.WhileinNaples,CesarehadpersuadedKingFederigotomakeanofferofanewbridegroomforLucrezia,intheshapeofAlfonsoofAragon,theDukeofBisceglie.Thisamiableandhandsomeeighteen-year-oldyouthwasSancia'sbrother,andthoughhewas,likeher,illegitimate,thisoffertoreinforcethelinksbetweenRomeandtheroyalhouseof

Naples,nottomentionSpain,wasgreetedbythepopewithenthusiasm.

Morecomplicated,however,wastheissueofCesare'sownfuture.WithJuandeadandthefifteen-year-oldJofrèshowingnosignsoffatheringanheir,itwasuptohimtosecurethefutureoftheBorgiadynasty,somethinghecouldnotdowhilestillacardinal.Moreover,although

hisfatherwashaleandhearty,hewasnowapproachinghissixty-seventhbirthday,andtimewasnotontheirside.Cesarehimselfwaseagertoconcentrateupon"warlikeundertakings"andtotakeoverJuan'spositionascommanderofthepapalarmies,butthepopeadvisedcautionandtheneedtofindhimanappropriatewifebeforemakinganyrashdecisions.

ThechoiceofawifeforCesare,indeed,hadquicklybecomethetalkofRome.OnerumourhaditthatSanciawaspreparedtooverlookhersuspicionsofCesare'sinvolvementinhisbrother'smurderandmarryhim,whileheryounghusband,Jofrè,wouldbeappointedacardinalinhisplace.Itwassoonclear,however,thatboththepopeandCesarehadmoreambitiousplans,andthat

whilehewasinNaples,CesarehadapproachedKingFederigoaboutthepossibilityofarrangingamarriagebetweenhimselfandtheking'sdaughter,CarlottaofAragon,whowascurrentlylivinginFranceatthecourtoftheFrenchqueenAnneofBrittany.

KingFederigomighthavebeenpreparedtooffertheillegitimateAlfonsoas

bridegroomforLucrezia,buthefoughtshyofagreeingtoamarriagebetweenhisownlegitimatedaughterandthelicentious,power-hungryCesare,whoclearlyhadaneyeontheNeapolitanthrone.Anxiousnottooffendthepope,Federigotemporized:"Itseemstome,"hewasreportedbytheVenetianambassadortohavesaid,"thatthesonofapope,whoisalsoacardinal,isnotthe

idealpersontomarrymydaughter.IfthePopecanmakeitpossibleforacardinaltomarryandkeephishat,I'llthinkaboutgivinghimmydaughter."Norwashisdaughterhappywiththeproposedmatch;notonlywasCarlottainlovewithaBretonnobleman,butshewasalsodeterminednottomarry"apriestwhowasthesonofapriest."

WiththeissueofawifeforCesaretemporarilyinabeyance,thepopenowconcentratedhiseffortsonfinalizingtheannulmentofhisdaughter'smarriage.UnderpressurefromhisunclesDukeLudovicoandCardinalAscanio,GiovanniSforzafinallygaveway."IfHisHolinesswantstocreatehisownkindofjustice,"hedeclared,"thereisnothingIcandoaboutit;letthePope

dowhathelikes,butGodwatchesoverallthings."OnNovember18hereluctantlyputhissignaturetothehumiliatingdeclaration:"Ineverknewher."

Amonthlaterthemarriagewasdissolved.ThedemureLucreziawaspresentattheceremonyintheVaticanonDecember22thatformallydeclaredhertobevirgointactaand,assuch,legally

abletocontractanothermarriage.ShegaveashortspeechofthanksinLatin,whichtheMilaneseambassadorpraisedforitselegance:"IfshehadbeenCicerohimself,"hemused,"shecouldnothavespokenwithmoregrace."ButmostofRome,stillbuzzingwiththerumoursofherincestuousrelationshipswithherfatherandbrother,agreedwiththePerugianchronicler

FrancescoMatarazzo,whothoughtthedeclarationthatLucreziawasavirgintobeapropositionsooutlandishthatit"setallItalylaughing,"sinceitwas,heexplainedwithcharacteristichyperbole,"commonknowledgethatshehadbeenandstillwasthegreatestwhoretherehadeverbeeninRome."Shewas,infact,bythistime,sixmonthspregnant,thoughherladies-in-waitinghaddressedher

carefully,toensurethattherewerenovisiblesignsofhercondition.

IntheconventofSanSisto,whileherhusbandwasbeingpressedtosigntherequiredadmissionofhisimpotence,Lucreziahadreceivedregularvisitsfromagood-lookingyoungSpaniard,avaletinherfather'sservice,onePedroCalderon,towhomsheseemstohavebecomepassionately

attached;andonMarch15,1498,accordingtothereportsoftheFerrareseambassadorinVenice,shegavebirthtoaboy.

WhenCesareheardofCalderon'sguilt,soitwasrumoured,hewasdeterminedtopunishthevaletforwhathetooktobehisintolerablepresumption.FindinghimonedaynearLucrezia'sroomintheVatican,afterherreturn

fromtheconvent,herushedattheman,brandishinghissword.Calderonranaway,seekingtoescapetheviolentCesarebythrowinghimselfintothearmsofAlexanderVI,whothrewhispapalrobeabouttheyoungman.ButCesareslashedathimwithhissword,splashinghisfather'srobeswithblood.Amonthbeforetheboywasborn,thebodyofCalderonwasfishedoutoftheTiber,

togetherwiththatofLucrezia'smaid,Pantiselia.AsthepapalmasterofceremoniesJohannesBurchardrecorded,he"fell,notofhisownfreewill,intotheTiberandwasfisheduptodayinthatriver."

Lucrezia'sbabyseemstohavebeenstillbornortohavediedsoonafterbirth,inwhatwouldbecomeasadandfamiliarendtoher

pregnancies.Ataboutthistime,confusingly,anotherBorgiachildappearedintheVaticanandwaschristenedJuan,inmemoryofthemurderedDukeofGandía.EndeavouringtoexplainJuan'sexistence,thepopeissuedtwobulls,oneofthemsecret.Theofficialbulldeclaredthatthechild,delicatelydescribedthereinas"theRomaninfant"(infansRomanus),wasthesonof

CesareBorgiabyanunnamedspinster;thesecretbull,ontheotherhand,maintainedthatthechildwasthatofAlexanderVIhimselfbythesameunnamedspinster.Thechildwasundoubtedlyhis,conceivedwhilehewaspope,butitwastheidentityofthespinsterthatcaughttheimaginationoftheRomangossips;giventhewidelybelievedrumoursthatincestwasrampantamongthe

Borgias,itwasperhapsinevitablethatshewasquicklyidentifiedasthepope'sowndaughter(thoughLucreziaherselfwouldalwaysconsiderJuanasherhalf-brother,aswouldlaterhistorians).

Meanwhile,arrangementsforLucrezia'sNeapolitanmarriagewentahead,andAlexanderVIagreedtoprovidethesumof40,000

ducatsforhisdaughter'sdowry,athirdmorethanhehadpaidforhermarriagetoGiovanniSforza.OnJuly21,1498,LucreziaandAlfonso,DukeofBisceglie,wereformallypronouncedmanandwifeinaprivateceremony,held"withoutpomp,"accordingtoBurchard,inLucrezia'spalaceatSantaMariainPortico,where,inthepresenceofvariousecclesiasticsincludingseveral

bishopsandthreecardinals,aswordwasheldovertheheadsofthebrideandbridegroom.

Thecouple—heagood-looking,livelyyoungman,shestillapretty,high-spiritedgirl—consummatedtheirmarriageandspentthenextfewdaysfeastinganddancing.AfightbetweenCesare'sservantswiththoseofSanciamarredthedecorum

oftheweddingfestivitiesbutdidnotaltogetherspoilthem.Cesarehimself,stillacardinal,causedconsiderablesurpriseand,nodoubt,ironicalamusementbyappearingwithhisbrothersandcourtiersinamasquedressedintheguiseofaunicorn,thehornedemblemoffemalechastity.

However,evenwhiletheNeapolitanalliancewasbeing

celebratedinRome,thestormcloudsweregatheringontheItalianhorizon.OnApril7,1498,theyoungKingCharlesVIIIhaddied,verysuddenly,afterstrikinghisheadonadoorlintelatthechâteauofAmboise.Hewasjustoveramonthshortofhistwenty-eighthbirthdayandhadbeenmarriedforoversixyears;hiswife,AnneofBrittany,hadbornehimfourchildrenbutnonehadsurvivedinfancy,

andsothecrownpassedtohiscousin,thethirty-six-year-oldLouis,DukeofOrléans.

Eightdaysbeforehedied,CharlesVIIIhadseenagreatserpentinhisdreams,andwhenaskedwhatthismeant,hisastrologershadrepliedthatitwasasignthathewouldreturntoItaly.Butafterhisdeath,reportedtheVenetiandiaristMarinSanudo,"thesaidastrologers

changedtheirminds,sayingthattheserpentmeantthathewouldbesucceededbytheDukeofOrléans,ashashappened,becausetheDukecarriesthisemblemonhiscoat-of-arms."TheserpentonhisshieldwastheViscontiviper:LouiswasthelegitimateheiroftheoldregimethathadruledMilanbeforetheSforzashadseizedpower,andheintendedtoenforcehisclaim.

Chapter13TheUnwantedCardinal'sHat

"HISMINDANDHISDESIREANDHISINCLINATIONWERE

STILL

FORTHESECULARLIFE"

TALLINSTATURE,withalongfaceandagravecountenance,thenewFrenchking,Louis

XII,wascertainlymoreregalinappearancethanhisuglypredecessor;afteramisspentyouth,hehadsettledintomiddleage,devotinghistimetohuntingandfalconry.AthisunexpectedsuccessiontotheFrenchthrone,hehadseveralreasonsfornegotiatinganearlyalliancewiththeBorgiapope.

LouisXIIneededAlexanderVI'ssupporttoenforcehis

claimtotheduchyofMilan;asthelegitimategrandsonofValentinaVisconti,daughterofthegreatDukeGianGaleazzo,hehadabetterrighttothetitlethanthecurrentduke,LudovicoSforza,brotherofCardinalAscanio,whoseancestorshadbeenbornonthewrongsideoftheblanket(Ludovicohadinheritedthetitlein1494atthedeathofhisnephew,GianGaleazzo,which,soitwas

said,hadbeen"provokedbyanimmoderatecoitus").LouisXIIalsointendedtorevivetheFrenchclaimtoNaples,whichCharlesVIIIhadfailedtoretainafterhisconquestofthekingdomthreeyearsearlier.Morepressing,however,wastheking'sneedforadivorcefromhishunchbackedandbarrenwife,andforapapaldispensationthatwouldallowhimtomarryCharlesVIII's

widow,AnneofBrittany,notonlytoretainthattroublesomeregionfortheFrenchrealmbutalsotoproduceanheir.

Inreturnforthedissolutionofhismarriage,aswellasacardinal'shatforhistrustedfriendandcouncillorGeorgesd'Amboise,thearchbishopofRouen,LouisXIIdevisedanofferthatneitherAlexanderVInortheambitiousCesare

couldrefuse.Inadditiontoahandsomesumofmoney,thekingproposedtogiveCesaretheduchyofValenceandtobestowuponhimthecovetedcollaroftheFrenchroyalchivalricOrderofSt.Michael.HealsoofferedtousehisinfluencetoarrangeCesare'smarriagetoCarlottaofAragon,daughterofthekingofNaplesandlady-in-waitingtoAnneofBrittany.Moreover,providingCesare

agreedtofightwiththeFrencharmyduringhisforthcomingcampaigntoousttheSforzasfromMilan,LouisXIIpromisedtogivehimthecommandofalargebodyofarmedFrenchlancers,whichwouldbemaintainedattheking'sexpensebutwouldserveunderCesare'scommand,wherever,significantly,thenewdukewished.

Theofferwasaccepted,justasthekinghadhoped.Andso,onJuly29,1498,AlexanderVIdulyissuedapapalbrieflistingeightreasonswhytheroyalmarriagewasinvalidandsetupacommissionofcardinalsandprelatesinFrancetoexamineLouisXII'scasefordivorce.ItwasnowtimeforCesareto"putoffthepurple...withtheleastpossiblescandal...andwiththemost

decorouspretext."Threeweekslater,onAugust17,asBurchardrecorded:

TherewasasecretconsistoryinwhichCardinalCesareBorgiadeclaredthatfromhisearlyyearshewasalways,withallhisspirit,inclinedtothesecularcondition;butthattheHolyFatherhad

wishedabsolutelythatheshouldgivehimselftotheecclesiasticalstate,andhehadnotbelievedheshouldopposehiswill.Butsincehismindandhisdesireandhisinclinationwerestillforthesecularlife,hebesoughtHisHolinessOurLord,thatheshouldcondescend,

withspecialclemency,togivehimadispensation,sothat,havingputofftherobeandtheecclesiasticaldignity,hemightbepermittedtoreturntothesecularestateandcontractmatrimony;andthathenowprayedtheMostReverendLordcardinalstogivetheirconsentwillinglyto

suchadispensation.

Thatsameday,LouisdeVilleneuve,BarondeTrans,arrivedatthegatesofRome,bringingwithhimLouisXII'sletterappointingCesareasDukeofValenceandaninvitationforthisnewFrencharistocrattovisithiscourt."HecameinthenameoftheKingofFrance,"reportedBurchard,"toescortthemostreverendCardinalofValencia

tothatcountry."Tothepedanticmasterofceremonies,Cesarewasstillacardinal,despitehavingannouncedhisresignation,becausehisdecisionhadnot,thatday,beenratifiedbythecollege.

Ratherthanagreetothismostunusualarrangement,severalcardinalshadavoidedvotingbyabsentingthemselvesfromthe

consistoryonAugust17,makingtheexcusethatcasesofplagueinRomerendereditprudentforthemtoleavethecityforthehealthierairofthecountryside.Butthepopecalledanotherconsistorysixdayslater,writingtoallthecardinalswhowereintheneighbourhood,sotheVenetianenvoyreported,"tellingthemthattheymustcometoRomebecausemattersconcerningthe

welfareoftheChurchandChristianityweretobediscussed.Sothedissidentcardinalsyielded,"clearlywithsomereluctance,"andCesareBorgiacouldnowtakeoffhis[cardinal's]hatandmakehimselfasoldierandgethimselfawife."Thetwenty-three-year-oldcardinalofValenciahadbecometheDukeofValence,fromwhichhederivedhisnickname,ilValentino.He

wasnowfreetomarryandprofesshimselfopenlyasasoldier.

Cesare'sbehaviourhadlongbeeninappropriateforaprinceofthechurch.Herarelyworehisplainclericalgarb,preferringinsteadtheelaborateoutfitsofacourtieroreven,onoccasion,fancydress."MonsignorofValenciaexercisesthepracticeofarmseveryday,"

wroteCristoforoPoggiotoMantuaonJanuary19,1498,observingthathe"seemsresolvedtobeagallantsoldier."Norwerehisreligiousobservancessuchasthoseexpectedofamemberofthesacredcollege:"CardinalValentinoattendedthesolemnmassinthepapalchapel,"wroteBurchardonApril21,theSaturdayafterEaster,lamentinghisconspicuousabsenceduring

theceremoniesheldduringHolyWeek,"buthehasnotpreviouslybeenseentheresincePassionSunday."

Nowthathewasadukeratherthanacardinal,Cesaretookpleasureindemonstratinghisskills,martialandequestrian,beforeastonishedspectators.Thedayafterannouncinghisresignationfromthesacredcollege,sotheMantuan

ambassadorGianLucidoCattaneoreported,hedidsoinCardinalAscanio'shuntingparkbeforeanaudiencethatincludedLucreziaandSancia:"Armedasajanissary,withanotherfourteenmen,hegavemanyproofsofstrengthinkillingeightbulls,"and,addedCattaneo,"inafewdaysIhopetoseehimfullyarmedonthepiazza."

Indeed,Cesareneededto

honehisathleticskillstoimpresstheFrenchcourt,wherehewouldsoonbeaguest,andspentmuchofhistimepractising"theexerciseofarms,horsesandleaping."Hesometimesoverreachedhimself;onedayintheBelvedere,forinstance,whenpractisingleapsacrossthebacksofhorsesandmules,hetried,inonebound,"tomountamulerathertallerthantherest,"Cattaneoreported,"and

whenhewasintheairthemuletookfrightandkickedhimintheribsandonthebackofthehead,andhelayunconsciousformorethananhour."

Cattaneowas,however,notsoimpressedwiththenewduke'sappearance."Heiswellenoughincountenanceatpresent,"hereported,somewhatgrudgingly,"buthisfaceisblotchedbeneath

theskinasisusualwiththegreatpox."Thesemarkswerethecustomarysignsofsecondarysyphilis,andCattaneobelievedthatCesarewasapprehensiveaboutgoingtoFrancetomarrytheNeapolitanprincessCarlottaofAragon,lestthatscarredfaceofhis,"spoiledbytheFrenchdisease,"wouldinducehisintendedbridetorefusehim.

ThiswasnotCesare'sonlyconcern;therewerereportsthatthekingofSpainwas"extremelydispleased"abouttheBorgiaalliancewithFrance.CattaneoreportedthatthepopehadassuredonecardinalthatLouisXIIwasmostanxioustohaveCesareinhisserviceandthecardinalhadrepliedthat"itistrueValenceisadexterousman,"buthewarnedthepope,"Beware,HolyFather,that

youdonotaimsohighthatifyouorhefall,youwillbreaktoomanybones."ManyItaliansalsofearedthisalliancebetweenthepopeandakingwhoopenlyprofessedhisclaimtobothMilanandNaples;itpromisedanotherinvasionoftheruthlessmenofthenorthand,asCattaneodramaticallyputit,"theruinofItaly."

Suchwarningsdidnotdeter

AlexanderVI,whowasdeterminedtodoallthathecouldtofurtherhisson'scareer.Heraised200,000ducatstocovertheexpensesofCesare'striptoFrancetoensurethathisappearanceattheFrenchcourtwasasdramaticallyimposingaspossible.Thishugesumcamepartly,soitwasbelieved,fromimpositionsontheJewsinRomeandpartlyfromthesaleofgoodsconfiscatedby

thepopefromhisSpanishmajordomo,aconvertedJewwhohadbeenappointedasbishopofCalahorraandhadbeenchargedbyAlexanderVIwithheresy.

Cesarespentmostofthismoneyon"jewels,stuffs,cloth-of-goldandcloth-of-silver,silksandotherluxuriousgoods,muchofthemimportedatconsiderableexpensefrom

Venice."ForhisuseonthejourneytoFrance,hecommissionedacommodeforhispersonaluse,"coveredwithgoldbrocadeoutsideandscarletinside,withsilvervesselswithinthesilverurinals."ItwassaidthateventheshoesofCesare'shorseswereinlaidwithsilverandloosenedsothattheyfellofftobepickedupbythemostnimble-footedamongthecheeringcrowds.

Soitwasthat,onOctober1,1498,CesareleftRomeforCivitavecchia,wheretwoFrenchgalleyswerewaitingtotakehimtoMarseilles."Wearesendingyouourheart,"AlexanderVIhadwrittentoLouisXIIinaletterthatCesarewastakingwithhimtoFrance,"thatistosayourbelovedson."Thepopewatchedthedepartureofhis"belovedson,"standingatthewindowoftheVaticanuntil

thecavalcadewasoutofsight.

Cesarewas,asusual,gorgeouslydressed,wearingablackvelvetmantleoverhisshoulder,awhitebrocadetunic,ablackvelvetcap,sparklingwithrubies,andbootssewnwithgoldchainsandpearldroplets.Ridingabayhorsecaparisonedinredandgold,theFrenchroyalcolours,hewasaccompanied

bytheFrenchenvoyBarondeTransandbyanostentatiouslylargeretinue:themembersofhishousehold,notforgettinghisdiligentphysician,GasparTorella;arichlydressedcrowdofyoungnoblemen,SpanishandRoman;scoresofpages,grooms,andguards;fiftymulesandtwelvecartspiledhighwithbaggage.Carefullysecretedinhisluggagewasthecardinal'shat

forGeorgesd'Amboise,thearchbishopofRouen,andthedispensation,signedbythepope,thatwouldallowLouisXIItoremarry,providing,ofcourse,thedivorcecommissionpronouncedintheking'sfavour.Thenewdukewasfinallyonhiswaytofindhisownbride.

Chapter14Cesare'sFrenchBride

"THEMOSTCONTENTEDMAN

INTHEWORLD"

CESARE'SRECEPTIONATMARSEILLES

wassuitablyboisterous.Welcomedbytheroarofcannons,theroyalguestsweremetbyfourhundredarcherswhomarchedforward

toescortthevisitorstothequartersreservedforthem.Theyspentalmostaweekinthecity,enjoyingtheentertainmentsonoffer,feastingatseveralbanquets,andbeingshownsuchsightsastheplacehadtooffer.

LeavingMarseillesattheendofOctober,CesareandhisentouragestartedthelongjourneynorthtotheFrenchcourt,whichwascurrentlyin

residenceinChinon,sometwenty-fivemilessouthwestofTours,wherethedivorcecommissionwasstilldeliberatingLouisXII'sdivorce.AtAvignontheyweretheguestsofthepapallegate—thiswasnoneotherthanCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,whowould,asPopeJuliusII,latercausesuchterribletroubleforCesare.Fornow,outwardlyatleast,theywereonamicableterms,

particularlysinceAlexanderVIwasrelyingonthecardinaltoassistwithnegotiationsattheFrenchcourtinreturnforthepope'shelpinrestoringthedellaRoverefamilytotheirformerpositionofinfluenceinRome.

Asademonstrationofthisalliance,uneasythoughitwas,betweenAlexanderVIandGiuliano,thelegatehad

riddentwomilesoutofAvignontomeetCesareandescorthimintothecity."Avignonneverwitnessedsuchanenthusiasticwelcome,"wroteawitnessofthescene."Norinthecityhadthereeverbeenamoresplendidprocession."Hewasgreetedwithfountainsgushingwine,presentedwithvaluablepiecesofsilverplate,and"fêtedbyladiesandbeautifulgirlsinwhomthe

saidCesaretakesmuchpleasure,knowingwellhowtodanceandentertainthem,thedancesbeingmorrisses,mummeriesandotherfrivolities."

Unfortunately,Cesarewasinnomoodtoenjoythefestivities.Onceagainhewassufferingfromarecurrenceofhisvenerealdisease.So,indeed,wasGiuliano:"DellaRoverehasfallensickagain

ofthatillnessofhis,"oneinformanttoldLudovicoSforza."Nowtheflowers[asthesyphiliticrasheswereeuphemisticallyknown]arestartingtobloomagain;ifGoddoesnothelphim,hewillneverbequitehealthy.AlsotheysaypubliclyofCesarethathetoohasthemaladyofSt.Lazarusinhisfaceand,moreover,heisinadiscontentedframeofmind."

FromAvignonCesaretravelleduptheRhônevalleytoValence,thecapitalofhisduchy,andthenontoLyons,wherehearrivedonNovember7.FromLyonshedawdled,takingeveryopportunitytodelayhisarrivalattheFrenchcourtuntilthedivorcecommissionhaddeclareditsverdict.Crowdsgatheredineverytowntowatchhimpassby;asthesonofapope,hewasan

objectofconsiderablecuriosity.Hisentouragewasledbyaparadeofsumptermules,eachbearingtheBorgiacrestandfollowedbytwomoremulescarryinghugechests,thecontentsofwhichbecamealivelysubjectofdebateamongthecrowdsofonlookers.AfterthesecamethegentlemenofCesare'shousehold,theirhorsescaparisonedwithimmensecockadesandsilver

bridles,followedbytwentypagesdressedinredvelvetandcloth-of-gold,byyoungnoblemenofRomeandSpain,andbyhispersonalbodyguardofSpanishmercenaries.Cesarehimselfrodepastimperiously,pearlsandpreciousstonesdecoratinghisblackvelvetcostume,hishat,andevenhisboots.

Hedidnotcreateagood

impressiononhisroutenorthtoChinon.Hewassaidtobealoofandarrogant,alltooreadytotakeoffenceandtogiveit.TotheFrench,hisostentatiousretinueappearedabsurdlypretentiousforatwenty-three-year-oldyouthwhowasnotonlyillegitimatebutwasalsounabletoclaimonedropofroyalblood.Hisimpassivemannerwasviewedashaughty;onoccasionhewaseven

insolent,aswhen,atareceptionatValence,LouisXII'srepresentativecameforwardwiththecollaroftheOrderofSt.Michaelandwouldhaveplaceditaroundhisneck,butCesarepusheditaway,sayingthatitwasforthekinghimselftobestow.

Finally,onDecember17,thecardinalofLuxembourgannouncedthatthedivorcecommissionhadfoundin

LouisXII'sfavour,freeinghimfromwhathehimselfdescribedasthis"cripple,afflictedwithscrofula,repellentinpersonandmind."Thedivorcedwife,byherownadmissionnotabeauty,hadremaineddignifiedthroughouttheproceedings;sheretiredtoaconvent,foundedherownorderofnuns,andwascanonizedin1950.

ThefollowingdayCesaremadehisformalentryintoChinon,crossingthebridgeovertheViennewiththegreatmedievalcastle,strongholdofthePlantagenetkingdominFrance,loomingmightilyoverthetown.HewasaccompaniedbyGeorgesd'Amboise,whoseredhatwasintheduke'sbaggage,alongwiththepapaldispensationthatwouldallowLouisXIItomarryAnneof

Brittany.Amanwhowastheregaveadescriptionoftheoccasion:

TheDukeofValenceenteredthusonWednesday,theeighteenthdayofDecember1498...precededbytwenty-fourhandsomemulescarryingtrunks,coffersandchests,coveredwithcloths

bearingtheDuke'sarms,thenagaincomeanothertwenty-fourmuleswiththeirtrappingshalvedinredandyellow....Thentwelvemuleswithcoveringsofyellowstripedsatin.Thencamesixmuleswithtrappingsofcloth-of-gold....Andaftercamesixteenbeautifulgreat

chargers,ledbygrooms,coveredincloth-of-gold,crimsonandyellow...afterthesecameeighteenpages,eachoneonafinecharger,ofwhomsixteenweredressedincrimsonvelvet,thetwoothersincloth-of-gold....Thencamesixfinemulesrichlyequippedwithsaddles,bridlesand

trappingsincrimsonvelvet,accompaniedbygroomsdressedinthesame.Thentwomulescarryingcoffersandallcoveredincloth-of-gold....Thenaftercamethirtynoblemencladincloth-of-goldandsilver,followedbythreemusicians,twotamboursandonerebec,dressedin

cloth-of-goldaccordingtothestyleoftheircountry,andtheirrebecshadstringsofgold.TheymarchedbetweenthegentlemenandtheDukeofValence,playingallthewhile.Thencamefourmusicianswithtrumpetsandclarionsofsilver,richlydressed,playingtheir

instrumentswithoutceasing.Therewerealsotwenty-fourlackeysallcladincrimsonvelvethalvedwithyellowsilk,andtheywereallaroundtheDuke;besidehimrode[Georgesd'Amboise],conversingwithhim.

AstotheDuke,hewasmountedona

greattallhorseveryrichlyharnessed,withacoveringofredsatin,halvedwithcloth-of-goldandembroideredwithveryrichgemsandlargepearls.Inhiscapweretwodoublerowsoffiveorsixrubies,aslargeasabigbean,whichgaveoutagreatlight.Onthebrimofhiscaptherewere

alsoagreatquantityofjewels,eventohisboots,whichwerealladornedwithchainsofgoldandedgedwithpearls.

CesarerodethroughthetownofChinon,glitteringwithjewelsandthefinestclothes.Fromthecastlewindowshighabove,thekingandhiscourtierswatchedtheprocessionandwere

exceedinglyentertainedbywhattheyconsideredthe"vanityandridiculouspomposityofthisduke."Onenteringthechâteau,Cesaremade"aprofoundreverencetothegroundtoHisMajesty,"reportedtheVenetianambassador,"then,halfwayacrossthegreathall,hemadeanotherreverence,andthen,cominguptotheKing,hemadeasiftokisshisfoot,buttheKingprevented

this,sohekissedhishandinstead,asdidthegentlemenofhissuite."AndafterdinnerCesarewasescortedtotheroyalapartments,whereheremainedwiththeking"tothefourthhourofthenight,"andthefollowingdayLouisXIIentertainedCesareinthecompanyofseveralfashionableladies.Indeed,despitehisearlierridicule,thekingwasclearlydeeplyimpressedwiththis

extraordinaryyoungman,whocouldbesoagreeablewhenhechosetobeso,especiallywhenflatteredbyroyalty.

OnDecember21,inamagnificentceremonyintheChurchofSt.-MexmeatChinon,inthepresenceofKingLouisandCesare,CardinalGiulianodellaRoveresolemnlyinvestedGeorgesd'Amboisewithhis

cardinal'shat."Onthejourneyfromtheroyalcourttothechurch,"reportedBurchard,whowasnottherebutwasinformedoftheevent,"theillustriousCesare,DukeofValence,formerlycardinal,carryingthehatforalltosee,walkedbehindtheotherprincesandimmediatelyinfrontoftheKing,asifheweretheroyalequerry."

CardinalGiulianosentnewstoRomeofCesare'ssuccessattheFrenchcourt."IcannotrefrainfrominformingYourHolinessthatthemostillustriousDukeissoendowedwithprudence,abilityandeveryvirtueofmindandbody,thathehasconqueredeverybody,"hewrotetothepopeonJanuary18,1499."HehasfoundsomuchfavourwiththeKing,andalltheprincesofthis

court,"headded,"thateveryoneholdshiminesteemandhonourofwhichfactIwillinglyandgladlygivetestimony."

LouisXIIandAnneofBrittanyweremarriedinthecastleatNantesonJanuary6,1499.Cesare'smaritalprospects,however,werenotlookingsopositive.HehadhopedthatbynowCarlottaofAragonmighthavechanged

hermindaboutmarryinghim;buttheNeapolitanprincesswasmorestubbornthaneverinherrefusaltodoso,"unless,"soCardinaldellaRoverereported,"herfatherinsistsonit."KingFederigowouldonlyagreetothemarriageifhisrightfulpositionaskingofNapleswasconfirmedbybothAlexanderVIandLouisXII;LouisXIIhadhisownideasaboutwhowastherightful

kingofNaples.Forhisownpart,hedidtrytoforceCarlottatoconsenttothemarriage,andfacedbywhathesawasher"feminineperversity,"evenwentsofarastothreatentoexileherfromtheFrenchcourt.Itwasalltonoavail,andinduecourseshemarriedtheBretonwithwhomshehadfalleninlove.

Cesare,whoseprincipal

reasonforgoingtoFrancewastogetmarried,wasfurious,blamingtheFrenchkingfornotdoingmoretohelphimandthreateningtoreturntoRometocomplainofhistreatmenttohisfather,whowasasangryashisson."AllEurope,"AlexanderVIdeclared,"wasverywellawarethat,butforthedefinitepromiseoftheKingofFrancetofindawifeforhim,Cesarewouldhave

remainedinItaly."

InRome,meanwhile,theissueofthealliancewithFrancewascausingviolentriftsinthecollege."Yesterdayinconsistory,"theVenetianambassadorhadreportedinDecember1498,"CardinalAscanio[Sforza]toldthePopethatsendinghissontoFrancewouldbetheruinofItaly.ThePopeshoutedinreplythatithad

beenAscanio'sbrotherwhohadfirstbroughttheFrenchintoItaly."AlexanderVIhadapoint—itwasLudovicowhohadencouragedtheadventurousCharlesVIIItoinvadeItalyandasserthisclaimtothekingdomofNaples,apolicythat,inhindsight,appearedrashintheextreme,particularlynowhissuccessortothethroneofFrancehadabetterclaimtoMilanthandidLudovicoand

hisbrother.ThequarrelendedwiththepopethreateningtohurlAscaniointotheTiber.

Yet,despiteallthedifficulties,CesarewaspersuadedtostayoninFrance.TherewerehopesthatallhadbeenresolvedwhenitwasreportedthatKingLouisandCesarehadhaddinneralonetogether.InlateFebruaryBurchardreportedtherumourthat"thePope's

son,Cesare,latelytheCardinalofValence,hascontractedmatrimonywiththedaughteroftheKingofNaples,whoislivinginFrance,"addingthat"themarriagehasbeenconsummated."Lessthanaweeklater,thiswasflatlycontradictedinaletterfromCardinalGiulianodellaRovere:"ThemarriageofDukeValentinowiththedaughteroftheKing,"he

wrote,"isnowdefinitelyexcluded."

RumoursofapossibleFrenchbridewerenowrifeinRomeandcausingsuchconcernandconfusionthatthepopenotonlyhadtoreceivedeputationsofprotestfromseveralEuropeanpowers,evenfromPortugal,butfeltobligedtoappearinpublicwithanarmedguard.Thepopedeclaredtothe

Venetianambassador,whocametoseehimaboutsomeothermatter,thatatthemomenthecaredlittleaboutotherproblems;hewaswaitingfornewsfromFrance."Heisveryanxioustohearwhatishappeningthereandiskeptinsuspense."

Finally,afteranxiousweeksofwaitingonthepartofthepope,andincreasingimpatienceonthepartof

Cesare,LouisXIIproposedthatsinceamarriagetoCarlottaofAragoncouldnotbearranged,Cesareshouldmarry—insteadofanItalianbride—aFrenchone.Theking'schoicewasthesixteen-year-oldCharlotted'Albret,aquiet,religious,good-looking,andgood-temperedgirlwhohadexcellentroyalconnections;herfatherwastheDukeofGuienne,hermotherwasrelatedtothenew

queen,andherbrotherwasthekingofNavarre.

ThenewsthatCesarewastomarryCharlotted'AlbretarrivedinRomeinlateMarch.Thepopedisapprovedofthematch,knowingtheinevitabletroubleitwouldmakeforthepapacyinItaly,andwouldhavepreventedithadhebeenabletodoso;butinviewofhisson'sdetermination,hefelt

constrainedtogiveway,evenagreeingtogiveacardinal'shattothegirl'sbrother,Amanieud'Albret.

ThemarriagecontractwassignedonMay10,andtwodayslatertheweddingtookplaceinthequeen'sapartmentsatthechâteauofBlois.Thisfamilyceremonywasfollowedbyagrandweddingbreakfastservedinhugemarqueesputupinthe

groundsbelowthechâteauwalls;andafterthemeal,themarriagewasconsummatedwhileCharlotte'sgigglingyoungladiestookturnsinwatchingtheactivitiesofthecouplethroughthekeyhole.Thepleasureofthebrideandgroomwasevidentlyspoiled,however,inamannerdescribedbyRobertdelaMarck,theLordofFleurange:

TotellyouoftheDukeofValence'sweddingnight:heaskedtheapothecaryforsomepillstopleasurehislady.Buthereceivedabadturnfor,insteadofgivinghimwhatheaskedfor,theapothecarygavehimlaxativepillswhichhadsuchaneffectthatheneverceasedgoingtothe

privythewholenight.

ThenextdayCesaresentatrustySpanishmessengertohisfatherinRome.OnarrivalthecourierwasimmediatelysummonedtotheVaticanandkeptthereforseveralhours,soanxiouswasthepopetoheareverydetailofthemarriage,itspreliminariesanditsaftermath.Hewaspleasedandamusedtohearthathissonhad"brokenthe

lance"eighttimesontheweddingnight—eventhepedanticBurchardrecordedthispieceofinformationinhisdiary.AndtheFrenchkingwrotetothepopewiththeinformationthatithadbeenabetterperformancethanhehimselfhadbeenabletomanage;he,too,had"consummatedthematrimonyeighttimes,"buttheseeighttimesconsistedoftwobeforesupperandsixatnight.

Overthenextfewweeks,morecouriersarrivedfromFrance,eachwithlettersreportingfurtherdetailsofCesare'ssuccess.ThepopewasdelightedwiththenewsthatLouisXIIhadgivenCesaretherighttousethearmorialbearingsoftheFrenchroyalhouse;theduke'scoat-of-armswouldhenceforthshowtheBorgiabullquarteredwiththeliliesofFrance.Hewasalso

delightedtohearofCesare'snewcommandintheFrencharmy,withanelitecorpsofonehundredlancers,ofhiscollaroftheroyalchivalricOrderofSt.Michael,whichKingLouisXIIbestowedonhimaweekafterthewedding,andoftheestateinFrancethathadbeenboughtwiththemoneythatCharlottehadinheritedfromhermother.Cesarehimselfwrotetohisfathertosaythathe

was"themostcontentedmanintheworld."

EvenCharlottewrotetoherfathertosaythatshewasverywellsatisfiedwithherhusband;andshehopedtobeabletogotoRomeonedaysoontoseeherfather-in-law.Shewasalsosatisfiedwiththepresentsshowereduponherbyherenthusiasticbridegroom,manyofwhichhadbeenboughtbyCesare

forCarlottaofAragon,andwellshemighthavebeen,fortheyincludednumerouspreciousstones,pearlsanddiamonds,brocadesandsilks,goldchains,silver-giltdinnerservices,vesselsandvases,miniaturesilverbelltowersandcitadels,andmother-of-pearlmodelsofwarships.

OnMay23,thedaythenewsoftheweddingarrivedinRome,thepopedeclared

aneveningofcelebrations.ThatnightRomewasenfête.Fireworksexplodedinthesky;torchesburnedthroughoutthenight;"bonfireswerelitasasignofjoyinthecity,"recordedBurchard,whoreportedthatevenLucreziahadlitherownfire,despitethefactthattheFrenchalliancespelledimminentdisasterforherhusband,AlfonsoofAragon,andforhersister-in-law

Sancia.ForBurchard,too,themarriagedidnotbodewell:"Itwasinrealityagreatdishonour,asourceofgreatshameforHisHolinessandfortheHolySee."

Thepope,however,washugelyrelieved.Headmittedtooneforeignenvoythathehadentertainedrealdoubtsastothemarriageevertakingplace,butnowthatithaddonesohewasdelighted,

and,whereasheusedtospeakillofFrance,hewas"nowallFrenchbecauseofthelovetheKingofFrancehadshowntowardshisDuke."Soanxiousandimpatientoflate,hewascontentedoncemoreandraisednoobjectionwhenaskedtopaythe30,000ducatsrequiredinFrancetowardthecostofaccommodatingandentertaininghissonduringhisstaythere.Thebenefits

thathewasexpectingfromthisalliancewithFrancewouldbringhim,andparticularlyhisson,advantagesthatwouldfaroutweighthissumofmoney.

Chapter15Conquests

"AUTCAESARAUTNIHIL"

ITWASINTHEMIDDLEofJuly1499thatnewsreachedRomethatthekingofFrancewasgatheringhistroopsinLyonsreadyfortheinvasionofItalyandthemilitarycampaigntoenforcehisclaimstoMilan

andNaples.Knowingwhatwasinstoreforhisfamily,CardinalAscanioSforzafledthecitytojoinhisbrother,DukeLudovico.Thepope'sson-in-law,AlfonsoofAragon,leftonAugust2,ridingtowardNaples,muchtothemiseryofLucrezia;theyoungman,accordingtotheVenetianambassador,had"desertedhiswifewhohasbeenwithchildforsixmonthsandshecries

constantly."Afewdayslater,AlexanderVIsenthisreluctantdaughter-in-lawSanciaofftojoinherbrotherinNaplesand,onAugust8,dispatchedtheirspouses,LucreziaandJofrè,northtoSpoleto,atownintheApennines,towhichhenowappointedthenineteen-year-oldLucreziaasgovernor,anunusualappointmentbutonethatconfirmedtherespectthepopehadforhisdaughter's

abilitiesandthetrustheplacedinherloyalty—itwasanappointmentthatwouldhavebeenconventionalforason.Outofrespectforherdelicatecondition,heequippedherwithalitter,whichwasdecoratedinsidewithwhiteandcrimsonsatin,toeasewhatwouldbeanextremelyuncomfortablejourneyupintothehillsintheharshsummerheat.

Cesare,meanwhile,hadtakenleaveofhisnewbrideinearlyJuly,justtwomonthsafterhiswedding,andriddensouthfromBloistojointheFrenchtroopsmassingatLyons.Withanarmyofsixthousandcavalry,onecompanyofwhichwasunderCesare'scommand,andseventeenthousandinfantry,LouisXIIwasoptimisticabouthischancesofconqueringtheprosperous

duchyofMilan.Hedeclined,however,toleadthetroopshimself,preferringinsteadtofollowtheoldFrenchtraditionwherebyakingwithoutadirectmaleheirshouldremaininFrance.

Bytheendofthemonth,theFrencharmyhadcrossedtheAlps,negotiatingthepasseswitheaseinthemidsummerheat,andwerenowencampedonthePoplain.Alessandria

capitulatedafterashortsiege,andseveralothertowns,mindfulofthepricetheywouldpayforresistance,chosetosurrenderpeacefully.OnSeptember2DukeLudovicoSforza,whowasnotpopularinMilanandwassuspectedbymanyofhavingpoisonedhisnephewtoacquirehistitle,fledthecity.TheMilanese,unwillingtosufferasAlessandriahaddone,openedtheirgatesto

theFrenchinvaders.Amonthlater,onSunday,October6,LouisXIImadehisformalentryintothecity,hailedas"KingoftheFranks,DukeofMilan."

Leadingthecavalcadewasanarmedguardofsixhundredsoldiers,followedbyLouisXII'Sgeneralcarryingthegildedbaton.TheFrenchkingrodeabaychargercaparisonedingoldand

clatteredtriumphantlythroughthecitystreets,whichhadbeenhungwithwhiteawningsemblazonedwiththeFrenchfleur-de-lis.AlsotakingpartintheprocessionwereCesareBorgiaandCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,aswellastheambassadorsofVenice,Spain,Genoa,Florence,Ferrara,andMantua.Thecavalcade,however,wasnotgreetedwithasmuch

enthusiasmasLouisXIIhadhoped;oneVenetianeyewitnessreportedthatheheardonlyafewshouting,"France!France!"

Theonce-proudSforzadynastyhadcollapsedintoruins.WhenLouisXIIopenedthetreasurechestsintheCastelloSforzesco,Ludovico'smassivefortress,hefoundthemempty—Ludovicohadmanagedto

escapewithafortuneingoldandjewels.Leonardo'sfamousfrescoofTheLastSupperintheconventofSantaMariadelleGrazie,towhichthekingmadeaspecialvisit,accompaniedbyCesare,hadalreadybeguntoflakeoffthewallsoftherefectory,and,saddestofall,Leonardo'sclaymodelofahorse,intendedbyLudovicoSforzaforabronzeequestrianstatueofhisfather,

Francesco,hadsymbolicallycrumbledundertheshotsoftheFrenchsoldierswhohaduseditfortargetpractice.

WiththeFrenchconquestofMilanaccomplished,Cesarehadfulfilledhispartofthebargainthathisfather,thepope,hadreachedwiththekingofFrance,anditwastimeforLouisXIItohonourthepromisehehadmadetoCesare,toprovidehimwitha

contingentofFrenchtroopstofightundertheduke'sorders.ThearrivaloftheFrencharmyinItalyprovidedAlexanderVIandhissonwiththepretexttheyneededtoestablishastateforCesareinnorthernItaly,usingthethinlydisguisedexcuseoftheneedtoreassertcontrolofthePapalStatestocounterthestrongFrenchpresenceinthearea.

ThePapalStatescoveredalargeareainnorthernandcentralItaly,stretchingdowntheAdriaticcoastfromBolognaandRavennatoAnconaandacrosstheApenninesintotheTibervalleytoincludeLazioandthecountrysidearoundRome.Itwasamosaicofsmallstates,eachbelongingtothechurch,borderedtothenorthbytheduchyofFerraraandtothesouthbythatofUrbino,

bothpapalfiefs,andtothewestbytheindependentRepublicofFlorence.SomeofthesestateswereadministereddirectlyfromRome,likeSpoleto,whereLucreziawasgovernor;otherswereruledbyquasi-autonomouslords,knownasvicars.

AsNiccolòMachiavelliobservedwithoutexcessiveexaggeration,theselands

were"anurseryofalltheworstcrimes,ofoutbreaksofrapineandmurder,resultingfromthewickednessoflocallordsandnot,astheselordsmaintained,fromthedispositionoftheirsubjects.Fortheselordswerepoor,yetendeavouringtoliveasthoughtheywererich,theyresortedtoinnumerablecruelties...andpassedlawsprohibitingcertainactsonlytogiveoccasionforbreaking

them...andpunishingoffendersbyimposingheavyfineswhichtheycollected."Theareamighthavebeenintermittentlylawless,butmuchofitwashighlyfertile,especiallyinthenorth,whereagricultureflourishedonthealluvialsoilsofthePoplain.Itwasalsoofenormousstrategicimportance,offeringthepossibility,oncefirmlyunified,ofastateasconsiderableasthoseof

Naples,Venice,orFlorence.ItwasthisareathatAlexanderVIintended,withthehelpoftheFrench,touniteintoaduchyforhisson.

InOctober,shortlyafterLouisXII'striumphantentryintoMilan,AlexanderVIannouncedthat"thevicarsofRimini,Pesaro,Imola,Forlì,CamerinoandFaenza,aswellastheDukeofUrbino,feudatoriesoftheChurchin

Rome,havefailedtopaytheirannualcensustotheApostolicChamber,"accordingtoBurchard'sreport,"andso[thepope]hasremovedtheirtitlesanddeclaredthemforfeit."BurchardaddedthatthecityofMilan—bywhichhemeantthenewFrenchgovernment—hadloaned45,000ducatstothepopetoraisetroopstoretaketheseterritories:"TheDukeofValence,"he

reported,"captainofthesetroops,hasreceivedthissuminthenameoftheChurch."

OnNovember18CesarereturnedtoRomeforabriefvisit,enteringthecitylatethatafternoonthroughoneofthesmallergatestoavoiddetection.HespentthenexttwodaysattheVatican,muchofthetimeinprivatediscussionwithhisfather,thoughhedidfindthe

opportunitytovisithisbelovedLucrezia,whohadgivenbirthtoababyboyduringthenightofNovember1.TheboyhadbeenchristenedRodrigo,afterhisgrandfather,inasplendidceremonyinSt.Peter's,attendedbyallthosecardinalswhowereinRome.

CesareleftRomeagainonNovember21,androdenorthwithallpossiblespeed,

accompaniedby1,500soldiersofthepapalarmy,towardthenorthernbordersofthePapalStates,wherehisFrenchtroops—4,000infantryand1,800cavalryunderthecommandofYvesd'Alègre—werewaitingforhim.HewasnowreadytoembarkonthefirststageofhiscampaigntoestablishtheruleoftheBorgiaovertheRomagnainthenameofthechurchwithanattackon

ImolaandForlì,twotownsonthegreatRomanroad,theViaEmilia,whichwereheldinthenameoftheRiariofamilybyGirolamoRiario'swidow,CaterinaSforza-Riario.

AlexanderVI,meanwhile,dispatchedthefifty-two-year-oldcardinalofMonreale,thepope'snephewandanothervictimofthemalfrancese,toVeniceinordertoreassure

thegovernmentofthatcitythatVenetianinterestsintheRomagnawerenotunderthreat,agesturethatacquiredgreaterforcewhenbackedopenlybyLouisXII.TheFrenchkingpersonallyreassuredtheBentivogliofamily,therulersofBologna,thathewouldsafeguardtheirstate.ButhemadeitclearthattheBorgiacampaignhadhisbacking:"AttherequestofourHolyFather,"hewrote,

"andwishingtohelphimre-coverthoselands,signoriesanddomains[ofthePapalStates]andespeciallythecastlesandlandsofImolaandForlì,wehaveappointedourdearandwell-belovedcousin,theDukeofValence,asourlieutenant."

Withtheself-confidencehenowalwayschosetodisplay,Cesareannouncedthatthe"recoveryofthelandsand

lordshipsofImolaandForlì"wouldnowbeachievedwithoutunduedelay.TheRiariofamily,heinsisted,hadbecomesodislikedbytheirsubjectsthattheycouldnotdependupontheresistanceoftheinhabitants,whoweremorethanlikelytoopentheirgatestotheirliberators.Thisconfidentestimate,however,didnottakeintoaccounttheresolutionofGirolamoRiario'swidow,Caterina

Sforza-Riario.

Imolaprovednoobstacle,andthefortresssurrenderedtoCesare'sarmiesonDecember11,afterabrief,almosttokenresistancebyCaterinaSforza-Riario'scastellan,andsixdayslaterAlexanderVI'sgreat-nephewCardinalJuanBorgiareceivedtheoathofobediencefromthecivicauthoritiesonbehalfofthe

pope.Forlì,however,wastoproveagreaterobstacle;thecityitselffellwithoutastrugglebutthefortress,towhichCaterinahadretreated,wasoneofthestrongestinItaly.Whilesheheldoutinsidethecastle,CesareenteredForlìwithhislanceatrestinsilentacknowledgementofhisvictory.FrenchandSwissmercenaries,followedbyhundredsofrapaciouscamp

followers,pouredinthroughthegates,plunderingthecapturedtownsandviolatingtheirwomen.

Cesaremadelittleefforttostemtheviolence:whenthecitizensappealedtohimtocurbhissoldiers,heusedthespuriousexcusethatthetroopswereanswerabletothekingofFranceandhecouldnotcontrolthem.Hedid,however,succeedinplacating

theresponsiblecitizensofbothImolaandForlìbyassuringthemthatifhesurvivedtokeephispromise,hewouldmakeituptothemandensurethatwhenpeacewasfullyrestored,theywouldbere-appointedtoanyofficestheymighthaveundeservedlylost.

Caterinawasaremarkablewoman.TheillegitimatedaughterofDukeGaleazzo

MariaSforza,shewasnowthirty-sixyearsold.Tallandbeautiful,braveandunscrupulous,shewasgiventooutburstsoffury,realorassumed,andwas"muchfearedbyhermen,"whoknewheramongthemselvesastheVirago.Onoccasionsheworefullarmour,adaptedtoconformtoherfullfigure,andwasimmediatelyrecognizedbythefalconperchedonherarm.Shehad

beenmarriedthreetimes,hadhadseverallovers,andhadborneninechildren.

Aftertheassassinationofherhusband,GirolamoRiario,in1488,shehadrunforsheltertothecastleinForlì,leavingherchildrentothemercyofhismurderers,whohadthreatenedtokillthemtoo.Shehadrespondedinacharacteristicmanner,standingonthebattlementsof

thecastle,herskirtraisedinherarmsandshouting:"Fools!Can'tyouseethatIcanmakemore?"

Shewasalsoallegedtobeawitchwithanarcaneknowledgeofmagicalpotions,therecipesforwhichshekeptinasafelyguardedbookandthatwere,infact,potions,salves,bleaches,andallkindsofcosmeticsthatsheusedtopreserveandenhance

herundoubtedbeauty.

Herfirstreactionuponhearingthatthepopehadconfiscatedherstatewastoplanhismurder.OntheeveningofthedaythatCesarehadleftRome,Burchardreported,"acertainTomasinodaForlì,amusicianofthePope,andoneofhiscolleagueswerearrestedandtakentoCastelSant'Angelo."Itemergedthat

TomasinohadjustarrivedinRomecarryinglettersthatpurportedtobeanofferofpeacefromCaterinaandthathehadintended,afterbribingoneoftheVaticanguardstogainentrytothepalace,topresenttothepopeinperson.

"IfthePopehadopenedthem,"continuedBurchard,"hewouldhavebeenpoisonedandwouldhavebeendeadafewhoursor

dayslater."Tomasinoconfessedthat"ithadbeenhisfirmbeliefthat,oncethePopewasdead,thecitiesofImolaandForlìwouldhavebeenliberatedfromthesiegeimposedbytheDukeofValence."Whatexactlyhadbeeninthepackagenooneknewforsure,butitwaswidelyrumouredthatCaterinahadwrappedthelettersinthegraveclothofthecorpseofamanwhohad

recentlydiedoftheplague.HernephewCardinalRaffaelloRiariofledRomeafewdayslater,takingwithhimasmallgroupofservantsandstickingtominorroadstoevadeanypursuers.

Despitethefailureofherdeviousplot,theformidableCaterinastillrefusedtogiveup,andshenowwaitedinhercitadelabovethetownatForlì,determinedtoholdout

aslongasshecouldagainsttheBorgiaadvance.Standingdefiantlyontheramparts,sherebuffedCesarewhenhecameuptwicetotheedgeofthemoattodemandhersurrender,andononeoftheseoccasions,soitwasreported,shealmostcapturedhimbyinducinghimtocomeontothedrawbridgetodiscussthetermsandthengivingordersforthedrawbridgetoberaised.

Bythelastweekoftheyear1499,Cesare'sFrenchtroopshadputtheirartilleryinpositionandtheattackonthecastlebeganinearnest.Wheneverthegunsfellsilentforatime,Caterinacouldbeseenscramblingoverfallenmasonry,sometimesinarmourandwithherswordinhand,atothersdressedasthoughforsomegrandfête,alwaysapparentlyundaunted.

Theoutcome,however,wasneverindoubt.Aftertwoweeksofheavybombardment,withCesare'sgunnersbatteringthecitadelbynightaswellasbyday,thekeepcollapsedandthenalargepartoftheouterwallfellintothemoat.Astormingpartycrossedthemoatonrafts,clamberingupthetumbledstonesandthroughthebreachinthewalls,pouringintothefortressto

hackandstabatthedefenders.OnJanuary14thedefencecollapsed,fourhundredofCaterina'ssoldiersweredead,andCaterinaherselfwastakenprisoner.Theslaughterwastotal:Burchard,whoreportedthatnewsofthevictoryatForlìreachedRomethatnight,wrotethat"themagnificentCountess,widowofCountGirolamoRiario,hasbeencaptured;alltheothershave

beenkilled."Andthepapallegate,thecardinalofMonreale,whowasillwithafeverinUrbino,rashlylefthissickbedtoridetoForlìtocongratulatehiscousinonhisvictory,butheonlygotasfarasFossombrone,wherehecollapsedanddied.

ItwassaidafterwardthatCesareandYvesd'AlègrequarrelledoverwhoshouldtakechargeofCaterina—

d'Alègrehadbeenhercaptor;Cesarewasincommand.IntheendCesarewontheargumentanddraggedthestrugglingwomantohisquarters,wherehewasallegedtohavecommentedthatshehaddefendedhercastlemorevigorouslythanshehadherultimatelywillingbody.TheVenetiandiaristMarinSanudoreportedthattherelationshipbetweenCesareandCaterinawasfar

frombeingmerelythatofcaptorandprisoner:DukeValentino,hewrote,"iskeepingtheladyofForlì...whoisamostbeautifulwoman,daughterofDukeGaleazzoSforzaofMilan,dayandnightinhisroom.And,intheopinionofall,heistakinghispleasure."LouisXII'sgeneral,theMilanesecondottiereGianJacopoTrivulzio,putitmorebluntly:"Oh,goodMadonna,now

youwillnotlackforfucking."

FromForlì,CesareintendedtomarchsouthtoattackPesaro,thestateofhisex-brother-in-law,GiovanniSforza,butbeforehecoulddoso,acourierbroughtthestartlingnewsthatLudovicoSforzahadmanagedtoraisealargeforceofeighty-fivehundredmercenariesandwasabouttomarchonMilanto

reclaimhisduchy.LouisXIInowrequestedthattheFrenchsoldiersservingunderCesareweretobewithdrawn,temporarily,fromhiscommandandrecalledtoLombardy.ThefirststageofCesare'scampaignwasnowatanend,andhedecidedtoreturntoRome,leavingsomeofhistroopstogarrisonhisnewpossessionsandbringinghisfamousprisonerwithhimforincarcerationinthe

dungeonsofCastelSant'Angelo.

ThepopepreparedatumultuouswelcomeinRomeforhisson,andtheentry,whichwastotakeplaceduringCarnival,wouldaddimpressivelytothecustomaryeventsstagedduringthatseason."OnWednesday26February,allthecardinals,ontheorderofHisHoliness,"reportedBurchard,"received

notificationthattheyweretoarrangefortheirhouseholdstobeoutsidethegateofSantaMariadelPopolo"atmiddaytowelcomeCesareonhisreturn.Burchardalsoannouncedthatallambassadors,governmentrepresentatives,andofficialsoftheCuriaweretobethere"inperson,"aswerethecardinalsthemselves.Theyhadalong,coldwait;itwasnotuntilafterthreeo'clock

thatthecrowdsatthegatefinallyheardthedistantsoundsoftrumpetsandpipesthatheraldedCesare'sarrival.

HisentrywasrecordedindetailbyBurchard,whohadarrangedthewholeeventandwasevidentlydispleasedthatnotalloftheparticipantssharedhisowndesirefororder:

Thecardinals,

learningthatDonCesarewasapproaching,mountedtheirmulesandwaitedincustomaryfashionoutsidethegate.Theydoffedtheirhatstowelcomehim,andheinturntookoffhisowncapandgraciouslythankedthem.TheprocessionmadeitswaytotheVatican,

DonCesareridingbetweenCardinalsPallaviciniandOrsini,passingalongtheViaLatatothechurchofSantaMariasopraMinerva...andtheCampodeiFiori.

Aboutahundredpackhorsesinnewblacktrappingsledthecavalcade,walkingingood

order,andbehind,rathermorehaphazardlystrungout,werefiftymore.Iwasunabletoarrangethehouseholdsinanysortofordersincetherewereintheprocessionaboutathousandinfantrysoldiers,SwissandGascons,whomarchedalonginranksoffiveeach

undertheirownseparatestandards,allblazonedwithDonCesare'sarms,andwerenotinterestedinourarrangementsatall.WhenthePope'sinfantryapproached,carryingtheirownbanner,theSwiss,onmeetingthem,demandedthattheyshouldlowerthisstandard.They

absolutelyrefusedtomarchalongwithit,andthisledtoaconsiderableargument,butDonCesarequicklysettledit.DonCesarehadaroundhimahundredgrooms,eachonedressedinacloakofblackvelvetreachingtohisknees,withacollarofsimpleandseveredesign.There

wereanumberoftrumpetersintheprocession,allwearingDonCesare'sarms,andtwoofhisownheralds,butbothtrumpetersandothermusiciansremainedsilentthroughoutthejourney.

TheDukeofBisceglie[AlfonsoofAragon]andDon

JofrèBorgiafollowednextintheprocession,andthenDonCesareBorgiabetweentwocardinals,withthebishopsandambassadorsbehindthemridingtwoabreast.Therewasawrangleoverprecedencebetweentwoambassadors...[who]refusedtotakeanyfurtherpartinthe

ceremonies.TheambassadorsforVenice,Florence,Savoyandotherstateswere,however,present.BehindthemcameVitellozzoVitelli[thecondottiere]inchargeofthemen-at-arms,whomarchedalonginsuchdisorderthattheecclesiasticscouldnottaketheirplacesand

consequentlyforthemostpartalsowithdrew.

TowelcomeDonCesareattheVatican,thePopecametotheroomovertheloggiaoftheentrancetothepalace.WhenDonCesarereachedtheSaladeiParamenti,thePopeclimbedtotheSaladel

Pappagallo,wherehetookhisseatandhadfivebrocadedcushionsarranged,sothatonewasonthethrone,oneunderhisfeet,andtheotherthreeonthefloorinfrontofhim.ThedoorofthePappagallowasthenopened,andDonCesareentered...kneelingbeforeHisHoliness,hemadea

briefspeechinSpanishtothankhimforbeingthoughtworthyofsuchanhonour,andtothisthePoperepliedalsoinSpanish.Forthisreason,Ididnotunderstandwhathesaid.DonCesarenextkissedbothfeetandtherighthandofthePope,andfollowingthisceremony,those

lordswhoalsosodesiredalsokissedHisHoliness'sfoot.

TheCastelSant'Angelowasmostelaboratelydecoratedonthisoccasion.TwobannersweresetuponthelowerroundtoweroverlookingthePonteSant'Angelo,whilstonthehighertower,where

trumpetersplayed,thereweredisplayedfourorfivemorebanners,allwiththepapalarms.Abovethewalls,andbetweeneachturretfacingthebridge,therestoodthreemenarmedfromheadtofootandholdinghalberdsintheirhands,whilstabovethewallsoftheroundtowerwere

fifteensoldiersandasmanyagainwherethetrumpeterswereblowing.Sometwohundredormoreexplosionsinturnshooktheareawithagreatdealofnoise...withreverberationsthatbroughtdownseveralwindowsandshutters....Ihadneverseensuchasplendidnortriumphant

display.

SodelightedwasthepopetowelcomehissonhometoRomeasLordofImolaandForlìthathewasreportedasbeingunabletodecidewhethertolaughorcryandsodidbothalternately.Cesarehad,indeed,achievedmuchandhaddonesoatlittlecosttoeitherhisfather'spurseortothetroopsunderhiscommand.And,

strikingly,inthismomentofrealtriumph,hehadchosendeliberatelytodressbothhimselfandhishouseholdmoremodestlythanhehadinthepast.Heandhisbodyguardmadetheirentryintothecityallclothedinblack,CesareproudlywearinghisgoldencollaroftheOrderofSt.Michael;andinblackagain,heappearedbeforehisfatherintheVaticantomakehisreport.

Thefollowingday,February27,RomewitnessedoneofthehighlightsoftheCarnivalseason,thecavalcadeofelaboratelydecoratedcartsinthePiazzaNavona,anditwaswatchedeagerlybythecrowdswhohadlinedthestreetstoseetheparadeasitmadeitswayfromthepiazzatotheVaticanPalace.ThethemethatyearwastheTriumphsofCaesarandthetableauxdepictedonthe

wagonscelebratedthemilitarysuccessesofJuliusCaesar,thevictoriousgeneralofancientRome,whoappearedonthefinalwagon,crownedwithhisvictor'swreathoflaurels.

Withhisusualrelishforsuchoccasions,Cesareaccompaniedthecavalcadeastridehismagnificentcharger.Thepope,whowaswatchingthedisplayinthe

piazzaofSt.Peter'sfromabalconyintheVaticanPalace,wassoimpressedthatheaskedforanencore,andhissondulyturnedtheprocessionaroundtoallowittopassoncemorebeneathhisfather'swindow.

TheprogrammefortheCarnivalpageant,drawnupbyhumanistsemployedbythepopeandexecutedbyartistsworkingonpapal

projectsintheVatican,wasclearlydesignedtodrawparallelsbetweenCaesarandCesare.AndthemessagewouldnothavebeenmissedbythoseonlookerswhohadwatchedCesare'striumphalentryintothecitythedaybefore,wheretheyhadseenthevictorioussoldiercarryinghisownsword,whichwasengravedwiththelettersCESAR,andthesamelettersembroideredontheclothesof

hispersonalbodyguard.Cesarewassoontoadoptashismotto"autCaesarautnihil"—Caesarornothing—averyambitiousdeclarationofintent.

Chapter16Jubilee

"THEPOPEINTENDSTOMAKE

THEDUKEVALENTINOAGREATMAN

ANDKINGOFITALYIFHECAN"

"ONTHEMORNINGofthefourthSundayofLent,29March,"

BurchardrecordedjustamonthafterCesare'striumphantreturntoRomeasLordofImolaandForlì,"thecardinalsassembledattheaccustomedhourintheSaladelPappagalloandwerethencesummonedmoreprivatelytomeetHisHolinessinhissmallaudiencechamber,where,havingtakentheiradvice,"asthemasterofceremonieseuphemisticallydescribedthe

processwherebythepopeinformedthecollegeofhisintentions,"hedecidedtobestowtheGoldenRoseontheillustriousCesareBorgia,hismuch-lovedson,andtocreatehimCaptain-GeneralandGonfalonier[standard-bearer]oftheHolyRomanChurch."

Theceremonyhad,ofcourse,beenplannedwellinadvance.Directlyafterthe

meeting,thepopewascarriedonhisthroneintoSt.Peter's,withtheGoldenRoseinhislefthand,followedbyCesare,eedressedinacoatofbrocade,thecardinals,andothermembersofthepapalcourt,tojointheambassadors,prelates,andofficialsassembledinthebasilica.InsideCesarewasformallyenrobedwiththeinsigniaofhisnewoffice:thegreatmantleandthegilded

helmetwithitsermineplumescrownedbythefigureofadovethatglistenedwithpearls.Kneelingbeforehisfather,hemadehissolemnvows:

I,CesareBorgiaofFrance,DukeofValence,Gonfalonierandstandard-bearer,Captain-GeneraloftheHolyRomanChurch,dosolemnly

swearfromthisdayforwardsthatIwillfaithfullysubmittoSt.Peter,totheHolyRomanChurchandtoyou,mymostholylord,PopeAlexanderVI,andtoyourcanonicalsuccessors.NeverwillIintend,planorundertaketodepriveyouoflifeorlimb,totakepossessionofyour

personinawickedfashion,tolaymyhandsviolentlyonyouoryoursuccessors,whateverisdoneagainstme,whateverwrongsarepropagatedagainstmeandunderwhateverpretext,andIwillrevealtonoonetheplansthatyouoryoursuccessorsconfideinme.

"Receivethesestandards,"AlexanderVIresponded,givinghissonthebannersofthechurch,"whichhavebeensanctifiedbytheblessingofHeaven,andwillbeterribletotheenemiesofChristendom."HethenhandedtohissonthebatonofcommandandfinallytheGoldenRose.Attheendoftheceremony,thebannerswerehoistedbytwomen-at-arms,andthecongregation

followedthemoutofthebasilicaandintothepiazza:theambassadors,eightflautists,fourdrummers,threeheralds,soldiers,cardinals,andfinallythedukehimself,followedbythefootmenandprelatesandbyCesare'smen,"whomarched,"toBurchard'sobviousdistress,"ininevitabledisorder."

TheproudCesarecould

nowaddthepontificalkeysofSt.PetertotheBorgiabullandtheliliesofFranceonhiscoat-of-arms,buthisambitionstoenlargehismodeststateintheRomagna,whichdependedheavilyonthesupportofLouisXII,had,forthemoment,stalled.Aftertheeuphoria,whichwasnoticedinhisbehaviouratthistime,hefellintooneofthosemoodsofdeepgloom,symptomsofthemanic-

depressive."Iknowthatinmytwenty-sixthyear,"hewasquotedashavingsaid,"Istandindangerofendingmylifeinarmsandbyarms."HealsoaskedtheGermanhumanistLorenzBehaimtocasthishoroscope;anditseemsthattheresultwasnotencouraging.

LudovicoSforza'scampaigntoseizehisduchybackfromtheFrenchhadmetwith

surprisingsuccess.Hehadsucceededinre-conqueringMilan,althoughthegreatSforzacastleremainedinFrenchhands,andonFebruary6hehadmadehistriumphantreturn,welcomedbyhissubjectswithmuchjoy.TheFrencharmyhadwithdrawntoNovara,awaitingtheirchancetoretakethecity,Yvesd'Alègreandhisgunners,whichCesareneededforhis

Romagnacampaign,amongthem.Therewas,however,muchthatthepopeandhissoncoulddotoplanthenextstageoftheircampaign,andmuchmoneytoberaisedtofinanceit.

Theyear1500wasaJubileeyearinRome,whenthousandsofpilgrimswereexpectedtoflocktothecity,where,byvisitingcertainchurches,fasting,praying,

attendingconfessionandCommunion,andgivingalms,theywouldreceivepardonforalltheirsins.ThetraditionoftheChristianJubileeyearwasnotanancientone;foundedbyPopeBonifaceXIIIin1300,asameansofraisingfundstofillthepapalcoffers,ithadinitiallybeenintendedasacelebrationforthebeginningofeachcentury,thoughPaulIIhaddecreedin1470thatit

shouldbeheldeverytwenty-fiveyears.

BurchardgivesalengthyaccountofthepreparationsmadeinthecityfortheJubilee;provisionforhousingthepilgrims,sweeperstoclearthelitterfromchurchfloors,specialpatrolstopreventtrampsloiteringaroundtheporches,and"largestrongcasks,"addedBurchard,"weretobe

providedforfreewillofferingsnexttotheChapelofSt.AndrewinSt.Peter's,andtheyweretobeprotectedwiththreedifferentlocksandkeys,onekeytobekeptbytheDatary,asecondbyoneoftheconfessorsandthethirdinanotherofficial'shand."

Inanattempttoattractmorepilgrimsthanusual,AlexanderVIannouncedthatforthe1500Jubilee,theHoly

DoorofSt.Peter'swouldbereopened.Thisdoor,whichhadlongbeenwalledup,wasbytraditiontheGoldenGateofJerusalem,throughwhichChristhimselfhadenteredthecityonPalmSunday.IthadreputedlybeenbroughttoRomebyEmperorVespasianaftertheRomanconquestoftheJewishcapitalin70A.D.,anditwaswidelybelievedthatanysinnerwhowalkedthroughit,evenamurderer,

wouldhavehissinsforgiven.

Accordingly,onDecember24,1499,hugecrowdsassembledinthepiazzainfrontofSt.Peter'stowatchtheceremonialopeningoftheHolyDoor.Thepopearrivedamidmuchfanfareandcelebration,and,accordingtoBurchard,hewas"handedanordinaryworkman'shammer"byoneofthebuilders,whohadspentseveraldays

chisellingawayattheHolyDoorfrominsidethebasilicatoweakenit.Thepope"gavethreeormoreblows"tothewall,thuscreatingasmallopening,beforeretiringtohispapalchairafewyardsawaytowatchtheworkmendemolishingtherest."Onthistasktheyspenthalfanhour,duringwhichtimeourchoirsangcontinually,"themasterofceremoniesreported.

AlexanderVI,dressedinfullpontificalrobesandwearingthetripletiara,ledtheceremonialprocessionthroughtheHolyDoorintoSt.Peter's,holdingacandleinhislefthandandBurchard'scolleaguesupportinghisrightelbow,followedbythecardinalsandthepapalcourt(thebuildersthemselveshadbeenforbidden,"underpenaltyoflosingtheirheads,"togothroughthedoorway

whiletheyweredemolishingit).

Theexpectedinfluxofpilgrimsdidindeedmaterialize,andsodidtheirofferings.TheFlorentinediaristLucaLanduccireportedlargenumbersofnortherners,manyfromacrosstheAlps,passingthroughthecityontheirwaysouthtotheJubilee.Fromtheirlodgingsinoneof

Rome'smanyinnsandtavernsor,morecheaply,inthehospicesthatallChristiannationsmaintainedinthecity,thepilgrimsthrongedthestreetsofthecapitaloftheirfaithastheywalkedfromchurchtochurch,seeingandbelievinginthesightsandsitesofChristianlegend.

AtSantaMariaMaggioretheyworshippedatthemangerthathadoncebeen

Christ'sowncribinthestableatBethlehem;atSanGiovanniinLateranotheymarvelledattheswaddlingclothesthathadwrappedthebabyJesusandthetablewhereheandhisapostleshadeatentheirLastSupper;here,too,theycouldclimbthestairsofPontiusPilate'shouseinJerusalem,following,ontheirknees,inthefootstepsofChristhimself.AtSt.Peter'sthey

couldseethelancethathadpiercedChrist'sbodyduringtheCrucifixion,amuch-treasuredrelicthatthebasilicahadacquiredasrecentlyas1492,thoughBurchardrecordedthatseveralcardinalshadnotedthatthesamelancecouldalsobeseeninbothParisandNuremberg.

Romewas,indubitably,thecitywhereSt.PeterandSt.

Paulhadpreachedanddiedfortheirfaith;thegreatbasilicasofSt.Peter'sandSanPaolofuorileMuramarkedtheirgraves.AndtheheadsofthesegreatleadersoftheearlyChurchcouldbeseenbythepilgrims,atcertainhours,inachapelinSanGiovanniinLaterano;asonepilgrimnotedwithawe,they"stillhavetheirflesh,colourandbeardsasiftheywerestillalive."

Thefaithful,however,alsoprovidedeasypickingsforthepickpocketsandcutpurseswhoroamedthecitystreets.BurchardreportedthatonApril10,1500,sixmenwerehungonthegallowsforthecrimeofrobbingpilgrims.OnMay27,theeveoftheFeastoftheAscension,eighteenmorewerehungonthePonteSant'Angelo,wheretheywouldhavebeenhideouslyvisibletoallthosecrossing

theTiberontheirwaytoSt.Peter'stowalkthroughtheHolyDoorbeforesayingtheirprayersintheveneratedbasilicaandleavingtheirofferingsinthecasksprovided.ThefirsttobehungwasadoctorfromthehospitalatSanGiovanniinLaterano,whohadbeeninthehabitofleavinghiswardseachmorning,armedwithacrossbow,tokillandrobanyonehefound;amongthe

otherswereabandofhighwaymenwhohadattackedagroupoftravellersinthehillsoutsideViterbo.

Duringthespring,newsarrivedinRomethatmusthavedonemuchtoliftthespiritsofthepopeandhisson.OnApril10LouisXIIhadcelebratedagreatvictoryoverLudovicoSforzaatNovara,aftertheSwissmercenariesfightingfor

LudovicorefusedtousetheirarmsagainsttheFrench.Landuccireportedthattwelvethousandweredead.LudovicohimselfhadbeencapturedandtakentoFrance;thefateofCardinalAscanioSforzaremainedobscure,butearlyonthemorningofMaundyThursday,April16,acourierarrivedinRomewiththenewsthathehadbeenfoundinacastlenearPiacenza,wherehehadfled

withsixhundredhorsemenandvaluablesworth200,000ducats.He,too,wasnowaprisoner,andthepope,accordingtoBurchard,wassopleasedwiththenewsthathetippedthecourier100ducats.

Farfromofferinghelp,orevensupport,tohiserstwhilefriendinthishourofneed,AlexanderVItooktheopportunitytoseizeAscanio's

valuablecollectionofartworksandjewels,includingasetoftwelvesilver-giltstatuesoftheapostles;ittookfourhoursforthecarts,operatinginsecretunderthecoverofdarkness,totransportthegoodsfromthecardinal'spalacetotheVatican.

Meanwhile,Cesarewasbeginningtoenjoyhisenforcedrestfromthe

battlefield;andwhilehiswifeCharlotted'Albret,whohadgivenbirthtohisdaughter,remainedinFrance,Cesarespentmuchofhistimewithhismistress,anextremelyprettyandentertainingyoungwoman,Fiammettade'Michelis,whoseaccomplishmentsandcomplaisanceasacortigianahadenabledhertobuythreehousesinRomeaswellasacountryhouseoutsidethecity

walls.Cultivatedaswellasdesirable,shespokeLatin,knewpagesofOvidandPetrarchbyheart,sangwell,andplayedthelyre;herhandsomeloverwasoftentobeseenonhiswaytoandfromherhousenearthePiazzaNavona.

Lucrezia,however,waslesshappy,herenjoymentofthewarmthofearlysummermarredbyincreasingfriction

betweenherhusband,AlfonsoofAragon,andherfatherandbrother,whosealliancewithFrancewasprovingaproblemforbothAlfonsoandhissisterSancia.WhenthenewsspreadaroundRomethataBurgundianhadchallengedaFrenchmantoaduel,tosettleanargumentoverabanner,Cesaretried,unsuccessfully,tobribetheBurgundiantowithdraw:"Hewouldprefer,"sotherumour

went,"tohavelost20,000ducatsratherthanseeaFrenchmanbeaten."Sancia,ontheotherhand,madeapointofdressingherownsquiresintheBurgundiancolours,toshowwhereherloyaltieslay.

Cesarewascarefulnottopubliclydisplayanysignofthegrowingfrictionbetweenhimselfandhisbrother-in-law.Whenthetwomenwere

seentogether,theyappearedtobeonperfectlyamicableterms,ridingaboutthecityinevidentamity.YettherewasnoticedinCesare'smanneramorethanusualimpatience,"asthoughhewereanxiousforimportantactionstounfold."

Cesarealsoappearedinpublicduringthissummerof1500honinghisskillsasabullfighter.OnJune24,the

FeastofSt.JohntheBaptist,hedemonstratedhisprowesswiththeswordinthepiazzaofSt.Peter's,whichhadbeencordonedofftopreventthebullsfromescaping.Onanotheroccasion,sotheVenetianenvoyPaoloCapelloreported,hekilled"sevenbulls,fightingonhorsebackintheSpanishstyleandcuttingofftheheadofoneofthemwithhisfirststroke,afeatwhichseemed

greattoallRome."

OnJune29,shortlybeforesunset,thepopehimselfwasluckytoescapewithhislifethankstoanactnotofman,butofGod.Duringanexceptionallyviolentstorm,with"hailstonesthesizeofbroadbeansandanextremelyviolentwind,"reportedBurchard,achimneyintheVaticancollapsed,breakingtwobeamsinanupper

chamberthatbroughtdowntheceilingoftheroombelow,whereAlexanderVIwasindiscussionwithacardinalandoneofhisprivatesecretaries.Thetwomenwerejustclosingthewindows,asthepopehadaskedthemtodo,whentheyheardthethunderouscrashandturnedimmediatelytofindthepapalthronehiddenunderapileofrubble:"Theycriedtotheguards,'ThePopeisdead!

ThePopeisdead!'andthenewsquicklyspreadthroughoutthecity."AlexanderVI,however,wasonlyunconscious;whentheyremovedtheplasterandbricks,theyfoundhimseatedonhisthrone,withtwosmallcutstothehead,twolargeronesonhisrighthand,andanotheronhisrightarm,miraculouslystillalive.Asonechroniclerobserved,thisluckyescape"wasseenasa

greatsignandomenforthePope."

Sometwoweekslater,ontheeveningofJuly15,1500,AlfonsoofAragonwenttotheVaticantodinewiththepope;afterwhatseemstohavebeenapleasantevening,hetookhisleaveofhisfellowgueststowalktheshortdistancehometothepalaceofSantaMariainPorticojustacrossthepiazzaofSt.

Peter's,accompaniedbyagentlemanofhishousehold,TomasoAlbanese,andagroom.Astheypassedbythebasilica,anumberofmen,apparentlysleepingontheflightofgreatceremonialsteps,rousedfromtheir"slumbers,"rosetotheirfeet,andsuddenlyfelluponAlfonso,stabbinghimwiththeirdaggers.Theywouldhavecarriedhimofftotheirtetheredhorseshadnothis

companionsrushedtohisaidanddraggedhimawaytothesafetyoftheVatican.

Insidethepalace,Lucreziafaintedatthesightofherwoundedhusband.Bythelightofthetapersandcandles,itwassooncleartoallthatAlfonso'sinjurieswereserious;hehaddeepgashestohisheadandhisshoulder,"eitheroneofwhichcouldprovemortal,"asthe

Florentineambassadorreported.ThePopehadhimtakentooneofhisownroomsintheBorgiaapartments,wherehiswoundsweredressed.Herecoveredslowly,underthewatchfuleyeofadoctorsenttohimbythekingofNaplesandthecarefulnursingofLucreziaandSancia,hisroomguardedbysoldiersandhisfoodpreparedbyhislovingwife,fearfulofanother

attemptonhislife.

ItwasgenerallysupposedthattheinstigatoroftheattackwasCesareBorgia.Thepopewasinclinedtoagree:atleast,hetoldtheVenetianambassadorthatifCesarehad,indeed,beenresponsiblefortheattack,Alfonsothoroughlydeservedit.Alfonsohimselfclearlyhadnodoubtsastowhowasresponsible,andhewasonly

tooreadytoavengethisviciousattackonhisperson.WhenhecaughtsightofCesareonedayinthegardensbelowhisbedroomwindow,hepickedupacrossbowandshotaboltthatonlynarrowlymisseditstarget.

OnAugust18Alfonso,stillinbedbutmuchrecovered,togetherwithhiswifeandhissister,wasenjoyingthecompanyofhisuncleandthe

Neapolitanambassador,whenapartyofarmedmen,ledbyMigueldeCorella,Cesare'strustedSpanishlieutenantandknownbysomeashis"executioner,"rushedintotheroom,claimingthattheyhadorderstoarrestthevisitors.Therehadbeenaplot,Corellaannounced:CesareBorgia'slifehadbeenthreatened.LucreziaandSanciaprotested—theythemselveshadnotbeen

warnedofanysuchplot;theofficermusthavewrittenauthoritybeforetheycouldallowanymemberoftheirpatient'shouseholdtobetakenaway.

Possiblyhehadmistakenhisorders,Corellareplied;andhesuggestedthatthetwoladiesshouldgotothepopeandaskhimtoconfirmthattheenvoywastobearrested.Sothetwoyoungwomenleft

forthepope'sapartments;andwhentheyreturned,theyfoundthedoorofAlfonso'sroomlockedagainstthem.Therehadbeenanaccident,theyweretold;thedukehadtrippedandfallen;hiswoundshadreopened;regrettablyhewasdead.Burchardreported,succinctly,thathehadbeen"strangledinhisbed."

Alfonsowasburiedthat

nightintheChurchofSantaMariadellaFebbre;anditwasgivenoutthathehadbeenthevictimofadreadfulplot,detailsofwhichwouldbepublishedlater.Naturally,theyneverwere.Though,withinashorttime,accordingtoFerdinandGregorovius,themurderwasnolongeramysterysinceCesare,DukeofValence,hadopenlydeclaredthathehadkilledhisbrother-in-lawbecausehis

ownlifehadbeenthreatenedbyAlfonso.

LucrezialeftRomeafewdayslater,accompaniedbyjustsixriders,boundforhercastleatNepi.ThiscastlehadbeenafavouriteresidenceofAlexanderVIwhilehewasacardinal,anditwashewhohadgiventhetownitsforbiddingaspectwhenhebuiltanewcircuitofwallstofortifythisstrategic

strongholdontheViaCassia,sometwenty-fivemilesnorthofRome,thatguardedoneofthemainapproachestothecity.Oncepope,hehadgiventhetowntoCardinalAscanioSforzaingratitudeforSforza'ssupportintheconclave,butafterthecardinal'sflightfromRometheprevioussummer,hehadrescindedthegift,bestowingitinsteadonhisdaughter.InFebruary1500thefondand

indulgentfatherhadalsospent24,000ducatsonthetownofSermoneta,withitscastlesandlandtothesouthofRome,forhisbelovedLucreziatoaddtoherownershipofSpoletoandNepi.

LucreziaspentfourquietmonthssecludedatNepiwithherbabyboy,Rodrigo."Thereasonforthisjourney,"explainedBurchard,"wasto

findsomeconsolationordistractionfromtheanguishandshockshehasfeltsincethedeathofherhusband,Alfonso."HermiserywasevidentatthebottomofthelettersshewrotetoherhouseholdinRome,whereshesignedherself"LaInfelicissima"(mostunhappywoman)andshespentlargesumsofmoneyarrangingforprayerstobesaidforthesoulofhermurderedhusbandand

toassuageherowngrief.

ShehadhadcausetofeelisolatedinRome.Herformerfriendswerewaryand,inthewordsoftheMantuanenvoy,"neitherherbrothernorherfathercouldforgiveherfortheloveshehadborneherhusband."AccordingtothefancifulaccountoftheVenetianambassadorinRome,Lucreziahad"drunksodeeplyatthespringof

sorrow"uponthemurderofherhusband,that"inasinglenightshehadbecomemorelikeawomanthreetimesherage,anditwasclearthatshewouldneverrecoverheryouthfulbeauty."

OnedayinlateAugust,shortlyafterAlfonso'sassassination,BarondeTransarrivedinRome,onceagainactingasenvoyforLouisXIIwithamessageforCesare.

Hestoppedataninnjustoutsidethecitywallsandsoonafterward,accordingtoBurchard,"therecameacertainhorseman,maskedandridingfast,whodismountedattheinnand,keepingonhismask,whichhedidnotlower,embracedMonsieurdeTransandspokewithhim.Afterashortwhilethemaskedmanreturnedtothecity.TheysayitwasDukeValentino."

NowthatLouisXIIwassecureinhispossessionofMilan,hisattentionhadturnedtohisnextobjective—thecaptureofNaples—forwhichheneededthehelpofbothAlexanderVIandhisson.DeTranshadbroughtwithhimtoRomealetterfromtheFrenchkingaskingthepopeforpoliticalsupportfortheplannedconquestofNaples,unhinderedpassageforhisarmiesthroughthe

PapalStates,andrecognitionastherightfulking;fromCesareherequiredtheduke'sundoubtedmilitaryskillsinthecampaign.Inreturn,Cesarewastobeofferedalargeforceofinfantryandlancers,underthecommandonceagainofYvesd'Alègre,forthenextstageofhisconquestoftheRomagna.

AstheMantuanenvoyreportedominously,"The

PopeintendstomaketheDukeValentinoagreatmanandKingofItalyifhecan.""Iamnotdreaming,"headded,"mybrainsarenotdisordered,Iwillsaynomore."Cesarehadalreadyenlistedthehelpofvariouscondottieriandwasrunningoutofmoneytopaythem.Hisfatherhaddonewhathecouldtohelphim,goingsofarastodivertnotonlysomeofthefundshehad

accumulatedtofinanceacrusadeagainsttheTurks,butalsomuchofthemoneyreceivedfrompilgrimsinRomefortheJubilee.ItwastoaugmentthesefundsthatAlexanderVIdecidedtocreatealargenumberofcardinals,imposingafeeforeachnomination.

Accordingly,onSeptember18,afterthecardinalshadreturnedfromtheirsummer

retreatintheirvillasinthehillsoutsideRome,AlexanderVIsummonedthemtoasecretconsistorytodiscussthedistributionofthenewredhats.ButnotenoughmembersofthesacredcollegeturnedupattheVaticanthatmorning;thecardinalofLisbonwrotetoapologizebuthewasill;thecardinalofSienaalsoapologizedbuthewasbedriddenwithgout.Aweek

laterthepopetriedagain;thistimetheconsistorytookplace,butsuchwastheoppositiontohisplanthatnodecisioncouldbetaken.

Meanwhile,theTurkishthreattoVenicehadprovidedAlexanderVIwiththeleverheneededtoenlisttheaidofthatcity'sgovernmenttoCesare'scampaignintheRomagna.WithVenetiancoloniesontheDalmatian

coastfallinglikeninepinstothemightyTurkishnavy,twoenvoyshadbeendispatchedtoRomeinSeptembertoseekthepope'shelp.

AlexanderVIreceivedthemgraciouslyandproceededtoadmonishthemfortheirpastbehaviour."ThegovernmentofVenicehasuntilnowactedungratefullytowardsHisHoliness,"hesaid,accordingtotheFlorentine

ambassador'sreportoftheconversation,and"iftheywishtopleaseHisHolinesstheymustactdifferentlyin[the]future.TheyansweredthattheywishedtodoanythingforHisHoliness,andtoembracetheDukeValentinoandconsiderhimtheirgoodson,andtogivehimacondottaonthemostgeneroustermsand,asforRiminiandFaenza,theywouldbeperfectlywillingfor

himtocarryouthisintentionsinthoseplaces.ThePopeansweredthathewantednomoreoftheirfinewords—hehadhadquiteenoughofthesealready—nowhewanteddeeds."

AlexanderVIwasgivenhiswish;thegovernmentofVenicecreatedCesareanhereditarygentiluomoofthecityandpresentedhimwithapalacethereinorderto

maintainthissignalhonour.OnSeptember26,1500,thedayafterthesecondconsistoryhadfailedtoagreeonthepromotionofthenewcardinals,theVenetianambassadorfeltabletoreportthat"theorderhasnowbeengiventhatDukeValentinowillleavetwoorthreedaysafterthecardinalshavereceivedtheirhats,"morespecifically"accordingtowhattheastrologerconcludes

willbeafavourablemoment."

TwodayslaterAlexanderVItriedathirdtimetopersuadethecollegetoagreetothecreationofthenewredhats;onthisoccasionfifteencardinalsarrivedattheVaticananddid,finally,agreeformallytothepromotionofthirteennewcolleagues.Guicciardiniwastoremark,someyearslater,

thatthesecardinalswere"selectednotamongstthemostworthybutamongstthosewhoofferedhim[thepope]thehighestprice."Burchardlistedtheirnamesandthefeesthathadbeenlevieduponthevalueoftheirbenefices,whichamountedtotheenormoussumof160,000ducats.

Whenthenamesweremadepublic,itwascleartoallthat

mosthadcloselinkstoCesareandhisfather:Amanieud'AlbretwasCesare'sbrother-in-lawandhishathadbeenpromisedaspartofthecontractforhismarriagetoCharlotte;PedroLuisBorgiawashiscousin;FranciscoBorgiaandJaimeSerra,whohadbeentutortohisbrother,themurderedJuan,weremoredistantrelations;JuanVerawasCesare'sowntutor;Pedro

IsvalieswasthegovernorofRome;LudovicoPodocatharowasAlexanderVI'spersonalphysician;GianbattistaFerrariwasdatarytothepope;andsoon.

JustsixofthenewcardinalswereinRomewhentheconsistoryagreedtotheirpromotion,andtheyweresummonedimmediatelytotheVaticantoawaittheendofthemeeting."There,once

thedoorswereopen,theykissedthePope'sfoot,thenhishandandhismouth,"announcedBurchard,andthecardinals"escortedthemtotheDukeofValence'srooms,whichareabovetheSaladelPappagallo."AstheVenetianambassadorreported,"TheywenttotheDuke,offeringthemselvestohim,theydinedwithhim,settledtheiraccountsandsworetheirloyaltytohim."

Itwaswithunusualhaste,justfourdayslateronOctober2,thatthesesixmenattendedaceremonyinSt.Peter'sduringwhichthepopesolemnlygaveeachonehiscardinal'shat,withitsdistinctivehangingtassels.LaterthatdayCesareleftRometojoinhisarmymarchingnorthuptheViaFlaminiatowardtheRomagna.

Chapter17DukeoftheRomagna

"FROMALLPARTSCOMEREPORTS

OFTHEILLINTENTIONSOFTHEPOPEANDTHE

DUKE"

CESARERODEOUTOFROMEonOctober2,1500,withanentourageofyoungRoman

nobles,papalbureaucratstomantheadministrationofhisnewstate,andmembersofhishousehold,includinghissecretary,histreasurer,andhisdoctor,theever-presentGasparTorella.AfterabriefdetourtovisitthegrievingLucreziaatNepi,hejoinedhisformidablearmyofovertenthousandmen,whohadnowreachedthefoothillsoftheApennines.

MarchingunderCesare'scommandweresomeofthefinestcondottiericaptainsavailable;or,asMachiavelliputit,"nearlyalltheprofessionalsoldiersinItaly."InadditiontotheFrenchmanYvesd'Alègreandhisthreehundredlancers,andtheSpaniardMigueldeCorella,Cesare's"executioner,"wereGianpaoloBaglioni,LordofPerugia;PaoloOrsini,onceacaptaininFlorence'sarmies;

andVitellozzoVitelli,thefamousartilleryexpertwhosefamilyruledthepapalfiefofCittàdiCastello.

AmongthetroopswastheFlorentineartistPietroTorrigiano,famousforhavingbrokenthenoseofhisfellowstudentMichelangelo:"MoneybeingofferedintheserviceofDukeValentino,"asGiorgioVasarirecorded,he"changedhimselfina

momentfromasculptortoasoldier,"thoughhewaslatertoreturntostone-cuttingandtravelledtoEngland,wherehecreatedthetombofKingHenryVIIinWestminsterAbbey,whichhasbeenrightlydescribedasEngland'sgreatestmemorialoftheItalianRenaissance.

Cesare'sobjective,beforewinterclosedinandthefightingseasonended,wasto

consolidatehiscontroloftheViaEmiliabytakingFaenza,astronglyfortifiedcitybetweenForlìandImola,andtoextendthestatesouthtotheAdriaticcoastwithRiminiandPesaro,twotownssouthofCesena.ThegoingwasslowonthelongmarchnorthfromRome,themudthickontheroad;butCesarewasinnohurrytocommithimselftoexpensivemilitaryaction,hopingthattheagents

hehadinfiltratedintothesetownswouldpersuadetheexcommunicatedvicarstosurrenderwithoutafight.

InRiminithedespisedPandolfoMalatesta,arrogantgrandsonofthefamouscondottiereSigismondoMalatesta,madelittletrouble.HehandedoverthekeysofhiscitytoCesare'srepresentative,thebishopofIsernia,beforetakingaboat

toVenice,muchtothereliefofhissubjects,whohadfailedintheirattempttoremovehimjusttwoyearspreviously.ItprovedalmostaseasytoconvinceGiovanniSforzatoleavePesaro.Onhearingthathiserstwhilebrother-in-law'stroopswerecrossingtheApenninesandapproachingthecity,Giovanni,whohadalreadybeenhumiliatedbytheBorgiasoncebefore,fledand,

justafewdaysafteracceptingthekeysofRimini,thebishopofIserniadidthesameinPesaro.

CesareenteredthecityofPesaroonOctober27,hismen-at-armscladinhispersonallivery,whichhadbeenembroideredwithanewemblem,theseven-headedHydra,themythicalbeastthatwhenoneheadwascutoffcouldgrowanother—an

appropriatemetaphorforCesare'smilitaryambitions.

TheconquestofRiminiandPesaroachievedwithsolittletroubleandexpense,Cesarewasinanaccommodatingmood,exercisingtheingratiatingcharmthathecouldsummonatwillwhenrequired.HeapologizedtotheDukeofFerrara'sambassadorwith"muchamiability"fornothaving

seenhimthedaybeforewhentheenvoyhadcalledathisheadquarters.Buthehadhadsomuchtodo;alsohehadbeentroubledbyapainfululcerinhisgroin.

"TheDuke'sdailylifeisasfollows,"theambassadorcontinued."Hegoestobedbetweenthreeandfiveo'clockinthemorningandconsequentlymiddayishisdawn."Despitehisunusual

hours,however,itwasclearthatCesareworkedhardandhadearnedtherespectofhiscaptains."Heisconsideredbraveandstrongandgenerousandsetsgreatstorebystraightforwardmen;butheishardinrevengeasIhaveoftenbeentold,"addedtheenvoy."Heisthirstingforfameandseemsmoreeagertoseizestatesthantoadministerthem."

HavingmadeaquicksurveyofPesaroandinstructingoneoftheartistsinhisentouragetomakeapaintingofthecitadeltosendtohisfatherinRome,Cesaresetoutalongthecoastforthetwenty-mileridetoRimini,wherehemadehisceremonialentryonOctober30.

CesarenowmovednorthalongtheViaEmiliatowardFaenza,which,ashehad

informedtheFerrareseambassadorafewdaysearlier,hefearedwouldnotprovesostraightforwardaseitherRiminiorPesaro;andhewasright.Here,unlikesomanyoftheotherfiefsintheRomagna,thedynasticlords,theManfredi,werewelllikedandrespectedbythepeople.AconspiracytodelivertheplaceovertoCesarewasdiscoveredandtheplottersarrested:Cesarewasforcedto

concludethathefacedalongsiege.

Afteraheavybombardmentofthetown,anassaultwasattemptedbutfailed.AFerraresechroniclerreportedthenewsofthisunprecedenteddefeatwithill-concealedjubilation."OnSaturday28NovembernewsarrivedinFerrarathatthemenofDukeValentino,bastardsonofthePope,had

cometoFaenzawithartilleryandmanyFrenchmeninordertoevicttheLordofFaenzabutthemenofthatlandkilledmanyoftheDuke'smen,andwoundedmanymore,whichwasamarvel,"particularly,asthechroniclerexplained,"becausehehadalreadyacquiredthelordshipsofRimini,Pesaro,Cesena,ForlìandImolabytricksandtreacheryanddrivenoutthoseunfortunaterulers."

Cesare'shopesofaquicksurrenderhadbeenmetwithbravedefiance.TowardtheendofNovember,withsnowalreadylyingheavyontheground,hisstoresalmostexhausted,andhisirregularlypaidmercenariesdesertingonebyoneasthefightingseasoncametoanend,CesaredecidedtowithdrawhismentoForlì,leavingasmallforceoutsideFaenzatocontinuetheblockadeofthe

town.

HespentChristmasthatyearatCesena,establishingtheadministrationofhisnewstateandorderingthestrengtheningofthefortificationsoftheconqueredterritories.HealsogainedthesupportofthepeopleoftheRomagnabysuchgesturesascontributinggenerouslytothepeasantsinthecountrysidesoasto

compensatethemforthedamagedonetotheirfieldsandwoodsduringtherecentcampaigns.

Atfirsthewasinsuchseclusionthathewasrarelyseenoutsidethepalaceinwhichhehadestablishedhisheadquarters,issuingtheorderscalculatedtogainhimthegoodopinionofthepeople,hanginglootersandmenwhostoleorrefusedto

payafairpriceforprovisions.Hethengainedareputationasaprankster,goingaboutmasked,swordinhand,spatteringpedestrianswithmudordemonstratinghisstrengthinwrestlingcontests,hisabilitytooutpaceallcomersinrunningraces,orhisskillatthequintana,ajoustinggameinwhichhorsemengallopedatafigureofaTurk,gainingpointsdependinguponthepartof

thedummytheystruck.Healsoexcelledatthegiostraall'anello(theringgame),inwhichridersarmedwithlanceschargedataringstuckonapoleinanattempttoremoveit.

InthemiddleofFebruary1501,Cesareindulgedinanotherofhispleasures,thepursuitandconquestofabeautifulyounglady,thepleasurenodoubtheightened

bytheconsiderablerisksinvolved.TheladyinquestionwasDoroteaMalatesta,thetwenty-three-year-oldsisterofPandolfoMalatestaandbrideofGiambattistaCaracciolo,acaptainintheVenetianarmy.ShewasonherwayfromUrbinotoVenice,whereshewastojoinherhusband,andCesarehadbeenaskedbytheVenetiangovernmenttoprovideanescortforher

partywhileitwastravellinguptheViaEmilia.SoonaftertheescorthadseenhersafelyintoVenetianterritory,shewaswaylaid,lateintheafternoon,byagangoftenhorsemenarmedwithcrossbows,whocarriedheroff,afterwoundingseveralofthemeninherentourage.ThemayorofRavenna,whohadbeentoldtokeepaneyeonDorotea,gaveacolourfulaccountofwhathappenedto

herandherfemalecompanionaftertheywerecarriedoff.

Thetwowomen,"protestingandlamentinggreatly,theirhairdishevelled,"weretakenbackacrossthebordertoavillagenearCesena,wherethemenorderedDoroteatodismountandledherintoacottage,wherethey"demandedthefiretobelitandthesupperprepared."

WhenDoroteaaskedwhereshewasbeingtaken,theyanswered,"Donotseektoknow;youareingoodhandsandyouwillbegoingtobetterones,whereyouareawaitedwithhighdesire."Whenshetriedtofindouttheidentityofherkidnapper,theyreplied:"Enough,mylady,donotseektoknowmore."Themayorcontinued:"Andtheysether,weepingandgroaning,downtoeat.

Shedidnotwantfood,sotheythreatenedher,andshewasforcedtotakeanegg;thenshewasputtosleepwithhercompanionandthepeasant'swife,andshewasnotmolestedthatnight."Herdestination,accordingtothemayor,wasForlì.

Cesarewasimmediatelysuspectedofthekidnapping.TheVenetianauthoritiesprotestedloudlytothepapal

legateandtotheFrenchambassadorinVeniceabouttheduke'ssupposedinvolvementintheaffair;theabductionof"oneofthemostbeautifulandnotableladiesinItaly"wasahorriblecrime,tobe"abominatedanddetested."

ThegovernmentalsosentarepresentativetoCesaretocomplainofthecrimeandtodemandDorotea'srelease.

Cesaredeniedallknowledgeoftheabduction,andwhentheVenetianagent—whohadbeeninstructedtomakenosalutationtohim—wasreceivedbyCesare,hewasarrogantlyrebuffed.Cesareassuredthemanthathehad"nolackofwomen"anddidnotneedtoabductthem.Hedeclared,moreover,thatthecrimehadbeencommittedbyoneofhisSpanishofficers,DiegoRamires,andthatit

washeandDoroteawhohadbeenlovers.Indeed,claimedCesare,DiegoRamireshadshownhimsomeshirtsthatDoroteahadgivenhim.

TheVenetiangovernmentwasnotaloneinprotestingatCesare'sguilt.ThekingofFrancealsocomplained;sodidFrancescoGonzaga,theMarquisofMantua,onbehalfofhissister,theDuchessofUrbino,inwhosecare

Doroteahadbeenbeforehermarriage.ButCesarebrushedasideallsuchprotests,andasthedaysandweekspassed,whiletherewererumoursthatDoroteawasbeingkeptincaptivityagainstherwill,perhapsinthecastleofForlì,nothingreliablewasheardofherforthemoment.Shereappeared,however,inFebruary1504,atFaenzaafteralongsojourninaconvent.

ItwascertainlythecasethatRamireswassuspectedbymanyinItalyofbeingguiltyofthecrime.Indeed,onecontemporarychronicler,GiulianoFantaguzzi,wroteunequivocallythatDoroteawas"attackedandabductedbyMesserDiegoRamiro,soldierofDukeValentinoandformerlycourtieroftheDukeofUrbino."

Others,however,were

certainCesarewasguilty.Eventhepopebelievedthathissonmightwellhavecommittedthe"horridanddetestablecrime."HeinformedtheVenetianambassadorinRome:"Idonotknowwhatpunishmentwhoeverdiditdeserves,"addingthat"iftheDukehasdoneit,hehaslosthismind."HeshowedtheenvoyaletterwrittentoCesaredemandingthattheculpritbeseverely

punished;andhemaintainedthatwhentheabductiontookplace,hissonhadbeeninImola,notForlì.Despitehis"boldwords,"however,thepopeshowedhowdeeplytheaffair"hadupsethim."

Meanwhile,FaenzawasholdingoutagainstthesiegeofCesare'sarmies,"supplied,"astheFerraresechroniclerexplained,"withvictualsthankstothecovert

assistanceofFlorence,BolognaandotherItalianpowers."CesarehadresumedhisattackonthecityattheendofJanuary:"Yvesd'Alègrewith1,000horses,"reportedthechronicler,"passedthroughReggioEmiliatohelpDukeValentinowhohasdecidedtotakeFaenzabyforce."Thechronicleralsonotedlargequantities,"10,000theysay"ofFrenchcavalry,foot

soldiers,lancers,andartillerymovingthroughtheduchyofFerrarainMarchandearlyApril.

CesarefinallytookFaenzaduringtheweekfollowingEaster,whichfellonApril11thatyear.Asmanyastwothousandwerekilled;manymorewerewounded.Cesarelostsevenhundredofhisownmenandseveralofhiscaptains,onthefirstdayof

thebattle.InRomeAlexanderVIfailedtoattendMassintheSistineChapelonEasterSaturday—"itwassaid,"reportedBurchard,"thatthePopehadnotcomebecauseofarumourthatmanyoftheDuke'ssoldiershavebeenkilledoutsideFaenza."Butafewdayslater,hisworrieseasedwhennewsarrivedthatthecityhadfinallyfallen,thatAstorreManfredi,theyoungLordofFaenza,had

surrendered,andthatFaenzahadpaid40,000ducatstoCesaretoavoidbeingsacked.

Thenews,whichhadarrivedinRomeonApril26,wasgreetedwithgreatexcitement.WhilethecannonsofCastelSant'Angeloroaredfromeighto'clockthateveninguntillightdawnedthenextday,Jofrèrodethroughthestreetscelebratinghis

brother'svictory,accompaniedbyCarloOrsiniandalargegroupofrevellers,shouting,"TheDuke!TheDuke!Orsini!Orsini!"

Cesare,meanwhile,hadwastedlittletimeoncelebrations.JustdaysafterhisvictoryatFaenza,hehadseizedtheopportunitytoconsolidatehisholdontheareabymarchingsometenmilesuptheViaEmiliato

takeCastelBolognese.ThisstrategicoutpostbelongedtoBologna,andCesare'smovehadcaughtGiovanniBentivoglio,therulerofthecity,bysurprise.Inordertoavoidadirectattack,hewasforcedintoanalliancewithCesare,recognizinghispossessionofCastelBologneseandagreeingtoprovidehimwithahundredsoldiers,whichweretobemaintainedatBologna's

expense,inreturnfortheguaranteeofhissecurity.

AsLordofImola,CastelBolognese,Faenza,Forlì,Cesena,Rimini,andPesaro,Cesarewasnowtherulerofasubstantialstatethatstretchedseventy-fivemilesdowntheViaEmiliafromBolognatotheAdriaticcoast.AndinMayhisfather,thepope,investedhimwiththetitleofLordoftheRomagna.Hehad

achievedhisstatedgoalascaptain-generalofthechurchofreturningthefiefsthathadbelongedtotheexcommunicatedvicarstopapalrule,andslightlyexceededhismandatewiththecaptureofCastelBolognese.

AlexanderVInoworderedhissontoreturntoRome.Itwassoonclear,however,thatCesarehadassumedanew

importanceinhisowneyes.Actingindependentlyofthepope,andinawaythatwasdirectlycontrarytohisfather'swishes,CesarenowturnedhisattentiontoFlorence.Hewasawareoftheneedforspeed:Yvesd'AlègreandtheotherFrenchtroopswouldsoonbeobligedtoleavehimtojointheFrencharmythatwasmassingatParmaforLouisXII'scampaignagainst

Naples.

Florence'srepublicangovernmentwasseriouslyalarmed."FromallpartscomereportsoftheillintentionsofthePopeandtheDuke,whointendtoattackusandchangeourconstitution,"theFlorentinerepresentativeinFrance,Machiavelli,wastold.TheFlorentineswereonlytooawarethatCesarewouldhave"suchconfidence

inhisfortunethateveryundertaking,eventhemostdifficult,seemseasytohim."AndtheyworriedaboutthemotivesofseveralofCesare'scaptains,whomtheydescribedas"mostinimicaltoourcity."PaoloOrsini,forexample,hadcloselinkswiththeexiledanddetestedMedicifamily;orVitellozzoVitelli,whohadswornpubliclytotakerevengeontheFlorentinesforexecuting

hisbrotherPaolo.

Inthecityitself,fearofCesarehadcaused"thegreatestdisorder,"soBiagioBuonaccorsisaid;manycitizenshadfledtheirhomes,headded,and"appealsweremadetotheKing[ofFrance]whowastoofarawaytobeofanyhelpinsourgentamatter;theKingdidwriteletterstotheDuke,butnoneofthemwasobeyedand

everythingwasinsuspenseandgreattumult."

ByMay2,fivedaysafterseizingCastelBolognese,Cesare'stroopshadcrossedtheApenninesandsetupcampatFirenzuola,justthirtymilesfromFlorence.Hisarmyapproachedthecityslowly,takingeveryopportunitytodestroycrops,burnbarns,stealanimalsandfoodstores,eventocutthe

grainripeninginthefields.OnMay13theFlorentineenvoysmetCesareatCampiand,muchtothereliefofthecity,negotiatedatreatyofalliancewiththeboldinvader,payingCesare36,000ducatsayearfortheprivilege.BuonaccorsiclaimedthattheFlorentineshadsigned"merelytogetCesareofftheirbacks,"butthethreathadbeenveryreal.

"Thislordisveryproud,"MachiavelliwastowritelaterofCesare,"and,asasoldier,heissoenterprisingthatnothingissogreatthatitdoesnotseemtrivialtohim.And,forthesakeofgloryandofacquiringlands,hedoesnotrest,andacknowledgesnofatigueordanger.Hearrivesatoneplacebeforeheisknowntohavelefttheother;heendearshimselftohissoldiers;hehasgotholdof

thebestmeninItaly,andthesefactors,togetherwithcontinualgoodfortune,makehimvictoriousanddangerous."

CesarenowwithdrewhismentotheTuscancoast,allowingthemtoplunderindiscriminatelyontheirwaytotheircampnearPiombino,oppositetheislandofElba,fromwherehewasnowinapositiontothreatenbothPisa

andSiena.Cesarehimself,however,hadotherobligations,notleasthispromisetoassistintheFrenchcampaigntoconquerNaples,andso,onJune27,hefinallyaccededtohisfather'srequestandreturnedtoRome.Hehadreasontofeelsatisfiedwithhimselfandhisachievements.Attheageoftwenty-five,thenewLordoftheRomagnahadbecomeaforcetocommandfearand

respectinItalianaffairs.

Chapter18TheNaplesCampaign

"THEYKILLEDWITHOUT

PITY"

CESARERETURNEDTOROMElateintheeveningofJune17,1501,stealinginquietlythroughoneofthesmallergatesinhischaracteristicallymysteriousway,unobservedinthe

gatheringduskandinthegeneralcommotioncausedbythevanguardoftheFrencharmy,whohadsetupcampoutsidethecitywallsthedaybefore.

ThesoldiershadleftatrailofdestructionbehindthemastheyhadmarchedthroughcentralItaly.TheFlorentinediaristLucaLanduccireportedasmanyasthirtythousandtroops"doingmany

wickedthings:theycutcropsfortheirhorseswherevertheywent,plunderedallthewinecellars,flogginganyoneintheirway;theyrespectedneitherthecommissionersnorthepeople;theykilledthepeasantswhotriedtostopthemfromtakingtheirhensandinonefighttheykilledtwentymen."OnhearingthenewsthattheFrenchhadarrivedinRome,Landucciexclaimedwithcompassion,

"JustthinkwhatitislikeinRome."

TheFrencharmyoffourteenthousandmenhadbeenprovidedwithmeat,bread,andwine,andacamphadbeenestablishedforthemoutsidethewallsofRome.Theyhad,additionally,soBurchardsaid,beenprovidedwiththeservicesoftheveryinadequatenumberofsixteenprostitutes.Burchardalso

saidthattheFlorentinemerchantsinRomehadbribedthecitygovernorwithageneroussumofducatstoavoidhavingseniorFrenchofficersbilletedintheirhouses;theFrenchwerebilletedonthemanyway,andthegovernorkeptthemoney.

Theircommander,RobertStuart,Lordd'Aubigny,aScotbybirth,arrivedinRomeonJune23andwas

receivedatthegateofSantaMariadelPopolobyJofrè,whoescortedtheFrenchmantotheVatican.Thepopegreetedhisguest,and,sotheFrenchchroniclerJeand'Autonobserved,"dissimulatedhisfeelingswithajoyouscountenance."AlexanderVI,"despitethefactthathewasSpanishandnofriendoftheFrench,"continuedthechronicler,"receivedthecaptainsofthe

Frencharmy,andtalkedmerrilywiththemonvarioussubjects."Hehandedoutlavishpresentstoall;d'Aubignyreceivedagreatgreycharger,"withharnesssosplendidthateveryonewasamazedbyit."

ThateveningCardinalSanseverino,thebrotherofthecommanderoftheItaliantroops,entertainedtheFrenchofficersat"amagnificent

banquet,"whichwasheldinthegardensofCardinalAscanioSforza'svilla,"inwhichthereweregrovesoforangeandlemontreesandpomegranatesaswellasotherfruittreesandflowersofallkindsandscents,andsingers,jugglers,tragediansandcomediansallexercisedtheirartinturn."

TheFrencharmyleftRomeonJune28,aftermarching

pastCastelSant'Angelo.Fromhispositionhighonthebalcony,AlexanderVIwatchedtheparadeof12,000infantry,2,000cavalry,and26carriagesladenwithartillery,observing,soitwassaid,"thedepartureofthesesoldierswithgreatjoy."AlsointheparadewasCesare,seeninpublicforthefirsttimesincehissecretreturntendaysearlier.

ThefollowingdayLordd'AubignywenttotheVatican,wherehewasclosetedforsometimewiththepope,whotoldhisvisitorthenewsthat,inasecretconsistoryheldafewdaysearlier,hehadformallydispossessedFederigoofAragonofthekingdomofNaplesandbestoweditinsteadonthekingofFrance.Aftertheirprivatetalks,d'AubignywenttotheSala

delPappagallo,where,Burchardreported,"allthecardinalspermittedhimthehonourofkissingthemonthemouth,"beforetakinghisleaveandrejoininghistroopsontheroadsouthtoNaples.

Despitetakingpartintheparade,CesarehimselfdidnotleaveRomeimmediately,delayinghisdepartureforseveralreasons.TheformidableCaterinaSforza,

weakenedafterspendingnearlyayearimprisonedinthedungeonsofCastelSant'Angelo,wasfinallypersuadedtoabandonherrightstoImolaandForlì,andshewasre-leasedfromgaoltospendtherestofheryearsinexileinFlorence.Moreimportantly,CesarewaswaitingimpatientlyforhiscaptainVitellozzoVitelliandhissoldiers,whowereontheirwaysouthfrom

Tuscany,havingtakenthestrategicallyimportantportofPiombino.FinallyCesareandhisfourhundredtroopswerereadytojointheFrencharmymarchingtoNaplesunderthecommandofd'Aubigny.

LittleseriousresistancewasofferedtotheFrenchtroopsandtheiralliesinAversa,Nola,andothertownsinthekingdomofNaples.OnlyCapua,twentymilesnorthof

thecapital,putupafight,andbythemiddleofJuly,CesarewasabsorbedinaviolentandbloodycampaigntoseizethecityforLouisXII."ThetakingofCapuawasduetothetreasonofaninhabitantofthatcity,whosecretlyletintheDuke'stroopsandtheythenkilledhim,"reportedBurchard."Theykilledwithoutpitypriests,monksandnuns,inchurchesandconvents,andallthewomen

theyfound:theyounggirlswereseizedandcruellyabused;thenumberofpeoplekilledamountedtoaround6,000."AccordingtoanimprobableaccountbyGuicciardini,Cesarehadthewomenofthetownlockedupinatowerandselectedthemostdesirableforhimself.Whatwascertainwasthatthisorgyofrape,murder,andlootingendedintheentirepopulationofCapuabeing

killed.

OnAugust4d'AubignyenteredNaplesintriumph,whiletheex-kingFederigo,whohadbeencrownedbyCesare'shandjustfouryearsbefore,fledtotheislandofIschia.LouisXIIwasnowDukeofMilanandkingofNaples,andthedominantpowerinItaly,thankstothesupportofthepopeandhisson.WhenCesarearrivedin

Naples,d'AubignyofferedhimgratefulthanksinthenameoftheFrenchkingandarewardof40,000ducatsforhisservicesaswellasthetitleofPrinceofAndria.

AlexanderVI,meanwhile,hadtakenadvantageoftheFrenchpresenceinthepeninsulatoconsolidatehisowncontroloverthelandsandcastlesthathadoncebelongedtothepowerful

Colonnafamily,andonJuly27,thedayafterCapuahadbeencruellysacked,setoutonatourofinspectionofhisnewterritories.Ridingwithhimwerefiftyhorsemen,asmanyasonehundredonfoot,hishousehold,andmanyofthecardinals,eachaccompaniedbytheirownretinueofservantsandcourtiers.AfterlunchatCastelGandolfo,thepopewasrowedaroundLake

Albano,listeningtothecrowdsgatheredatthelakesideshouting,"Borgia!Borgia!"andlettingoffvolleysofgunfire.

Duringhisabsence,AlexanderVIhadentrustedthecareoftheVatican,andthechurch,tothecapablehandsofhisdaughter,whomovedintothepapalapartments."ThePopegaveherauthorizationtoopen

lettersaddressedtohimself,"reportedBurchard,and"toldherthatiftherewereanydifficultiesshewastotakeadvicefromtheCardinalofLisbonandtheothercardinals,whomshewasempoweredtosummon."Ononeoccasion,hecontinuedinanunusualdisplayofribaldry,shedidseekthecardinalofLisbon'sadvice:"Seeingthattheaffairwasofnoimportance,theCardinal

saidtoher,'WhenthePopediscussesanissueinconsistory,thevice-chancelloror,inhisabsence,anothercardinal,writesarecordofthesolutionsproposedandofthecardinals'votes,soweshouldhavesomeoneheretotakenotesofourdiscourse.'Lucreziarepliedthatshewasquitecapableofwritingherself.TheCardinalthenasked,'Butwhereisyourpen?'Lucrezia

understoodthejoke[penwasapopulartermforpenis]andshesmiled."

Chapter19TheDukeandthe

BorgiaGirl

"IFICOULDOVERCOMEMYDISTASTE

FORTHESEBORGIA

UPSTARTS"

LUCREZIAHADRETURNEDtoRomefromherself-imposedexileatNepiintimeforChristmasin

1500andtothenewsthatAlexanderVIhadstartedtoconsiderwhomsheshouldmarrynext.Shedidnotwanttomarryagain,shetoldherfather,accordingtoareportsentbytheVenetianambassador,addingthatshesaid"myhusbandshavebeenveryunlucky"and"sheleftinarage."Shewas,however,tohavelittlesayinthematter.

Thepopecarefully

consideredthemeritsofallianceswithvariousItalianfamiliesbeforedecidingonAlfonsod'Este,theeldestsonofErcoleI,DukeofFerrara.Thetwenty-four-year-oldprincewasawidower,hiswifehavingdiedinchildbirththreeyearsearlier.ThelineageoftheEstefamilywashonourable,theirpossessionsenviable.OneoftheoldestnobledynastiesinItalyandundisputedmastersofFerrara

anditssurroundingterritorysince1240,theirstatewasnotsolargeaseitherVeniceorMilan,butitbenefitedfromthelushsoilsofthePoplain,waswellandprofitablyadministered,andFerraraitselfwasalivelycentreofthearts.Itwas,moreover,justtothenorthofCesare'sduchyoftheRomagna,andthealliance,sothepopethought,wouldbenefitbothofhisbelovedchildren.

Theproposal,however,wasnotatallwelcomeinFerrara,wheretheBorgiaswereconsideredsociallyinferiorandmorallycorrupt.TheEstefamilymayhavehadmanyskeletonsintheirowncupboard,andAlfonsowasfarfrombeingamodelofproprietyhimself.Hewassaidtohavebuttwointerestsinlife;onewasthecastingofcannonsinhisownfoundry;theotherwaswalkingthe

streetsofFerraraatnight,adrawnswordinonehand,hiserectpenisintheother.Hisdeadwifehadalsobeenthesubjectofscandaloustalk;neglectedbyherhusband,shehadsharedherbedwithayoungNegrogirlwithwhomshetookmalepartsinthetheatricalsforwhichtheFerraresecourtwasrenowned.

Nevertheless,whentheoffer

wasmadeinthespringof1501,DukeErcoleandhisfamilywerehorrified,notleastattheprospectofanalliancebetweenthemselvesandthemancurrentlyundersuspicionofabductingandrapingtheprettyyoungbrideDoroteaMalatesta.ThatCesarewasguiltyofthecrime,despitehisprotestationsofinnocence,nooneinFerraradoubted.AndAlfonso'ssister,Isabella

d'Este,wifeoftheMarquisofMantua,hadaspecialinterestinthecase;theunfortunateDoroteahadbeenaprotégéeofhersister-in-lawtheDuchessofUrbino.

Moreover,DukeErcoleIwascurrentlypursuingtheprospectofroyalconnections,hopingforthenieceofLouisXIIasabrideforhisson.Whenthepope'senvoyCardinalGianbattistaFerrari

proposedaunionbetweentheBorgiasandtheEstes,hewashaughtilyinformedbythedukethatitwouldbe"impossibletocountermandtheplansalreadyinprocessofsettlementwithHisMajestyofFrance:onedoesnotsnatchfromtheconsiderationofakingplanswhichitpleaseshimtoconsider,asawilfulchildmightteaseacatbyhidingitsbowlofmilk."

Undeterred,indeedprovoked,bythisrebuff,thepopehintedattheconsequencesthatmightensueuponDukeErcole'scontinuedrefusalofaBorgiamarriage,goingsofarastosuggestthroughhisenvoythatthe"advantage"ofsuchamarriagewouldbethatDukeCesarewould"nolongerbeathreattothesouthofhisExcellency'sdominions"andthatLucreziawouldbringto

Ferraraadowryofnolessthan200,000ducats:"Istronglyurgeyou,"thepope'senvoywasinstructedtosay,"tomakeabondwithHisHoliness."AlexanderVIalsomadedirectoverturestoLouisXII,whorespondedbyinforminghimthatnothingwouldinducehimto"unraveltheskeinsoflove"thatlinkedhisniecewithAlfonsod'Este,whowouldsoonbecomeherhusband.

Theking,however,neededthehelpoftheBorgiastofurtherhisownambitionsinItalyand,somewhatreluctantly,agreedtocallahalttothenegotiationsfortheproposedmarriagebetweenAlfonsoandhisniece,andtopressDukeErcoleinsteadtoacceptLucreziaashisnewdaughter-in-law.Andsoitwastobe.

Inalettertohisson-in-law

FrancescoGonzaga,theMarquisofMantua,DukeErcoleexplainedhischangeofplan:

Wehaverecentlydecided,owingtopracticalconsiderations,toconsenttoanalliancebetweenourhouseandthatofhisHoliness—inshorttothemarriageofour

eldestson,Alfonso,andtheillustriousladyLucrezia,sisteroftheillustriousDukeofRomagnaandValence,mainlybecausewewereurgedtodosobyhisMostChristianMajesty[thekingofFrance]andonconditionthatHisHolinesswouldagreetoeverything

stipulatedinthemarriagecontract.SubsequentlyHisHolinessandourselvescametoanagreementandtheMostChristianKingpersistentlyurgedustoapprovethecontract.

Theduke,however,declinedtogivewaywithoutastruggle;hedemandedan

increaseinthedowrywithanother20,000ducatsworthofpreciousstones;hedemandedthatthe4,500ducatshewasobligedtopayeachyeartotheVaticanberescinded.Healsodemanded,withoutmuchhopeofbeinggrantedthem,theterritoriesofCento,Pieve,andCesenatico,aswellasvariousbeneficesforhisyoungerson,Ippolito,whohadbeenmadeacardinalbyAlexanderVIin

1493.Unwillingtocommithimselftotheproposedmarriageofhissonintoafamilyheconsideredupstarts,hehadraisedobjectionafterobjection,stipulatedconditionaftercondition,askedforguaranteesthatthedowrywouldbepaid,untilAlexanderVIhadcomplainedthatthemanwasbehaving"likeashopkeeper."

ErcoleIhadalsoheardthe

distastefulrumoursclaimingthatLucreziahadindulgedinincestuousrelationshipswithbothherfatherandbrother—indeedtherewerefewinItalywhohadnotheardthem—andbeforeagreeingtothematch,hesenttwodiplomaticofficialstoRometomakeenquiriesabouttheBorgiagirlandhersuitabilityforadmittanceintothedistinguishedHouseofEste.

WhentheenvoysarrivedinRome,theywereadmittedimmediatelytoLucrezia'spresence.Laterthatdaytheyreportedtotheir"mostillustriousandexcellentprince"that"weenteredthepalacewheretheillustriousLucrezialives,andwhere,tiredwithridingandthinkingweweregoingtorest,wewereimmediatelyconductedintothesaidLucrezia'spresence,wherewewere

graciouslyreceived.WeexpressedtheinfinitepleasureandcontentmentofyourExcellency,andthegreatlovewhichyourExcellencybearsher,"emphasizing,astheyhadbeenorderedtodo,"howperfectlydisposedyourExcellencyistotreatherwell."Thetwoenvoysdidtheirworkconscientiously,takingalmostfourmonthsoveritandfinallydeciding

thatLucreziawasanacceptablebride.

TherewereseveralproblemsconcerningLucrezia'spastthatneededcarefulconsideration.HersonRodrigowasonesuchissue.HewaslivingwithhismotherinRome;butitwasdecidedthatitwouldnotdoforhimtoaccompanyhertoFerrara.TheFerrareseambassadorinRomewenttoseeLucrezia

aboutthistoaskher"whatwastobedonewithhim;shereplied,'HewillremaininRomeandwillhaveanallowanceof15,000ducats.'"ThefactthatLucreziahadalreadyborneasonwas,ofcourse,anadvantagetoadukeinneedofgrandsonstosecurehisfamilyline.

TherewasalsotheissueofLucrezia'sdivorcedhusband,GiovanniSforza,whowas

livinginFerrara,tobesettled.ThepopewroteaboutthistothetwoenvoyswhohadbeensentbyErcoleItomakeenquiriesconcerningLucrezia.They,inturn,passedhisrequestontotheduke;thepope"hasaskedustowritetoYourExcellencytorequestthatyouseetoitthattheLordGiovanniofPesaroshallnotbeinFerraraatthetimeofthemarriagecelebrations,for,althoughhis

divorcefromtheillustriousladywasabsolutelylegal,"theyinsisted,"himselffullyconsentingtoit,hemay,neverthelessstillfeelsomeresentment."

Meanwhile,negotiationsaboutthedowryhadreachedtheirconclusion,anditwasclearthatErcoleIhadextractedahighprice.ItwasagreedthatLucreziashouldbring100,000ducatsandthat

sheshouldalsotaketoFerrarajewellery,carpets,linen,tapestries,furniture,silver,andobjetsd'artanddevertuworthafurther75,000ducats.ThedukewouldreceivethecastlesandlandsofCentoandPieve—thoughnottheportofCesenatico,whichproperlybelongedtotheduchyofRomagna—aswellasareductionintheannualcensuspayabletotheVaticanfrom4,500ducatsto

atokensumof100ducats.CardinalIppolitod'EstewastobemadebishopofFerraraandreceiveotherbeneficesworth14,000ducatsayearandapalacebySt.Peter's.ErcoleIwasjubilant;thedeal,hethought,wasworthatotalof400,000ducatstohisfamily."IfIcouldovercomemydistastefortheseBorgiaupstarts,"Alfonsoinformedhisfather,"Imightevenconsidermyselffortunate."

Atlast,onAugust26,1501,themarriagecontractwassigned,andLucrezia,justtwenty-oneyearsold,wastobeabrideforthethirdtime.Forherownpart,havingbeensentaportraitofherfuturehusbandandheardreportsofhistasteforlowlifeandlowcompany,shedecidedthat,onceshehadgivenhimchildren,Alfonsowouldlethergoherownway.Moreover,theproposed

marriageintotheEstefamilywouldallowhertoescapefromRome,aplaceassociatedwithunhappyepisodesinheryounglife.

Andtheolddukewassoontobegratefultohisprospectivedaughter-in-lawformorethanmeremoney.In1499ErcoleIhadheardofanunattheDominicanconventatViterbo,SisterLuciadaNarni,whohadbeen

developingstigmataonherhandseveryFriday.Amanmuchintriguedbysuchmiracles,thedukedecidedtobringthenuntoFerrara.Themothersuperior,however,wasreluctanttopartwithsopotentiallyvaluableanasset,thoughSisterLuciaherselfwasquitewillingtogo.SothedukearrangedforhertobespiritedoutoftheconventinabasketandtakentoFerrara,where,unfortunately,

shefeltdreadfullyhomesick,missingthenunswhomshehadleftbehindinViterbo.Verywellthen,thedukedecided,theothernunsshouldalsocometoFerrara,whereanewconventwouldbebuiltforthem.

DukeErcolethensentatrustedcourtier,BartolomeoBresciano,ashisenvoytoViterbotoputthisproposaltotheprioressoftheconvent,

butsheobjectedinthestrongesttermstotheduke'ssuggestion.Bresciano,appalledbyherbossiness,calledherawoman"moreobstinatethantheDevilhimself"andturnedtoLucreziatoaskhertouseherinfluenceatthepapalcourt.Lucrezia,whomhedescribedas"adelightfulladywithafirst-classmind,"wentoutofherwaytoassist,negotiatinginpersonwiththepopeand

theDominicansuntil,atlast,theprioresswasforcedtoletnineofhernunsgotoFerrara.Lucrezia"isendowedwithsuchgraciousnessandgoodness,"wroteBrescianotoDukeErcole,"andthinksonlyofhowtoserveyou."

Nowthatthecontracthadbeensigned,theformalbetrothalbetweenAlfonsoandLucreziacouldtakeplace.Accordingly,as

Burchardrecorded,"aboutthehourofVespersonSaturday4SeptembernewscameofthemarriagecontractedandconcludedbetweenAlfonsod'Este,eldersonoftheDukeofFerrara,andLucreziaBorgia,formerlytheDuchessofBisceglieandearlierthewifeofGiovanniSforza."

ThenewsoftheforthcomingmarriagewasgreetedinRomewith

exceptionalexcitementandwiththecelebrationsthatthecitizenssomuchenjoyedontheseoccasions;a"continualcannonade"ofartilleryfirednoisilyfromtherampartsofCastelSant'Angelowhilefireworksflashedandsplutteredinthesky.Thefollowingday,Sunday,sawLucrezia,dressedinarobeofgoldbrocadeandaccompaniedbyherladiesandseveralbishops,ridingin

theplaceofhonourinagrandprocessionofthreehundredhorsesfromherpalacetotheChurchofSantaMariadelPopolo,whileherSpanishdwarfsskippedandjumpedthroughthestreets.

Thatevening,asthegreatCapitolinebelltolled,bonfireswerelitatCastelSant'Angeloandthroughoutthecity,illuminatingthetowersofthecastle,the

Capitol,andotherbuildings:"Thepeoplebecamewildlyexcited,"which,accordingtoBurchard,"causedsomeanxiety."OnMondaytwoclowns"paradedthroughalltheprincipalstreetsandpiazzas,"continuedBurchard.Theywentontheirway,oneonhorseback,oneonfoot,bothshoutingloudly,"LonglivetheDuchessofFerrara!LonglivePopeAlexander!Viva!Viva!"Lucreziahad

giveneachofthemadressfromherwardrobe;theridingclownhadreceivedthenewgoldbrocaderobeshehadworntheeveningbefore,whichwassaidtobeworthasmuchas300ducats.

Thepopealsocelebratedhisdaughter'sbetrothalwithasuccessionofpartiesandbanquetsattheVatican.Hejoinedinthefestivitieswithrelish,undeterredbyabad

coldandaloosetooth,andthefactthathewasapproachinghisseventiethbirthday,remarkingcheerfullytotheFerrareseambassadorthat,althoughhisfacewastiedup,hewouldhappilyinvitethebridegroom'sfathertoawildboarhunt.

Cesare,whohadreturnedfromNaplesonSeptember15,wasexhaustedafterthe

fighting.Afewdayslaterhereceivedavisitor—oneoftherareoccasionswhenhereceivedthematall—lyingdownbutfullydressed."Ithoughthewasill,"thesurprisedFerrareseenvoywrote,"butyesterdayeveninghedancedwithoutintermissionandwilldosoagaintonightatthePope'spalacewheretheillustriousDuchess[Lucrezia]isgoingtosupper."Burchardalso

commentedonCesare'scondition:"TheDukehasrecentlybeenillagainwithhisoldcomplaint,whichreturneduponhimaftertheconquestofNaplesandhas,someofhisphysiciansthink,affectedhismindaswellashisbody.Althoughforcinghimselftotakepartindancesandentertainments,itisseenandreportedbyhisservantsthattheydiscoverhimexhaustedandsometimesin

painuponhisbed."

Lucrezia,too,wasbeginningtofeelthestrainofunremittingpartiesanddancesthatthepopewassofondofattendingandwatching."WheneversheisatthePope'spalace,"theFerrareseenvoyreported,"theentirenight,untiltwoorthreeinthemorning,isspentdancingandatplay,whichfatigueshergreatly."

OnSeptember25thecelebrationswerehaltedwhenthepopeandhissonleftRomeforaweek,leavingLucreziaonceagaininchargeattheVatican,whiletheywentonatourofinspectionofthepapalcastlesnorthofRome,stoppingatNepiand,inparticular,thefortressatCivitaCastellana,fortymilesnorthofRome,whichwasbeingbuiltunderthedirectionofthemilitary

architectAntoniodaSangallo.ThetwomendidthesameinOctober,thistimetravellingsouthtoviewthefortressesrecentlyseizedfromtheColonnafamily.

BytheendofOctober,CesareandhisfatherwerebackinRome.PerhapsitwasthesetripsthatrevitalizedCesare,buthehadcertainlyrecoveredhisspiritsbyOctober31,whenhehosteda

supperpartyinhisapartmentsintheVaticanPalacetowhichheinvitedhisfather,hissister,andmanyfriends,alongwithfiftycourtesans.ThisparticularlycolourfulpartywasdescribedindetailbyBurchard:

OnSundaythelastdayofOctober1501theretookplaceasupperattendedalsobyfiftyhonest

prostitutes,thosewhoarecalledcourtesans.Aftersuppertheydancedwiththeservantsandotherswhowerethere,firstclothed,thennaked.Aftersupperthelightedcandelabrawhichhadbeenonthetablewereplacedonthefloor,andchestnutsthrownamongthemwhich

theprostituteshadtopickupastheycrawledbetweenthecandles.ThePope,theDukeandLucrezia,hissister,werepresentlookingon.Attheendtheydisplayedprizes,silkmantles,boots,capsandotherobjectswhichwerepromisedtowhomsoevershouldhavemadeloveto

theseprostitutesthegreatestnumberoftimes.Theprizesweredistributedtothewinnersaccordingtothejudgementofthosepresent.

Fourdayslater,sotheFlorentineambassadorFrancescoPepireported,thepopefailedtoattendMassinthepapalchapel.Itwasrumouredthathewasill,no

doubttheafter-effectsofCesare'sparty,atwhich,accordingtoPepi,theelderlypopehadspent"thenightuntilthetwelfthhourwiththeDukewhohadbroughtintothepalacethatnight,singersandcourtesans;andallnighttheyspentinpleasure,dancingandlaughter."Ratherlessreliably,thePerugianchroniclerFrancescoMatarazzoreportedthatthepope"hadallthelightsput

out,andthenallthewomenwhowerethere,andasmanymenaswell,tookoffalltheirclothes,andtherewasmuchplayandfestivity."

Lucreziawasagainseentobeenjoyingherselfwhen,afewdaysafterthegamewiththechestnutsandcandles,therewasadisplayofanimallubricityinsidetheVatican.Burcharddescribedhowafarmerhadbroughtsome

maresthroughtheViridariagatebythepalacecarryingloadsofwoodforthemarketand

whenthemaresreachedthepiazzaofSt.Peter's,someofthepalaceguardcameupandcutthroughthestrapsandthrewoffthepacksaddlesandthewoodinordertoleadthemaresintothe

courtyardimmediatelyinsidethepalacegate.Fourstallionswerethenfreedfromtheirreinsandharnessandletoutofthepalacestables.Theyimmediatelyrantothemares,overwhomtheyproceededtofightfuriouslyandnoisilyamongstthemselves,bitingand

kickingintheireffortstomountthemandseriouslywoundingthemwiththeirhoofs.ThePopeandLucrezia,laughingwithevidentsatisfaction,watchedallthatwashappeningfromawindowabovethepalacegate.

Cesarewasevidentlynotpresentonthisoccasion;and

itappearsthattherewasatthistimeagrowingfrictionbetweenfatherandson,thepopebecomingincreasinglyannoyedbyhisson's"turningdayintonightandnightintoday,"asoneoftheFerrareseenvoysputit,andextremelyhardtopindowntoameetingtodiscussaffairsofstate.

ItseemedasthoughCesare,increasinglyindependent,elusive,andself-assured,and

liabletoflyoffthehandleattheleasthintofcriticismofhisactions,nolongervaluedtheadviceofhisfatherandcertainlyrarelysoughtit.Cesare'sarrogantatheismwasanotherboneofcontentionsince,althoughhisfather'smoralswerewidelyheldtobedeeplycorrupt—indeed,AgostinoVespuccitoldMachiavellithatitwas"knowntoeveryonethatHisHolinessbroughtevery

eveningtotheVaticantwenty-fivewomenormore...sothatthepalaceismanifestlymadethebrothelofallfilth"—thepopewasscrupulousintheoutwardobservancesofhisreligiousdutiesandhadanapparentlysinceredevotiontothecultoftheVirginMary.

Whenwearinghisblackmaskbyday,Cesarenaturallybecameanobjectofcuriosity

onthestreetsofRome;butmenwhostaredathimsoonlearnedthatitwasdangeroustodoso.Cesarehadonemanarrestedandimprisonedforapparentlymakingacriticalremark;thatnighthishandwascutoff,histonguerippedoutandattachedtothelittlefingeroftheseveredhand,andthewholegrislyensemblewashungoutoftheprisonwindowforalltosee.Yetanother,guiltyofsome

unknownoffence,was"secretlystrangledandhisbodycastintotheTiber."MennaturallygrewevermorewaryinCesare'spresence.

"Hecannottolerateinsults,"hisfatherconfidedinconversationwiththeVenetianambassador."IhaveoftentoldhimthatRomeisafreecityandthateveryonemayspeakandwriteasthey

please.EvilisoftenspokenofmebutIletitpass.TheDukerepliedtome,'ItmaybetruethatRomansareaccustomedtospeakandwriteastheypleasebutIwillteachpeopletotakecarewhattheysayaboutme.'"Hewasasgoodashisword—morethanonemanhadahandstruckofforhistonguerippedoutforwritingorspeakingmockinglyoftheDukeofValence.

UneasyasrelationsbetweenthepopeandCesarewerefromtimetotime,bothremaineddevotedtoLucrezia.Indeed,thepopepatentlyadoredhisdaughter,the"appleofhiseye,"and,usefulashermarriagetoAlfonsod'Estewouldbetobothofthempolitically,providingareliablealliancewithFerrara,bothfatherandbrotherlookeduponitasasacrifice,onethatwould

bringLucrezia'sinevitabledeparturefromRome.

Meanwhile,DukeErcole'sambassadorscontinuedtosendfavourablereportsregardingthebehaviourofthegirlsoontobehisdaughter-in-law."Lucreziaisahighlyintelligent,graciousandextremelygracefulyounglady,modestandlovable,"oneenvoyreportedinNovember1501."Sheisalso

devoutanddutifulasaChristian.TomorrowshewillgotoconfessionandintendstoreceivecommunionduringChristmasweek."

Theduke'sdaughter,Isabellad'Este,however,wassuspiciousofthisattractivetwenty-one-year-oldwomanwhowastobecomehersister-in-lawandwastoreceivesomanyvaluablefamilyjewelsandsumptuous

clothesinconsequence.ShedispatchedtoRomeamanwhocouldbetrustedtosendheraccuratereportsoftheunwelcomebride,hertrousseau,andtheladiesofhercourt.Theman,havingundertaken"tofollowthemostexcellentladyasashadowfollowsabody,"sentbacktoMantuareportsthatcannothavepleasedIsabella,describinga"charmingandverygracefullady":

OnSundayIwenttoseeherintheevening[oneofthereportsran]andfoundhersittingnearherbedwithtenmaidsofhonourandtwentyotherladieswearinghandkerchiefsontheirheadsintheRomanfashion.TheysoonbegantodanceandMadonnaLucreziadidsoverygracefully....

Sheworeacamorraofblackvelvetwithawhitechemise...agold-stripedveilandagreensilkcapwitharubyclasp....Hermaidsofhonourhavenotyetgottheirweddingdresses.Ourownladiesarequiteequaltotheminlooksand,indeed,ineverythingelse....Thenumberofhorsesand

peoplethePopewillplaceatherdisposalwillamounttoonethousand.Therewillbetwohundredcarriages....TheescortwhichwilltakehertoFerrarawilltravelinthese.

Finally,atthebeginningofDecember1501,DukeErcolegavetheorderforthedepartureofthegrand

cavalcadethatwastotraveltoRomeinordertoescorthisson'sbridebacktohernewhome.ThreeofAlfonso'sbrothers—Ferrante,Sigismondo,andCardinalIppolito—ledthepartyofducalcourtiers,secretaries,councillors,bishops,soldiers,andservants,horses,mules,andwagons.Theweatherwasdreadful,thegoingexceptionallyhard.Theystruggledforthreeweeks

throughthesnowboundpassesoftheApenninesanddowntothefloodedTiberplain.Finally,justbeforeChristmas,thelonglineofhorsemen,carriages,andcartsdrewtoahaltoutsidethewallsofRomeatthegatebySantaMariadelPopolo.

Chapter20FrolicsandFestivities

"THECUSTOMARY

FESTIVITIES[FORCARNIVAL],

INCLUDINGTHEHORSERACES,

WILLCOMMENCEAFTERCHRISTMAS"

LATEINTHEAFTERNOONofDecember23,1501,the

entirepapalcourtassembled,atAlexanderVI'sorders,atthegateofSantaMariadelPopolotogreettheEsteprincesandtheircourtiers,whohadcometoRometoescortLucreziabacktoFerrara.Thecardinalswaitedanuncomfortablehourontheirmulesbeforedismountingandretiringtothecomparativewarmthofthechurch,wheretheywaitedanotherhourbeforethe

visitorsfinallyarrived.

TheywerereceivedbyCesare,whowasaccompaniedbypagesinsilktunics,abandoftrumpeters,andfourthousandsoldiers,allwearinghispersonallivery.Andafterthelengthyspeechesofwelcomehadbeenfinished,heescortedtheFerraresepartythroughthecity,acrossthePonteSant'Angelo,tothedeafening

roarofcannonsthatthunderedfromtherampartsofthecastle,andontotheVatican.Hisappearancethrilledthecrowdsthathadgatheredonthestreetstowatchthecavalcadepass:Burchardrecordedthathe"excitedgreatadmirationinthemindsofallwhobeheldhim,forhewasmagnificentlydressedinacoatoftheFrenchfashion,fastenedwithagoldbeltwhichsetoffhis

gracefulyetathleticformtoadvantage,androdeafine,strongchargerwhichwassomagnificentlycaparisonedthatitstrappingsaloneweresaidtobeworth10,000ducats."

AttheVaticanAlexanderVIgraciouslywelcomedhisguests,thebridegroom'sthreebrothers,Ferrante,Sigismondo,andCardinalIppolito.Cesarethenledthem

acrossthepiazzaofSt.Peter'stobegreetedbyhissister,whowaslookingdramaticallyradiantinawhitedress,herlongfairhairpartiallyconcealedbyagreengossamernet,securedbyagoldbandandtworowsoffinepearlsencirclingherforehead.

ThepreparationsinRomeforthereceptionoftheFerraresevisitorscould

scarcelyhavebeenmoreimpressive.Cesare,inhisextravagantway,wasdeterminedtomakeeverythingassplendidaspossible:"Thethingsthatareorderedhereforthesefestivitiesareunheardof,"wrotetheFlorentineambassadorFrancescoPepi,shockedattheextravagance,adding,"TheshoesoftheDuke'sfootmenaremadeofgoldbrocade,andsoarethe

shoesofthePope'sgroomswhileheandtheDukeviewitheachotherinwearingthemostmagnificent,themostfashionableandthemostexpensivethings."

Magnificentashehimselfchosetoappear,CesarewiselydecidednottotrytotakeprecedenceovertheEstebrothers,whowere,afterall,hisguests.Thistactfulbehaviourwas"consideredas

highlycomplimentarytotheembassy,"Burchardcommented,"asitwasknownthateversincehismarriagetoCharlotted'Albret,sisteroftheKingofNavarre,hispridehadsomuchincreasedthatheallowedneitherambassadorsfromkingsnoranyoftheprincesofGermany,norevencardinals,totakeprecedenceoverhiminanyway,makinganexceptiononlyinfavourofthebloodroyalofFrance."

Inordertoentertainhisguestsassplendidlyaspossible,thepopehadissuedadecreeannouncingthatCarnivalwouldbecelebratedearly:"Thecustomaryfestivities,"wroteBurchard,"includingthehorseraces,willcommenceafterChristmas."Accordingly,onDecember26thestreetsfilledwithrevellers;themaskedfiguresofCesareandtheEsteprinceswerealsotobeseen

joininginthebawdyfunascourtesansranaboutdressedasboysandthrowingeggshellsfilledwithrosewaterateachotherandatpassersby.

ThateveningLucreziahostedaball,where,soIsabellad'Este'ssecretinformanttoldher,theyoungbride"dancedwithextremegraceandliveliness,wearingacamorraofblackvelvet

borderedwithgold,"thedécolletagechastelyobscuredbeneathafilmofgildedgauze,"withastringofpearlsaroundherneck,andagreennetwithachainofrubiesonherhead,"and,headded,"afewofherladies-in-waitingareverypretty."

ThenextmorningtheCarnivalwasinfullswing.Forthefollowingthreedays,thestreetsofRomewere

filledwithcrowdswatching,andtakingpart,inthegreatracesrunbetweenCampodeiFioriandthepiazzainfrontofSt.Peter's.TheJewswerethefirsttorun,butthewinnerwasdisqualifiedbecause,itwassaid,hehadbrokentherules,anditwasannouncedthattheracewouldbererunthenextday.Therewereracesforoldmenandforprostitutes,aparticularfavouritewiththepopulace.

AccordingtoBurchard,therewasalsoaraceforwildboars,mountedbyyouths,"whobeatthemwithsticksandkeptcontroloftheirheadswithreinsattachedtotheringsthatpiercedtheirsnouts,whilstothermenguidedthemalongandpreventedthemfromrunningintosidealleys."

Whenthelastracewasover,onDecember29,those

gatheredinthepiazzaofSt.Peter'swatchedastrumpetersandplayersofothermusicalinstrumentsassembledontheplatformabovethestepsofthebasilicaandbegantosoundthefanfaretoannouncethearrivalofthebride.Burchardrecordedthescene:

FromherresidencenexttoSt.Peter's,DonnaLucreziaemerged,clothedina

robeofgoldenbrocade,decoratedintheSpanishfashion,andwithalongtrainbehindherwhichwasbornebyayounggirl.Athersidewerethetwobrothersofherbridegroom,FerranteontherightandSigismondoontheleft.FiftyRomanladies,mostbeautifullyattired,

camenext,followedbyLucrezia'sownladies-in-waiting,walkinginpairs.

WhenthebridalprocessionhadenteredtheVatican,thecrowdswatchedasawoodencastlewaswheeledintothepiazzaandtwocompaniesofCesare'ssoldiersfoughtamockbattle,withplentyofnoiseandcolour,forpossessionofthestructure.

Meanwhile,insidethepalace,Lucreziawasreceivedbyherfather,accompaniedbythirteencardinalsandbyherbrotherCesare,andtheceremonybegan.Thesermon,whichwasdeliveredbythebishopofAdria,anephewofDukeErcole,waslongandtedious:"HisHoliness,"reportedBurchard,interruptedthebishopseveraltimes,"repeatedlyurginghimtohurrythroughmore

quickly."Thebishop,however,wasnottobehurried;anditwassomeconsiderabletimebeforehecametotheconclusionofhisaddress.

Whenthesermonwasfinallyover,atablewasbroughtoutandplacedinasuitablepositioninfrontofthepope.Ferranted'Este,actingasproxyforhisbrotherthegroom,"broughtDonna

LucreziatoHisHolinessand,inhisbrother'sname,presentedherwithagoldenring,"andCardinalIppolito"broughtinfourotherringsofgreatvalue,adiamond,aruby,anemeraldandaturquoisetogetherwithasmallcasket,whichwasplacedonthetableand,bytheCardinal'sorder,opened."

Theboxcontainedaglitteringcollectionofthe

Estefamilyjewels,averitabletroveoftreasure:twobeautifulcaps,oneofwhichwas"studdedwithfourteendiamonds,asmanyrubiesandabout150pearls,"fourjewelledcollars,onejewelledpendant,severalbracelets,"fourofwhichwereofverygreatvalue,"fourstringsoflargepearls,andfourjewelledcrossesstuddedwithdiamonds.Theexquisitejewels,valuedat8,000

ducats,werenowgiventoLucreziabythecardinal,whopromisedhermoreofthesamefromhernewfather-in-law.Thesejewels,however,wereevidentlynotintendedasagiftbutmerelyasaloan,sothattheduke,asoneofhisenvoyswrote,"needhavenoanxiety,"addingthat"thedocumentregardingthismarriagesimplystatesthatDonnaLucreziawillbegiventhebridalringasapresent,

andnothinghasbeensaidofanyotherpresent."

Thebride"withherladiesandmanyothersallremainedinthepalaceuntilfiveo'clockthefollowingmorning,"andthefestivitiescontinuedforthenextfewdays."Thefollowingnight,"reportedBurchard,"anumberofcomedieswererecitedinthePope'sapartments,andballetsperformed,withsomesinging

aswell."OneplayperformedintheSaladelPappagallohadbeeninspiredbytheworkoftheRomanpoetVirgil,anditstarredtwoyoungmenplayingthepartsofCesareandhisnewbrother-in-lawasrulersofthelandsofthePo.

OnThursday,December30,theretookplace,oneaftertheother,theracesoftheBarbaryhorses,oftheSpanishjennets,andthe

fillies.ThisdayofracingwasoneofthehighlightsoftheCarnivalfestivities,eagerlyanticipatedbytheRomancrowds,whothrongedthestreetstowatchthespectacle,andbythebettingtoutswhostoodtomakefortunesfromthegulliblepunters.

Thisparticularyear,accordingtoBurchard,"therewasagreatdealofviolenceandinjustice."Thewinnerof

thefirstracewastheArabhorsebelongingtotheMarquisofMantua,"butitwasnotawardedtheprizebecauseithadlostitsrider,whohadclumsilyfallenoffatthestartoftherace,"leavingasthewinnertheArabbelongingtoCesare.Burcharddidnotrecordwhethertheunfortunateriderhadbeenunseateddeliberately,buttheremusthavebeenmanyinRomethat

nightdiscussingCesare'smannerofwinningthenexttworaces.

OneofCesare'sstaffhadwontheraceoftheSpanishjennets"mostunfairly,"asBurchardreported."ThehorsedidnotbegininthecoursewiththeothersontheCampodeiFioributranoutofahousebesidethevice-chancellor'sresidenceastheothersarrived,thusgettinga

leadonthemandwinningtheprize."Thefilliesracewasequallysuspicious."Duringtherace,whenthehorseswereonthePonteSant'Angelo,oneofCesare'sgroomscrossedthecourseonhishorse,stoppedthemarewhowasintheleadandforceditsrideroutofhissaddle."

OnJanuary1theusualparadeofCarnivalcartstook

place,andthethemethisyear,notsurprisingly,extolledthevirtuesofthedukesofValenceandFerraraintheguiseofJuliusCaesar(Cesare)andHercules(Ercole),inaseriesoftableauxthatwereparadedonwagonsnotintheusualsettingofPiazzaNavonabutagainstthemuchgranderbackdropofSt.Peter's.Thepiazzawasthenbarricadedtoserveasthestagefora

bullfight.Eightbullsandonebuffalowerekilled—fourmorebullsandanotherbuffaloweresparedforasimilarspectacleonthefollowingday.

ThedaywasapproachingwhenLucreziawouldleaveRomeforever.OnthemorningofJanuary6,1502,theFeastoftheEpiphany,shewenttobidfarewelltoherfather.Herdowryhadbeen

formallycountedthenightbeforeandhandedovertohernewbrothers-in-law,FerranteandSigismondod'Este.IntheSaladelPappagallo,Lucrezia,Cesare,andtheirfatherspokequietlytogetherinSpanish.Asfondofthemasshehadalwaysbeen,sheborethepartingassheboreallpartings,withherusualequanimity.

Mountingherhorse,she

rodeoutoftheVatican,flankedbyCesareandCardinalIppolitoandescortedbyahugeprocession;"shewasnotwearingvaluableclothesbecauseitwassnowing,"reportedBurchard.Thepopewasclearlydeeplymovedashewatchedherleave,hurryingfromwindowtowindowofthepalacetocatchaglimpseofthecavalcadeuntilitwasfinallyoutof

sight.Hewouldneverseehisdaughteragain.

Chapter21TheNewBride

"LOOKATTHEGREATLADY!"

THEBRIDALCAVALCADEtravelledslowlyuptheViaFlaminiainthegentlyfallingsnow.AfewmilesnorthofRome,LucreziabidfarewelltoCardinalIppolitod'Esteand

herbelovedbrotherCesare,whoreturnedtothecityandthewarmthoftheirownfireplaces,leavingLucreziatocontinueherlongjourneythroughtheApenninesnorthtoFerrarawithherownretinue,whichnumberedsomesevenhundredpeople,escortedbythefivehundredmenoftheFerraresepartythathadtravelledtoRomethepreviousDecember.

"Therewasnobishop,norprotonotary,norabbot,"recordedashockedBurchard,butLucreziawasaccompaniedbyhercousinCardinalFranciscoBorgia,whomAlexanderVIhadappointedlegatetothePapalStates.AndtoaugmentthepartyofRomannoblestravellingwithher,Cesarehadprovidedhernotonlywithtwohundredgentlemenfromhisownhousehold,but

hadalsoorderedanumberofmusiciansandclownstoentertainheronherway.Aswellassome10,000ducatsforherexpensesonthejourney,thepopehadprovidedherwithasedanchair,whichshewastosharewiththeDuchessofUrbino,fromGubbiotoFerrara.Lucrezia'sretinuewasalsoimpressive,includingnumeroussquiresandcooks,stableboysanddressmakers,

and,ofcourse,herownladies-in-waiting,amongwhom,accordingtothereportsIsabellad'Estereceivedfromherinformant,wereseveralbeauties,onewithsyphilis,and"oneMoor,themostbeautifulwomanIhaveeverseen."

Providingmountsforalltheseattendantshadprovedaproblemforthepope,whowastemporarilyshortof

fundsafterthespectacularexpenseshehadincurredinentertainingtheEstepartyinRome,andhehadobligedallcardinalsinthecitytoloaneithertwohorsesortwomulesforLucrezia'sjourney—"noneoftheseanimalswasreturned,"commentedBurchard.

Thelongstringofbaggageanimalswindingitswaythroughthesnowbound

passesoftheApennineswasheavilyladen.StrappedtothebacksofseveralmulesweretheheavypadlockedchestscontainingLucrezia'sdowry.Overonehundredmuleswereneededtocarryherjewels,linen,andclothes;shetookwithhernofewerthantwohundredexpensiveshiftsandalmostasmanyhats,oneofwhich,accordingtoIsabellad'Este'sinformant,wasvaluedat10,000ducats.

Despitebeingshieldedfromtheworstoftheweatherbehindthecurtainsofherlitter,Lucreziafoundthejourneyexhausting.AtSpoletosheinsistedonstoppingfortwonights,muchtotheexasperationoftheFerrareseparty,whowerekeentogethome.DukeErcolewasalsoinformedthatsheneededtowashherhairwithtiresomefrequency,andhewasforewarnedthatit

wouldbeadvisableforhimtopostponethedateofthebride'sofficialreceptionatFerrara.

Thepopealsoreceivedregularreportsontheprogressofhisdaughter'sjourneyandwrotetohertosaythathehopedtohearfromherwhenshereachedFerraraandthathealsohopedshewas"ingoodhealthandspiritsand,aboveall,thather

faceandbodywerewrappedupagainstthetempestuousandsnowyweather."ShealsoheardfromCardinalIppolitod'Este,whowrotetoreassureheraboutherlittletwo-year-oldson,Rodrigo,whomshehadbeensodistressedtoleavebehindinRome:"Havingsentsomeonethismorningtovisitthemostillustriouslord,DonRodrigoyourson,themessengerreportedthatHisLordship

wassleepingveryquietlyandcontentedly;andthanksbetoGodheisashandsomeandashealthyasanyonecouldwish."

OnJanuary16,tendaysafterbiddingfarewelltoherfather,thecavalcadeturnedofftheViaFlaminiaontothesteeproadleadingtothehilltoptownofGubbio,wheretheredoubtableDuchessofUrbino,Elisabetta

Gonzaga,sister-in-lawtoIsabellad'Este,dressedinherhabitualblack,waitedunsmilinglytomeetthehorsemenandrumblingcarriages.ThefollowingdayLucrezia,accompaniedbythethirty-year-oldduchess,continuedthejourneyinthegildedsedanchair,behindthecurtainsofwhichthetwowomenconductedanevidentlystiltedconversation,theirfriendshiphamperednot

leastbythefactthattheduchessbelievedCesareguiltyofabductingherprotégée,DoroteaMalatesta,ayearearlier.

AtUrbinotheduke,GuidobaldodaMontefeltro,wasawaitingtheirarrivalontheroadleadingtohiscapital,thestreetsofwhichweredecoratedwithflagsandstreamersandgarlandsofdriedflowers.Beneaththese

thebrightlypaintedandheavilyladencarts,drawnbybullocks,rattledandscreechedintothecourtyardoftheducalpalace,whereLucreziawastostay.

FortwonightsLucreziaremainedinUrbino,stayingintheimposingcastleandenjoyingnotonlythecomfortsofaristocraticlifebutalsoitslavishballs,banquets,andtheatrical

entertainments.Sheappearedatoneballinadressofblackvelvetwithahugediamondonherforehead,whiletheSpanishdwarfs,whoformedanill-disciplinedandnoisyadditiontohersuite,hoppedandrompedaroundher,crying,"Lookatthegreatlady!"

Lucreziawasawarethatreportsaboutherappearanceandbehaviour,evendetailsof

herpersonalhygiene,werebeingsenttothejealousandformidableIsabellad'Estebyhersecretinformant,amanknownasIlPrete(thepriest)butwhoseidentityremainsmysterious.WhenhisinquisitivebehaviourcametoLucrezia'snotice,shesentfortheman,questionedhimatlength,andmanagedtoelicitmoreinformationabouthernewsister-in-lawthanhehadintendedtodivulge."Sheisa

ladyofkeenintelligenceandperspicacity,"heafterwardreportedofLucrezia;"onehadtohaveone'switsaboutonewhenspeakingtoher."

Theluxuriesoftheducalpalace,however,werenottobeenjoyedforlong,andonceagaintheslowandexhaustingjourneywasresumed,nowtowardPesaro,stillinthestiltedcompanyoftheDuchessofUrbino,who

wouldstaywithheruntiltheyreachedtheirdestination.ThetwowomenarrivedatPesaroonJanuary21,thankfulatleastthatthestonysnowymountainswere,atlast,behindthem.

AtPesaro—thecitythathadoncebelongedtoherfirsthusband,GiovanniSforza,andwasnowthepossessionofherbrother—itwasCesare'sSpanishgovernor,

RamirodeLorqua,whowaswaitingtowelcomeherandescortherpasttheexpectantpopulacecrowdingthestreets.Whenthecavalcadefinallyhaltedthatevening,Lucreziapleadedfatigueasanexcusefornotjoiningaballthathadbeenarrangedinherhonourbutthatwouldbeattendedbymanyofherex-husband'ssubjects;andsheretiredwithherladiestothequartersassignedtoher,

whereoneofhermaidsperformedwhatwasalmostadailyritualbywashinghermistress'slongblondhair.

RidingthroughCesare'sduchy,thejourneyalongtheViaEmiliapleasantlysmoothaftertheroughjoltingoverthehillroads,LucreziareachedCesena,herbrother'scapital,onJanuary24.Here,however,anunsettlingrumouroftroubleahead

broughtanendtosuchcarefreegaiety;itwassaidthatDoroteaMalatesta'sfiancé,themercenarycommanderGiambattistaCaracciolo,hadsworntotakerevengeforthekidnappingandwasnowawaitingtofallupontheBorgiabridesomewherenearby.

Thethreat,however,didnotmaterialize,andLucreziareachedBolognawithout

incident,thoughherdecisiontodelayherarrivalinthatcitybyspendingasecondnightatImolainordertorestmusthaveirritatedGiovanniBentivoglioandhiswife,herhostsinBologna.Afterasplendidprocessionthroughthecity,watchedbyhugecrowds,andanotherball,Lucreziawassotiredthatsheoversleptthenextmorning.

OnthelastdayofJanuary,

LucreziaandtheDuchessofUrbinoleftBolognaforthevillaoftheirhostsatBentivoglio,neartheborderoftheduchyofFerrara,andthelaststoponherexhaustinglylongjourneyfromRome.Justbeforesunsetanunexpectedpartyoffourhorsemenwereseendismountingatthedoor.Lucrezia'sbridegroom,Alfonsod'Este,hadimpetuouslydecidedtocome

inpersontogreethisbride."Thisactpleasedeveryone,"wroteBernardinoZambotti,theFerraresediarist,"andespeciallythebrideandherladies,thathislordshipwishedtoseeher,"anddidmuchtocounterthewidespreadrumoursofAlfonso'soppositiontothematch.

Alfonsohimselfwasclearlypleasedbywhathesaw;and,

soitwasreported,hesuggestedthatheandLucreziagotobedtogetherthereandthen.Dissuadedfromthisimpropriety,hereturnedtoFerrara,where,thenextday,standingbesidehisfather,withacompanyofcrossbowmenbehindthem,hewelcomedtheducalbargeinwhich,instateroomsofconsiderablesplendour,Lucreziahadtravelledthetwentymilesofwaterway

fromBentivoglio.

AtMalalbergoshehadbeenjoinedbyhernewsister-in-law,thejealousandhostileIsabellad'Este,whowasreluctantlyacting,ascustomdictated,ashostessforherwidowedfather,theduke.Hereyeswouldfillwithtears,soIsabellasaid,whenshesawhermother'srubynecklacehangingaroundLucrezia'sgracefulneck.

ItwasnotuntilshedisembarkedfromtheducalbargeoutsidethewallsofFerrarathatLucreziamethernewfather-in-lawforthefirsttime.TheelderlyDukeErcole,almostseventyyearsold,seemedgreatlystruckbyherappearanceandwasmuchentertainedbythejokesandposturingsofherclowns.HegraciouslykissedherhandbeforeescortinghertothehouseofAlbertod'Este,his

illegitimatebrother,whereshewouldstaythenightinordertoprepareforherstateentryintoFerrarathefollowingday.

ThepreparationsinFerraraforthearrivaloftheheir'sbridehadbeengatheringpaceoverthepastweeks:streetswerecleaned,horsedroppingsandmudcartedaway;innswerefullybooked;shopswerestocked

withsplendidstuffsandmementos;tailorsanddressmakersworkeddayandnighttofinishthenewoutfitsorderedbythecity'scourtiers;playwrightsandpoetswerebusywritingtheirdramas,whileactorsandoratorswererehearsingtheirlines;flagsandbannerswereembroideredwithinterwovendepictionsoftheBorgiabullandtheEstearms;coats-of-armsofthetwofamilieswere

emblazonedonthegatesoftheducalpalace.Garlandswerehungovershopfrontsandtapestriesdrapedfromwindowsabove.Thearmyofpaintersandcarpentershadmanagedtofinishaseriesofelaboratearcheserectedalongtheroutetheprocessionwouldtake,decoratedwithmythologicalscenestoproclaimtheunionofthetwofamilies,theBorgiabullstandingsolidlybesidethe

blackandwhiteeaglesoftheEstedynasty.

Thecityseethedwithexcitement;oneFerraresediaristspokeformanywhenherespondedtoonemanwhothoughtthefestivities"agrossinconvenience,butinmyopinionhewasspeakinglikeafool."

Thecity'sleadingfamiliescompetedwitheachotherfor

thehonourofprovidingadaughtertojointhebride'snewhouseholdandpreparedapartmentsintheirpalacestoaccommodatetheofficialguestswhohadbeeninvited.AmbassadorsarrivedfromLucca,Florence,andSiena;theVenetianembassynumbered150;aroundthenecksoftheFrenchembassy,metbythedukeinperson,oneobservercountedeighty-fourheavygoldchains,

worth,hethought,some35,000ducats.Therewere"somanyvisitorsinFerrara,"henoted,"thatitwasalmostimpossibletobelieve."

Finally,lateintheclear,coldafternoonofFebruary2,theFeastofCandlemas,LucreziarodeacrossthebridgeoverthePoatCastelTedaldotoenterthecitythatwouldbeherhomefortherestofherlife.

Eightytrumpetersledthecavalcade,followedbyahundredmountedcrossbowmen,alldressedinthered-and-whiteEsteliveryandwearingcapsmadeintheFrenchstyle,amarkofhonourtoLouisXII,whosealliancewiththepopeandCesarehadprecipitatedthemarriage.Nextcametheheraldswearingblack-and-goldtabardsandcarryingsilvertrumpets,followedby

drummersridingwhitemules,byarmedhalberdiers,bymountedpagesandnoblesandbishopsandambassadors,agaudyarrayofgoldandsilver,redandpurple,velvetsandsilks,andcostlyfur-linedcloaks—theSpanishcourtiersofCesare'shouseholdprovidedasobercontrastintheircustomaryplainblack.

SpontaneouscheersgreetedthebridegroomAlfonso,who

wassplendidlydressedingreyvelvetembroideredwithgold—theembroideryalonewassaidtobeworth8,000ducats—andacaptrimmedwithfeathers,ridingwithhissquiresastrideasuperbbaychargercaparisonedinpurplevelvet.Thencamethebishops,inwhitecopesandjewelledmitres;theambassadorsintheirofficialfinery;andthenthedrummersandjesters,who

heraldedthearrivalofthebride.Thiswaswhatthecrowdshadbeenwaitingfor,andtheyroaredtheirapproval.

Ridingasnow-whitehorsewithgoldtrappings,LucreziaenteredFerrarabeneathawhitesilkcanopydecoratedwithgoldfringe,whichwascarriedbyeightdoctorsoftheuniversity.Sheworeajewelledcoifonherhead,its

valueestimatedat15,000ducats,oneofthecapsthat,asIsabellad'Esteacidlyremarked,"mylordfathersentherinRome,"adding,"Aroundherthroatwasthenecklacewhichhadbelongedtomymother."Onherfeetwasapairofslippersworth2,000ducats,andsheworeadressofgoldbrocadestripedwithpurplesatin,ornamented,accordingtooneobserver,"withsomany

jewelsthatitwasamarvel,"withagoldcloakthrownbackoveroneshouldertodisplayitserminelining.

BehindhercameseveralopencarriagesbearingnumerousFerrareseladiesandotherguestsand,lastofall,thelonglineofpackmulescarryingthechestsfilledwithherclothes,jewellery,andotherpossessions,theirloads

coveredwithlengthsofdeepredsatinembroideredwithherowndevice.

Lucrezia'smount,anelegantbayhorse,wasstartledbythesuddendeafeningroarofartilleryfromCastelTedaldothatsoundedasshecrossedthebridge,anditrearedup,throwinghertotheground.Fortunatelyshewasnothurtbutpickedherselfup,laughingmerrily,"andthisI

sawmyselfbecauseIwasrightthere,"wroteoneobserveroftheevent.Amulewasbroughtforhertocontinue,andshemadeherwaythroughthenarrowwindingstreets,pasttheentertainmentsstagedforherateveryturn,andfinallyintothegreatpiazzainfrontoftheducalcastle.

Thepiazzawascrowdedwithpeople,"sofull,"

remarkedoneobserver,"thatifagrainofmillethadfallenfromtheskyitwouldnothavereachedtheground."Thearrivalofthecavalcadewasheraldedbyatremendousfanfarefromthe113trumpetersandpipersplayingonthebalconyoftheducalpalace,andthedungeonsbeneathwereopenedtoreleaseastreamofprisoners.Twomenthendescendeddownropesfrom

thetopofthehightowersinthepiazza,theirarmsoutstretchedsothat"theylookedlikebirds,"asonemansaid,tolandatLucrezia'sfeet.Zambotticommentedthat"everyonethoughtitagreatmarvelbecauseithappenedsoquicklyandneitherofthemwashurt."

Lucreziarodeintothecourtyardofthepalace,

whereshedismountedandclimbedthemarblestaircase,atthetopofwhichIsabellad'EsteandotherfemalemembersoftheducalfamilywaitedtoembraceherbeforeescortingherintotheGreatHall,whichhadbeenhungwithcloth-of-gold"andsilksofgreatvalue"tomarktheoccasion.Thereshewasguestofhonouratthefeast,thehighlightofwhichwasaseriesoflife-sizesculptures

allmadeinsugar,followedbyaball.

Attheendoftheevening,thebridalcouplemadetheirwaytotheirbedchamberintheapartmentsthathadoncebelongedtoAlfonso'smother.Thefollowingday,thebridegroom'sfatherreportedtothepope:"Lastnightourillustriousson,DonAlfonso,wenttobedwithhiswife,andfromallaccounts,itappears

theywerequitesatisfiedwithoneanother."Herhusbandseemedpleasedwithherandwasattentiveforthefirstfewdays,eventhoughhedidnotlingerforlongofamorningintheirbed,but,havingsleptwithher,sotheFerrareseambassadortoRometoldthepope,he"tookhispleasurewithotherwomenduringtheday.""Beingyoung,"thepopehadcommented,complacently,"itdoeshim

good."

Thephlegmatic,silentbridegroom,amanwhoseinterests,soitwassaid,werelimitedtosewersandartillery,hadregardedhismarriageasnomorethanapainfulduty.Thetwowomenhehadmostdeeplycaredforhadbothdiedyoung;hismother,EleonoraofAragon,thesisterofKingFederigo,haddiedwhenhewas

seventeenyearsold;hisyoungersister,Beatrice,haddiedinchildbirthfouryearslater.Alfonso'ssecretarythoughtitwasinterestingtospeculateonhismaster'sfeelingstowardthebrideinwhomhehadappearedtoshownoinitialinterest.AshecametoknowLucreziabetter,however,themoreinterestingandattractivehefoundher;heactuallysoughtouthercompany,gratefulto

havereasontodisbelievethestoriesofherdebauchedpast."Whateverhisfeelingswerebeforehemether,beforelongheconceived,"soitseemedtothesecretary,"aloveasardentaswastheaversionhehadfeltforherwhenthemarriagehadfirstbeenproposed."

Theweddingfestivitiescontinuedforoveraweek.Therewerejoustsmostdays

inthegreatsquareinfrontofthepalace,followedbybanquetsandballseverynight.AtroupeofactorsperformedthecomediesofPlautuseachafternoon,whichtheduke,determinedtoshowoffthequalityofcultureforwhichFerrarawasjustlyfamous,hadinsistedweretobebetterthananythingthatLucreziawouldhaveseeninRome.Therewerealsothecustomaryceremonial

offeringsofpresentstothebrideandgroom.TheVenetiansproducedtwosuperbmantlesofdeepredvelvet,worth300ducatseach.TheFrenchambassadorhadbroughtexpensivegiftsfromLouisXII:arosaryforLucrezia,itsbeadsofperforatedgoldfilledwitharomaticmusk,andashieldforAlfonso,decoratedwiththefigureofMaryMagdalene,which,the

ambassadorwasatpainstoexplain,wastoshowthathehadtakenawomanofvirtue,thoughallofthosepresenthadheardtherumoursofincestandmanybelievedthatLucrezia'spast,liketheMagdalene's,hadbeenfarfromvirtuous.

Lucrezia,itseems,thoroughlyenjoyedtheparties.Zambottidescribedherasbeing"fulloflifeand

gaiety."Thepope'sdaughter,soitwasagreed,danced"admirably"anddressed"beautifully."DukeErcolewasfullofpraiseforthedaughter-in-lawhehadbeensoreluctanttoacceptandseemstohavebecomegenuinelyfondofLucrezia,takingher,asamarkofhisfavour,tovisitSisterLuciadaNarni,thenunshehadhelpedtomovefromViterbotoFerrara."Hervirtuesand

goodqualitieshavesopleasedme,"thedukewrotetoAlexanderVIaboutLucrezia,"thatsheisthedearestthingIhaveinthisworld."

Isabellad'EsteandElisabettaGonzagawerelessenthusiasticabouttheirnewsister-in-law.Nolongerintheirprime,theDuchessofUrbinowasthirtyandIsabellajustthreeyears

younger,whileLucrezia,despiteherthreehusbands,wasstillonlytwenty-oneyearsold.Thetwoolderwomenwereclearlyputoutbythebride,whowasundeniablyyoungerandprettierthanthemselvesand,moreover,tookprecedenceoverthematcourt.

ThemaliciousIsabelladidherutmosttomaketheunwelcomebride

uncomfortable;"yesterday,"shewrotegrumpilytoherhusbandinMantua,"weallhadtostayinourroomsuntilfiveo'clockbecauseLucreziachoosestospendhoursdressingsothatshecanputtheDuchessofUrbinoandmyselfintotheshadeintheeyesoftheworld."TheBorgiagirl,shecomplained,spentanunconscionabletimedressing,washingherhair,andchatteringinherrooms;

shealsodeclinedtoattendsuchfestivitiesasdidnotappealtoher;andwhenarisquécomedywasperformed,shewasobviouslyamusedbyit,whileIsabellamadeitclearthatshe,likeallrespectableladies,founditmostobjectionable.

WiththedepartureoftheguestsonFebruary9,AshWednesdayandthebeginningofLent,Lucreziasettled

downtolifeatcourtaswifetoAlfonso,theduke'sheir.OnMaundyThursdaysheactedashostessforherfather-in-lawatthecustomarydinnergivento160poorpeople,servingtheirfoodandassistinginthewashingoftheirfeet.Thenextday,GoodFriday,sheattendedMassinthecathedral,wherethecongregationwasentertainedbyaPassionplay,afive-hourspectaclewithangels

descendingfromtherooftohoveroverChristasheprayedinthegardenofGethsemane,hisCrucifixiononahillspeciallybuiltinfrontofthehighaltarandhisDescentintoHellthroughtheheadofahugewrithingserpent.

Yetasthedayspassed,shefoundlifeinFerrarahard,homesickforRomeandherbelovedfather.Shespent

morningsinbed;shelayinthescentedwatersofherbath,accompaniedbyoneofheryoungladies,who,whentheyemerged,wouldreaderoticnovelstoher.ShepassedincreasinglylongperiodsintheroomsthathadbeenassignedtoherwithherSpanishattendantstowhomshespokeintheirownValenciandialectandwithwhomtheFerrareseladiesweresoonontheworstof

terms.Sheevenoffendedherconservativefather-in-law,asshedidmanyotherFerrarese,byintroducingatcourtaSpanishcostume,zaraguelles,wide,pleatedpantaloonsofsilkormuslinwornundertheskirt.

DukeErcole,despitehisaffectionforLucrezia,wasgrowinganxiousaboutthecostofalltheentertainingthathewasexpectedto

provide.Mostofthemarriageguestshaddeparted;butseveralmembersofLucrezia'scourtremained,and"thesewomen,"herfather-in-lawcomplained,"byremainingherecausealargenumberofotherpersons,menaswellaswomen,tolingeron....[I]tisagreatburdenandcausesheavyexpense.Theretinueoftheseladies...numbersnotfarshortof450personsand350horses."He

alsoworriedaboutthecostofmaintainingLucrezia'slargeandmostlySpanishhousehold,declaringthatthenumberofhisdaughter-in-law'sladiesandservantsmustbereduced;and,despiteherprotests,hedismissedfromhercourtallwhomheconsideredunnecessary.

Totheevidentsurpriseofhercritics,sheacceptedherfather-in-law'sdecisionwith

goodgrace;andnotonlythis,shesetaboutconciliatingthemostcriticaloftheFerrareseladies.AmongthemwasafriendofIsabellad'Este,TeodoraAngelini,whowasfrequentlyinvitedtodineatLucrezia'stable,anenticingprivilege,especiallyduringLent,whentheduke'stablebecameexcessivelymonotonous,whileLucrezia'swasplentifullysuppliedwithavarietyofdishesfrom

oystersandscampitosturgeon,crayfish,andcaviar.

TheextravaganceofthemealsservedatLucrezia'stablenaturallyhorrifiedtheduke.Heconsultedhisdaughter,Isabella,whodeclaredthatLucrezia'sneedscouldeasilybemetbyanallowanceof8,000ducatsayearratherthanthe12,000ducatsthatthepopewasdemandingforher.Theduke

offeredtocompromisebyallowingher10,000ducats;thisthepoperefused;andLucrezia,anxioustoescapetheacrimoniousgossipthatthisquarrelwascausingatcourtand,sufferingthesymptomsthattoldhershewasnowbearingAlfonso'schild,retreatedtotheconventofCorpusDomini.

ThenewsthatLucreziawaspregnant,sosoonafterthe

marriage,delightedthedukeandalsothepope."HisHolinesshastakenonanewleaseoflifeinconsequenceofthenewsfromFerrara,"wroteBurchard,"andeverynightheiscommandingintohispresenceyoungwomenchosenfromthebestRomanbrothels."AsthoughincelebrationofLucrezia'spregnancy,healsosentforJofrè,Jofrè'swife,Sancia,andevenforSancia'slover,

ProsperoColonna;oneparticularlyluridaccountsuggeststhatthepopethenleftthetwomeninanantechamberwhilehetookSanciaofftooneoftheprivateroomsfromwhichhereturnedafterawhiletotellJofrèandColonnathatshewas"stillworththeseriousattentionofayoungman."

Thepope'scheerfulmoodinhopesofagrandchild,

however,weresoontoendindisappointmentandworry.InMayAlfonsohadleftFerraraonbusiness,andLucreziahadtakenadvantageofhisabsencetogotoBelriguardo,oneoftheduke'smanyvillasinthecountrysideandwhere,shehoped,thefreshairandbeautifulsurroundingswouldimproveherhealth.ShehadfeltmuchbetteronherreturntoFerrara,butthesultrysummerheatinthecitysoon

causedarelapse.BythemiddleofthathotJulyof1502,shefelldangerouslyill.Herhusbandwassentfor;sowereseveraldoctorsinadditiontoFrancescoCastello,thecourtphysician.Thepope,gravelyconcerned,maintainedthattheillnesshadbeencausedbyhisdaughter'sdistressatbeingkeptsoshortofmoney.

Meanwhile,thepatientgrew

worse,sufferingfromparoxysmsandfitsofdelirium.Itwassupposed,inevitably,thatshehadbeenpoisoned;butitwassoonclearthatavirulentoutbreakofthefluxhadgrippedtheentirecourt.Herconditiongrewworse,anditwaswidelyfearedshewoulddie;herhusbandandherbelovedbrotherhastenedtoherbedsideand,miraculously,foundherbetter,sittingupin

bed.Dayslatershesufferedanotherrelapse;allAugustshelayclosetodeathuntilfinally,onSeptember5,shegavebirthtoastillborndaughter.

CesarearrivedinFerraratwodayslatertofindherillwithpuerperalfeverandrefusingtoallowherdoctorstobleedher.Cesare'scompanyseemedtorallyher,andheinducedhertogive

waytothedoctors'advice."WebledMadonnaontherightfoot,"oneofthedoctorsreported."Itwasextremelydifficulttodo,andwecouldnothavedoneithaditnotbeenfor[Cesare]whoheldherfoot,andmadeherlaughandcheeredhergreatly."

Lucreziarecoveredslowlyfromherordeal,andwhenshewaswellenoughtotravel,shewascarriedina

littertothecareofthesistersoftheconventofCorpusDomini.Shewasaccompaniedbyhercontritehusband,who,althoughhehadmadeavowtomakeapilgrimagetotheshrineoftheVirginatLoreto,aplacemuchveneratedbythosewhoexperiencedproblemswithconceptionandpregnancy,intendingtowalkthe170milesonfootshouldGodspareherlife,hecontented

himselfwithtravellingtherebyboatandthenmakingoneofthoseinspectionsofmilitaryestablishmentsthatheundertooksooften.

Chapter22CastlesandCondottieri

"THEAMOUNTOFAPOPE'SINCOME

ISWHATEVERHECHOOSESITTOBE"

INMARCH1502,whileLucreziawasadjustingtolifeattheducalcourtinFerrara,

aneventoccurredthatdemonstratedjusthowstrongandresourcefulboththepopeandCesarecouldbeinmomentsofcrisis.Thetwomen—accompaniedbysixcardinals,oneofwhomwasLucrezia'sbrother-in-lawIppolitod'Este,sevenprelates,andalargenumberofcourtiers,secretaries,andservants—hadtravelledbyboattoPiombino,wheretheyhadreviewedthedefencesof

thisstrategicportcapturedbyCesare'stroopsthesummerbefore."Sixtriremeshadbeenprepared,"recordedBurchard,"usingthoseprisonersincarceratedforpettycrimestomantheoars";othershadbeenpress-ganged"byviolenceorbytrickeryinthetavernsofRome,"andthepopehadalso"requisitionedallbargeownersandmanyfishermen."

HavingfinishedtheirtourofinspectioninPiombino,thepopeproposedtohiscompanionstotakeadaysailingaroundthecoast"toamusethemselves."Unfortunately,anunexpectedstormblewup,assometimeshappensintheTyrrhenianSea,makingitimpossiblydangerousforthemtoreentertheharbouratPiombinoandforcingthemtospendthenextfewnightsatsea.Onthe

fourthdaythestormhadworsened,bringinghugebreakerscrashingoverthebowsoftheirboats,andCesare,"fearinggreatdanger,"riskedhisownlifebyleavingthegalleyinasmallboattorowashoretogethelp.

Then,accordingtoBurchard,whorecountedwhathehadheardfromthesurvivors:

ThePopestayedonthegalley,unabletoputintoport.Hiscompanions,paralysedbyfear,laystretchedoutinthebottomoftheboat;onlyHisHoliness,seatedonthepoop,keptaresoluteandbravestand.Whentheseapoundedtheboatwithanger,hecried"Jesus!"andmadethe

signofthecrossandtoldthesailorstogetonwithpreparingthemeal.Buttheyrepliedthatthecrashingwavesandtheroaringwindpreventedthemfromlightingafire.FinallytheseagrewcalmeranditwaspossibletofryfishforthePopetoeat.

BackinRomeafewdays

later,thepopeandCesareturnedtheirthoughtstothenextstageoftheexpansionoftheduchyofRomagnaandtotheraisingofthelargesumsofmoneyrequiredtoprosecuteit.WiththenorthernborderoftheduchysecuredbythemarriageofLucreziatoAlfonsod'Este,Cesaresethissightsontwosmallpapalfiefs,CamerinoandSenigallia;morecovertly,fatherandsonhadplotteda

farmoreambitiousschemetoseizethemuchlargerfiefsofUrbinoandBolognaandalsotoexpandintoTuscanybyfomentingrebellioninArezzoandPisa,twocitiesthatmuchresentedtheirsubjugationtorepublicanFlorence.

Withthiscampaigninmind,itwasataboutthistime,inthesummerof1502,thatCesareappointedLeonardodaVinciashis"Architectand

GeneralEngineer"and,assuch,instructedhimto"surveythestrongholdsandfortresses"ofhisterritories.BythiscommissionLeonardowastobeexemptfrom"allpublictollforhimselfandhiscompany"andtobegivenfreeaccessto"see,measureandestimateallthathemaywish."

Leonardo,whoseLastSupperintheconventof

SantaMariadelleGrazieinMilanwassomuchadmiredbyLouisXII,hadbeenemployedasamilitaryengineerbythelucklessDukeLudovicoSforzasincehewasapainter.ForCesarehedrewmaps,proposedsystemsofdefenceworks,anddesignedacanalconnectingCesenawiththeportofCesenatico.FortenmonthshetravelledacrossthePapalStates,clearlyfascinatedbythe

characterandambitionsofhisgiftedandmysteriousemployer;severalmapssurviveamongLeonardo'spapers,includingoneshowingtheapproachestoArezzo.

BythebeginningofJune,AlexanderVIandCesarehadlaidtheirplans.Bycoincidence,anewambassadorarrivedfromVeniceataboutthesame

time;thiswasAntonioGiustinian,whoseperceptiveandilluminatingdispatchesweretokeeptheVenetiangovernmentaswellinformedaboutpapalaffairsascouldbeexpected.Histask,however,washamperedbyCesare,who,hereported,continuedtoclothehisintentionsbehindacurtainofsecrecyanddeclinedtogiveadatewhenhecouldsparetimetoseetheenvoy.

Inoneofhisfirstdispatches,GiustinianreportedthatthereweredifferencesbetweenAlexanderVIandhisson,especiallyregardingmoney."TodaythePopehashadsomedifficultieswiththeDuke,whorequiresanother20,000ducatsforhiscampaign,forwhichHisHolinesshasalreadypaidagreatdeal,"hewrote,beforecomingtotheconclusionthat

"althoughthePopeisreluctanttogivehimthemoney,hewillcomeroundintheend,ashedoeswitheverythingconcerninghisson."

IntheendGiustiniandidnothavetowaitlongforthenatureofCesare'splanstoberevealed.OnJune5,withindaysoftheenvoy'sarrival,newscamethroughofariotagainsttheunpopular

FlorentinegovernmentinArezzo,outsidewhichCesare'strustedcondottiereVitellozzoVitelliandanarmyofthreethousandmenawaitedorders;Vitellienteredthecitytwodayslater,wherehewasjoinedbyanotherofCesare'scaptains,GianpaoloBaglioni.Almostimmediately,newsalsoarrivedofasuccessfuluprisinginPisa,andthecityoffereditsallegianceto

Cesare.FourdayslaterBurchardnotedthat"thecorpseofAstorreManfredi,LordofFaenza,"whohadbeenoverthrownbyCesareafteralongsiegethepreviousyearandimprisonedinCastelSant'Angelo,"hasbeenfishedoutoftheTiber,drownedbyastonetiedroundhisneck."Themasterofceremonieslamentedhisdeath:"Thisyoungman,just18yearsold,wasofsuchbeautyand

staturethatitwouldnotbepossibletofindhisequalamongathousandofhiscontemporaries."

AlthoughbothAlexanderVIandCesarevigorouslydeniedanyinvolvementinthetakingofArezzo,protestinginsteadthatVitellihadacteduponhisowninitiative,fewinRomebelievedthem.Anditwasgenerallyacceptedthatthe

murderofManfrediwasalsocommittedontheordersofCesare,whowasanxioustoavoidanytroublefromthesupportersofthepopularAstorrewhilehewasawayfromRomewithhisarmy.

AfewdayslaterCesarewasatSpoletowithhisarmyofsixthousandinfantryandtwothousandcavalry,andhiscondottiericaptains,theSpaniardsUgodeMoncada

andMigueldeCorella,andtheItaliansPaoloOrsiniandhiscousinFrancesco,theDukeofGravina;OliverottoEuffreducci,LordofFermo;GianpaoloBaglioni,LordofPerugia;andVitellozzoVitelli,LordofCittàdiCastello,whohadreluctantlysubmittedtoCesare'srequesttowithdrawfromArezzo.MassingintheRomagna,meanwhile,anotherarmy,ledbyCesare'sgovernor,Ramiro

deLorqua,preparedtomovesouth.

TherewasatfirstsomedoubtinRomeastowherethesearmiesweremarching;somesaidPisa,othersArezzo,thoughmostassumedthattheirdestinationwasCamerino,thestateofGiulioCesaredaVarano,whohadbeenexcommunicatedbyAlexanderVIonJune5onachargeoffratricide.Tothis

end,theDukeofUrbinohadgivenpermissionforRamirodeLorquaandtheRomagnatroopstopassthroughhisstate;thoughhehadalso,unwiselyasitwastoturnout,offeredhelptoVaranotodefendCamerino.

Infact,CesarewasabouttoattemptahighlyambitiouscoupandseizeUrbinoitself,withitscommandingpositionbetweentheRomagnaand

Rome;andtojustifythisunprovokedattackbyclaimingthattheduke,GuidobaldodeMontefeltro,hadactedtreasonablyinhisoffertoassistVarano.

TheDukeofUrbino,meanwhile,believingCesaretobemanymilesawaytothesouthandhavingnoreasontodoubthisprotestationsoffriendship,hadgonetoenjoyanalfrescodinnerinthepark

ofamonasteryjustoutsidethewallsofhiscapital.Inthemiddleofthemeal,acourierwasobservedridingatspeedintotheparkwithanurgentmessage:Cesare'stroopsweremarchingonUrbinoitself;theywerelessthantwentymilesaway.Guidobaldofledand,evadingCesare'stroopswhohadbeenorderedtointercepthim,hearrived,dishevelledandexhausted,inMantuaaweek

later.

TheexiledGuidobaldodaMontefeltrodid,however,retainhisdignity,refusingtheofferofacardinal'shatandapensioninexchangeforhisrightstothedukedomofUrbino.Tohumiliatethedukestillfurther,itwasrevealedatthistimethathewasimpotent,amisfortunethathadremainedasecretoutsidethefamilyforyears.

Still,hisloyalwife,Elisabetta,declaredthatshewouldratherlivewithhimashissisterthannolongerashiswife.

InanattempttonegotiatetherestorationoftheirauthorityinArezzo,theFlorentinesnowsenttoUrbinoahigh-rankingdelegationledbyFrancescoSoderini,bishopofVolterraandbrothertotheheadofthe

Florentinerepublic,whichwasrequiredtoreportonthesituationtothegovernmentbackhome.ThesecretarytothisdelegationwasnoneotherthanNiccolòMachiavelli,whowasdeeplyimpressedwithCesare,somuchsoinfactthathisenemieswouldlaterclaimthatthesecretaryhadbeenbribedbytheduke,thoughnoevidencehaseveremergedtosupporttheserumours.

"ThisLordisverysplendidandmagnificent,"MachiavelliwroteinalettersignedbySoderini:

Inwarthereisnoenterprisesogreatthatitdoesnotappearlittletohim.Inhispursuitofgloryandlandsheneverrests,norisheputoffbydangerorfatigue.Hearrivesinoneplace

beforeitisknownthathehasleftanother.Heiswelllikedbyhissoldiers,andhehadcollectedthebestmeninItaly.Thesethingsbringhimvictoryandmakehimformidable,especiallywhencombinedwithunaperpetuafortuna.

Machiavellimighthaveaddedhowexasperatingwas

Cesare,who,havingkepthimwaitingforhoursonendforaninterview,wouldsuddenlysummonhiminthemiddleofthenightortheearlyhoursofthemorning,oftennotappearingwhensomemeetinghadbeenarranged,and,onoccasion,ridingawaytowherehisarmywasincampatFermignano,afewmilessouthofUrbino,wherehecouldbeseenearlyinthemorninghuntingwithhis

leopardsinthesurroundinghills,accompaniedby"ahostofservants,hisfacewrappedingauze."

WhenatUrbino,muchofCesare'stimewasspentsupervisingthedispatchbymuletrainofnumerousMontefeltrotreasurestothefortressesatForlìandCesena—thosecostlyfurnishingsandworksofartthathadornamentedthemagnificent

ducalpalacewhereLucreziahadbeenmuchhonouredasaguestjustfivemonthsearlier."HehadallGuidobaldodaMontefeltro'sfurnituretakenfromthepalace,"alocalchroniclerreported,"sothat,overtheperiodofamonth,180muleswereemployedeachday;thuswasanhonouredfamilydespoiledofsilverandrichtapestries,andthemagnificentlibraryofrarebooks,whichhadbeen

assembledwithsuchlovingcarebyGuidobaldo'sfather,DukeFederigo."Inhisnotebooks,Leonardoalsorecordedthestringsof"mulescarryingrichloadsofgoldandsilver,manytreasuresandgreatwealth."

AmongthesetreasureswereworksofartthatIsabellad'Este,whopossessedbyherownadmission"aninsatiabledesireforantiquethings,"

waseagertoacquire.ShewrotetoherbrotherinRome,CardinalIppolitod'Este,askinghimtoapproachCesarewitharequestfortwoantiquestatues,oneofaCupidattributedbysometotheancientGreeksculptorPraxiteles,andtheother"alittleantiquemarbleVenus,"whichshehopedCesaremightbepreparedtopartwithsincehedidnot"takemuchpleasureinantiquities."

Infact,theCupidwasnotanantiquebutamodernworkcarvedbytheFlorentinesculptorMichelangelo,andCesarecouldwellspareit.Indeed,hisagentdeliveredthestatuestoIsabellainMantuaonJuly21.Shehadsoughtpermissionfromtheexiledduke,herbrother-in-law,beforepurchasingtheseitems,butwhenGuidobaldotriedtoreclaimthesculptureslater,she,somewhatmeanly,

refusedtoletthemgo.

AfterCesare'ssuccessatUrbino,theseizureofCamerinoofferedfewproblems;andtheagedlordoftheplace,GiulioCesaredaVarano,togetherwithhistwosons,washandedovertoCesareandwaslaterstrangledinthecastleofLaPergola.

InRomethepopecelebrated

Cesare'svictoryatCamerinoinhisusualexuberantmannerwiththecustomarycannonadefromtherampartsofCastelSant'Angeloand,thatevening,asBurchardreported,with"bonfires,fireworksandagreatpartyinthepiazzaofSt.Peter's."

FirmlyincontrolofanobedientRomagna,Cesarenowsetaboutraisingmoneytofeedandequiphisarmy,

whichwassaidtocosthimmorethan1,000ducatsaday.Heturnedtohisfatherforassistance,andalthoughthepopewasalwaysofafarmorecautiousturnofmindwheremoneywasconcerned,andconstantlylamentingtheextravagancesofhisson,Cesaredidnotturninvain.

Indeed,thepoperesortedtoallmannerofexpedientsinordertoraisethenecessary

amountsofcash.LargesumspouredinfromtheimpositionoffinesandpenaltiesuponJewsandfromthecreationofnumerousofficesinthepapaladministrationthatwereprofitablysoldforasmuchas700ducatseach.Headoptedthequestionabletacticofcountermandinglegalwills,appointinghimselfasheirandreplacingthenamedexecutorswithhisownmen;heeven,soitwassaid,

resortedtomurdertohelphissonfinanciallysofarashecould.

AddingsubstantiallytothepapalcofferswasthedeathonJuly20,1502,ofCardinalGianbattistaFerrari,AlexanderVI'serstwhiledatary,whohadpaid22,000ducatsforhisredhatinSeptember1500,aspartofthepope'seffortstoraisefundsforCesare'scampaign

againstFaenza,Rimini,andPesaro.ThecardinalhadfallenillinearlyJune,Burchardreported,and"declinedallmedicaltreatment,refusingstubbornlytobegivenenemas,tobebled,totakesyrupsorpillsoranyothermedicines."Afterafewdaysinbed,hehadbeenwellenoughtodineon"breadsoupandapintofexcellentCorsicanwine,"butsoonsufferedarelapse,severe

enoughtobegiventhelastrites;however,heralliedagainandlastedforanothermonth,stillrefusingmedicinesofanykind.

Themorningofhisdeath,somewhatdelirious,hecomplainedthathehadbeenrobbedof10ducatsinatransactionrelatingtoapetition.Twomonkswhowere

presenttoldhim"MostReverendLord,donottroubleyourselfaboutthesetransactions.YoumustrecommendyourselftoHimwhowilldeliveryoufromallfraudanddeceit."Hekissedthecrucifixandmadethesignofthecrossbystrikinghismouthwithhisrighthand.Shortly

afterwardsheyieldeduphisspirit.

Thecardinal'sintermentinSantaMariadellaFebbrewasnotadignifiedceremony;amemberofthedeadman'shouseholdhurriedtowardthecoffintoretrieveapairofglovesthat,heclaimed,belongedtohim,aswellasaringthat,sohemaintained,wasalsohisproperty.Thenitwasfoundthatthelidofthe

coffinwouldnotcloseuponthecorpse,soacarpenterwascalledtokneelonittoforceitdown.

Althougharichmanwhowasreportedtohaveaccumulatedalargefortuneinducatsandingoldandsilver,byextremelyquestionablemeans,GianbattistaFerrarihadbeennotoriouslyparsimonious;andBurchardrecordedthe

jokethatwasbeingtoldofhimatthattimeinRome,that,onpresentinghimselfatthegatesofheaven,St.Peterhadaskedhimforanentrancefeeof1,000ducats.Heprotestedthathecouldnotpossiblypaysuchasum.Well,saidSt.Peter,hewouldsettlefor500ducats.That,too,wasquiteimpossible;thepricewaseventuallydroppedtooneducat,buteventhiswastoomuchforthemiserly

cardinal."Ifyoucannotpayasingleducat,"St.Peterthenexclaimed,"gototheDevil,andremainapauperwithhimforalleternity."

Sothedeathofthecardinalwasnotwidelymourned;hisstinginessanddisregardfortheplightofthepoorhadearnedhimanevilreputation;andwhilehislastillnessseemstohavebeencausedbyafeverendemicinRome,

thereweremanywhobelievedthathehadbeenpoisonedinthemannerinwhichhehimselfwassupposedtohavearrangedthedeathsofseveralofthosewhocrossedhispath.Certainly,muchofthecardinal'sfortune,whichBurchardestimatedat80,000ducats,notcountinghisclothesandjewels,passedintothehandsofthepope,andthenceintoCesare's

battlechest.

HavingtakenUrbinoandCamerino,Cesarewasnowreadyforthenextstepinhisruthlesscampaign.ForthisheneededthecooperationofLouisXII,whowas,convenientlyforCesare,onhiswayfromFranceinpersontovisitMilan,wherehewasexpectedonJuly28.So,justfourdaysafterthesurrenderofCamerino,

CesaregallopedoutofhiscampatFermignano,togetherwiththreecompanions,"disguisedasaKnightofSt.JohnofJerusalem,withacrossonhiscoat,"reportedBurchard,andavailinghimselfoftheorder'schain-of-posthorsesalongtheroad.

AtBorgoSanDonnino,Cesareandhiscompanionsfeastedonahugequantityofchickensandpigeons,so

manyindeedthat"theyshockedthelocals,"claimedBurchard,"coveringthemselveswithshame."TheystoppedbrieflyinFerrara,whereCesarevisitedhisbelovedLucrezia,whowasseriouslyill,androdeontoMilan,wheretheyarrivedonAugust5.

AwitnessreportedtoIsabellad'EstethemannerofCesare'sreceptionbyLouis

XII:

TheKingpubliclyembracedandwelcomedhimwithgreatjoyandledhimintothecastlewherehehadhiminstalledinthechambernearesthisown,andtheKinghimselforderedhissupper,choosingdiversedishes...andheorderedthathis

guestshoulddressintheKing'sownshirtandtunic,sinceDukeValentinohadbroughtnobaggageanimalswithhim,onlyhorses.Inshort—hecouldnothavedonemoreforasonorabrother.

Thepopewasdispleasedbyhisson'sactions—aboutwhichhehadbeenincreasinglyoftenkeptinthe

dark—and,alwaysinclinedtobewaryofFrance,was"highlytroubledbythisjourneyofhisson'stoMilan,"Giustinianhadreported,"becauseIhearfromacompletelyreliablesourcethatheundertookthejourneywithoutanyconsultationoreveninformingHisHoliness."

ForCesare,however,thejourneywastoprovehighly

profitable;notonlydidhecementhisfriendshipandunderstandingwithLouisXII,buthealsosucceededinintimidatinghisenemieswhohadclusteredaroundtheFrenchcourt.Cesare'sreceptionbythekingmusthavebeengallingformanyoftheotherguests,notablyforGiovanniSforzaandGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,bothofwhomhadbeenusurpedbyCesareandwere

hopingforFrenchaidtoregaintheirdominions.

AmongthemostoutspokenofCesare'senemiesgatheredattheFrenchcourtwasIsabellad'Este'shusband,FrancescoGonzaga,whohadswornthathewouldfightaduelwithCesare,"thatbastardsonofapriest's,"butnowfeltobligedtorecant,andreportedtoafriendthatheandCesarehad"embraced

eachotherasgoodbrothers,"adding,"WehavespentallthisdaydancingandfeastingwithHisMajesty."

DespitehisangeratthearrogancewithwhichCesareflauntedhismilitarystrength,andespeciallywithhisencroachmentintotheterritoryofFlorence,whichremainedanimportantallyofFrance,thekingneededthesupportofAlexanderVI,and

ofthepope'sson'sarmy,todefendhisauthorityinNaples,wheretherelationsbetweenFranceandSpain,unusuallycordialinrecentyears,hadbeguntoreturntotheircustomaryhostility.Andso,LouisXIIandCesarecametoanagreementwherebythekingagreedtogivethedukeafreehandinBolognawhileCesarewastolendsupporttoFrenchambitionsinNaples.

CesarespentnearlyamonthwiththeFrenchcourt,travellingwiththekingfirsttoPavia,wheretheywereentertainedwitharitualduelbetweentwofeudingmembersoftheGonzagafamily,whowerethenseatedoppositeeachotheratthelavishbanquetthatfollowed.TheythenrodeontoGenoa,whereaspectacularreceptionhadbeenplannedtowelcomeLouisXII,atacosttothecity

of12,000ducats.

OnSeptember2CesareleftGenoaandfivedayslaterwasinFerraratocheertheailingLucrezia,whowassufferingfrompuerperalfever.HethenrodesouthtoCamerinotoconferwithhisfather,whowasinthecitytoinstallasthenewDukeofCamerinothefour-and-a-half-year-oldJuan,theboywidelysupposedtohavebeenthe

resultofLucrezia'sinfamousaffairwiththepapalvaletPedroCalderon.ThepopeandCesarehadmuchtodiscuss,notleasttheplanforseizingBologna.

InfulfilmentofhisagreementwithCesare,LouisXIIhadsentanenvoytoGiovanniBentivoglioatBologna,informinghimthathewouldnotopposethewishesofAlexanderVI,who

nowcalledBentivogliotoRometoanswerchargesofmisgovernment.

Cesare'scaptains,however,hadbecomeincreasinglysuspiciousoftheirmaster'sintentions.IfGiovanniBentivogliowasabouttolosehisstate,howsafeweretheirownterritories,whichalllayontheedgesofCesare'sduchy,theirsecurityguaranteed,sotheythought,

bytheirserviceintheduke'sarmies.Accordingly,CardinalOrsinicalledameetingatthecastleofMagione,ashortdistancefromLakeTrasimeno,whichwasattendedbyallthethreatenedrulers:GianpaoloBaglioniofPerugia;FrancescoOrsini,DukeofGravina;PaoloOrsiniofPalombara;OliverottoEuffreducciofFermo;evenVitellozzoVitelli,Lordof

CittàdiCastello,whowassufferingfromanacutelypainfulattackofsyphilisandhadtobecarriedthereonastretcher.AndthosewhocouldnotcomeinpersontoMagionewererepresented:GiovanniBentivoglioofBolognasenthisson,Ermes;PandolfoPetrucciofSienasenttwocourtiers;GuidobaldodaMontefeltrosentanother;andsoon.

GianpaoloBaglioniwarnedthoseattendingtheconferencethattheyallriskedbeing"devouredonebyonebythedragon"iftheydidnotactagainstCesare.YetsolongasnotonlyFrancebutalsoFlorenceandVenicedeclinedtohelpthem,themajorityofthemembersoftheconferencewerereluctanttofaceuptothedangerthatconfrontedthem.OnOctober7,however,therewasan

uprisingagainsttheBorgiasinthefortressofSanLeoinUrbino;and,withthisencouragement,agreementwasreached;itwassettledthatCesarewastobeattackedsimultaneouslybyGiovanniBentivogliointheRomagnaandbythemembersoftheOrsinifamily,whoweretoencouragetherevoltinUrbino.

Whenheheardofthis

threat,whichseemedforatimetoweakenhisholdonhisstate,CesarewithdrewhisforcestoImolaandthesecurityoftheRomagna.WhenMachiavellijoinedhimthere,toofferthesupportofFlorence,hefoundtheduketobequiteunperturbed,evenindifferent.HeacceptedthelossofUrbinowithapparentnonchalanceandpreparedforwarwithevidentconfidenceinvictory,raisingtroopsand

money,andappointingnewcondottiericaptains,manyofwhomwereSpanish,toreplacetheconspirators.HealsospentsuchlargesumsonhisintelligenceservicesthatMachiavellithoughtthathe"laidoutasmuchoncouriersandspecialmessengersintwoweeksasanyoneelsewouldhavespentintwoyears."

Atfirstthemilitary

operationsdidnotgowellforCesare;andtowardtheendofOctober,theduchyofUrbinofelltotheconspirators,who,accordingtoBurchard,afterhavingassembledsomefivehundredcavalryandtwothousandtroops,restoredthecityofUrbinoandallitsterritorytotheillustriousGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,rightfulDukeofUrbino.

Butasmoremoneycamein

andmoretroopswereenlisted,thetide,asMachiavellisaid,begantoturn.Hisenemieswere"tardyinpressinghim";theyhadfailedtoseizethemoment,ashehimselfundoubtedlywouldhavedone,and,astheybegantoloseheartinopposinghim,wereeventuallypersuadedtocometotermswithhim.

AsMachiavelliwaslaterto

writeinThePrince,Cesare"overcametherevoltofUrbino,theuprisingsintheRomagna,andthecountlessthreatswiththehelpoftheFrench"towhichheaddedhisownnotinconsiderablepoliticalskills:

HisformerstandinginItalywasrestored,buthenolongertrustedtheFrenchortheforcesofothers,and

inordertoavoidtheriskofdoingso,heresortedtostratagems.HispowersofdissimulationweresoimpressivethateventheOrsini,throughLordPaolo[ofPalombara]reconciledthemselveswithhim.TheDukeusedeverydeviceofdiplomacytoreassurePaoloOrsini,givinghim

giftsofmoney,clothesandhorses.

ThegeneraldesirenowtoregainthegoodopinionofCesarewas,soMachiavellisaid,reflectedinthesubmissiveletteraddressedtohimbyVitellozzoVitelli,whoexcusedhimselfforhavingjoinedtheallianceagainstthedukeandsayingthatifheeverhadtheopportunitytospeaktohim

personally,hehadnodoubthewouldbeabletojustifyhimselfcompletely.

Receivingnoreplytohisletter,anddeniedapersonalinterviewwithCesare,VitellicouldbutguesswhatCesareintendedtodonext.Machiavelliwasalsokeptinthedark."IhavenottriedtospeaktotheDuke,havingnothingnewtotellhim,"hereportedtoFlorence,"andthe

samethingswouldborehim;youmustrealisethathetalkstonobodyotherthanthreeorfourofhisministersandvariousforeignerswhoareobligedtodealwithhimaboutimportantmattersandhedoesnotcomeoutofhisstudyuntillateatnight;andsothereisnoopportunitytospeaktohimexceptwhenanaudiencehasbeenappointed.

"Besides,"continued

Machiavelli,"heisverysecretive.Idonotbelievethatwhatheisgoingtodoisknowntoanyoneotherthanhimself.Hissecretarieshavetoldmeoftenthathedoesnotrevealhisplansuntiltheyarereadytobecarriedout.SoIbegyourLordshipswillexcusemeandnotputitdowntomynegligenceifIdonotsatisfyyourLordshipswithinformation,becausemostofthetimeIdonoteven

satisfymyself."

SoMachiavellicouldnotbyanymeansdiscoverwhatCesareintendedtodonext.Then,justbeforeChristmas,therewasnews;CesarehadsummonedalltheFrenchofficersinhisarmytocometoseehimandhadtoldthemthathenolongerneededthem;theirupkeepinidlenesswasanexpensethathenolongerwishedtoafford.On

thedayoftheirdeparture,aballwasheldinCesare'shonouratCesena.Theprettywifeofoneoftheseofficersattractedhisattention,andhedancedwithherseveraltimes,closelywatchedbyherhusband.

Whilehewasapparentlyenjoyingthisball,themilitarygovernoroftheRomagna,thefierce,aggressiveRamirodeLorqua,wasimmediately

arrestedonhisreturnfromPesaroandcastintoprison.Atdawnthreedayslater,hewasbeheadedinthepiazzaatCesena.Hisdecapitatedbodywasleftontheblock,hisheaddisplayedonalance.

NoexplanationwasgivenforthissuddenexecutionotherthanthatRamirohadbeenguiltyofcorruptionintheexerciseofhisoffice;butthissolutiontothemystery

wasnotgenerallyaccepted.TherewasarumourthatRamirohadbeenincorrespondencewiththeconspirators,notablyinsomekindofplotwithGiovanniBentivoglio,Vitelli,andmembersoftheOrsinifamily."Thereasonforhisdeathisnotknown,"Machiavellicommented,"butperhapsitpleasedthePrincewholikestoshowthatheknowshowtomakeandunmakemenathis

will."

CertainlyCesare'soccupyingtroopshadbeenill-disciplinedatfirst,whiletheSpanishofficers,liketheunpopularandcorruptRamirodeLorqua,whowereinstalledasadministrators,haddealtmostharshlywithrecalcitrantpeople.But,intime,ItaliansreplacedSpaniards;and,tothegeneralsatisfaction,aperipatetic

courtofappealwasestablishedunderthedirectionofalawyerofgoodreputation,AntoniodelMonte.

WhatatleastseemedcertainafterRamiro'sexecutionwasthatCesarewaspreparingsomekindofmoveagainstthecondottiericaptainswhohadbeenplottinghisownmurder.InthemeantimetheyagreedtotakeinCesare's

namethesmalltownofSenigalliaontheAdriaticcoastsouthofFano.SenigalliahadbeenthefiefofGiovannidellaRovere,brotherofCardinalGiuliano,buthehaddiedinNovember1501,leavinghiswife,Giovanna,sisterofGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,actingasregentforhisyoungson.CardinalGiulianodellaRovere,mindfulofthefateofAstorreManfredi,had

arrangedforhistwelve-year-oldnephew,FrancescoMaria,tobesmuggledoutoftheareatothesafetyofhisownpalaceinSavona.And,knowingCesare'sreputationforcruelty,thecardinalhadwarnedGiovannanottoofferanyresistance.

Thetownfellwithoutastruggle,butitsmilitarycommanderrefusedtosurrenderthecitadelto

anyoneotherthanCesareBorgiahimself.Wearingfullarmour,CesarerodetowardSenigalliaonDecember31,1502,attheheadofhisarmy,thecondottiericaptainscomingouttomeethimandfollowinghimbackintothetown,thegatesofwhichwereclosedbehindthem.

Cesarenowcalleduponhiscaptainstoattendaconferenceinthehousehe

chosetooccupyashisheadquarters.Respondingtohisinvitationtojoinhimattable,theyenteredthecourtyardofthishouseasCesare,accordingtooneaccount,wasmountingastaircaseinorder,sohesaid,to"answeracallofnature."Whenhewashalfwayupthestairs,heturnedtonodtoMigueldeCorella.Andinobediencetothissignal,thecondottieriweresuddenly

surroundedbyarmedsoldiers;onlyVitellihadtimetodrawhisswordandwoundseveralofthesoldiers,beforetheywereallarrestedanddisarmed.

ThateveningMachiavelliarrivedfromFanotofindthetowninanuproar.HesentamessagetoFlorencereportingthearrestofthecondottiericaptainsandadded,ominously,"Inmyviewthey

willnotbealivetomorrowmorning."SoonafterwardVitellozzoVitelliandOliverottoEuffreducciweregarrottedbyCesare's"executioner,"Corella,astheysatbacktobackonabench.ThethreeOrsinis—Paolo,Francesco,andRoberto—hadbeentakenawayasprisoners,soMachiavelliwastold,and"facedasimilarfate,"andCesaresentanurgentletterto

RomeorderinghisfathertoarrestCardinalOrsiniassoonaspossible.WhenthecardinalarrivedattheVaticanthenextmorninginordertocongratulatethepopeonCesare'sseizureofSenigallia,hemadehisentranceintotheSaladelPappagallo,where,accordingtoBurchard,"hewasterrifiedtofindhimselfsurroundedbyarmedmenandimmediatelycastintoprison."Burchardaddedthat

"allhispossessionswereseized,"beforebeing"loadedontomulesandtakentotheVatican."

Thepunishmentofthefaithlesscondottieriwasconsideredwellmerited.EvenIsabellad'EstewrotetocongratulateCesareonhispunishmentofthem,sendinghimapresentofonehundredcarnivalmasksandexpressingthehopethat

"afterthestrainsandfatigues"thathehadundergonein"thesegloriousundertakings,"heshouldnowfindtimetoenjoyhimself."Heinsistedonexaminingthemaskswithhisownhand,"Isabellasaid,"sayinghowfinetheywere,andhowmuchtheyresembledvariouspeopleofhisacquaintance."

ThedayafterthemurdersofVitellozzoandOliverotto,

CesareleftSenigallia,havingacceptedthesurrenderofitscitadel,and,inthepouringrain,setouttoclaimthestatesofhisdisloyalcaptainsforhisown.CittàdiCastellofellquickly.AtPerugia,GianpaoloBaglionifledathisapproach,seekingrefugewithPandolfoPetrucciinSiena.CesaremarchedtowardSiena,seizingthecity'soutpostsalongtheway,hismensacking,pillaging,and

rapingatwill.AtSanQuiricod'Orcia,hissoldiersfoundjusttwomenandninewomen,allelderly,whomtheyhungupbytheirarms,kindlingafirebeneaththeirfeettotorturethemintoconfessingwheretheirvaluableswerehidden;theoldpeopledidnotknow,orwerenotpreparedtorevealanything,andtheydied.

Declaringthatheactedas

captain-generalofthechurchandthathehadnoselfishmotives,CesarethendrovePetruccifromSienaand,havingdoneso,movedagainsttheOrsinicastlesandlandsinthecountrysidearoundRome.ThestrongholdofCerisurrenderedafterasavagebombardmentonApril5,1503.OtherOrsinicastles,includingPalombaraandCerveteri,followedsuit;PaoloOrsini,Lordof

Palombara,wasstrangled;FrancescoOrsini,DukeofGravina,wasalsomurdered,soitwaswidelysupposed,ontheordersofthepope.OnlyGiangiordanoOrsini,LordofBracciano,wasspared;likeCesare,hewasaknightoftheFrenchroyalOrderofSt.Michael,whosememberssworeasolemnoathonreceivingtheircollarnottomakewarononeanother.

Lookingbackontheeventsofthepreviousyear,Machiavelliwrote:"DukeValentinoenjoysexceptionalgoodfortune,courageandconfidencethatarealmostinhuman,andabeliefthathecanaccomplishwhateverheundertakes."Asasoldier,histalentslayinanextraordinarycapacityforrapidmovementanddeceit.Nosoonerwashereportedtobeinoneplacethanhesuddenlyappearedin

another,milesaway.Heturnedtheartofwar,soitwassaidofhim,intotheartofdeceit.Thereareveryfewdescriptionsofhimasacommanderinthefield;butthereisonethatdemonstratestheastonishingpowerofhispersonality.Hismenwerecrossingariverwhen,infearofdrowning,theypanicked.Shoutastheydid,theirofficerscouldnotrestoreorder.Cesarerodedownto

theriverbank.Hismensawhimsittingthere,gazinguponthescene,silentandimpressive.Whentheycaughtsightofhim,thesoldierswerebroughtimmediatelytoorder;andtheycrossedtheriverquietly.

Andinhispresentsituation,Cesareacceptedthefactthathewouldhavetoundertakearealignmentinhisrelationswithforeignpowersnowthat

SpainwasemergingasthestrongerpowerinherstrugglewithFranceoverNaples,notablysinceApril28,whenthecommanderoftheSpanisharmy,GonsalvodiCórdoba,wonadecisivevictoryovertheFrenchatCerignola,exposingtheweaknessoftheFrenchholdoverNaples.CesarehadhiseyesonTuscany,anditwasbelievedthathehaditinmindtoformanalliancewith

theSpaniardstogainhisend.

Cesarecoulddonothing,however,untilhehadraisedmoremoneytoreplenishhiscoffers,whichhadbeensodrasticallydepletedbyhiscampaignofthepreviousyear,byhisattacksontheOrsini,andbyhiswildextravagance.Onceagainheturnedtohisfather.

WhentherichVenetian

CardinalGiovanniMichieldiedinmysteriouscircumstancesonApril10,1503,afterdaysofvomitinganddiarrhoea,itwaswidelyconjecturedthatthepopehimselfhadbeeninstrumentalinhavinghimpoisoned.Certainly,sotheVenetianambassadorAntonioGiustinianwastold:"AssoonasthePopeheardofhisdeathhesentamantohishouseand,beforedawn,itwas

completelyplundered,"addingthat"thedeathoftheCardinalhasbroughthimover150,000ducats."

Furtheramounts,soGiustinianclaimed,wereraisedbythecreationofcardinals.InMay1503thenominationwasagreedinasecretconsistoryofninenewcardinals;thethreeItalianswereallBorgiamen,onewasGerman,afavourtothe

emperor,andtheotherfivewereSpaniards,allwelldisposedtowardtheSpanishpopeandareflectionofAlexanderVI'schangeofpolicy;none,significantly,wereFrench."Todaytherewasaconsistory,"GiustinianreportedtotheVenetiangovernment,"andninenewcardinalswerenominated,mostlymenofdubiousreputationandallhavepaidhandsomelyfortheir

elevation,some20,000ducatsandmore,sothatfrom120,000to130,000ducatshavebeencollected;itisnotoriousthatHisHolinessisshowingtheworldthattheamountofapope'sincomeiswhateverhechoosesittobe."

Amanwhohadworkedfortheminthepastandhadhopedtoberewardedwitharedhat,FrancescoTroche,didnottroubletoconcealhis

disappointmentandspokeslightinglyofCesare."HisHolinessthePopetoldhimthathewasamadmantospeaklikethatandiftheDukecametohearofithewouldbekilled,"reportedoneambassadortohismaster,"anditwasbecauseofthewordsofHisBeatitudethat,terrified,Trochetookflight."HefledfirsttoGenoaandthen,bywayofSardinia,endedupinCorsica;butthere

hewascaughtandbroughtbacktoRome,wherehewasstrangledbyCesare'ssinisterlieutenant,MigueldaCorella.Onthesameday,anothermanwhohadfallenfoulofCesare,JacopodiSantacroce,aRomannoblemanandformerBorgiasupporter,washangedandhisbodydisplayedonthePonteSant'AngeloasawarningtoallenemiesoftheBorgias.

Cesarewasnowattheheightofhispower.Havingraisedenoughmoneybyallthemeansathisdisposal,andriddinghimselfofseveralenemies,henowenrolledanarmyofsometwelvehundredlightcavalryandoverfourthousandinfantry,allwearinghisred-and-yellowlivery,withthewordCESARinlargelettersembroideredonthechestsandbacksoftheiruniforms."Allthebest

soldierswerewithhim,"thechroniclerMatarazzowrote."AndhehadsomuchaccumulatedtreasureandpossessionsthatitseemedtherewasnotasmuchelsewhereinallItaly.Norwerethereasmanywell-disciplinedsoldierssowellsuppliedwitharmsandhorses."

Cesarewasreadyforhisnextcampaign.Atthe

beginningofJuly,thepopeconfirmedhimasrulerofCittàdiCastelloandorderedthecityofPerugiatoaccepthislordship;heexpectedsoontoaddthecitiesofPisa,Lucca,andSienatohisdominion.PoisedforhisTuscancampaign,Cesare'swell-suppliedandwell-trainedarmybegantomarchnorthuptheViaFlaminiatowardPerugiaandthebordersofTuscany.Cesare

himselfremainedinRome,waitingfortherightmomenttostart.WiththeSpanisharmyfacingunexpectedoppositioninitsconquestofthekingdomofNaples,itsadvanceslowed;theFrenchtroopsinnorthernItaly,meanwhile,hadbeguntheirlongmarchsouthtorelievetheirbeleagueredcomrades.CesarehadtogambleontheSpanishwinningthroughandfixedthedateofhisdeparture

forAugust9.

Chapter23TheDeathofthePope

"THISMONTHISFATALFORSTOUTMEN"

THEWEATHERINROMEthatsummerof1503wasunusuallyhotandhumid.AlexanderVIhadfallenillinJuly,andwhentheVenetianambassadorhadvisitedhim

inthepapalapartmentsintheVatican,hehadfoundthepope"recliningonasofa,fullyclothed."GiustinianreportedthatAlexanderVI"receivedmewithgoodhumour,sayingthatforthreedayshehadbeeninconveniencedbyaslightdysenterybutthathehopeditwouldbenothingserious."

"Therearemanyillwithfeverhere,"aFlorentine

workinginRomewrotethatJuly;"andpeoplearedyingingreatnumbers."OneofthedeadwastheformerFlorentineambassador,whosesuccessorwasnowgravelyill.Despitehisseventy-threeyears,thepoperecoveredhishealthquicklyenoughbutnothisnormallyebullientdemeanour.AlexanderVIgrewunusuallydepressedasthedailydeathtollgrewofmen,women,and

childrenwhohadsuccumbedtothefever—typhoid,typhus,orperhapsmalaria—thatragedinthecity.HeadmittedasmuchtoGiustinian,towhomheconfessedthathewaspreoccupiedwiththesereports:"Allthesedeathsmakeusfearfulandpersuadeustotakemorecareofourhealth."OnAugust1hisnephewCardinalJuanBorgiadied;andasthepopewatchedthefuneralprocessionpass

beneathhiswindow,heremarked,withuncharacteristicmournfulness,"Thismonthisfatalforstoutmen."ThesultrymonthsofJulyandAugusthadindeedprovedfatalforhisfivepredecessors,InnocentVIII,SixtusIV,PaulII,PiusII,andthepope'sownuncleCalixtusIII.

OnAugust5,justfourdaysbeforeCesarewasdueto

leaveRome,fatherandsonacceptedaninvitationtodinneratthevillaofCardinalAdrianoCastellesiinthecountrysidesomemilesoutsideofRome.OnthisoccasionitwasCesare'shealththatcausedthegreateranxiety,sincehewasnotonlysufferingfrompaininhisstomach,butalso,accordingtoBurchard,hewas"muchirritatedbytheskinonhisfaceinthelowerpart,which

fallsapartlikerottenleavesandresultsinapusthatheismuchconcernedtohidewithhismask."

OntheirarrivalatCastellesi'svilla,fatherandsonwerebothextremelythirstyandaskedforcupsofwine,whichtheydrank"mostgratefully."Itwasasultryevening,andtheguestsdinedalfresco,thankfulfortheshadecastbythetreesinthe

garden.Thenextdaytheirhostfeltillandwenttobed;aweeklaterthepopealsotooktohisbed;Cesarethenfellill;sodidseveralofthecardinal'sotherguests,aswellassomeofhisservants.Poisonwasnaturallysuspected.Giustinianwasamongthosewhobelievedthataservanthadbeenresponsible;otherssuggestedthatCesarewasthepoisoner.Yetotherssaidthatthepopehimselfwas

responsible,thathehadintendedpoisoninghisformersecretaryforsomereasonbuthadinadvertentlydrunkthepoisonedwinehimself.Itwasnotthewinethathadbeentamperedwith,othersmaintained,butpoisonedsweetmeatsthathadbeenpassedaroundamongtheguestsafterthemeal.

Butthepopehimselfdeclaredthattheputridairin

Romeduringthisintolerableheatwavewasprobablyresponsible.BeltrandoCostabili,theFerrareseambassadorinRome,reportedthatitwasnotsurprisingthatthepopeandhissonhadbothfallenill,"sinceallthepalaceofficialsareinthesameconditionbecauseoftheunwholesomeairhere."

Burchardrecordeddaily

bulletinsonthepope'shealth.OnAugust12hewrotethat"HisHolinessshowssignsofafeverwhichdoesnotabate."ThenextdayGiustinianreportedtoVenice:

ThePopevomitedyesterdayeveningandhasbeenfeverishallnight;andDukeCesareisinasimilarcondition.Thedoctorsattendconstantlyand

areconsideringwhetherornottobleed...someofmyinformantstalkoffourteenouncesofbloodtakenaway;othersofsixteenounces.Perhapstenouncesismorelikely;andeventhatisagreatquantityforamanoftheageofHisHoliness.But,greatorsmall,ithashadno

effectandthefeverdoesnotabate.AsforDukeCesare,heisworse.

CostabilisentasimilarlydispiritingreporttoFerrara:

YesterdaymorningIwastoldongoodauthoritythatHisHolinesshassummonedtheBishopofVenosaandanother

physician;andthatthesearenotallowedtoleavehim.IwastoldthatthePopewasfeverishandvomitingyesterday,andthattheyhavetakennineouncesofhisblood....DuringthedayHisHolinessaskedsomeofthecardinalstoplaycardsinhisroomwhileherested....Butthisafternoonthere

wasacrisissuchastherewasonSaturdayandthismakeshisattendantsuneasy.Everyoneisunwillingtotalkofhiscondition;andthemoreIseek,thelessIamtold.Thephysicians,surgeonsandapothecariesarenotallowedtoleavehimfromwhichIdeducethathis

conditionisgrave.

Thesamenewswassentbyotherenvoystotheirvariousstates.Giustinianwasparticularlyassiduousinthisrespect,reportingonAugust16,1503:"EarlythismorningOurLordthePope,wellawarethathisillnessisdangerous,receivedhisrites;andsomecardinalshavebeenadmittedintohisbedchamber;theviaticum

wasgiveninsecret,forthoseabouthimtrytoconcealhisconditionasmuchastheycan."Thebishopwhohadadministeredtherites"lefttheroomintearssayingthatthedangerwasverygreatandcomplainingoftheineffectivenessofthemedicinesthathavebeenadministered."

BynowAlexanderVIwasinahighfeverandwas

violentlysickduringthenight.HewasbledsocopiouslythatGiustinianwasshockedtohearofit.Cesarealsohadbeenseverelybledbeforebeingplungedintoabathofice-coldwater,fromwhichheemergedwiththeskinpeelingfromhisback.Bothfatherandsonwerestillfeverishthenextmorning,soGiustinianwastold,theduke"moreseverelywithrecurrentparoxysmsoffeveroneafter

theotherandstrangefits,"andGiustinianaddedthatCesarehad"sentforthedoctorswhoarelookingafterhimandhewillnotletthemleave,andisinsistentthathisconditionmustnotgenerallybeknown."

Thefollowingday,Friday,August18,AlexanderVIdied;asBurchardcommented,hehad"madehisconfessiontotheBishopof

Carignolawhothensaidmassinhispresenceand,aftertheBishophadtakencommunionhimself,heofferedthesacramentoftheEucharisttothePopeinhisbed."AftertheMassthepopetoldthecardinalsgatheredaroundhisbedside"thathefeltverypoorly."Thecardinalsevidentlylefttheroomshortlyafterward;thepope"receivedExtremeUnctionfromtheBishopofCarignola

atthehourofVespersanddiedwithjusttheBishop,theDataryandapapalgroompresent."

Cesarewasinformedimmediatelyofhisfather'sdeath.Althoughhewasgivinghisdoctorssomehopethathewouldrecover,Cesarewasstilldesperatelyillandveryweak,barelycapableofmakingthedecisionsandissuingtheordersthatthe

crisisnowdemanded.Fortunatelyforhim,hisloyallieutenant,MigueldeCorella,wasalreadyinthepalaceandabletoactonhismaster'sbehalf.

Keepingthenewsacloselyguardedsecret,Corellanowtookapartyofmenandlockedallthedoorsleadingintothepapalapartments.Hethenmarchedintothepope'sbedchamber,wherehefound

CardinalCasanovaand,holdingaknifetohisthroat,threatenedtocutitopenandthrowhimoutofthewindowifhedidnothandoverthekeystothecupboardsandclosets,where,Cesarehadinformedhim,alargesumofmoneywasstored.Theterrifiedcardinalhandedoverthekeyswithoutprotest,whereuponCorellaandhismenunlockedthechestsandappropriatedthemoneyand

silvertheycontained;accordingtoGiustinian'sreporttotheVenetianSenate,theyremovedcoins,silver,andjewelsworth500,000ducats.

CorellanowmadethepublicannouncementthatAlexanderVIwasdead,andimmediatelythepope'sservantsranintotheapartmentstohelpthemselvestotheclothestheyfoundin

hiswardrobeandotheritems.Nothingofvaluewasleft,soBurchardsaid,"exceptthepapalchairs,somecushionsandthetapestriesnailedtothewalls."

Though,infact,whenthecardinalscametomakeaninventoryofthepope'spossessionsafewdayslater,theyfoundalotof"silver,jewelsandpreciousobjects,"accordingtoBurchard,items

thatCorellahadoverlookedor,perhaps,hadbeenhiddenbythepopeevenfromhisownson."Theyfoundthetiara,twovaluablemitres,alltheringswhichthePopeusedatmass,andallthesacredvesselsthePopeusedwhenheofficiatedatmass,whichfilledeightlargecoffers."AccordingtoBurchard,theyalsofounda"cypresschestcoveredwithgreentapestry,whichtoohadescaped

Corellaandhismen,insideofwhichtheyfoundpreciousstonesandvaluableringsworth25,000ducats."

ItwasnotuntilearlyeveningthatBurchardhimselfwasinformedofthepope'sdeath,andtheloyalmasterofceremonieshastenedintothepapalapartments."AfterIhadseenthePope'sbody,"whichhadalreadybeenwashed,"I

clotheditinredbrocadevestments,withsilkenamiceandchasuble."Hecouldnotfindthepope'sshoesbutdidfindapairofslippersproperlyembroideredwithcrosses"andtwostringsthatIusedforbindingthemtohisfeet,"buthewasunabletoreplacethepope'smissingring,whichhad,nodoubt,beenrippedoffhisfingerbyCorellaandhismen.Burchardthenhadthecorpse

putonabierintheantechamberbeforebeingtakenintotheSaladelPappagallo,whereitwasplacedonatablecoveredwithacrimsonclothand"apieceoffinetapestry";andfourmonksbegantorecitetheOfficeoftheDead.

Messagesweresenttoallthecardinals,instructingthemtoassembleintheChurchofSantaMariasopra

Minervathenextmorning,andtoalltheclergyinRome,instructingthemtogatherforthefuneralprocessionfromtheSistineChapeltotheBasilicaofSt.Peter'sthefollowingday.Withanescortofcardinals,monks,clerics,andthecanonsofSt.Peter's,aswellasmembersofAlexanderVI'shousehold,manyofwhomcarriedthe140tallwaxtapersthataccompaniedtheprocession,

thepope'sbierproceededintoSt.Peter's.Thebieritselfwascarried,aswasthecustom,byanumberofpauperswhoweretraditionallyrewardedwithatokensumforthisservice,aservicethatwasperformedonthisoccasionwithmorereverencethanthatdisplayedbytheclerics,who,accordingtoBurchard,ambledalongbesidethebier"indisorderlyfashion."

Therewasfurtherunseemlybehaviourinsidethebasilica,where,whiletheprayerswerebeingchanted,thepalaceguardssetuponthemembersoftheprocessioninordertoseizethetallwaxtapersthattheywerecarrying.Theclergyfledtothesacristy,abandoningthepope'sbody,whileBurchard,"withthehelpofthreeothers,"soherecorded,"tookholdofthebierandmoveditintoa

positionbehindthehighaltar."Evenhereitdidnotseemsafe;thebishopofSessa"wonderediftheangrypeoplemightnotclimbuptoreachthebodyandsomeonewhohadbeenwrongedbythePopewouldgethisrevenge;sothebierwasmovedbehindtheirongrilleofthechapelentranceandtherethebodyremainedthroughouttheday,withtheirongrillefirmlyclosed."

ThereBurchardleftitanduponhisreturnhewasappalledtoseethedeadpope'sface"hadchangedtothecolouroftheblackestcloth,andcoveredinblue-blackspots;thenosewasswollen,themouthdistended,thetonguebentbackdouble,thelipsseemedtofilleverythingandtheappearanceofthefacewasmorehorrifyingthananythingeverseen."Francesco

Gonzagaconfirmedthisinalettertohiswife,Isabellad'Este;thecorpse"hadlostallhumanform,"hewrote,addingthat"everyonerefusedtotouchitthougheventuallyoneoftheportersdraggedittothegravebymeansofaropeattachedtooneofthefeet."

Thesixportersmadegruesomejokesaboutitsappearanceastheystruggled

togettheswollencorpseintoacoffinthatwasmuchtoosmall."Thecarpenters,"accordingtoBurchard,"hadmadethecoffintoonarrowandtooshortandsotheyhadtoremovethemitrefromthePope'sheadandplaceitbyhisside,beforerollinguphisbodyinanoldcarpet,andpummellingandpushingitintothecoffinwiththeirfists."Burchardadded,sadly,that"nowaxtapersorcandles

wereusedandnopriestsnoranyotherpersonsattendedthebody."

Thenextdaygruesomestorieswerespreadaboutthecity:ThedeadpopehadbeenheardinconversationwithSatan;hehadboughtthepapacyforthepriceofhissoul;hehadstruckabargainwiththedevilandhadagreedtowearthepapalcrownforelevenyearsandhaddoneso

forthatperiodoftimeplussevendays.Attheend,soitwasrumoured,waterhadboiledinhismouth,causingsteamtofilltheroominwhichhedied,andthat,inthewordsofamacabrejest,whenrigormortissetin,"indeathasinlife,heremainederect."Itwasatleastcertainthat,intheterribleheatofthatAugust,theskinofthecorpsehadturnedblackandthesmellthatemanatedfrom

itwasintolerable.

Inevitablytherewererumoursthatthedeathwasnotanaturalone,thatthewineheandCesarehaddrunksothirstilyontheirarrivalatCardinalCastellesi'scountryhousehadbeenpoisoned.ManyclaimedthatCesareandhisfatherhadplannedtokillthecardinalforhisgreatriches,butthattheservantwhohadbeenbribedto

poisonthewineservedatthemealhadpouredthedeadlyconcoctionintothewrongflagons.Thisreportspreadfarandwide,irrespectiveofthefactthatnoneoftheguests,whohaddrunkthesamewine,displayedanyilleffectsuntilaweeklater.

LucreziawasatthevillaofMedelanawhenCardinalIppolitorodeoverfromFerraratobringherthesad

news;andonhearingthedreadedwords,sheafterwardsaidthather"onlywishwastodieherself."Fewweresomoved.Machiavellirecorded,inverse,how"thesoulofAlexanderwasbroughttorest,gloriousamongtheblessed,"andfollowingin"thePope'ssaintlyfootstepscamehisthreeservantsandbelovedhandmaidens,extravagance,simonyandcruelty."

DukeErcolealsohadfewregrets.InalettertohisambassadorinMilan,whichhewasconfidentwouldbepassedonbytheFrenchgovernorofthecitytoLouisXII,hewrote:

KnowingthatmanywillaskyouhowweareaffectedbythePope'sdeath,wewishtoinformyouthatitwasinnoway

displeasingtous....ThereneverwasaPopefromwhomwereceivedfewerfavours...evenafterconcludinganalliancewithhim.Infact,itwasonlywiththegreatestdifficultythatweobtainedfromhimwhathehadpromisedus,forwhichweholdtheDukeofRomagnaresponsible.Hewas

neverfrankwithus,nevertellingusofhisplans,thoughwealwaystoldhimofours.

HealsohopedforbetterthingsfromAlexanderVI'ssuccessor,piouslyobservingthat"forthesakeofChristendomhehadoftendesiredthatdivinegoodnessandprovidencewouldprovideavirtuousand

exemplaryshepherdandthatallscandalwouldberemovedfromtheChurch."

Chapter24Conclaves

"HECOULDNOTHAVEFORESEENTHAT,

ATTHETIMEOFHISFATHER'SDEATH,

HESHOULDHIMSELFHAVEBEENSOSERIOUSLYILL"

THESEDEVACANTE,theperiodofthe"emptythrone"betweenthedeathofonepopeandthe

electionofhissuccessor,wasoftenatenseandtroubledtimeinRome,anditwasparticularlysointhesummerof1503.OnthemorningofAugust19,thedayafterAlexanderVIdied,allthosecardinalswhowereinRome,sixteeninall,assembledinthechapterhouseofSantaMariasopraMinerva:"ThegreatsealofAlexanderVIwasbrokenintheirpresence,"thesymbolicactwherebythe

collegeofcardinalsformallyassumedresponsibilityforthegovernmentofthechurchandofthecityofRomeuntilsuchatimewhenthenewpopewouldbeelected.Althoughthefirstpartoftheirtaskprovedrelativelystraightforward,thesecondwasfraughtwithdifficultyanddanger.

Romewasinanuproar.OnAugust24theOrsiniarrived

inthecitywithtwelvehundredarmedmen"andimmediatelystartedsackinganddestroyingthehousesofSpaniards,"accordingtoareportmadetotheVenetianSenate;"therewereweaponseverywhere."ThebulletinsfromtheVaticansuggestedthatthecommanderofthepapalarmywasclosetodeath:"TheDukeismorefeverishthanever,"GiustinianwroteofCesare

thatday;andtherewas"hopeinRomethathewillshortlyfollowhisfathertothegrave."Certainlyhisenemieswereeagerlyawaitingthispieceofnews.WhileCesare'smen,underthecapableleadershipofMigueldeCorella,hadtakenholdoftheBorgo—theareaaroundtheVaticanandCastelSant'Angelo—therestofthecitywasoutoftheircontrol.

MuchofthecitywasinthehandsofsupportersoftherivalOrsiniandColonnafamilies,unitedforonceintheirhatredoftheBorgias,takingwhatadvantagetheycouldofthepope'sdemise.AstherumoursofCesare'sworseningconditionspreadrapidlythroughRome,gangsofmenmarchedthreateninglythroughthestreets,shouting,astheywouldneverhavedaredtodowhileAlexander

VIwasstillalive,"DownwiththeodiousCatalan."

Thetensioninthecityintensified,moreover,whenitbecameknownthatthreearmieswereapproachingRome.TheFrenchtroops,ledbyFrancescoGonzaga,MarquisofMantua,wereontheirwaysouthtodefendNaplesandhadreachedViterbo,justfortymilesnorthofthecitywalls;aforceof

SpaniardsunderGonsalvodiCórdobawasmarchingnorthfromNaples;andCesare'sownbattalions,poisedforthestartofwhatwastohavebeenhisTuscancampaign,werenowrecalledfromtheircampnearPerugiatomarchbackdowntheViaFlaminia.

LouisXIIofFranceandFerdinandandIsabellaofSpainwerehopingtoprofitfromCesare'sincapacity;all

ofthem—Cesare,perhaps,mostofall—wereintentuponusingarmedforcetoinfluencetheforthcomingconclaveinordertoensurethatthenewpopetobeelectedwasamansympathetictotheirinterests.

Cesarehimselfwasstilltooilltotakepersonalcontrolofthesituation,unabletoseizetheadvantagetoestablishhiscontrolofRomeortodefend

hisauthorityinhisduchy."Hetoldmehimself,"Machiavelliwrote,"thathehadforeseeneverydifficultythatcouldariseonthedeathofhisfatherandhadpreparedadequateremedies;buthecouldnothaveforeseenthat,atthetimeofhisfather'sdeath,heshouldhimselfhavebeensoseriouslyill."Thosewhoselandshadbeendispossessedusedtheopportunityofferedby

Cesare'sincapacitytotakethembackagain.Italywasinanuproar,ashisempirebegantofallapart:GuidobaldodaMontefeltroreturnedtopowerinUrbino;GianpaoloBaglionicamebacktoPerugia;theVaranofamilytoCamerino;GiovanniSforzatoPesaro;andtheOrsiniretookpossessionoftheircastles.

YetCesare'spositionwas

notasweakashisenemieshoped.HestillcontrolledtheBorgo;hehadathiscommandawell-trainedarmyandalsothemoneyneededtopayitsmen;mostofthecitiesoftheRomagnaremainedfirmlyloyal,andhewouldhaveconsiderableinfluenceintheimminentconclave.AccordingtoGiustinian'sreckoning,therewere"eightcardinalswhowouldfollowhimineverything,"and

severalmorebesides.Buthealsohadinveterateandinfluentialenemiesinthecollege,too,notablyAscanioSforzaandthecousinsRaffaelloRiarioandGiulianodellaRovere,thelatterofwhomwasonhiswaytoRomewithanescortofonehundredcrossbowmenincaseofattackbyCesare'smen,whohadbeenorderedtointercepthim.

Inhisweakenedstate,lyinginbedinhisroomsabovetheBorgiaapartmentsintheVatican,Cesarehadbeenuncharacteristicallyhesitantduringthefirstfewdaysofthesedevacante.Now,inanattempttomakeupforlosttime,hestartedtomakeoverturesatthesametimetobothFrenchandSpanishcandidatesintheconclave,offendingbothfactionswhenhisbehaviourbecameknown.

HehadalsobeenabletocometoasecretagreementwithLouisXIIwherebyheagreedtoplaceallhismenattheking'sdisposalontheunderstandingthatLouisXIIwouldprotecttheterritoriesthatCesarestilloccupiedandhelphimtorecoverthosethathadrecentlybeenlost.

Healsosworehisallegiancetothecollegeofcardinals,andafewdayslater,a

deputationofcardinalsapproachedtheVenetianambassador,AntonioGiustinian,witharequestthatheshouldusehispersuasiveskillstoinduceCesaretoremovehistroopsfromRomesothatafreeconclavecouldbeheld.Since,asGiustinianputit,thiswasnobusinessofhisandhehadnoinstructionsfromVeniceinthematter,he,atfirst,declined.Underpressure,however,and

persuadedthathisactionswouldbringgreatcredittohisgovernment,theambassadordid,intheend,convinceCesare.Andso,onSeptember2,havingbeenconfirmedbythecollegeinhispositionascaptain-generalofthechurchuntiltheelectionofanewpope,andhavingbeeninformedthatthesoldiersofProsperoColonnahadindeedleftthecity,ashehadrequested,Cesarefinally

leftforthecastleatNepi.

Cesare,tooweaktoride,wascarriedoutofthecityonalitterbornebytwelvehalberdiers,concealedfromviewbehindcrimsondamaskcurtains.Thosewhocaughtglimpsesofhimatthistimereportedhimaslookingdesperatelyill,pale,andhaggard,hisfeetsoswollenthathecouldnotstandup.Followingthelitterwalkeda

splendidchargerwithtrappingsofblackvelvet,embroideredwithhiscoat-of-armsandhisducalcrown.AccordingtoFerdinandGregorovius,Cesarewasalsoaccompaniedbyhismother,Vannozzade'Catanei,andbyhisbrotherJofrè,aswellasmorethanonehundredwagonspiledhighwithhisluggage."NowthatCesarehasgone,"AntonioGiustiniancommented,"itis

thoughtthattheconclavewilltakeplacewithoutanydisturbance,sinceeveryonerespectstheSacredCollege."

Thecollege,meanwhile,hadbeenbusyorganizingtheobsequiesforthedeadpope,whichopenedonSeptember4withthefirstofthememorialMassesforhissoul.TheycontinuedeverydayatthecatafalquethathadbeenerectedinSt.Peter'sforthe

followingeightdays.Theseobsequies,however,wereofscantinterestcomparedwiththeheateddiscussionsabouttheoutcomeoftheimminentelection.ManybelievedthatthenextpopemightbeAscanioSforzaortheFrenchmanGeorgesd'Amboise,cardinalofRouen.ButmostsupposedthatGiulianodellaRovere,aftertenyearsinexile,wouldbechosen;onhisarrivalin

Romeinthehopethathislong-heldambitiontobeelectedwasabouttobefulfilled,hehadtoldGiustinian,succinctly,"IhavecometoRometolookaftermyowninterestsandnotthoseofotherpeople."

WhentheconclavefinallyopenedonSeptember16,withthirty-sevencardinalsinattendance,itwassoonclearthatthecardinalofRouen

couldnotwinthetiara;boththeItaliansandSpaniardswereagainsthim,andinordertobreakthedeadlockcausedbyrivalnationalinterestsandbyfearsthatCesareBorgiamightrecoversufficientlyfromhisillnesstointerfereintheelection,thesearchturnedtoacompromisecandidate,onewhowasnotexpectedtosurviveforlongandwhowouldprovideatemporary

measureallowingallpartiestobuildupsupportforacandidateoftheirown.TheirchoiceconsequentlyfelluponFrancescoTodeschiniPiccolomini,archbishopofSiena,thekindlynephewofPiusII,whowasrackedbygoutandalreadygavetheappearanceofaveryoldman,despitebeingonlysixty-fouryearsold.Whenhewaselected,onSeptember22,hechosetobeknownasPiusIII,

inhonourofhisuncle.

PiusIIIwasalearnedandculturedman,aprotégéofhisuncle,whohadtakenhimintohishouseholdandarrangedforhimtoattendcoursesinlegalstudiesatPerugia.Attheageoftwenty-one,hehadbecome,againathisuncle'sinstigation,archbishopofSienaandsoonafterwardcardinalofSant'Eustachio.ForCesare,

everythingnowhingedonwhetherhewouldenjoythefavourofthisman,hisfather'ssuccessor.

TheenforcedconvalescenceatNepihadbynowalmostrestoredCesaretohispreviousgoodhealth,thoughhewascarefultoensurethatreportsofhisworseningconditioncontinuedtocirculateinRome.Andhisspiritsrosewhenhewas

givengroundstobelievethathewouldsoonbeconfirmedinhisofficeascaptain-generalofthechurchbythenewpopeandreturnedtoauthorityinhisformerestatesintheRomagna.Certainly,PiusIIIseemedpreparedtocondonetheindulgenceofCesare'sambitions,declaringthatithadbeenGod'swillthatthoselordswhomCesarehaddispossessedshouldlosetheirauthority,eventhoughit

hadbeencarriedoutbya"wretchedinstrument."

"InconsequenceofthepressureputuponmebytheSpanishcardinals,IhavebeencompelledtoissuesomebriefsinfavourofCesareBorgia,"heexplainedtoGiustinian,"butIwillnotgivehimanyfurtherhelp."PiusIII'sopinionofhispredecessor'ssonwasnotencouraging:"Idonotwish

anyharmtotheDuke,sinceitismydutyasPopetohavecompassionforallmen,butIforeseethat,byGod'sjudgement,theDukemustcometoabadend."Giustinianreportedthat"theDukehashadgoodwordsfromthePope,"addinglater,"ButHisHolinessdoesnottrusthim."

CesarenowdecidedtoreturntoRome,wherehe

hopedtobeabletopressPiusIIItoconfirmhiminhisofficesofcaptaingeneralofthechurchandDukeofRomagna.Heneededpapalpermission,however,toenterthecityandorderedtheSpanishcardinalstopleadhiscase."Theytellmeheisveryill,"PiusIIIinformedtheFerrareseenvoyBeltrandoCostabili,whoreportedthatthepopehadneverimaginedhewouldfeelpityforCesare

butdidnow"indeedmostdeeplypityhim,"addingthat"hewantstocometoRometodie,soIhavegivenmypermission."MuchtothesurpriseofallinRome,whenCesarereturnedonOctober3,heseemedtobeinthebestofhealth.

AfewdayslaterGiustinianreportedthatCesarewas"notsoillasweallbelieved,"and,moreover,"nowspeakswith

hiscustomaryarroganceandboaststhathewillsoonregainpossessionofallhisstates."Therusehadworked,though,andonOctober8,thedayofhiscoronation,PiusIIIconfirmedCesareascaptain-generalofthechurch.Suchwasthepope'sillhealth,however,thatthecustomaryprocessionfromSt.Peter'stoSanGiovanniinLateranohadtobecancelled;PiusIIIwassufferingsopainfullyfrom

goutthathewasunabletoundertakethislengthyceremonyandretiredtohisapartmentsintheVatican,where,tendayslater,hedied.

CesarehadspentthosetendaysmakingpreparationstoreturnwithhisarmytotheRomagna,wherehisgraspwasweakeningaseachdaypassed,andseekingtoacquirethesafe-conductpassesneededtomovehis

troopsthroughFlorentineterritories.ButCesare,stillobligedtospendmuchtimeinbed,andseeminglydisturbedinmindaswellassickinbody,wasnowapparentlyincapableofactingasdecisivelyashehadbeeninthepast;andwhenhedidmakedecisions,theywerenotinfrequentlythewrongones.HisdecisiontocometoRomeaftertheelectionofPiusIII,ratherthantraveldirectly

fromNepitotheRomagna,wouldprovetobeoneofthese.

Inthemeantime,however,hisplanssoonhadtobemodifiedashisenemiesCardinaldellaRovereandCardinalRaffaelloRiario,GianpaoloBaglioniandGiovanniBentivoglio,andtheOrsiniandtheColonnafamilies,stillinuneasyalliance,allbegantomove,

oneaftertheother,againsthim.Notonlythreatenedbyhisenemies,Cesarewasalsotroubledbyamutinyofhisownsoldiers,whoweredemandingbetterpay;thenhebecameinvolvedinaferociousfightwithOrsinisupportersand,desertedbymanyofhismen,wasforcedtotakeshelterfirstintheVatican,theninCastelSant'Angelo.

Hissituationseemedhopeless,butthedeathofPiusIIIafewdayslaterrescuedhimfromdisaster,castingawayhisformergloomandrenewinghishopesforthefuture."TheDukestilloccupiesquartersintheCastelSant'Angelo,"MachiavellireportedonOctober27."Heismoreconfidentthaneverthathecanstilldogreatthingsforhebelievesthatapope

favourabletohimwillnowbeelected."

Throughoutthistime,CardinalGiulianodellaRoverehadbeenstrengtheninghispositioninRome.Asthebargainingbeganbetweenthecardinalsfortheelectionofthenewpope,itwasclearthathewasthefront-runner.HismainrivalwastheFrenchmanGeorgesd'Amboise,whose

electionwassupportedbyLouisXII;Giuliano'semphaticprotestationsthataFrenchpopemightwelltakethepapacybacktoAvignonbroughthimmuchsupportamongtheItaliancardinals.

Cesare'sownpositionweakenedconsiderablywhen,towardtheendofOctober,newsarrivedthatForlì,Faenza,Rimini,andPesarohadfallentohisenemies.On

October29,twodaysbeforetheconclavewasduetoopen,CesareandCardinalGiulianosignedanagreementintheVaticanwherebyalltheSpanishcardinalsagreedtovoteforthecardinalontheunderstandingthat,assuminghewaselectedpope,hewouldconfirmCesareinhisofficesofgonfalonierandcaptain-generalanddohisutmosttohelpCesareestablishhimselfoncemore

inhispossessionoftheduchyintheRomagna.

MachiavelliwasastoundedwhenheheardthatCesarehadofferedhissupporttoGiulianodellaRovere,hisfather'soldenemy."NoonecanbeunawareoftheextremehatewhichtheCardinalbearsCesare,sincehecannoteasilyforgettheexileinwhichhehadbeenkeptfortenyears;theDuke,

ontheotherhand,allowshimselftobeguidedbyablind,unjustifiedconfidence."

Intheend,theconclavewasnocontest.Whenitcametothecountingoftheslipsthathadbeenplacedinthegoldenchaliceafterthefirstroundofvoting,itwasfoundthatallbutthreeofthemborethenameofGiulianodellaRovere.Hehadacquiredthe

necessarytwo-thirdsmajorityinoneoftheshortestconclavesinthehistoryofthepapacy,andhechosetobeknownasPopeJuliusII.FrancescoGuicciardinicommented:

Everyonemarvelledgreatlythatthepapacyshouldhavebeengrantedwithsuchwidespreadagreementtoa

cardinalwhowasknowntobeverydifficultbynatureandformidablewitheveryone.Hewasnotoriouslyrestlessandhadspenthislifeincontinualhardshipsandhadinevitablyoffendedmanypeople,arousingthehatredandprovokingtheenmityofmanygreatmen....Hehad

beenaverypowerfulcardinalforalongtime...andhiscausewasgreatlypromotedbytheimmoderatepromiseswhichhadbeenmadetoanyonewhomightproveusefultohim.

Chapter25CesareatBay

"THEDUKE'SCHOICEWASAMISTAKENONE;

ANDITWASTHECAUSEOFHISULTIMATE

DOWNFALL"

AMONTHSHORTofhissixtiethbirthdaywhenelected,JuliusIIwas,unlikehispredecessor,unusually

vigorousandenergetic;stillinhisprimeandenjoyingrobusthealth,hewasastrong-willed,purposeful,andresoluteman,withaverydeterminedviewoftheworldandhispositioninit.

ThegrandsonofafishermanfromLiguriainnorthernItaly,hewasproudofhishumblebirthandmuchgiventoboastingofhispoverty-strickenchildhoodandof

havingsaileddownthecoastwithcargoesofonions.Hisplanstopursueacareerincommercehadbeendramaticallycutshortin1471when,attheageoftwenty-seven,hewasmadeacardinalbyhisuncleSixtusIV.

Atall,rough,impulsive,andhandsomeman,talkative,arrogant,andrestless,hehadafiercelycommanding

expressionandaveryshorttemper.Hehabituallycarriedastickwithwhichhebeatmenwhoannoyedorprovokedhim,andhewouldhurlanythingathand,includinghisspectacles,atmessengerswhobroughthimunwelcomenews.Hehadhadmanymistressesinthepast,fromoneofwhomhehadcontractedsyphilis,andasacardinalhehadfatheredthreedaughters.Buthehad

thereaftershownnointerestinwomen,concentratinghissensualappetitesonfoodanddrink,whichheenjoyedtothefull.HerelishedgameandsucklingpigandthestrongwinesofGreeceandCorsica;andduringLent,likemanyotherswhocouldaffordtodoso,hemadedowithlargedishesoflampreys,prawns,caviar,andtunnyfish.Hepaidnoattentiontohisdoctors'wordsofcaution,and

whenill,treatedhisindispositionbychewingquantitiesofstrawberriesandplums,whichhebelievedhadcurativeproperties.

Hewasnoscholar,heusedtosaywithdefensivepride;hewasmoresuitedtothelifeofasoldier.Indeed,hesometimessaidthatheoughttohavebeenasoldier;andcertainlywhenhepersonallyledhisarmiesoutofRometo

compeltheobedienceofrebelcitiesinthePapalStatesandtorecoverlostterritoriesforthechurch,hedisplayedatasteforhardcampaigningthatdismayedthelessrobustcardinalswhomheobligedtoaccompanyhim.ItwasJuliusIIwho,unwillingtorelyuponcapriciousandoftenirresolutemercenaries,decidedtoformaprofessionalpapalarmy;andthisdecisionledin1506to

thecreationoftheSwissGuards,whoremainedafightingforceuntil1825,whentheybecameasmallerdomesticbodyguard,thoughstillretainingtheirolduniformofslasheddoublets,stripedhose,andrakishberets,aswellastheirpikesandhalberds.

Whenasculptoraskedhimwhatshouldbeplacedinthehandofastatueofhim,he

replied,"Putaswordinmyhand,notabook."Asasoldierheworefullarmour,withatiaratakingtheplaceofahelmet.Onecontemporarylikenedhimtoashipguidedneitherbycompassnorbycharts."Noonehasanyinfluenceoverhim,andheconsultsfewornone,"theVenetianambassadorwrote;"anythingthathehasbeenthinkingaboutduringthedayhastobe

carriedoutimmediately,"theenvoyadded."Everythingabouthimisonamagnificentscale,bothhisundertakingsandhispassions."

OneofhisoverpoweringpassionswasadeephatredoftheBorgiafamily.Asacardinal,andfearingassassination,hehadfledtoFrance,wherehehadencouragedCharlesVIIItoinvadeItalyandhad

accompaniedhimonhiscampaign.Hehadfailedinhisattempttohaveacouncilappointedtodeposethepopeforsimony;but,deprivedofthesatisfactionofdethroningAlexanderVI,"thatSpaniardofaccursedmemory,"hedeterminedtopursueAlexander'ssontothedeath,toreestablishthechurch'sruleinthePapalStates,andtorestorethetemporalpowerofthepapacy,whichheknew

tobeessentialtohisauthority.

AsMachiavelliwrote,JuliusII'shatredofCesare"wasnotorious;anditisnottobesupposedthatthePopewillsoquicklyhaveforgottenthetenyearsofexilewhichhehadhadtoendureunderAlexanderVI."InaconversationwithGiustinian,thenewpopesaid,"Wedonotwant[theduke]tobe

undertheillusionthatwewillfavourhim,northatheshallhaveevenonerampartintheRomagna,andalthoughwehavepromisedhimsomething,weintendthatourpromiseshallonlyextendtothesecurityofhislifeandofthemoneyandgoodsthathehasstolen."Forthemoment,however,hewaspreparedtogivetheimpressionthatthepastenmity,whichhadcharacterizedtherelationship

betweenhimselfand"thatdetestedfamily,"wasnowtobemodified.

Thenewpope,havingatlastachievedthepositionforwhichhehadyearnedforsolong,seemeddisposedtoabidebytheundertakingshehadgivenCesarebeforetheconclave.TheFlorentinesweretoldtograntthedukeandhistroopsfreepassagethroughtheirterritorytothe

Romagna;whilesolongasCesarestayedinRome,hewasfreetoleavethedarkroomsinCastelSant'AngeloandtooccupyapartmentsintheVatican.JuliusIIalsopromisedtoconfirmCesareinhisappointmentascaptain-general,and,initiallyatleast,hecontinuedtoshowrespectforCesare,goingsofarastorefertohimas"ourbelovedson"inabrieftoFaenzawrittenwithindaysofhis

election.

Cesare'sduchyhadbeguntodisintegrateintheaftermathofAlexanderVI'sdeath:"OnlythestatesoftheRomagnastoodfirm,"FrancescoGuicciardiniobserved,andtheydidsobecausethegovernmenthadbeenentrustedbyCesare"tothehandsofmenwhoruledwithsomuchjusticeandintegritythathewasgreatly

lovedbythem."Otherwritersmaintainedthat,inthewordsofthePerugianchroniclerMatarazzo,"thepeopleremainedquietfromfearratherthancontentment";whiletheVenetiansgenerallybelievedthathissubjectswere"fullofdiscontentbecauseofthetyrannyandviolencepractisedbytheofficialsoftheDukeValentino."

NowCesarecouldonlycountontheloyaltyofhisSpanishgovernorsinCesena,Imola,andthefortressofForlì,buthecouldrelyonthestrengthofthesenewlybuiltfortifications.JuliusII,however,despitetheearlierpromisesreportedbyMachiavelli,hadnointentionofallowingCesaretoretaincontrolofthem."WewantthestatestoreturntotheChurch,"hedeclared."Itis

ourintentiontorecoverthem,"andalthough"wemadecertainpromisestotheDuke,"heexplained,"weintendedmerelytoguaranteehispersonalsafetyandhisfortune,eventhough,afterall,itwasstolenfromitsrightfulowners."

JuliusIIwasanoldhandatplayingthelonggame.FullyawarethatbydeprivingCesareofhisduchyinthe

Romagna,hewouldcreateadangerouspoliticalvacuumintowhichVenicewouldbethefirsttostep,heneededatallcoststoavoidtheexpansionofanalready-powerfulVenetianrepublicinordertopreservehisownauthorityinthePapalStates.Equally,heneededtoensurethathedidnotgiveCesaretheopportunitytoreestablishhisownpositionintheRomagna.Heneeded,in

otherwords,totreadwithconsiderablecare.

ItwasnotlongbeforeitbecameclearthatCesarewas,indeed,overconfidentinhisbeliefthatJuliusIIwouldfavourhim,eventothelimitedextentthathehadbeenledtobelievewashisdue;andthemoreclearlyherealisedthatthepopewasdeceivinghim,themoreangryhebecame.When

MachiavelliwasgrantedaninterviewwithhimearlyinNovember,hefoundhiminanunusuallyemotionalmood,angryandresentful,ramblingonatlength"withwordsfullofpoisonandanger."CesarewasnolongertheforcefulandcompetentleaderMachiavellihadmeteighteenmonthsearlierinUrbino.

Otherobserversgave

similardescriptionsof"anangry,brokenman,outofhismindandnotknowingwhathewantedtodo."FrancescoSoderinidescribedhimas"inconstant,irresolute,andsuspicious,notstandingfirminanydecision."Machiavellireportedthathisplanswereuncertain:

Nooneknowswhetherornotheintendstostayin

Rome.SomepeopleseemtothinkhewillgotoGenoa,whereheissaidtohavedepositedlargesumswiththemerchantsthere,andfromGenoatogoontoLombardytoraisetroopsforanadvanceontheRomagna.Hecandothisapparentlybecausehehad200,000ducats

depositedwiththeGenoesemerchants.OthersbelievehewillstayinRomeforthePope'scoronationwhen,aspromised,hewillbeproclaimedGonfalonieroftheChurch.

Infact,CesarestillhopedtomarchnorthfromRometohisstrongholdsintheRomagna,andaccordingly

waitedanxiouslyfortheletterheexpectedfromFlorenceconfirminghissafeconductthroughtherepublic'sterritories.ButtheFlorentines,advisedbyMachiavellithatJuliusII'ssupportofCesarewasonlyatemporarymeasure,decidednottoagreetoCesare'srequest.

Andso,onNovember18,hispowerandpossessions

crumblingaroundhim,CesareleftRomeforOstia,fromwhereheintendedtoreachhisstrongholdsintheRomagna,avoidingFlorentineterritorybytravellingbyseatoLivornoandfromtheremarchingeastacrosstheApenninestoCesena.Beforehecouldleave,however,twocardinalsarrivedinOstiawithordersfromJuliusIIforCesaretohandoverthepasswordshe

hadagreedwithhiscastellansforeachofthefortresses.Cesarerefusedtodoso.

JuliusII,fearfulofrumoursthatVeniceplannedtoseizethesestrategicallyvitalcitadelsforherself,wasincensedwithrageandorderedCesaretoreturntoRomeimmediately;andifhedeclinedtoobeytheorder,hewastobebroughtbackbyforce.

Atthesametime,thepopeissuedawarrantforthearrestofCesare'slieutenantMigueldeCorella,whowastobequestionedaboutthedeathsofmanypersons:Juan,theDukeofGandía,Cesare'sbrother,whosebodyhadbeenfishedoutoftheTiberinJune1497;AlfonsoofAragon,Lucrezia'ssecondhusband,whohadbeenstrangledonhissickbed;AstorreManfredi,LordofFaenza,

andhisbrother,whosebodies,weightedwithstones,hadbeenfoundintheTiberinJune1502;GiulioCesaredaVarano,LordofCamerino,whohadbeenstrangledatLaPergolashortlyafterward,andhistwosons,whohadhadtheirthroatscut;andmanymore.

So,onNovember29,threedaysafterJuliusII'smagnificentandextravagant

coronationprocession,CesarereturnedtoRome,aprisoner.Therewereunconfirmedreportsthat,nowincustody,hisspirithadfinallybroken.TherewerestoriesthatheweptwhenhewasdraggedintohiscellintheTorreBorgia,thathehadfallenontohiskneesbeforeGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,beggedforforgivenessforwhathehaddoneinUrbino,andundertooktoreturnthe

worksofartthathadbeenstolenfromtheducalpalace.AndonDecember1camethenewsthatabodyofCesare'stroops,undertheleadershipofCorella,hadbeencapturednearArezzo,thanks,itwassaid,toawarningsenttotheFlorentinegovernmentbyMachiavellithatthesemenwereontheirwaynorth.

Worsewassoontofollow,whenanumberofwagons

belongingtoCesare,buttravellingunderthenameofLucrezia'sbrother-in-lawCardinalIppolitod'Este,cametotheattentionofthecustomsmeninBologna,whowereinspectingbaggagefortaxablegoods."Whentheyopenedthechestsandbales,"wrotetheFerraresechroniclerBernardinoZambotti,"theyfoundinsidegreatrichestakenfromtheChurch,namely,thecrossof

St.Peter,coveredwithgemsofaninfinitevalue,"severalotherpiecesofgem-encrustedjewellerythatwerethepropertyofthechurch,pricelessclothesandaltarhangings,"alittlegildedcatwithdiamondsforitseyes,"andevenalittlealtarpieceoftheVirgin,worthatotal,soZambottiestimated,of300,000ducats.

Withhisloyallieutenant

underarrestinFlorenceandmuchofhisfortuneconfiscatedinBologna,thereseemedlittlealternativetoCesarebuttodivulgethepasswordshehadbeenatsuchpainstoconceal.Machiavellicommentedthathislifewouldnotbeworthmuchafterthestrongholdssurrendered."Itseemstome,"hewrote,"thatthisDukeofoursisslippinglittlebylittledowntohisgrave."The

castellans,however,whetheroutofloyaltytotheirdukeorfollowingsomeprearrangedplan,valiantlyrefusedtosurrenderthefortressesuntiltheyhadpositiveproofthatCesarewasnolongeraprisoner.

Thestalematecontinued,muchtoJuliusII'sfury,untiltheendoftheyear,whennewsarrivedinRomethatmuchcheeredCesare:

GonsalvodiCórdobahadwonadecisivevictoryovertheFrenchattheBattleofGariglianoonDecember27.Hoping,indeedexpecting,supportfromaSpanishNaples,CesaresignedaformalagreementonJanuary29,1504,agreeingtosurrenderhisRomagnafortressesinreturnforhisfreedom.Pendingthesurrender,CesarewastakentoOstiawhile,onebyone,

hisstrongholdsweretakenbyJuliusII'stroops.

InApril1504hesetforth,inoptimisticspirits,inagalleyboundforNaplesandthecourtofGonsalvodiCórdoba,DukeofTerranova,whohadbeenappointedviceroyofthekingdombyFerdinandandIsabellaofSpain.Hewasnotwelcome,however.TheSpanishmonarchs,"theirCatholic

Majesties,"hadinformedtheirambassadorinNaplesthat"weregardthearrivaloftheDukewithgreatdispleasureandnotforpoliticalreasonsalone;for,asyouknow,themanisdeeplyabhorrenttousbecauseofthegravityofhiscrimesandwecertainlydonotwishthatsuchamanshouldbeconsideredtobeinourservice."Theyhad,theyinformedtheambassador,

alsowrittentoGonsalvodiCórdoba,askinghimtoarrestCesareand"tosendtheDuketousandtoprovidetwogalleysforthejourneysothathecannotescapeelsewhere."

EvenbeforeGonsalvodiCórdobahadreceivedtheseorders,Cesare,hisconfidencebynowrestored,hadsetaboutplanningamarchintotheRomagnatoregainwhathehadrecentlylost.When

theroyalinstructionsarrivedfromSpain,hebelievedthatasafellowSpaniard,Gonsalvowouldbepreparedtooverlookthem,andhestartedtoraisetroopsforacampaigninItalythathehopedwouldrestorehimtopower.Gonsalvo,however,remainedloyaltohismasters.

TheFlorentineambassadorinNaplesreportedwhathappenednext:

On1June[Cesare]askedforaninterviewwith[GonsalvodiCórdoba]todiscusshisaffairs.Hehadalreadypreparedtheartilleryforhisproposedcampaignandhadorderedwine,breadandotherthingsnecessaryforhisexpedition.Intheeveninghehadhisinterviewwith

Gonsalvo...[who]wasaccompaniedbyNiugnodelCampo,castellanoftheCastelNuovoinNaples,andwhen[Cesare]turnedtodescendthestairs,Niugnostoppedhimsaying,"Signore,yourwaylieshere,"andledhimintoaroomintheTorredell'Oro....OnTuesdayhewastransferredtoanother

roomwhichwasverybeautifulbutverystrongwithwindowsprotectedbyironbars.Itiscalled"theoven"andseveralimportantpeoplehavebeenheldprisonerthereatonetimeoranother.Heistherenowwithtwoservants.TheGrandCaptainrefusestotalktohim.Thereisnotasinglemanwhodoes

notpraisethisdeed.Intruth,itispleasingtoall.

SoonafterthisdispatchwasreceivedinFlorence,CesarewasputontoagalleyboundforSpain,where,sohissisterheard,hewas"shutupwithapage"inthecastleofChinchilla,highinthemountainsbehindValencia.

Cesare'sfallhadbeenas

dramaticashismeteoricrise.MachiavelliblameditonCesare'sdecisiontosupportJuliusII'selection,thoughitisdifficulttoseehowhecouldhaveorganizedanalternativecandidatetocounterthefront-runnerandensureenoughsupportintheconclavetoachievetherequiredtwo-thirdsmajorityamongthecardinals.

AsMachiavellicommented

inThePrince:

[Cesare]shouldneverhaveallowedtheelectionofoneofthosecardinalshehadinjured,oronewhowouldhavecausetofearhim.Mendoyouharmeitherbecausetheyfearyouorbecausetheyhateyou....TheDuke'saim,firstand

foremost,shouldhavebeentoengineertheelectionofoneoftheSpanishcardinalsand,failingthat,toenableittobeRouen[Georgesd'Amboise]notSanPietroinVincoli[GiulianodellaRovere].Whoeverbelievesthatgreatmenallownewservicestoeraseoldinjuriesisdeceiving

himself.SotheDuke'schoicewasamistakenone;anditwasthecauseofhisultimatedownfall.

Chapter26DuchessofFerrara

"MYJOYINSEEINGYOUISNEVERDONE"

THEDEATHOFHERFATHER,AlexanderVI,followedsorapidlybythecollapseofCesare'sempireandhisambitions,andhishumiliatingimprisonmentso

farawayinSpain,musthavebeendevastatingtothetwenty-three-year-oldLucrezia.Allthemoreso,isolatedinFerrara,where,accordingtothechroniclerBernardinoZambotti,itwaswidelybelievedthatthepopehadbeenpoisoned;Cesare,too,"wasfoundtohavebeenpoisoned,"hereported,addingthat"itwaschieflyduetothefactthathewasplacedinsidethestillwarm

entrailsoftwomulesthathewascured."

ThetorrentialrainthatlashedFerrarathatSeptemberandOctober,causingthePotoburstitsbanks,floodingbothfieldsandcitystreets,matchedthedepthsofhermisery.CouriersarriveddailywithnewsofCesare'scitiesandfortressesastheyfell,onebyone,somereturningtotheirearlierrulers,others

seizedbyVenice;ofthenewtenantofheroldhome,theVaticanPalace,andhowthenewpopehadshutupherfather'sapartments,whereshehadoncedancedandlaughedsogaily,andvilified"thatSpaniardofaccursedmemory."

Itwasnotjustherprivategriefatthelossofherfatherandbrotherthatoverwhelmedher;itwasclearfromthe

gossipatcourtthatLucrezia'spositionaswifeoftheheirtotheduchywasnowalsounderthreat.Onefriendadvisedhertodoallshecouldtoassuagehergrieflestpeoplethoughtshewasovercomebyapprehensionaboutherownfuture.

LouisXIIhimselfwasreadytorepudiatebothCesareandLucrezianowthatAlexanderVIwasdead;andhetoldthe

FerrareseenvoythatheknewverywellthattheEstefamilyhadneverbeenpleasedwiththeBorgiaalliance,and"thereforetheFrenchcourtdidnotregardMadonnaLucreziaasDonAlfonso'srealwife."Alfonso,however,hadbecomeattachedtoLucrezia.Hearingofherfather'sdeath,hecamehometoFerraratocomforthiswifeandthustoshowthatalthoughthemarriagehad

lostitspoliticalraisond'être,itstillretaineditsprivatelustre.

Theyseemedtohavebeen"quitesatisfiedwithoneanother,"andtheymaywellhavebeenso,buttheirtemperamentswereverydifferent;whilehestillcontinuedtospendalargepartofeachdayinthelecturehallsoftheuniversityorinhisworkshop,poringover

proposalsforpublicworks,militaryengineering,andfirearms,sheenjoyedthelifeatcourt,wheremasquesandtableaux,dramaandpoetryoccupiedtheeveninghours.

MusicwastheinterestclosesttoLucrezia'sheart,andoneshesharedwithherhusband,whowashimselfanaccomplishedplayeroftheviol.Sheemployedherownsingers,pipers,andlute

players,evenherowndancingmaster,spendingalargepartofherincomeonthepatronageofmusic.Shewasparticularlyfondofsongs,ofthelovelySpanishpoemsthatweresettomusicbyhermusicians;andsheviedwithherrival,Isabellad'Este,toattractthebestplayersandcomposerstohercourt.

ThecourtatFerrarawas

famousthroughoutItalyasacentreofculture.DukeErcolehaddoubledthesizeofthecityandtransformeditintoasettingworthyofducalgrandeur,enclosingahugehuntingpark,completewithitsownracecourse,whereladiesofthecourtcouldwatchtheirknightsdisplayingtheirskills,joustingattheringorpursuinggamewithtrainedleopards;headdednewgardensandgilded

receptionroomstotheducalpalaceand,in1504,decidedtobuildonthegroundstheSaladelleComedie,thefirstpurpose-builttheatresinceantiquity.

AmongthemanyforeignwritersandmusiciansattractedtothislivelyculturalcentrewerethescholarlyhumanistsErcoleStrozziandPietroBembo.AmemberoftheFlorentinefamilywhose

grandpalazzo,builtforFilippoStrozzi,isoneofthemostimposinginFlorence,ErcoleStrozziwasapoetofdistinction.MuchdislikedbyLucrezia'shusbandbutadmiredandsponsoredbyherfather-in-law,StrozziwasadistinctivefigureinFerrara,wherehehobbledaboutoncrutchesthathisclubfeetrenderedindispensable.

Strozziwasclearlyand

immediatelyattractedtoLucrezia,asshewastohim.Hesympathisedwithherinherdifferenceswithherfather-in-law,whokepther,soshecomplained,soshortofmoneythatshewasnotabletodresswiththedistinctionthatwasherdue.Strozzimadelightofhercomplaints;shecouldalwaysborrowmoney;andsincehehimselfwasshortlytogotoVenice,hewouldbuyforher

theresuchmaterialsasthoseforwhichthatcitywascelebrated.HereturnedwithlargebundlestothedelightnotonlyofLucreziabutalsoofherladies,whowerepresentedwithrollsofmaterialtobemadeupintodressesofexceptionalsplendour.

PietroBembo,ontheotherhand,wasaVenetianpoet,handsomeandcharming,a

maninhisearlythirtieswhosecompanyLucreziafoundespeciallyalluring.Indeed,therewerewhispersatcourtthattheduke'snewdaughter-in-lawmighthavesuccumbedtoBembo'scharms;itwasgenerallysupposedthattheysoonbecamelovers.CertainlyshewasalwaysreadytoenjoythecompanyofthelivelybrilliantpoetwhenhewasinFerraraoraguestatErcole

Strozzi'slovelyvillaatOstellato,ontheshoresofthelagoonatComacchio,travellingtherefromtimetotimealongthewatersofthePoinherpaintedbarge.

Whenapart,thetwowrotepassionateletterstoeachotherinthefashionoftheirtimes.Lucreziacalledhim"MesserBembomio"(myMr.Bembo),andhewrotetoherwithdeepaffection.She

gavehimalockofherlovelyblondhair,whichcanstillbeseentoday,ondisplayintheBibliotecaAmbrosianainMilan,alongwithmuchoftheircorrespondenceandthepoemstheywrotetoeachother;seeing"thosebeautifullocksthatIloveevermoredeeply,"ranoneofBembo'sverses,"myheartwastornfrommeandcaught."Oneofhisletterstoherends:"WithmyheartdoInowkissthat

handofyours,whichsoonIshallkisswithmylipsthateverhaveyournameengraveduponthem."

"WereIanangelassheis,"BembotoldLucrezia'scousinAngelaBorgia,"IwouldtakepityonanyonewholovedasIlove."Andinoneoftheverseshesenther,hewrote:

Avess'ioalmend'unbelcristalloilcore

Chequelch'iotaccio,MadonnanonvedeDel'internomiomal,senzaaltrefedeAsuoiocchitraducessefore.

[HadIaheartmadeoffinecrystalratherthantheoneIhide,whichMadonnadoesnotseefrominsidememypain

wouldbetrayitselfinhereyes.]

WhenLucreziareplied(theletterisdatedJune24,1503)thatinthecrystalofherheartshehadfoundaperfectconformitywithBembo's,herepliedthathisowncrystalwasnowmoreprecioustohimthan"allthepearlsoftheIndianseas."

WhenBemboheardofthe

deathofAlexanderVI,heimmediatelyrodethetenmilesorsofromOstellatototheducalvillaatMedelanawhereLucreziawasstayingtoseewhathecoulddotocomfortherinhergrief.Butshewas,forthemoment,beyondgrief."AssoonasIsawyoulyinginyourdarkenedroom,wearingyourblackgown,weepinganddesolate,"hewrotetoherthefollowingday,"Iwasso

overcomebymyfeelingsthatIstoodstill,asthoughstruckdumb,notknowingwhattosay.Insteadofofferingsympathy,Ifeltinneedofsympathymyself.Ileft,fumblingandspeechless,overcomewithemotionatthesightofyourmisery."Hecouldofferlittleinthewayofsolace:"Iknownotwhatelsetosayexcepttoremindyouthattimesoothesandeasesalloursorrows,"hesaid,adding

thatalthoughAlexanderVI,"yourverygreatfather,"haddied,"thisisnotthefirstmisfortunewhichyouhavehadtoendureatthehandsofyourcruelandmaligndestiny."

Assummerturnedtoautumnandtheplightofherbelovedbrothergrewworseandworse,BembocontinuedtoofferwhathelphecouldtocomfortLucrezia,writingto

herwhentheywereapartwiththatromanticpassionshefoundsobeguiling."Thewholeofthisnightinmydreams,andinthewakefulwatches,howeverlongtheywere,Iwaswithyou,"oneofhislettersran."AndIhopethateveryothernightofmylife,whateveritholdsinstoreforme,thesamethingwillhappen."

Lucrezia,inreturn,asked

BembototranslateoneofherownSpanishsonnetsintoItalian:

Yoursistheradiancewhichmakesmeburn,AndgrowingwitheachactandgraciouswordMyjoyinseeingyouisneverdone.

ButthesecontenteddaysatMedelanaweresoontoend:

Bembo'syoungerbrother,Carlo,fellseriouslyillatVenice;Bembohurriedtohisbedsidetoolatetoseehimbeforehedied."IamsendingformybookswhichIleftbehindinFerrara,"BembowrotetoLucreziainearly1504,tosaythat"Ishallremainhereforawhileinorderthatmyagedandsorrowfulfatherneednotremainentirelyaloneforitisclearhehasmuchneedofmy

company."

ItwastobemanymonthsbeforeheandLucreziasaweachotheragain,andbythentheardouroftheirattachmenttoeachotherhadcooledtofriendship,onethatwastolastuntiltheendofherlife.In1505hededicatedhisdialoguesonPlatoniclove,GliAsolani,toLucrezia,whosevisittohimononeoccasionwhenhehadbeenill

had"curedhimofeveryfeverishlanguore"thatbesethim.ThefollowingyearhemovedfromVenicetothelivelycourtofGuidobaldodaMontefeltroandElisabettaGonzaga,nowreinstatedinUrbino,andhewasoneoftheleadingcharactersinBaldassareCastiglione'sBookoftheCourtier.AfewyearslaterhemovedtoRometotakeuphisappointmentassecretarytoPopeLeoXand

wouldlaterbemadeacardinalbyPaulIII.HavingestablishedareputationforLatinlyricpoetry,heturnedtoItalianverse,thecollectededitionofhisItalianpoemsappearingin1530.

OneofthelastlettersLucreziawrotetohimwasquiteperfunctory;certainlyshehadnotwrittenmuchoflate,shetoldhim,buthemustrestassuredthattherewere

manygoodreasonswhyshehadnotbeenabletodoso.Sheremained,sheaddedcaringly,asanxiousasevertopleasehim.

ItwasaroundthetimewhenBemboleftforVenicethatLucreziabegantoappearmorefrequentlyinpublic,fulfillingherdutiesandresponsibilitiesasDuchessofFerrara.Usingtheskillsshehadlearnedatherfather's

court,shereceivedembassieswithagracethatherhusbandwasquiteunabletomusteronsuchoccasions.Withherextensiveknowledgeofpoliticalaffairs,shetookanunfeignedinterestinthegovernmentoftheduchyanditsrelationshipswiththeotherItalianstatesandwithforeignpowers.

ShewasalsobusyfulfillingherprimarydutyasAlfonso's

wife,endeavouringtoproduceanheirfortheduchy,asubjectparticularlyclosetoDukeErcole'sheart.Ayearafterthedisappointmentofherstillborndaughter,Lucreziawaspregnantagain,andyetagainshemiscarried.AtChristmas1504Lucreziawaspregnantoncemore,bearingAlfonso'schildforathirdtime,muchtothejoyofherseventy-one-year-oldfather-in-law,whoseown

longlifewasfinallydrawingtoaclose.

Duringtheprevioussummer,thedukehadtravelledtoFlorenceinordertovisitthemiraculousimageoftheVirginintheChurchofSantissimaAnnunziata,butonhisreturn,"muchfatiguedbythejourney,"accordingtotheFerraresechroniclerBernardinoZambotti,hehadfallenseriouslyill.Alfonso,

whowasonatriptoFrancetovisitLouisXII,wasinformedimmediatelybyacouriersentposthastetotheFrenchcourt,andherushedhometojoinIsabella,whohadarrivedfromMantua,attheirfather'sbedside.Alfonsoarrived,accordingtoZambotti,"healthyandsafebutverydowncastwithanxietyandsorrow";hewas"muchconcernedwithwhatmighthaveoccurredifhis

fatherhaddiedinhisabsence."Withfourbrothers,oneofwhomwasillegitimate,hedidhaveoccasiontoworry.

TheolddukefinallydiedonJanuary25,1505,muchmournedbyhisfamilyandbyhissubjects;Alfonsowasproclaimedhissuccessorlaterthatsamedaybeforeridinginagrandceremonialprocessionthroughthestreets

ofFerrara,accompaniedbyhiscourt,dressedintheducalmantleofwhitesatinlinedwithfurandthegreatgoldchainofstatehangingacrosshisbreast.WhenLucreziadutifullykneltbeforehimtoofferherhomage,thenewdukeembracedherwarmlyandkissedherbeforeleadingheroutontothebalcony,herhandinhis,todisplaythenewduchesstoherpeople.

Duringthesummerof1505,therivalrybetweenAlfonso'sbrotherserupteddramaticallyintoopenhostility.Lifeinthehot,humidcityofFerrarawasmoreunpleasantthanusualthatyear;onMay17,reportedonechronicler,"therewasnowheatforsaleinthemarketplace,norfodderofanysort,exceptforrice,"whichwassellingatdoublethenormalprice,"andfortwodaystherewasno

breadforsaleeither."Whenthewheatdidarrive,itwasfoundtobefullofweevils,andthepoorcouldbeseenacrossthecity,"cryingoutforasliceofbread."InthemiddleofJune,withthepriceoffoodstuffsrisingdaily,aten-year-oldboywasfounddeadonthestreet,andwhentheneighbourswenttohishouse,theyfoundthathisparentshaddiedoftheplague.

Lucrezia,concernedbyreportsoftheoutbreakoftheplague,decidedtotakeherhouseholdtoModenabothforherownsake—sinceherfluctuatingtemperaturehadinducedhertoconsultherdoctor,whoadvisedhertoleavethecity—andforthesakeofthechildshewascarrying.Herbrother-in-lawGiuliod'Este,DukeErcole'sbastardson,askedifhemightgowithher.Hewasarather

tiresomeyoungman,conceited,frivolous,quick-witted,andheadstrong;butLucreziaenjoyedhisamusingcompanyandsoshereadilyassented.Theoldduke,wellawareoftheyoungman'sextravagance,hadonlygrantedhimamodestallowanceandhadwantedhimtogointothechurch.ButGiuliohadstronglyresistedthisplanandwasmuchrelievedwhenhisbrother,the

newduke,presentedhimwithagenerousincomeaswellasapalace.

CardinalIppolitowasexasperatedbytheindulgencethatAlfonsohadshowntosuchaflightyandarrogantwastrel;and,asanopeninggambitinthedisputethatwasdevelopingbetweenIppolitoandhisillegitimatebrother,hehadachaplaininGiulio'shouseholdarrestedand

imprisoned.Giuliopromptlybrokeintotheprisonandreleasedtheman.

Thecardinalwasasardonic,elegant,supercilious,andargumentativeman.Hemuchregrettedhavingbeenmadeacardinalandcertainlydidnotallowhisunwantedeminenceinthechurchtointerferewithhispassionsforhuntingandwomen.Hisoutburstsoftemperwerenotorious;on

oneoccasionheflewintoaragewithoneofhisfather'scrossbowmenandhadhimbeatensosavagelythathewasalmostkilled.Lucreziawasintriguedbyhim,andshewasseensoofteninhiscompanythattheRomanambassadorinFerrarareportedthat"shebelongedtoherhusbandatnight,andtotheCardinalbyday."

Meanwhile,Lucrezia,

accompaniedbyGiulio,wasforcedtoleaveModena,whereplaguehadbythenalsobrokenout,andmadeforReggio,wheretheywereinterceptedbyamessengerfromDukeAlfonsowithanorderbanishingGiuliotoaremoteestate.AtfirstGiuliorefusedtogothere,buteventuallyhewaspersuadedtoleave,whileLucreziainducedthechaplainwhomGiuliohadreleasedfrom

prisontoreturntherevoluntarilyforthemoment.

NorwasthistheonlyaspectofGiulio'sbehaviourthatwasprovokingsuchfuryinhisbrotherthecardinal.FormonthsGiuliohadbeenpursuingthepretty,alluringAngelaBorgia,Lucrezia'scousin;andwhenshebecamepregnant,itwasgenerallysupposedthathewasthefatherofherchild.Herewas

anotherproblemforLucrezia,for,whileconductinganaffairwithGiuliod'Este,AngelawassimultaneouslybeingpursuedbyabesottedCardinalIppolito.

ItwasatReggioonSeptember19,1505,thatLucreziagavebirthtoanotherchild,aboythistime,whowasnamedAlessandroinmemoryofherfather.Bemboofferedhiscongratulations.

"Itgavemeinfinitepleasure,"hewrote,"tohearofthehappybirthofamalechildtoyourladyship;allthemoreso,"headded,after"thecrueldisappointmentandvainhopes"thathadaccompaniedhermiscarriageofthepreviousyear.Heprayedalsothatthis"dearlyawaitedson"wouldgrowintoaman"worthyofsofineamother."Hishopes,andthoseofAlfonsoandLucrezia,

however,weretobeonceagaincruellydashed.Theinfantprovedpoorandsickly;AlfonsosenthisowndoctortoReggiotocareforthebaby,butdespitehisministrations,barelyamonthlaterAlessandrowasdead.

WritingtocomfortLucrezia,whohadalsosufferedaboutofpuerperalfeverafterthebirth,FrancescoGonzaga,Marquis

ofMantua,invitedhertostayatBorgoforte,acastleontheborderofFerraraandMantuathatbelongedtohisfamily.

Thethirty-nine-year-oldFrancescowasbynomeansacaptivatingpersonality,buthispresencewouldbesomecomforttoLucreziaafterthedepartureofGiulioandthedeathofherbaby.Besides,itwouldannoyIsabellad'Este,whowaseightmonths

pregnant,andwhosediscomfitureLucreziaalwaysfoundpleasurable.SosheagreedtomeetGonzagaatBorgoforte,where,inhisbrusqueanddidacticway,hedidhisbesttocomfortandentertainher,evenofferingtosendanenvoytoSpaintohearnewsofCesare;andwhenthetimecametoleavethecastle,shewrotetoAlfonsototellhimthatshehadbeeninvitedto

accompanythemarquistoMantuaonherwayhometoFerrara."Ihavebeenurgedwithsuchpassion,"shewrotetohim,"togotomorrowtovisittheillustriousMarchioness,that,althoughIresistedstrongly,Icouldnotbutobey."

Shehadreasontobegratefulforhavingdoneso.TheMantuancourtpossessedanenviablecollectionof

worksofartthatIsabellawasdelightedtoshowherguest,booksandjewels,enamels,glassandsilver,andpaintingsnotonlybyPeruginoandLorenzoCostabutalsobyAndreaMantegna.

Mantegna,appointedcourtpainterin1460,hadcompletedworkontheCameradegliSposiintheducalpalacein1474,aprojectcommissionedby

Francesco'sgrandfather,MarquisLodovico.ForFrancescohimself,hehadpaintedtheninehugecanvasesoftheTriumphofCaesar,whichwerelaterboughtbyKingCharlesIandarenowintheOrangeryatHamptonCourt.ForIsabella,Lucrezia'shostess,hehadpaintedtheParnassusin1497and,threeyearslater,theTriumphofVirtue,bothnowintheLouvre.

BythetimehehadfinishedworkontheTriumphofVirtue,Mantegnawasnearlyseventyyearsold,agrumpyoldman,bynomeanssowelloffashethoughtheoughttobeandinconstantdisputewithhisneighbours.HewasalsoindisputewiththeillustriousIsabellaoveranantiquebustoftheEmpressFaustina,whichhehadofferedtosellherfor100ducats,farlessthanhe

thoughtitwasworth.Eventually,aftertreatingtheofferwithdisdainfulsilence,Isabellaagreedtoacquireitbysettlingtheoldartist'sdebtsuptothatamount.

LucrezialeftMantuaattheendofOctober,havinggreatlyannoyedtheheavilypregnantIsabellabyhavingsoobviouslyarousedinherhusbandthepassionsanddesireshewasmoreinthe

habitoffeelingforhiswife'smaids-of-honour.TravellinginFrancesco'sceremonialbarge,shearrivedatBelriguardo,whereshewasgreetedbyAlfonsoandbyGiulio,hisbanishmentrescindedbyhisindulgenthalf-brother.

Afewdayslater,GiuliowasreturningtoBelriguardofromahuntingexpedition,ridingalongtheroadtowardthe

villa,whenhewasmetbyafuriouslyjealousCardinalIppolitod'Este;hehadbeenspurned,yetagain,bytheprettyAngelaBorgia,whohadscornfullytoldthecardinalthathisbrother'sliquidbrowneyeswereworthmoretoherthan"thewholeofyourperson."Inanexcessofrage,Ippolitonowshoutedorderstohisfourfootmentokillthemanandputouthiseyes,thoseeyesthatAngela

hadtoldhimshesoextravagantlyadmired.Ippolito'sfootmenobedientlypulledGiuliofromhissaddletotheground,wheretheystabbedathiseyeswiththeirdaggersuntilhisfacewascoveredwithbloodandhiseyelidsalmostsevered.

IppolitorodebacktoBelriguardowiththenewsthathehadfoundGiuliolyingonthegroundandwounded;

thefootmenfledabroad.Menweresentouttocarryhimbacktothevilla,andurgentsummonsweresenttosurgeonsatFerrara.Giulioseemedtobeonthepointofdeathor,atleast,blindedforlife.

CardinalIppolitoatfirstdeniedallresponsibilityfortheincident;thenheclaimedthatthefourfootmenwere"formerlyinourhousehold."

Alfonso,reluctanttohavehisownbrotherarraignedonachargeofmurder,tookcarethatthisversionoftheeventswassenttoeverycourtinItaly,whereitsoonbecamethesubjectofgossip.InaprivatelettertoIsabella,however,Alfonsoconfessedtheterribletruth,begginghissisternottorevealthetruedetailsof"thisshamefulact";Isabellarepliedthatitwastoolate,thateverybarberinthe

marketplaceknewwhathadreallyhappened.LikeAlfonso,shewasalsoshocked;whenIppolitohimselffledtoMantuahopingtofindrefugeathissister'scourt,shewassohorrifiedbywhathehaddonethathewassoonforcedtoleave.

Eventually,whenGiuliohadpartiallyrecoveredhissight,Ippolitowasadmittedback

intoFerrara,wherehewasinducedtomakeaguardedapology;andthat,Alfonsohoped,wouldbetheendofthematter.ButGiulio,stillingreatpainandfindingcomfortonlyindarkenedrooms,remainedbitterlyresentful,notonlyofthecardinalbutalsoofDukeAlfonso,whomheblamedfornotchargingIppolitowithhiscrime.

ThedukeandduchessreturnedtoFerrara,aswasthecustom,tocelebrateChristmas,NewYear,andCarnivalintheducalcapital.Lucreziaclearlyenjoyedherself,joininginthedancing,relishingthesaucycomediesthatsheaskedtobeperformedattheducaltheatreduringCarnival,whenshebecameafamiliarfigureinthestreets,throughwhichsherodewearingamask,

sometimesinawhitedress,atothertimesgold.ShedidwhatshecouldtocomfortGiulio,endeavouringtofindhimaprofitableappointmentwiththeKnightsofMalta.Shealsowentoutofherwaytohelpthetiresome,importunateAngelaBorgia,whohaddiscardedthenolongerhandsomeGiuliowithout,apparently,asecondthoughtandhadrecentlybeenbetrothedtotheyoung

AlessandroPioandnowbadgeredLucreziaforhelpinpurchasinganextravaganttrousseau,includinganextremelyexpensivedressofcloth-of-gold.

Whilethecourtlaughedandjokedanddanced,Giulioremainedinhisdarkenedroom,hisresentmentgrowingashelistenedtotherevelriesoutsideonthecitystreets.Hehadbeguntorecoverhis

sight;atfirstmurkyoutlinescouldbeseenoffacesandobjects,buthisvisionsooncleared.Stillinintolerablepain,however,hethoughtoflittleotherthantherevengehewouldinflictonIppolitoandAlfonso.Hewasjoinedbyhishalf-brotherFerrante,hiscompanioninthecarefreeexploitsofearlierdays,whohadhopesofusurpingAlfonsoasDukeofFerrara.Theydiscussedwaysof

achievingtheiraims;theydrewothers,asincompetentasthemselves,intotheirconspiracy;theydiscussedmethodsofpoisoning,possibleambushes,trapsandsnaresanddisguises."Somethingsinisterisbeingplanned,"Isabellad'Este'sfriendBernardinodiProsperiwrotetoheratMantua."Idon'tthinkthingswilleverberightagainbetweenDonGiulioandtheCardinal."

Meanwhile,CardinalIppolito'sinformershadbeguntohearrumoursoftheplottersandtheirwretchedschemes;duringthesummerseveralmen,includingoneofGiulio'sservants,werearrested.GiuliohimselftookadvantageofAlfonso'sabsencefromFerraraonatriptoVenice,toescapetothesecurityofferedbyIsabellainMantua.WhenthedukecamehomeinearlyJuly,he

orderedhishalf-brothertoreturnhome.Giuliorefused,claimingthathislifewasindangerinFerrara.Inanattempttomediatebetweenthebrothers,FrancescoGonzagaformallyrequestedAlfonsotoguaranteeGiulio'ssafety.AlfonsorepliedthathepromisedtostandsuretyforIppolito'sactionsbutwarnedGiuliothathecouldnotprotecthimfromthelawifhewastobefoundguiltyof

treason.

FinallyitwasFerrantewhobetrayedtheconspiratorsandtoldofGiulio'sinvolvementintheaffair.Alfonsowasappalledattherealizationthathisownbrotherswereplottinghisassassination.Ferrantewasarrested,alongwiththeotherplotters,withtheexceptionofGiulio,whopreferredtoremaininMantuaundertheprotectionof

FrancescoandIsabella.

ThetrialopenedonAugust3;andamonthlaterallwerefoundguiltyandcondemnedtodeathbyexecution.Alfonso,however,hadbeenfondofhisbrothersanddecidedtoreprievethem,sentencingthetwoyoungmeninsteadtolifeimprisonmentinthecastledungeons.ForFerrante,lifeimprisonmententailed

captivityforforty-threeyearsuntilhisdeath;forGiulio,fifty-threeyears,untilhewasreleasedbyhisgreat-nephew,Lucrezia'sgrandsonDukeAlfonsoII.

AttheendofNovember1506,afterayearthathadseenherhusbandsuffersomuchanguish,Lucreziabroughthimnewsthatgladdenedboththeirhearts;shewaspregnantagainand

would,Godwilling,bearthischild.AtthesametimewelcomenewsarrivedfromSpain:Cesarehadescapedfromprisonandwasonhiswaytothesafetyofthecourtofhisbrother-in-law,whowasnowkingofNavarre.Lucreziaawaitedeagerlytohearwhathewoulddonext;sheherselfwaspreparedtodoallshecouldtohelphim.

Hergaietywasplainforall

toseethatyearduringCarnivalin1507,whenFrancescoGonzaga,nowcaptain-generalofthepapalforces,cametoFerraratodiscussfutureoperationswithDukeAlfonso,who,bynowquiteunconcernedbyhiswife'sobviousattractiontothisman,raisednoobjectiontotheattentionsthatsheandGonzagapaidtoeachother,tothetimetheyspentineachother'scompany,totheir

dancingtogetheratballafterball.Abandonedyetgraceful,shethrewherselfenergeticallyintotheexcitementofthepalacedancesuntilshehadtotakeyetagaintoherbed.

AlltheexcitementhadprovedtoomuchforLucrezia,who,inthemiddleofJanuary,sufferedyetanothermiscarriage.Alfonsodespairedandchidedhiswife

forherlackofpropercareforhercondition;toomuchdancing,heremonstrated,andtoomuchrevelry.Shealsohadtoendurethenews,whicharrivedafewweekslater,thatIsabellahadgivenbirthtoherthirdson,whomshenamedFerrante,inhonourofherbrother,languishingaprisonerinthecastledungeons.

Chapter27TheEndoftheAffair

"THEHARDERITRYTOPLEASEGOD,

THEHARDERHETRIESME"

ONCESHEHADRECOVEREDfromhermiscarriage,LucreziatookupwithareformingfriarinthetraditionofSavonarolawhoproposed,amongmany

otherpenances,atariffof"finestocurbprofanities"—1ducatfortakingthenameofasaintinvain,forexample,or2ducatsforanoathinvolvingOurLordortheVirginMary.ThiswastoomuchforthegoodcitizensofFerrara,whoproposedinvokingthehelpofDuchessLucreziabysendingadeputationaskinghertoproposetothefriarthat,ratherthanurgingthepunishmentofblasphemers

andtheforsakingofcosmeticsanddécolletages,heshouldpreachagainstmoreheinoussins.Lucreziaundertooktospeaktohimbutseemstohavecontentedherselfbyremonstratingwithherladiesabouttheiroftenscandalousbehaviour.

Then,onApril22,1507,anunexpectedvisitorarrivedinFerrarawithdreadfulnews.ItwasoneofCesare'ssquires,

whohadtravelledfromNavarretotellLucreziathatherbrotherwasdead,killedinbattle,asCesarehadalwayssuspectedhewouldbe,somesixweeksearlier,fightingforthekingofNavarre."TheharderItrytopleaseGod,theharderhetriesme,"weptLucreziawhensheheard.Inreplytoaletterfromherhusband,whowasinGenoawithLouisXIIandhadpennedahastynote

tohercommiseratingwithherloss,shewrotethatshehopedhecould"returnhomeassoonaspossible,whichiswhatIwishwithallmyheart."Shethen,inhergrief,tooktoherbed;indeed,shewasnotseeninpublicforsolongthatrumoursaboundedthatshewaspregnantagain.

Bythesummer,however,shehadrecoveredenoughtorenewheraffairwith

FrancescoGonzaga,whosheknewwasdeeplyattractedtoherandwithwhomshewasinlove.ThiswasadangerousliaisonandbecameevenmoresowhenErcoleStrozzi—whohadactedasgo-betweenwhenLucreziawasentangledwithPietroBembo—andErcole'sbrotherGuidoStrozzi,wholivedinMantua,nowbecamecarriersoflettersbetweenthemarquisandLucrezia.

Theircorrespondencewasinterruptedattheendof1507whenLucreziaagainbecamepregnant.Onthisoccasionshewasfarfrombeingsonervousasshehadbeenduringpreviouspregnancies.Indeed,sheenteredenthusiasticallyintodiscussionaboutthedesignofthebaby'selaboratecradleanditsclothesandtheinterviewingofwould-bewetnurses.Sherelishedthe

sweetmeatsthatweresenttoherfromSpainbyhersister-in-lawaswellasthealmondpastriesfilledwithhoneyandnougatthatsheateinthesteamingwaterofherbathorwhileplayingidlywithhercountlesspearls.

AndduringCarnivalatthebeginningof1508,itwasnoted,withrelief,thatLucreziawasfinallyheedingtheadviceofherdoctors,and

theurgententreatiesofherhusband,andwasavoidingtheexcessesinwhichshehadindulgedinpreviousyears,eventotheextentofforgoingherpleasureindancing.Therewas,however,plentyforhertoenjoy:watchingthejoustsandtheotherdisplaysofhorsemanship;enjoyingthedaringfeatsofthetightropewalkersandacrobats;laughingattheribaldcomediesperformedin

thetheatre;andlisteningtothenewsongsshehadcommissionedspeciallyforCarnival,whichwereperformed,alongwithsomeofheroldfavourites,bythecourtmusicians.

OnApril3DukeAlfonsohadtoleavehisheavilypregnantwifeforafewdaystogotoVeniceonurgentbusiness,nodoubtoptimisticthatthispregnancywouldend

moresatisfactorilythanitspredecessors.Sohewasabsentwhen,thenextday,Lucreziagavebirthtoaboy,which,allwhosawthebabyagreed,appearedtobeperfectlyhealthy;andhewasnamedErcoleafterhispaternalgrandfather.

ThebirthofanheirwasgreetedwithgreatexcitementandjoyinFerrara;thechurchbellsrangoutacrossthecity;

gunswerefired;fireworkslittheskies.Intheirenthusiasmforcelebrations,accordingtoalocalchronicler,thepopulacemadebonfiresof

allthescreensinthemarketplaceandelsewhereandallthebenchesofthenotariesandthetableofthejudgesfromthePalazzodellaRagione,aswellasall

itswindowsanddoors,andtheyalsoburnttheladies'pewsfromthecathedralandtheotherlargechurches,andallthebenches,tables,stoolsanddoorsinthepublicschoolsatSanDomenicoandSanFrancesco,andthecelebrationswentonforthreenights.

Ercolewaschristenedinthechapeloftheducalpalacesoonafterhisbirth."Hewasnotbaptizedinpublic,"reportedthechronicler,"anditisnotknownwhoheldhimatthefont,"thoughhedidknowtheidentityofthewetnurseemployedtofeedhim,whowasthedaughterofacarpenterinthecity.Noristhereanyevidencethattheapparentlyhastyandprivatechristeningbetokenedany

infirmityonthepartofthebaby.Indeed,onceDukeAlfonsoreturnedfromVeniceafewdayslater,heproudlydisplayedhislittleheirtotheambassadorsandotherdignitaries,whowereaskedtoexaminelittleErcolelyingnakedonhisback,lesshandsomethanhehadfirstbeenreportedbutevidently"complete."

Alfonsoannouncedthebirth

ofhisheirinjubilantlettersdispatchedtocourtsthroughoutItalyandbeyond.Thedukehadinformedhisbrother-in-lawFrancescoGonzagainalettersentbeforeheleftVenice,andthemarquisreturnedthisgestureoffriendshipbysendinghisownsecretarytoFerraratooffercongratulationsonhisbehalf.Lucrezia,followingtheconventionsoftheperiod,senthernewstoIsabella

d'Este.Awarethatthefriendshipbetweenhiswifeandhisbrother-in-lawwascausingfoodforgossipsatcourt,AlfonsowasdeterminedthatLucreziashouldbehaveintheusualformalmannerandforbadehertocommunicatethenewstothemarquis;Lucreziahadbeenfuriousandmadeitquiteplainthatshewasso.Coulditbe,thequestionwasinevitablyasked,thatthe

babywasnotthechildofAlfonsod'Este,DukeofFerrara,butofFrancescoGonzaga,MarquisofMantua,amanwhomAlfonsomuchdisliked?Certainlythebaby'snoselookedrathersquashedasdoesFrancescoGonzaga'sinMantegna'sMadonnadellaVittoria.Certainly,also,Lucrezia,nowthatherbabywasborn,continuedtourgeGonzagatocometoFerraratoseeher.

WhenIsabella'sinformantBernardinodiProsperisawthebaby,healsopronouncedtheheirtobehandsomeandlively.HewasalsofullofpraiseforthecradlethatLucreziahadcommissioned,aclassicallyinspiredstructure,allgilded,withcoverletsofcloth-of-goldandfinecambricsheets,whichhadbeenbeautifullyembroidered:"ofsuchsplendour,"hethought,"thatI

donothavewordstodescribeit."

OnApril12,justoveraweekafterErcole'sbirth,DukeAlfonsodepartedonceagainonbusiness,thistimetoFrance,leavingLucreziaaloneoncemoreandhopefulthatFrancescoGonzagawouldpayheravisit."Youwouldbemoredeartoherthan25,000ducatsandmore,ifyouweretocome,"Ercole

Strozziassuredthemarquis.Everyday,hesaid,wetalkofyou."Icannotdescribethepassionwhichhasoverwhelmedher,"hewrote;"sheismostanxioustohearwhyyouhavenotansweredherletters."

Noreplycametothisletter.ItmaywellhavebeenthatFrancescoGonzagawasconcernedbywhatmighthappentohimifhewereto

gotoFerraratoseeLucrezia.HehadrecentlybeentroubledbyamanpurportingtorepresentherwhohadarrivedatMantuawiththesuggestionthathemightgotoFerraratoseeherinsecret.Gonzagasuspectedatrapandpaidnoattentiontothissuggestion,whereuponthemanofferedhimaminiatureofLucreziathatGonzagadeclined.

Meanwhile,stillnowordfor

LucreziacamefromMantua.Strozzi'slettersonherbehalfbecamealmostdesperate."Shelovesyoupassionately,muchmorethanyoucanimagine.Ifyouknewthisyouwouldbemuchmoreardentinyourlettersandmuchmoreanxioustocometoseeherwherevershewas.Doatleastgivehersomesignoflovingher.Sheasksfornothingmore....Domakeeveryefforttocometoher.Inanycase

writetoheranddon'tappearsocold."

StillFrancescoGonzagadidnotrespond;anditseemedthathiscautionwaswelljustified.OnJune5LucreziahadwrittentohimwiththenewsthattheSpanishpriestwhohadhelpedCesareescapefromprisonandwhohadjoinedherhouseholdinFerrarahadbeenfound"treacherouslymurdered";

thatverynightErcoleStrozzialsowaskilled.ThechroniclerGiovanniMariaZerbinatireportedthedeathofthis"mostdistinguishedpoet,"who,hesaid,"wasfounddeadoutsidethechurchofSanFrancesco,inthemiddleofthestreetbythepictureoftheVirginthatisonthepilasterattachedtothewallofthechurch";thebodywasfoundtohavereceived"twenty-twostabwoundsand

histhroatwascutandnooneknowswhokilledhim,"thoughmanyinFerraraandMantuahadtheirsuspicionsthatCardinalIppolito,orevenDukeAlfonso,hadahandinthecrime.

LucrezianowhadtofindanewmessengerforherletterstoGonzaga;andshefoundoneinErcoleStrozzi'sbrother."LorenzoStrozziiscomingtoMantua,"shewrote

toGonzaga."HeisasdevotedaservantaswasErcole,hisbrother."

ButGonzagahadnointentionofgoingtoseeLucrezia.Hewrotetosaythathewasill,tooilltotravel.Shepleadedwithhim;hewasstilltooill.Inthatcase,shesaid,shewouldcometolookafterhim;andshewasonthepointofjoininghimwhenherhusbandandCardinal

IppolitoheardofherintentionsandtookherbacktoFerrara.

AshadbeenthecasewithPietroBembo,theirardourcooledtoaffectionandthetworemainedonfriendlyterms,correspondingregularlyfortherestoftheirlives.Meanwhile,LucreziamournfullyresumedherlifeinFerrara,onceagainthedutifulwifeandconsort,and

now,withage,lessthehappy,lively,youngwomanshehadoncebeen,whohadrejoicedinwearingthoseextravaganthatsshehaddesignedforherselfandherladiestoattendMassinthecathedral.

OnApril26,1509,newsarrivedinFerrarathatDukeAlfonsohadbeengiventhepostofcaptain-generalofthechurchbyJuliusII,muchtothefuryofhisbrother-in-law

FrancescoGonzaga,buttothejoyofhissubjects,whogreetedtheannouncementwiththecustomarypealsofbells,thunderofartillery,andflashingfireworks.ThisappointmentwasparticularlyimportantinthelightofthefactthatthepopehadrecentlyarrangedanalliancetocurbthegrowingpowerofVenice,declaringthathewouldjoinforceswithanyoneinordertoreducethecityoncemore"to

alittlefishingvillage"—and,indeed,hehadbeenjoinedbymostoftherulingheadsofEurope:EmperorMaximilian,LouisXIIofFrance,FerdinandofSpain,andmostoftheItalianpowers,includingbothMantuaandFerrara.

DukeAlfonsowastobeabsentfromFerraraforaconsiderablepartofthenextthreeyears,firstleading

JuliusII'sarmiesagainstVenice,whichwasresoundinglydefeatedinMay1509attheBattleofAgnadello;whenJuliusIIabruptlychangedsidesthefollowingyear,toallyhimselfwithVeniceandtolaunchanattackontheFrenchforcesinItaly,inordertodrivethe"barbarians"backbeyondtheAlps,AlfonsoremainedloyaltoLouisXII,andthepope

usedthisastheexcuseheneededtoexcommunicatethedukeanddeprivehimofhisfiefbeforemovingnorth,leadinghisarmiesinperson,toattacktheduchyofFerrara.

"HavingbeenunabletoseparatetheDukeofFerrarafromhisloyaltytotheFrenchKing,"wroteGuicciardini,"thePopehadmadeeveryefforttooccupytheduchy,pretendingthathehaddone

soonaccountofadisputeoverthetaxesandtollsonsalt."ForAlfonso,theautumnof1510wasexceptionallybusyashestrengthenedhisfortifications,somethingaboutwhichheknewagreatdeal.Nevertheless,Modenasoonfelltothepapalforces,andtheynowmarchedontolaysiegetoAlfonso'sstrategicfortressofMirandola,whichhadbeen

garrisonedwiththehelpofFrenchsoldiers.

JuliusIIhadalreadyprovedhimselfaformidableopponentonthebattlefieldwhen,in1506,havingdismemberedCesare'sempire,hehadturnedhisattentiontoBologna,conqueringthecityandremovingGiovanniBentivogliofrompower.HereturnedtoRomeintriumph.

TheVenetianenvoythoughtthatneverhadanyemperororvictoriousgeneralreceivedsoremarkableawelcome.Afewthoughtfulmen,however,regrettedthattheVicarofChristshouldresemblemoretheLionofJudahthantheLambofGod.TheDutchscholarErasmus,himselfordainedapriest,wroteironicallyofJuliusII'sentryintoBolognaasthoughinthepope'sownwords:"Ah,

wouldtoGodyouhadseenmebornealoftintoBologna!Thehorsesandchariots,themarchingbattalions,thegallopingcommanders,theflamingtorches,theprettypageboys,thepompofbishopsandgloryofcardinals...andIbornealoft,headandauthorofall!"HissatiricalattackonJuliusIIwasvicious:"Yournamesuitsyouperfectly,"hewrote,likeningthepopetoJulius

Caesar."Youunjustlyseizedtyrannicalpower,despisingandignoringthegods,andplungingyourcountryintowar";theonlydifferenceErasmuscouldseewasthatJuliusIIwasofcommonstock.

InJanuary1511JuliusIIarrivedatMirandolatooverseeinpersonthesiegeofthecastle;hetookuplodgings,accordingto

Guicciardini,"inafarmer'shovelwherehewaswithinrangeoftheenemyartillery."Hewentaboutthecampinthebittercoldanddrivingsnow,hisarmourconcealedbyawhitecloak,hisheadinasheepskinhood,cursinghisenemies,movinghisquarterswhentheywerehitbycannonballs,andshoutingorderstohiscaptains,hisenergyandenthusiasm"notchilledintheslightest

degree,"addedthehistorian,"bythebittercoldwhichhistroopswerescarcelyabletoendure."

Inspiredbyhisrestlessenergy,hismenbreachedthewallsofMirandola,theirtaskmucheasedbytheicycoldthathadcausedthewaterinthemoattofreezedeepenoughtobeartheweightofthepapaltroops.Withnochanceofrelief,thecastle

surrendered.Thisfreshvictoryencouragedothercitiestojointhepope.SpaincametohisaidagainsttheFrench,whowereDukeAlfonso'sprincipalallies,whilebothParmaandPiacenza,abandonedbytheFrench,declaredthemselveswillingtojointhePapalStates.JuliusIIannexedthemimmediately,announcingthathehatedtheSpanishquiteasmuchastheFrench,andthat

hewouldnotrestuntiltheyhadbeendrivenoutofthepeninsulatoo.

Ferrara,however,wastoproveaharderpropositionforthebellicosepope.OnNovember28,1510,theFrencharmyarrivedatFerraratohelpthedefenceofthecity.Twodayslater,theduke,inthepresenceoftheFrenchcaptains,hadaddressedthe"courtiers,

citizensandartisans"whohadgatheredearlyintheeveninginthetownhalltoheartheirdukespeak.ThechroniclerZerbinatitakesupthestory:

HetoldthepeoplehowhewasexpectingthePope'sarmytoarrivesoonandaskedthepeopletoremainasfaithfultohimastheyalwayshadbeen

tothehouseofEste,andhepromisedthepeoplethathewouldnotabandonthem,ashehadbeenabandonedbyeveryoneexceptbytheFrench,andthatiftheystayedfaithfultohimhewassureofvictorybecausethecitywasstrong,thattheywouldfortifyitandthatwewerewell

suppliedwithartilleryandwithfoodandwithalargepopulation;thenherepeatedthatifthepeoplekepttheirtrustinhimthenhehadnodoubtsatall....MesserAntonioCostabilirepliedwiselythathispeoplehadalwaysbeenmostfaithfultothehouseofEste,andforthefutureandfor

thepresenttheywouldalwaysbeso,andthathewasnottoworryaboutthisbecausethepeoplewerereadyandpreparedtofightagainsthisenemiesandeveryonestartedtoshout:DukeAlfonso!DukeAlfonso!AndsoHisLordshipandtheFrenchcaptainsleft

theroomwellsatisfiedwiththepopulacewhonowpreparedforthearrivaloftheenemyarmyinFerrara.

ThefollowingdayDukeAlfonsohadpublishedadecreeorderingallwarehousesandshopstoclosefortheweekandforeveryonetoworkinsteadonfortifyingthecity.Andthen

theywaitedfortheenemytoarrive,goingabouttheirbusinessasnormallyaspossiblewhilethewintermonthspassedandJuliusII'sforcesfoughtrelentlesslyforthepossessionofMirandola,knowingthatoncethatfortresshadfallen,itwouldbetheirturnnext.

OnMaundyThursday,April17,thechaplainsofthecathedralheldthecustomary

confirmationservicebehindcloseddoors,"whichtheydid,nothavingpermissionfromthePopetodobecauseoftheexcommunication,"reportedthechroniclerZerbinati,whoaddedinthemarginofhisnotebookthat"Iwastoldaboutthis,becauseIwasnotthere."

Thewinterof1511hadbeenunusuallylongandhard,"thegreatestcold,thethickest

iceandtheheaviestsnowthatIhaveeverseen,"commentedZerbinati,addingthat"thewinterhaslastedforsolongthattoday,thelastdayofApril,wearestilllightingourfiresandwearestillwearingourfur-linedcoats."Threeweekslater,however,camenewsthatwarmedtheheartsofthebravepopulace:theBolognesehadrebelledagainstJuliusII,andtheBentivogliowereonceagain

inpower.Thecelebrationsthatnightwereexceptionallyloud—bells,fireworks,cannonades,shouting,songs,youthsroisteringonthestreetsbrandishingbranchesoftreesonwhichblossomshadbeguntobloom—torejoiceatthedefeatofthemightypapalarmy"whichhasthreatenedusallthepastwinter."Thenextday"alltheshopswereclosed,asifitwereaSunday."

ThroughoutthesedifficultyearswhileAlfonsohadbeenfrequentlyabsent,fightingfirstforJuliusIIandthenagainsthim,itwasLucrezia,hisduchess,whotookhisplaceasrulerofthecity,writingregularletterstohim,sometimesasmanyasthreeaday,reportingthenewsfromthemarketplace,thegossipatcourt,planningpolicy,andaskinghisadvice.Shehadpawnedherjewelstoraise

moneyforherhusbandandalsomanaged,inwhatmusthavebeenexceptionallydifficultcircumstances,topresideovertheircourt,actingasagracioushostesstothemanyFrenchnobleswhohadcometoFerrarawiththeFrencharmyandwerequarteredintheducalpalaceorintheresidencesofthecourtiers."Sheisapearl,"oneFrenchmanremarked;"therehasneverbeensucha

wonderfulduchess,"heextolled,praisingLucrezia'sbeautyandbenevolence,herkindnessandcharm,and,headded,"agreatservicetoherhusband."

Chapter28TheDeathofthe

Duchess

"OTHERWOMENARETOLUCREZIA

ASTINISTOSILVER,COPPERTOGOLD"

NOWTHATTHEANXIETYandworryofthemuch-fearedpapalinvasionwasover,Lucrezia,

assooftenhappensonsuchoccasions,fellillandretiredtotheconventofSanBernardinotorecover,whichshedid,aftersomemonthsofconvalescence,andofmourningforthedeathofthetwelve-year-oldRodrigoBisceglie,herfirstson,whomshehadnotseensincehewasatoddlerwhensheleftRomeforthelasttime.Shedid,however,havethecomfortofknowingthatherotherson

Juan,theresultofheraffairwiththepapalvaletPedroCalderon,wassafeandwell.Since1505hehadbeenlivinginnearbyCarpiandwasfrequentlyavisitorinFerrara,where,thankstoherfather'sbull"explaining"theparentageoftheboy,hewasalwaysassumedtobeherhalf-brother.

InAugust1509,atthestartoftheconflictwithJuliusII

andjustsixteenmonthsafterthebirthofErcole,Lucreziahadgivenbirthtoanotherhealthyson,namedIppolitoinhonourofAlfonso'sbrother,thecardinal.Duringthetroubledyearsthatfollowed,shehadtakenrefugewithheryoungsons,spendinglonghoursplayinggameswiththem,takingpartinmasquerades,tellingthemfairystories,listeningwiththemtostrangesurrealtales

toldbyherdwarf,Santino,whosatpercheduponachairplaceduponatablelikeaminiaturestylite.Onoccasionsthechildren'sfatherwouldlookinonthescenewithanindulgenteye,nolongerjealousofsuchthreatstothecomposureofhismarriageasFrancescoGonzagaandPietroBembo.

JuliusII'sthreattoFerrarafinallyendedonApril11,

1512,whenhisarmiesweredecisivelydefeatedbytheFrenchattheBattleofRavenna.DukeAlfonso'sknowledgeofartilleryhadplayedanimportantpartinthevictory,whichhadbeenfoughtatthecostoftenthousandlives,includingthatofCesare'serstwhilecaptain,Yvesd'Alègre.Andayearlater,towardtheendofJanuary1513,JuliusII,complainingofbeing

suddenlytakenill,took,uncharacteristically,tohisbed.Bytheendoftheweek,feelingthattheendwasnear,hesummonedhismasterofceremoniestodictatedetailedinstructionsforhisfuneral;andonFebruary21hedied.

AgenevermellowedJulius;totheendhewasapapaterribile.Asasickoldman,hestillspokeofwagingawartodrivetheSpanishoutof

Italy.Hewas,indeed,agreatpatriotand,unlikesomanyofhiscontemporaries,hethoughtofItalynotasamerecollectionofrivalstatesbutasanentityofitsown.Yet,howevermuchthewarriorpopehemayhavebeen,JuliusIIwasalsooneofthemostenlightenedanddiscriminatingpatronsofartthattheWesternworldhadeverknown.HehadmuchoftheVaticanPalace

reconstructedandrebuiltthemaincourtyardaswellastheimmensecourtyardthatstretchesfromthepalacetowardtheBelvedere.Beneathitswallshelaidoutanextensiveandlovelygarden,thefirstgreatRomanpleasuregardensincethedaysoftheCaesars.

JuliusIIhiredartistsasifrecruitinganarmy—includingmostofthegreat

livingmastersoftheItalianRenaissance.OneofthesewasRaphael,whoworkedforthepopeonthedecorationofthenewofficialquartersofthepalace,theVaticanStanze;anotherwasBramante,whoundertooktorebuildtheancientandveneratedBasilicaofSt.Peter's,clearingthesiteofthedecayingmedievalstructurewithsucheagernessthathebecameknownas"maestro

Ruinante,"masterRuiner.HealsohiredtheFlorentineartistMichelangelotopaintthememorablefrescoesontheceilingoftheSistineChapelandtocastanenormousstatueofthepope—fourteenfeethighandweighingsixtons—whichwassetuponthefacadeofthecathedralinBolognaandthentorndownbythemobafterthecityrebelledagainstJuliusII'srule.Theruinedstatuewas

giventoDukeAlfonso,whomelteditdownandmadeitintoacannon,whichhewittilynamedLaGiulia.

HehadbeenagreatchampionoftheChurchandofitscapitalcity.TheRomans,recognizingthis,weredeeplygrateful.Whenhediedin1513,peopleweptinthestreetsand,accordingtoFrancescoGuicciardini,they"throngedtokisshisfeet

andgazeuponhisdeadface,forallknewhimtobeatrueRomanpontiff."Although"fulloffuryandextravagantconceptions,"Guicciardiniconcluded,"hewaslamentedaboveallhispredecessorsand...isheldinillustriousremembrance."

Afewdayslater,twenty-fivecardinalsassembledinRomefortheconclavethatwastoelecthissuccessor.

Lessthanaweeklater,CardinalGiovannide'Medici,thesonofLorenzoilMagnificoandAlfonso'sprisoneraftertheBattleofRavenna,waselectedpopeasLeoX,andPietroBembo,onceLucrezia'slover,wasappointedpapalsecretary.

Itwasnotuntilthesummerof1513,fouryearsafterthebirthofherlastchild,Ippolito,thatLucreziafound

herselfpregnantoncemore;butuponthisoccasion,thebabyboytowhomshegavebirthwasfarfrombeingashandsomeasIppolitoandErcole.DespitebeingnamedAlessandroafterherbelovedfather,itclearlypainedLucreziatolookuponthechildwithitsstrangelylargeandmisshapenhead,andshewasrelievedratherthandistressedwhenhegaveupthestruggletolive,agedjust

twoyearsold.

Meanwhile,inJuly1515,whenAlessandrowasjustfifteenmonthsold,Lucreziahadgivenbirthyetagain,thistimetoadaughter,namedEleonoraafterAlfonso'smother.BythetimeAlessandrodied,shewaspregnantagainwithFrancesco,whowasborninNovember1516and,perhaps,asthenamechosenhad

featuredinneitherherownfamilynorthatofAlfonso's,thebabywasnamedafteritsuncleFrancescoGonzaga;but,anyway,itwasaprettybabywhomsheclearlyadored.

So,withnolittlepleasure,Alfonsofoundhimselfthefatherofanumberofchildren—allhislegitimateheirs.Hewasengrossedinhisownaffairs;but,nevertheless,he

washighlysatisfiedwiththeesteemandadmirationnowbestowedonhiswife.Theadmirationsheexcitedinformeryearswasduetoheryouthfulbeauty;itwasnotowingtohervirtues.She,whoasayounggirlhadbeenthemostvilifiedwomanofhertimes,had,inmiddleage,wonaplaceofthehighesthonour.

Theducalcouple,now

clearlyateaseineachother'scompany,sharedaninterestinallthearts,notsolelymusic,andasthepatronofartistsandpoetsthatallRenaissanceprinceswereexpectedtobe,Alfonsorelieduponthetasteanddiscernmentofhiswifetoguidehim.ItwasshewhopersuadedhimtotakeintohisservicethepoetLudovicoAriosto,who,inreturn,praisedLucreziawithwild

hyperboleinhisOrlandoFurioso:"OtherwomenaretoLucreziaastinistosilver,coppertogold...colouredglasstopreciousstones."

ItwasevidentlyAriostowhointroducedTitiantothecourtatFerrara.AtthistimeTitianwasabouttwenty-fiveyearsold.Thesonofaminorofficial,hewasborninthevillageofPievediCadorenorthofVenice,andatthe

ageofnine,hehadgonewithhisbrothertolivewithanuncleinVenice,wherehebecameanapprenticetoamosaicistbeforemovingtotheworkshopoftheelderlyGiovanniBellini,themostcelebratedVenetianpainterofhisday.AlsoworkinginBellini'sstudioatthattimewasGiorgione,anartistsometenyearsolderthanhimself,withwhomheworkedonthefrescoesoftheFondacodei

Tedeschi,thegreatstorehouseoftheGermanmerchantsclosetotheRialtoBridgeinVenice.

HavingmovedtoFerraratoworkforAlfonsod'Este,apparentlyatLucrezia'sinstigation,TitianworkedonacycleofmythologicalcompositionsfortheCamerinod'Alabastro,aroomthathadrecentlybeenrebuiltinthecastleatFerraraand

whereAlfonsoproposedtodisplayhiscollection.HehadboughtGiovanniBellini'scanvasoftheFeastoftheGodsin1514and,fouryearslater,commissionedTitiantopainttwocompanionpieces,theWorshipofVenus(nowinthePradoatMadrid)andBacchusandAriadne(nowintheNationalGalleryinLondon).

Thesemasterpieceswere

butthreeofthemagnificentworksofarttobeseeninFerrara.Thetapestrieshangingonthewallsoftheducalpalacewererenowned;sowasthecycleoffrescoes,mostlybyCosmèTura,inthePalazzoSchifanoiainFerraraandtheAnnunciationontheorgandoorsinthecathedral;so,too,wasthemagnificentgoldandsilverdolphinservicedesignedbyCosmèTura.Boththeworksandthe

companyoftheseartistsclearlydelightedLucrezia,asdidthecompanyofherlivelyladies,whoaccompaniedheronherexpeditionstootherducalvillasinthecountrysideoutsideFerrara.

ShewasaccustomedtoleavingFerraraeachspring,withherladiesandhermusicians,tospendweeksonendinthecountry,choosingtostayinavillaneara

conventwhereshecouldbearegularworshipperattheservicesheldthere.Atthevillatherewouldbegamesofcharades,songs,andstories,or,onoccasion,thecompanywouldbeentertainedbytalesrelatedbySantino,thedwarf,orthewildfantasiesandstrangebehaviourofthemadgirlCatarina,whomLucreziahaddoneherbesttoeducate.Andonwarmsunnydays,Lucreziawouldbatheinthe

clearwatersofsomesecludedreachofthePo.

Yetinquietermoments,anauraofsadnesssurroundedLucrezia,whohadtakentowearingsackclothbeneathhersilkdressesandhadjoinedalayorderoftheFranciscans.Heronlysurvivingbrother,Jofrè,diedin1517,havingremarriedafterthedeathofthechildlessSanciain1506,andwasable

topassthetitleofPrinceofSquillaceontohiseldestson.Shetooktomakingregularconfessionstoherpriestandwasjustasassiduousinattendanceatservicesinthecathedral.Sheputasidethe"pompandvanitiesoftheworldtowhichshehadbeenaccustomedsincechildhood,"inthewordsofPaoloGiovio,"andgaveherselfuptopiousworks,foundingconventsandhospitals.Shedidwhatshe

couldtohelpthepoorintimesofdistress,goingsofarastopawnsomeofherjewelstohelppayfortheirrelief."

Shewasnowfarfromwell;thesuccessionofpregnanciesandbirths,somedifficultandalldebilitating,hadweakenedhersadly.Shehadlittleappetiteandfaintedoften.Therewerestillevenings,however,whenLucreziawouldcallforhermusicians,

singers,anddancers,andthenAlfonsowouldappearwithhisviol,whichheplayedwithavirtuositythatastonishedthosewhoknewhimonlyasahardworkingrulerandageneraldevotedtohisartillery.Yetherhusband,inhisinsensitivity,stillmadelovetoherinhisrough,perfunctoryway,andintheautumnof1518,shefoundshewaspregnantonceagain.

InNovemberthatyearnewsarrivedinFerraraofthedeathofhermother,Vannozzade'Catanei,who,unlikeLucrezia,hadalwaysbeenspokenofwithrespect,inRomeonNovember16,1518.AswellasherthreeinnsinRomeandvariousotherproperties,Vannozzaleftseveralflocksofsheepbeyondthecity'soutskirts,allofwhichwerebequeathedtovariousreligiousand

charitableinstitutionsinthecity.TheVenetianenvoyMarinSanudowroteinhisdiary:

ThedaybeforeyesterdaydiedMadonnaVanozza,oncethemistressofPopeAlexanderandmotheroftheDuchessofFerraraandtheDukeValentino....Thedeathwas

announced,accordingtotheRomancustom,inthefollowingformalwords:"MesserPaologivesnoticeofthedeathofMadonnaVanozza,motheroftheDukeofGandía;shebelongedtotheGonfaloneCompany."ShewasburiedyesterdayinSantaMariadelPopolo,withthe

greatesthonours—almostlikeacardinal.Shewas76yearsofage.Sheleftallherproperty—whichwasconsiderable—toSanGiovanniinLaterano.ThePope'schamberlainattendedtheobsequies,whichwasunusual.

AsLucrezia'spregnancyprogressed,shenolongerfelt

theinclinationtobathe;attheageofthirty-nine,shefeltherselftobegrowingtoooldforbearingchildren.OnMarch24FrancescoGonzagadied;thefollowingmonthshewasnotwellenoughtowatchhernine-year-oldson,Ippolito,beconfirmedandbeinstalledasarchbishopofMilan,oneofthepremierseesinEurope.Soonafterwardshecomplainedthatherheadhadgrowntooheavy

forher.Herhairwasthencutoffandsweptuponthefloor.Shefelt,shesaid,thatshewasgoingblind.

OnJune15shegavebirthprematurelytoanothergirl,whowasbaptizedIsabellaMariathatsameday,andthistimethechroniclerhadnodoubtthatthechildwassickly.Lucreziaherselfcontractedpuerperalfever,and,paleanddrawn,shetook

toherbedandthereafterrarelyleftit.Knowingthatshehadnotlongtolive,shewrotealettertoLeoX:

MostHolyFatherandHonouredMaster,withallrespectIkissyourHoliness'sfeetandcommendmyselfinallhumilitytoyourholymercy.Iapproachtheendofmylifewithpleasure,

knowingthatinafewhoursImay...bereleased.Havingarrivedatthismoment,Idesire,asaChristian,althoughIamasinner,toaskyourHolinessinyourmercy,togivemeallpossibleconsolationandyourHoliness'sblessingformysoul....22June1519atFerrara,inthe

fourteenthhour,yourHoliness'shumbleservant.

Shediedtwodayslater,onJune24,1519.DukeAlfonsolostconsciousnessduringherfuneralintheChurchofCorpusDomini.Devastatedwithgrief,hewrotetohisnephew,nowMarquisofMantua,that"ithaspleasedourLordGodtocalltoHimselfthesoulofourmost

illustriousDuchess,ourwellbelovedwife,"and"Icannotwritetheselineswithoutweeping[,]sohardisittofindmyselfseparatedfromsuchadearwife."

Chapter29SaintsandSinners

ACCORDINGTOTHEstandardsofthetime,LucreziahaddoneherdutyasDuchessofFerrara,leavinghergrievinghusbandwithfivechildren,threeofwhomwereboys.Alfonsomournedhislossbutintheendtookanotherwife,choosing,muchtothe

surpriseofhiscourtiers,tomarryhismistress,LauraDianti,thelasciviousdaughterofaFerraresebonnetmaker,whoproducedtwomoresonsforhim.

WhenAlfonsodiedonOctober31,1534,hewasburiedinatombnexttohisbelovedLucreziainCorpusDominiandwassucceededbyErcole,forwhomhehadchosenasabrideRenéeof

France,thedaughterofLouisXIIandsister-in-lawofthenewkingofFrance,FrancisI.ErcoleIIrecognizedsixchildren,twoboysandfourgirls—twoofhisdaughters,oneillegitimateandonelegitimate,werenamedLucrezia,atestamenttotheloveheboreher.Ippolito,destinedfromanearlyageforacareerinthechurch,wouldbemadeacardinalandbetheFrenchcandidateforelection

insixconclaves.Renownedforhisextravagantlifestyleandhispatronageofthearts,hewouldspendmuchofhislifeinRome,thecityofLucrezia'sbirth,andbethepatronofthatsplendidmonumenttoRenaissancearchitectureandgardendesign,theVillad'EsteatTivoli.

ThebabyIsabella,whosebirthhadkilledLucrezia,died

justshortofhersecondbirthday,leavingEleonoraastheonlysurvivingdaughter;shebecameanunattheageofeightand,tenyearslater,wasmadeabbessofCorpusDomini,Lucrezia'sfavouriteretreatintimesoftroubleandthesiteofhertomb.OfthepalacewhereAlfonsoandLucrezialived,sadlylittleremainsafterthebuildingwasdevastatedbyanearthquakein1570.

WhenErcoleIIdiedin1559,hewassucceededbyhiseldestson,AlfonsoII,who,despitehisthreewives,provedunabletoproduceanheir,amisfortunethatbecameausefulpretextforPopeClementVIIItosucceed,whereJuliusIIhadfailed,inrestoringFerraratothePapalStates,leavingAlfonsoII'sillegitimatenephew,Cesare,asdukeonlyofModena.

AlexanderVIhadbeenextraordinarilyambitiousforhischildren;yet,intheend,fewtracesoftheBorgianameappearintheannalsthattracethehistoryoftheillustriousfamiliesofRome.

Cesareleftthreechildren:Louise,hislegitimatedaughterbyCharlotted'Albret,marriedintotheupperechelonsoftheFrencharistocracy,andher

descendantsarestillalivetoday.Littleisknownofhismanyillegitimateoffspring;onedaughter,Camilla,wasbroughtupbyLucreziainFerrara,and,likehercousinEleonora,shebecameanun,choosingtobeknownasSisterLucreziainhonourofherauntandlaterbecomingabbessofSanBernardino.

JofrèsdescendantsruledasprincesofSquillacetothe

endofthesixteenthcentury,whenthetitlepassedtotheBorgiafamilyinSpain,thedescendantsofAlexanderVI'sfavouriteson,Juan,thesecondDukeofGandía.Hiswife,MariaEnriquez,producedason,anotherJuan,thethirdDukeofGandía,andadaughter,Isabella,who,likehercousinsinFerrara,preferredtheconventtothematrimonialbed.JuanIIIofGandíaproducedseventeen

children,theeldestofwhom,Francisco,inheritedthetitleonlytoabdicateseveralyearslaterin1546infavourofhisson,afterthedeathofhiswife,tobecomeaJesuitandthentheorder'sthirdgeneral.

FranciscowasinFerrarainMay1572whennewsreachedhimofthedeathofPiusV,andofthehopesofmanyinfluentialpeopleinthechurchthatheshouldbe

electedasPiusV'ssuccessor.HewastooweaktotravelbutdidreturntoRomelaterthatyearanddiedtwodayslater.Inoneofthosecuriousaccidentsofwhichhistoryissofond,AlexanderVI'sgreat-grandsonwouldbecanonizedin1671.

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