The Art of Money –African Metalwork

and CurrencyMay 12 – August 24, 2007

Zora Neale Hurston National Museum of Fine ArtsEatonville, Florida

ExhibiTion CrEdiTs

The Art of Money — African Metalwork and Currency is courtesy of a private collection and Robertson African Arts, New York City

Exhibition Design and InstallationGuglielmo & Associates, Inc.Tampa, Florida

Gallery AssistantsBenjamin TysonShawayna Teal

Reception Hospitality — May 12, 2007Darden RestaurantsJR InternationalMaye St. Julien, “All Things Beautiful”

Catalog Credits

Front Cover: Verre Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 18”

Back Cover: Spiral Copper Currency, Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5”

Curator’s Statement: Eric D. Robertson

Photography: Lonnie Graham

Design and Layout: Kathy Johnson and Lonnie Graham

Editor: N.Y. Nathiri

MUsEUM sPonsorThe Association to Preserve the Eatonville Community, Inc. (P.E.C.) was incorporated in 1988 as a non-profit/tax-exempt historic pres-ervation organization and presents year-round, multidisciplinary arts and humanities programs. P.E.C.’s mission is to enhance the considerable cultural resources of Eatonville, Florida, which is “the oldest incorporated African American municipality in the United States” and the hometown of writer, folklorist, and anthropologist Zora Neale Hurston; to educate the public about Eatonville’s historic and cultural significance; and to use the community’s heritage and cultural vibrancy for its economic development.

Copyright 2007. The Association to Preserve the Eatonville Community, Inc. No part of this catalog may be used or reproduced in any man-ner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

Since the Legends Exhibition Series, October 1998–August 1999, when guest curator Dr. M.J. Hewitt presented the work of Samella Lewis, the late John Biggers, Elizabeth Catlett, and William Pajaud, the Zora Neale Hurston National Museum of Fine Arts (The Hurston) has enjoyed a particularly privileged position within the museum world. Housed in a small community of barely 3,000 persons, The Hurston has been able to exhibit consistently the work of some of the country’s most distin-guished artists and collectors.

This is no mean feat; and in fact it is something that would have been impossible to achieve had it not been for the collaboration of com-mitted artists, cultural preservationists, museum professionals, and “just plain folks.”

The Art of Money — African Metalwork and Currency is a testament to the power such partnerships possess.

Our first expression of appreciation must go to Eric D. Robertson (Robertson African Arts, New York City). Upon being introduced to our organization by Dr. Richard A. Long, senior member of the Zora Neale Hurston Festival National Planners and Professor Emeritus (Emory University), Robertson, internationally recognized for his exten-sive knowledge of African art, agreed to serve as our guest curator. Subsequently, he has assembled three exhibitions with a focus on African material culture. In every instance, his care and commitment have only been surpassed by the generosity of his loans. Yet, with The Art of Money, Robertson has exceeded himself. Truly, we are grateful to him for enabling us to present this one-of-a-kind collection to our visitors.

Our most ambitious project to date has a catalog which is one of our most beautiful. Lonnie Graham, a fine arts photographer and fac-ulty member at Penn State University, demonstrates a true appreciation for the objects he is photographing — such care, such dedication to detail, such patience — all in an effort to capture the essential beauty of each piece. His work is emblematic of the exhibition’s title. To him we express our heartfelt thanks.

Our organization also owes an expression of gratitude to Deborah Guglielmo of Guglielmo & Associates, Inc. for her willingness to “add us on” to her always busy schedule; for her experienced eye and her ability to produce the best of results, leveraging — in each instance — every resource to its maximum potential.

Another “behind the scenes” person, upon whom we rely, and who is constant in her dependability, is Kathy Johnson. Yet again, she has given so much of herself to insure we have a handsome publication.

There is also another group who helps to make The Hurston events special and who deserves recognition, Darden Restaurants and JR International. These two corporations provide the refreshments served at our opening receptions and their assistance allows us to be even more gracious hosts to our guests.

Finally, a “thank you” belongs to Maye St. Julien, Benjamin Tyson, John Scott, and Shawayna Teal. The Art of Money has required major investments of time and each of these persons has shouldered the bur-den without hesitation and with good spirit.

N.Y. Nathiri

1

Activities at the Zora Neale Hurston National Museum of Fine Arts are spon-sored, in part, by the State of Florida, Department of State, Division of Cultural Affairs and the Florida Arts Council, and the National Endowment for the Arts.

ACKnoWLEdGEMEnTs

Eric D. Robertson holds Bachelor of Arts and JD (Juris Doctor) law degrees from St. John’s University and was admitted to the New York Bar in 1967. He is known interna-tionally for his extensive knowl-edge of African art, and he is a frequent lecturer and consultant on African art and its influence on modern artists, including African American artists. His article, African Art and African American Identity (African Arts Magazine, April 1994), provided a framework for museum outreach programs to enhance their pres-ence among African Diaspora populations.

Robertson has been the senior Vetter for authenticity at the New York Tribal Art exhi-bitions since its inception. He authored an essay on an impor-tant collection in Sotheby’s cata-logue of African, Oceanic, and Pre-Columbian Art (November 2004) and was featured in an extensive interview for Tribal Seating in Veranda Magazine

(March 2003). He has served as an advisor for several cultural insti-tutions, including The Barbados Historical and Cultural Society where, in November 2004, he helped establish The Charles A. Robertson African Gallery, par-tially funded by UNESCO. He also serves on the board of the New York African Film Festival. In the past, he has been a con-sultant and advisor for several institutions such as the United Nations Ambassador’s office of Andrew Young, the proposed Peekskill (New York) Museum of the Underground Railroad, the Fashion Institute of Technology (New York), the Jamaica Embassy (Washington, DC), New York University Africana Studies Program, the Studio Museum in Harlem and a number of African national museums.

Currently, he serves as the guest curator for the Zora Neale Hurston National Museum of Fine Arts through the 2006–2007 season.

2

AboUT ThE CUrATor

Standing on the banks of the sacred

Oshun River near the old Yoruba town of

Oshogbo, Western Nigeria in the summer

of 1975, I was puzzled by two old bronze

objects which appeared to be a bracelet

and a neck ring, but both antique objects

had little sign of usage (see similar objects

#40 and #48). The owner would not refer

to them as adornment or jewelry. This was

my first trip to the African continent and

I would encounter over the years many

more mysterious metal objects that were

in the shapes of beautiful swords, jewelry,

musical instruments, staffs, hoes and other

recognizable forms but whose function or

use was not readily apparent. Their fab-

rication was oftentimes creations of great

beauty exhibiting a high technical exper-

tise with iron, copper, bronze, and various

metal alloys that did not quite fit into famil-

iar African art categories. Today we know

that these objects were used as African

currency. Typically, African metal currency

shapes evolved from the exchange of trade

objects used in bartering. Currencies came

to resemble the weapons (see #58), farm

CUrATor’s sTATEMEnT

17 Four Hoe Currency; Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 13” (largest)

48 Yoruba Bracelet Currency with Incised designs, Bronze; Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 4.6”

40 Yoruba Royal Marriage Currency, Bronze; Ife area, Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 8”

3

implements (#17), jewelry (#44, #51, #55, and #56), and musical instruments

(#28), that were long recognized as trade items in traditional African cultures.

Unfortunately, we have few field studies of the African origins, manufacture

and use of these objects and a functional understanding of the history and

evolution of African currency may be elusive.

In the Zora Neale Hurston Museum’s exhibition, The Art of Money – African

Metalwork and Currency, we present a selection of objects from a vast spectrum

of currencies, which differ in shape, weight, and appearance and which illus-

trate the ingenuity of cultures that created these precious objects. Currency

ranged in forms from cowrie shells to blocks of salt to iron poles. Mungo Park,

the Scotsman who explored the course of the Niger River starting in 1795, in

his journals stated, “the natives of the interior make use of small shells called

cowries….”1 Elsewhere he writes, “In Bambarra, and the adjacent countries

(Mali), where the necessaries of the life are very cheap, one hundred of them

would commonly purchase a day’s provisions for myself and corn for my

horse.”2 Traders would carry thousands of these imported Indian Ocean shells

44 Spiral Copper Currency, Iron; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; W: 2.5”

51 Baule Bracelet Currency, Bronze; Ivory Coast; Pre-1900; H: 4.5”

55 Torque-shaped Currency, Copper Alloy; Dem. Rep. of Congo, Mbole People (?); Pre-1900; H: 8”

56 Mbole Currency Anklet, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 7.5”

28 Double Bell Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria/Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 12”

2 Cowrie Shells: (a) Yoruba Ibeji Cape; Nigeria; H: 8”

58 Azande Blade Currency, Iron; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 25.5”

4

(b) Kuba Belt; Dem. Rep. of Congo; L: 70”

for purchasing animals, trade goods, and even slaves.

(See cowrie shells on objects #2a and #2b).

Mungo Park also noted that, “In their early

intercourse with Europeans, the article that attracted

most notice was iron … and iron soon became the

measure by which the value of all other commodities

was ascertained.”3 (See objects #37 and #38). From

European sources we know that at the beginning of

the sixteenth century, Sierra Leone was already one

of the great iron-smelting centers of West Africa and

that a vast trade network existed from landlocked

Mali to the coastal areas of Nigeria. Centuries old

African trade routes criss-crossed the African conti-

nent even through heavily forested regions, which

would account for the distribution continent wide

of similar forms of exchange such as hoe currency.

(See #18 through #27). The scholar Denis Williams

states, “The historic African iron industries, whether

through the specialized techniques of smelting or

through the more widely distributed practice of

smithing, have opened cultural roads and byways

through the tropical forests. Along these roads have

traveled the slow but permanent agents of revolution

in the lives of the iron-using communities, linking

them with the Mediterranean and the Nile, and even

possibly beyond the Nile with the far Orient… ”4

Some ancient African metal currencies in the forms of

adornment show design affinities with jewelry from

India, Southern China and Indonesia. (See objects

#9, #29, and #42). Given the widespread African ani-

mist belief in powerful spirits inhabiting objects and

actively coexisting with the material world, currency

objects such as shells, beads and metalwork also had

a ritual connotation. Cowrie shells were viewed as

symbols of fertility and they were often used as orna-

ments on cloth, increasing the wealth of the wearer.

Regarding metalwork, blacksmiths were thought to

possess a formidable spiritual power, preserving and

36 Copper Rod Currency; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 10.25”37 Iron Rod Currency; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 15.5”38 Three Igbo/Mumuye Iron Bars; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 16.5”

9 Four Bracelet Currency; Copper/Bronze; Ancient Mali; c. 16th-18th century; D: 5” (largest)

29 Spiral Loop Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria, pos-sibly Chamba; Pre-1900; H: 6”

42 Spiral Copper Currency, Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 13”

5

(b) Iron; Northern Nigeria, Chamba; Pre-1900; H: 17”

24 Keaka Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 16.5”

25 Mambila Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 26.25”

26 Ngbaka Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 19”

27 Chamba Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 14”

19 Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 11”

22 Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 10”

20 Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Niger; Early Period; H: 9.75

21 Four Small Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5” (largest)

23 Two Chamba/Idoma Hoe Currency, Iron; Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 31” (largest)

18 Hoe Currency:(a) Iron; Upper Volta, Mossi area; Pre-1900; H: 16”

6

39 Chamba Currency Object, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 12”

54 Chamba/Mumuye Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 13.5”

41 Spiral Copper Currency; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5”

3 Kuba Raffia Cloth; Dem. Rep. of Congo; 26” x 23” 10 Akan Kuduo Box (with top), Bronze; Ghana; c. 17th century; D: 6”

46 Detail

7

35 Verre Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 18”

46 Open Ring Currency, Copper Alloy; Liberia, possibly Kru; Pre-1900; H: 6.5”

housing knowledge of the mystery of producing metal.

Some metal currencies refer in their dynamic shapes to

amulets and spiritually charged objects (see #39 and

#46) and there are currency objects which supposedly

were used in rain making and agricultural fertility rites

(#18a and #54). “Everywhere in the Sudan, blacksmiths

are considered and, indeed, behave like magicians. The

extraction of iron is surrounded by essentially magic

rights [sic] in which only blacksmiths may participate.”5

In The Art of Money, we have powerful examples of the

hand-worked iron and copper objects that celebrate the

creative achievements and the technical skills of these

African metal workers. (See examples #35 and #41).

Besides iron objects, other forms of trade goods and

currency items were manufactured locally or imported

such as trade beads (see object #1), woven raffia cloth

(see #3), stone axe heads (see #12), and copper alloy

bracelet type objects from old Niger River related

cultures (see #4, #8, and #9). Gold nuggets were also

used as currency in West Africa. Akan goldsmiths

12 Stone Axe Tools; Sahara/Niger/Mali/Chad areas; Prehistoric; L: 7”

4 Bura Bracelet Currency, Bronze; Niger; H: 3.5” (largest)

8 Bracelet Currency; Copper/Bronze; Ancient Mali; c. 16th-18th century; D: 4.5” (largest)

8

1 Four Strands of Old Beads (a) Nok Stone Beads, cornelian color; collected in Nigeria;

c. 5th century BCE; L: 14” (b) Hebron Glass Beads, green color; collected in Sudan;

c. 15th century; L: 14” (c) Chevron Glass Beads (“Aggrey” Beads), blue, black, red, white;

Dutch; collected in Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 17th century; L: 12” (d) Yoruba Glass Beads, yellow; European origin; 18th/19th century;

L: 17”

43 Three Spiral Copper Currency; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 9.5”; D: 10” (largest)

45 Spiral Copper Currency with Large Disc; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 5.5”

of Ghana produced finely cast bronze gold

weights and decorative bronze boxes (see #11)

and ritual containers (see #10) which reflected

the wealth created by the gold trade. In Mali,

huge gold earrings worn by the Peul/Fulani

women were a convenient method of storing

wealth and currency. Far across the conti-

nent, in the 5th and 6th century, the Aksumite

Kingdom of present day Ethiopia used gold

coins in their commerce.

Scholars such as Denis Williams empha-

size the cultural importance of iron and other

metals in the development of African societies.

Williams even credits African “iron hunger”

as an important element in the development

of the transatlantic slave trade.6 Arab and

European travelers recorded the widespread

use of native iron currency from the headwa-

ters of the Niger, at Djenne on the Upper Niger

to Lake Chad, and along coastal areas from

Sierra Leone to the Congo. Local

African sources could not fill the

huge native demands for iron and

by 1668 the European iron bar was

being traded from the West African

coast from The Gambia to the Niger

Rivers. Williams notes, “By 1678 it

[iron bars] was described among the

principal imports of the French fac-

tory at Goree on the Senegal, annual

imports there being estimated at

10,000 bars or more…”7In 1680 an

English ship delivered 40 tons of

iron bars to the Gold Coast (Ghana).

The British city of Birmingham

became a great center of manufac-

turing for the iron bars (see #38) and

brass manillas (see #13) used in trad-

ing and especially for purchasing

African slaves to meet the immense

labor demands of the West Indian

and American plantation systems.

Presumably the European manillas

copied older African forms or they

were reworked by the African smith

into forms suitable for native use,

including ritual needs (see #43, #45,

#47, #49 and #52). In regards to

African belief systems, other ancient

currency shapes such as the Katanga

crosses of southern Congo may refer

to philosophical concepts involving

the crossroads and meeting points

in decision making (see #5, #6, and

11 Akan Gold Weights and Akan Gold Dust Boxes, Bronze; Ghana; Early Period; L: 2.45” (largest)

13 English Manillas, Brass; Birmingham, England; collected in Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 3”

9

47 Semi-spherical (“C-shaped”) Copper Currency with Incised designs (mounted); Chad; Pre-1900; H: 6.5”

49 Yoruba Currency with Cowrie Shell Designs; Bronze; Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 4.3”

#7). We may only be able to speculate as to the

significance of many of the African currency

forms.

In many parts of western and central Africa,

certain currency forms are associated with bride

wealth or dowries. The prospective bridegroom

was expected to compensate the parents of the

bride for the “loss” of their daughter’s services.

The long spears and blades (up to 6 feet) of the

Lokele and Turumbu people of Congo (see #59),

the Katanga crosses, and the “Kissi” pennies

used in Guinee, Sierra Leone and Liberia (see

#14, #15, and #16) are prominent examples

of bridal money. Certain bridal wealth was

restricted in use for royal families from impor-

tant regions of a kingdom such as the Yoruba

metal neck piece from the ancient Ife and Iwo

city states of Western Nigeria (see object #40).

One particularly impressive currency form

52 Semi-spherical (“C-shaped”) Currency, Copper; Eastern Nigeria;

6 Two Katanga “X” Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 16th century; H: 3” (largest)

15 Twisted Toma/Kissi Currency Staffs, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L: 17.5”

7 Katanga “X” Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 8.6”

59 Lokele or Turumbu Peoples Blade/Spear Currency. Iron; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 58”

31 Kapsiki Currency, Iron; Northern Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 17”

10

is based on the African throwing knife. These

weapons are regarded by some observers to

“represent the most striking achievement of the

African blacksmith.”8 The throwing knife cur-

rency in exhibit #35 was collected among the

Verre of Northeastern Nigeria, but scholars such

as Frobenius have noted the existence of this form

among the Mbum and Tikar ruling families in

Western Cameroon and their possible use in ritual

ceremonies.9 (See objects #31 through #35.)

Although tremendous amounts of expertly

coiled and twisted copper currencies have been

found in Eastern Nigeria, especially in the Cross

River area (see #41 through #45), we know little of

the origin of these attractive ancient metalworks

and the archeological records are insufficient at

this time. In addition, African currency systems

were mostly suppressed by European colonial

administrations with the forcible introduction

of coin currency in the early 1900’s. But the his-

torical record and material evidence created by

skilled African blacksmiths of the past invites us

to appreciate the superb elegance and artistry of

objects created for use in traditional African mon-

etary systems. Our increasing knowledge of these

currency forms can help us to develop a deeper

understanding of the complex nature of African

societies and their connection to world cultures.

This year, 2007, marks the 200th anniver-

sary of the official end of the British Atlantic 5 Katanga “X” Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 16th century; H: 1.5” (largest)

14 Toma/Kissi Currency Staffs, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L:21”

16 One Toma Currency Staff, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L: 23.5”

33 Kapsiki Currency, Iron; Northern Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 21”

11

slave trade. Notably, it was William

Wilberforce, who led the successful

campaign for British maritime sup-

pression of this lucrative and revolt-

ing enterprise. Prior to this, in the

17th and 18th centuries, millions of

Africans forcibly transported to the

Americas helped to create a world

which depended on their labor and

expertise as farmers, builders and

skilled crafts persons. Our aware-

ness of centuries-old African skills

in metal working and traditional

currency practices broadens our

understanding and appreciation

of the enslaved Africans and their

descendants’ struggle to survive in

the uniquely difficult environment

of American slavery, a vile form

of bondage which degraded the

enslaved as subhuman. Hopefully,

this exhibition, The Art of Money

— African Metalwork and Currency,

will enrich the way we think about

Africa and the American past.

32 Two Keul Currency, Iron; Chad; Pre-1900; H: 20”

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank N.Y. Nathiri for her continual efforts in promoting our understanding of the arts and culture of Africa and the Diaspora; and Dr. Paulette Young for her organizational skills, research and contributions to the cata-log’s essay. I also want to recognize Barbara Fenig, my intern, for her perseverance in conducting the research associated with this exhibition and for the excellent job she did in the preparation of the objects for cataloging.

Eric Robertson, New York, May 2007

34 Azande Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 19”

12

EndnoTEs

1 Mungo Park, The Travels of Mungo Park, edited by Ronald Miller.

Everyman’s Library, No. 205, Travel & Topography. London: J.M.

Dent & Sons, Ltd. and New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1960 [1907,

1954], 19.

2 Park, 153.

3 Park, 19

4 Denis Williams, Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and Secular Forms of

African Classical Art. New York: New York University Press, 1974, 71.

5 Patrick R. McNaughton, The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and

Art in West Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University

Press, 1988, 20.

6 Williams, 71

7 Williams, 73

8 Peter Westerdijk, The African Throwing Knife: A Style Analysis. Utrecht,

The Netherlands: OMI, University of the Netherlands, 1988, 10.

9 Peter Westerdijk, 374.

rEfErEnCEs CiTEd in ThE CATALoG sTATEMEnT

McNaughton, Patrick R.. The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power,

and Art in West Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana

University Press, 1988.

Park, Mungo. The Travels of Mungo Park, edited by Ronald Miller.

Everyman’s Library, No. 205, Travel & Topography. London:

J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd. and New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc.,

1960 [1907, 1954].

Westerdijk, Peter. The African Throwing Knife: A Style Analysis.

Utrecht, The Netherlands: OMI, University of the Netherlands,

1988

Williams, Denis. Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and Secular Forms

of African Classical Art. New York: New York University Press,

1974.

13

sELECTivE bibLioGrAPhy

Blandin, André. “Fer Noir” d’Afrique de l’Ouest: avec 40 pages de complément sur les “Bronzes et Autres Allianges”. Marignane (France): A. Blandin. 1992.

Bovill, Edward William. The Golden Trade of the Moors: West African Kingdoms in the Fourteenth Century. Princeton, New Jersey: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1995.” “

Brincard, Marie-Therese, ed. The Art of Metal in Africa. (Exhibition and catalog). Translations and additional research by Evelyn Fischel. New York: African-American Institute. 1982.

Eyo, Ekpo. Nigeria and the Evolution of Money. Lagos, Nigeria: Central Bank of Nigeria, 1979.

Herbert, Eugenia W. Iron, Gender, and Power: Rituals of transformations in African societies. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1993.

Kriger, Colleen E. “Pride of Men: Iron working in 19th century.” In West Central Africa. Social History of Africa. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1999.

*McNaughton, Patrick R. The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and Art in West Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988.

Museum of American Financial History. The Artistry of African Currency. (Exhibition and catalog). New York: Museum of American Financial History. 2001

*Park, Mungo. The Travels of Mungo Park, edited by Ronald Miller. Everyman’s Library, No. 205, Travel & Topography. London: J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd. and New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1960 [1907, 1954].

Schaedler, Karl-Ferdinand, et. al. Earth and Ore: 2,500 years of African art in terra cotta and metal. Kurasburg: Edition Minerva; München: Distributed by Panterra Verlag, 1997.

*Westerdijk, Peter. The African Throwing Knife: A Style Analysis. Utrecht, The Netherlands: OMI, University of the Netherlands, 1988

*Williams, Denis. Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and Secular Forms of African Classical Art. New York: New York University Press, 1974.

Zaslavsky, Claudia. Africa Counts: Number and Patterns in African Culture. (3rd Edition) Westport, Connecticut: Lawrence Hill & Co., 1999.

*Reference citations in the catalog essay.

14

1. Four Strands of Old Beads (a) Nok Stone Beads, cornelian color; collected in Nigeria; c. 5th century

BCE; L: 14” (b) Hebron Glass Beads, green color; collected in Sudan; c. 15th cen-

tury; L: 14” (c) Chevron Glass Beads (“Aggrey” Beads), blue, black,

red, white; Dutch; collected in Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 17th century; L: 12” ( d) Yoruba Glass Beads, yellow; European origin; 18th/19th century; L: 17”

2. Cowrie Shells: (a) Yoruba Ibeji Cape; Nigeria; H: 8” (b) Kuba Belt; Dem. Rep. of Congo; L: 70”

3. Kuba Raffia Cloth; Dem. Rep. of Congo; 26” x 23”

4. Four Bura Bracelet Currency, Bronze; Niger; H: 3.5” (largest)

5. Five Katanga “X” Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 16th century; H: 1.5” (largest)

6. Two Katanga “X” Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 16th century; H: 3” (largest)

7. Katanga “X” Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 8.6”

8. Ten Bracelet Currency; Copper/Bronze; Ancient Mali; c. 16th-18th century; D: 4.5” (largest)

9. Four Bracelet Currency; Copper/Bronze; Ancient Mali; c. 16th-18th century; D: 5” (largest)

10. Akan Kuduo Box (with top), Bronze; Ghana; c. 17th century; D: 6”

11. Six Akan Gold Weights and Two Akan Gold Dust Boxes, Bronze; Ghana; Early Period; L: 2.45” (largest)

12. Five Stone Axe Tools; Sahara/Niger/Mali/Chad areas; Prehistoric; L: 7”

13. Seven English Manillas, Brass; Birmingham, England; collected in Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 3”

14. Toma/Kissi Currency Staffs, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L:21”

15. Twisted Toma/Kissi Currency Staffs, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L: 17.5”

16. One Toma Currency Staff, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L: 23.5”

17. Four Hoe Currency; Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 13” (largest)

18. Hoe Currency: (a) Iron; Upper Volta, Mossi area; Pre-1900; H: 16” (b) Iron; Northern Nigeria, Chamba; Pre-1900; H: 17”

19. Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 11”

20. Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Niger; Early Period; H: 9.75”

21. Four Small Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5” (largest)

22. Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 10”

23. Two Chamba/Idoma Hoe Currency, Iron; Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 31” (largest)

24. Keaka Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 16.5”

25. Mambila Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 26.25”

26. Ngbaka Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 19”

27. (a) Chamba Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 14” (b) Sudan/Uganda Hoe Currency, Iron; Pre-1900; H: 10.5”

28. Double Bell Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria/Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 12”

29. Spiral Loop Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria, possibly Chamba; Pre-1900; H: 6”

15

ExhibiTion ChECKLisT

30. Kwele Hoe Currency, Iron; Gabon; Pre-1900; H: 19.25”

31. Kapsiki Currency, Iron; Northern Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 17”

32. Two Keul Currency, Iron; Chad; Pre-1900; H: 20”

33. Kapsiki Currency, Iron; Northern Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 21”

34. Azande Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 19”

35. Verre Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 18”

36. Copper Rod Currency; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 10.25”

37. Iron Rod Currency; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 15.5”

38. Three Igbo/Mumuye Iron Bars; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 16.5”

39. Chamba Currency Object, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 12”

40. Yoruba Royal Marriage Currency, Bronze; Ife area, Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 8”

41. Spiral Copper Currency; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5”

42 Spiral Copper Currency, Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 13”

43. Three Spiral Copper Currency; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 9.5”; D: 10” (largest)

44. Spiral Copper Currency (small), Iron; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; W: 2.5”

45. Spiral Copper Currency with Large Disc; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 5.5”

46. Open Ring Currency, Copper Alloy; Liberia, possibly Kru; Pre-1900; H: 6.5”

47. Semi-spherical (“C-shaped”) Copper Currency with Incised designs; Chad; Pre-1900; H: 6.5”

48. Yoruba Bracelet Currency with Incised designs, Bronze; Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 4.6”

49. Yoruba Currency with Cowrie Shell Designs; Bronze; Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 4.3”

50. Semi-spherical (“C-shaped”) Copper Currency with Incised design; Sudan; Pre-1900; H: 4”

51. Baule Bracelet Currency, Bronze; Ivory Coast; Pre-1900; H: 4.5”

52. Semi-spherical (“C-shaped”) Currency, Copper; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; W: 9”

53. Two Semi-spherical (“C-shaped”) Currency, Copper Alloy; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; W: 13”

54. Chamba/Mumuye Curved Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 13.5”

55. Torque-shaped Currency, Copper Alloy; Dem. Rep. of Congo, Mbole People (?); Pre-1900; H: 8”

56. Mbole Currency Anklet, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 7.5”

57. Kusu “U-shaped” Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 15”

58. Azande Blade Currency, Iron; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 25.5”

59. Lokele or Turumbu Peoples Blade/Spear Currency. Iron; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 58”

60. Mongo People Spiral Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 39”

16

ASSOCIATION TO PRESERVE THE EATONVILLE COMMUNITY, INC. (P.E.C.)

P.E.C. BOARd Of dIRECTORS

Museum AssistantsMaxine Hixon

Dorothy ShabazzJane Turner

Museum SupportLouise Franklin

Ann HillEvelyn Nash

Maye St. Julien

Hospitality CommitteeErnestine E. McWhite, Chairperson

Ella J. DinkinsVeronica Gordon

Evelyn NashVernita VereenMosella Wells

P.E.C. STAffN.Y. Nathiri, Executive Director Eric Robertson, Guest Curator

Rosalyn F. K. Castile, ZORA! Festival Logistics CoordinatorShelly McKinney, Finance and Accounting Assistant

Shawayna Teal, Administrative Support

Excellence Without Excuse (E-WE) Computer Arts Lab & Learning Center*Alice M. Grant, ManagerDaisy S. Willis, Teacher

Bruce E. Bouler, TechnicianCyria Underwood, Clerical and Computer Assistant

*Major funding provided by Orange County Citizens’ Commission for Children

MUSEUM VOLUNTEERS

Officers Johnny Rivers, President

Carolyn M. Fennell, Vice President Ava K. Doppelt, Esq., Treasurer Rupert Deleveaux, Secretary

Sibille H. Pritchard, Immediate Past President

Members Lonnie C. Bell

James M. LewisReginald B. McGill

Ernestine E. McWhiteClarence Otis, Jr.

Jéan E. Wilson, Esq.

ZORA NEALE HURSTON NATIONAL MUSEUM Of fINE ARTS227 East Kennedy Boulevard

Eatonville, florida 32751407-647-3131 • 407-539-2192 (fax)

www.zoranealehurston.cc • zora@cs.ucf.edu