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Prejudice in Kenya:Ethics of Development in a Global Environment

Farah GigaEDGE

Professor Bruce Lusignan

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Table of Contents

Page

Title ……………………………………………………… 1

Paper ……………………………………………………. 3

Other Images …………………………………………… 25

Bibliography ……………………………………………. 28

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History, Influence and Prejudice in Kenya

Kenya, a country on the east coast of Africa, is rich in its culture and

diversity. With a wide variety of ethnic groups and tribes, Kenya is a melting pot

of ideas and interests. Although cultures and identities have become shared over

the years, there are still differences that caused conflicts and prejudice between

the many different groups that coexist in the country. The history of the country

and the many influences that came to bear played an impact on how the different

ethnicities interacted and the relationship they developed towards each other.

Initially, the tribes conflicted over the resources and land available especially with

nearly thirty to forty different ethnic groups residing together. Then with the era of

exploration different influences a mixing of cultures not only brought about new

identities but also brought conflicting ideas from other parts of the world. In

addition, other problems arose from these new people as they usually gained

power by oppressing others in the country, which resulted in prejudice and

feelings of resentment between different ethnic groups. Furthermore, colonization

drew arbitrary lines around the country bringing together warring factions and

separating tribes. Finally when Kenya became a political entity, the prejudices

came to the surface through government actions and tribal factions vying for

power. Thus historical pasts and influences have played an important part in

dictating the prejudices of today.

The ancestry of Kenya’s modern population began over 1,000 years ago

with the migration of tribes into the country’s fertile heartland. Of the people who

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migrated into the region, four distinct language groups were established, the

Bantu, Cushitic, and Paranilotic, Nilotic who still exist in Kenya today. “The blacks

are divided into more than 30 ethnic groups belonging to four linguistic families…

The largest ethnic groups are the Bantu-speaking Kikuyu, Luhya, and Kamba;

the Nilotic-speaking Luo; and the Paranilotic-speaking Kalenjin” (Geography and

History of Kenya).

The Bantu and Nilotic people mainly reside between Lake Victoria and the coast

in what can be considered the interior part of the country. The Cushitic people

initially inhabited Western parts of Kenya but were driven out of that region to

eventually reside in the Northeastern parts of the country. Other groups that were

found to have migrated into Kenya include Somali clans and Oromo people who

migrated from the neighboring country of Ethiopia.

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(Demographics of Kenya)

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The Bantu speaking Kikuyu gradually emerged at the largest ethnic group

of Kenya. Having originally come from Mount Kenya, in the fifteenth century, the

Kikuyu began migrating towards the southwest three centuries later. In their

movement, the Kikuyu absorbed many other tribes including Gumba and Athi

and eventually split into two groups as they came to occupy much of the central

part of Kenya.

The absorption of the Gumba is of particular interest as they were

originally Cushitic speaking people. Primarily in the business of hunting and

gathering, the Gumba roamed the open grasslands.

The Gumba passed on their knowledge of working with the skilled iron and

pottery. For a time, the Gumba and Kikuyu had beneficial relationship where the

Kikuyu exchanged meat and skins with the Gumba for agricultural products.

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(Présentation générale de l'expédition)

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However eventually the Gumba began to assimilate into the Kikuyu tribe. The

Kikuyu were primarily agricultural people who cultivated their land, which led to

friction among them, and the Gumba people who were angered as the Kikuyu

cleared their hunting ground for cultivation. Kikuyu expansion increased tension

between the two ethnic groups and war erupted between the two factions. This

led to the end of the Gumba people as a separate ethnic entity during the middle

of the nineteenth century.

The relationship between the Athi, the other group the Kikuyu absorbed

and the Kikuyu tribe were similar. The Athi were a forest dwelling people who

also partly assimilated with the Kikuyu tribe and some can still be found in the

Rift Valley area. It was the Athi people who sold the heartland known as Kabete,

to the Kikuyu for cattle. It was this transaction that keeps the Athi an important

part of the Kikuyu history.

Another major group that emerged from the Bantu speaking people is the

Kamba tribe who resided in the Mount Kilimanjaro area till the fifteenth century

and moved to the Mbooni Hills, which is currently known as the Machakos

District, late in the seventeenth century. They too were initially hunters and

gatherers but soon realized that the new fertile lands that they had moved to

were ideal for cultivation and thus began agriculture. However, the Kamba

people had to give up agriculture when a population growth forced them to

expand into less fertile areas. For a while the Kamba went back to their hunting

and gathering ways but shortly discovered the value of ivory in trade. This began

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a period of ivory trade and elephant exploitation and developed a two-way

caravan to the coast.

Their trade and exploitation spread into Tanzania and out into Kikuyu

regions, as trade was really booming in the late eighteenth century.

The Kamba ivory trade hit its peak in the middle of the nineteenth century,

which was the primary reason for the prosperity of the coastal port of Mombasa.

At that time, many other groups started challenging the monopoly of the Kamaba

people. In addition internal conflict and feud within the Kamba tribe started to

affect trade business alongside the attempts of the other people who occupied

the highlands of Kenya to keep the Kamba people out of their lands. The other

reason that the tribes tried to prevent the Kamba people from entering their

regions was because the Kamba had began raiding other tribes for slaves.

Ultimately, the elephants started becoming endangered in that area forcing the

Kamba people to travel very far for ivory. Caravan traffic was in danger as the

country in general was experiencing turmoil, Kamba trade slowly reduced and

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(BBC News)

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finally competition from the Uganda railroad that ran through Mombasa and

Kisumu eliminated the aggressive monopoly the Kamba held over a century.

The other Bantu-speaking people migrated out into western Kenya in a

region near Lake Victoria. They began this move in the eleventh century

followed by other tribes interested in agriculture. These people eventually

became known as the Luhya. In the sixteenth century the Nilotic speaking Luo

people, coming from what is now Uganda, pushed Luhya back towards the east.

The Luo people adopted the agricultural practices of the Luhya for a while, but

some went onto continue conquering new lands. In this quest for more territory,

the Luo came up against the Bantu speaking Kisii people who were also on the

same mission as the Luo, to expand into that part of the region. Along with these

two groups vying for this territory, there was also the Nilotic people who were

residing along the edge of the territory to the east. The territorial maneuvering by

the three groups was not always peaceful as war over the land often erupted.

The fighting over the land continued until British rule took control in the twentieth

century, which also brought and end to occupation of territories of rival ethnic

people.

As for the other ethnic groups, their migration into and around Kenya is

vague. The Nilotic people migrated into Kenya from Ethiopia. The Maasai people

who moved south through the Rift Valley became the dominating group in

southwest Kenya. Despite being internally weak from war within its own people,

no one dared to tangle with the Maasai people who were feared for their

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reputation. The last Nilotic people to arrive into Kenya were the Turkana tribe

who resided in the northwest regions of Kenya. These mixtures of tribes formed

the early ancestry of the modern Kenyan people however the country was

influenced by my other outside cultures who came primarily to the country for its

resources and trade.

The coast of Kenya was the center for much of the East African trade with

ivory, tortoiseshell and spices being noted as early as the first and second

centuries. However the earliest outside influence can be traced back to the Arab

Muslim traders who set up a trade center on along the coast, which later also

saw a Persian influence in the tenth century. The towns that they set up along

the coast became a strong link commercially between East Africa and the Indies.

The port towns along the coast at particularly Mombasa, Malindi, Lamu and Pate

exchanged elephant ivory and slaves for salt, cloth beads and metal goods

(Bliss). Even a team of traders from China are said to have reached the coasts of

Kenya brining their culture and influences as well. The sultan of Kilwa ruled over

these Kenyan towns, but the Arabs were functioning rather autonomously from

the sultan’s rule and began competing in Kenya to control the largest part of the

country’s trade and commercial prosperity. Eventually the town of Malindi

surpassed Mombasa, another rival port town, to become the richest trading

center on the East African coast.

The strong migration of Arab families to Kenya from primarily the southern

part of Arabia known as Hadramaut, led to the formation of a unique Islamic

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culture in the coastal regions, which resulted from a considerable amount of

intermarrying between the Arab immigrants and the Bantu-speaking tribes of

Kenya. “The intermingling of Arabs and indigenous inhabitants formed the

Swahili culture and language” (East African Living Encyclopedia). A new

language and culture stemmed from the integration of these two cultures, which

came to be known as Swahili, an Arabic term for coast. “Since the early 20th

century Swahili has become a major African tongue, and it is the official language

of Kenya; Kikuyu, Luo, and English are also widely used” (Geography and

History of Kenya). Swahili became the dominant language of the country and is

still the national language today.

The Arab Muslims were not the only outside influence to affect Kenyan

culture, the Portuguese also maintained an influence in Kenya for 200 years

when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama stopped at Mombasa and

Malindi, prosperous port towns along the coast of Kenya on a 1498 voyage to

India. The ruler of Malindi developed relationships with the newly arrived

Portuguese people and allowed them to trade in the port there. However,

Mombasa, the other rival port town was against the Portuguese intruding into

their town. In 1505, commander Francisco de Almeida, who had already

occupied Kilwa and Sofala with his troops, raided the town. Mombasa became a

center of resistance by the Arabs living there and in 1529 the Portuguese once

again attacked with the help of Malindi. At the same time, the Portuguese forced

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the ruler of Malindi to recognize and pay tribute to the royal Portuguese town and

accept its rule there.

As the Portuguese continued to rule the regions at a distance with the

sultans as figureheads in their respective towns, more and more resentment

against this foreign invasion began to build against them. In 1589, Mombasa

renounced Portguese rule and asked for protection by Mirale Bey the Turkish

cosair. A Portuguese fleet was sent from Goa, which captured the Turkish fleet

and left Mombasa. The Zimba, a group of Kenyan warriors who had destroyed

Kilwa earlier, then looted Mombasa. The Zimba then turned toward Malindi but

they were defeated when the neighboring tribe of Segeju intervened in Malindi.

The sultun of Malindi, with the assistance of the Segeju, then moved his court to

Mombasa and invited the Portuguese back to establish a fort there.

In 1593, the Portuguese began building a major defense unit at Fort

Jesus, at the entrance to Mombasa’s port, as a preventive measure as well as to

increase their strength and visibility in East Africa. Afterwards, the Portuguese

rule in Kenya remained stable for nearly forty years. In 1963, they lost their

holdings in Mombasa to an Arab sultan for close to eight years, but managed to

reclaim it. However, Oman in southeastern Arabia was becoming more and more

powerful and they shortly after began challenge the Portuguese power to regain

control of the coast. In 1660, the Omani troops conquered Mombasa, but the

Portuguese managed to keep Fort Jesus for close to another forty years. The

Portuguese once again tried to regain power in 1728, but their attempts failed.

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This brought and end to European influence in Kenya until British arrived

centuries later.

Although the Portuguese spent nearly 200 years on the coast of Kenya

they never attempted to colonize the region. The only legacy they left behind was

a few words they had contributed to the Swahili and a couple of coastal towns for

trade. However, did have one major contribution to Kenya, which was the

introduction of New World crops such as maize, cassava, and potatoes. This

became the staple food of Kenya in many regions and played a significant role in

the growth of the population of Kenya. Once the Omani people took over, that

was the only remains of Portuguese influence.

After the Omani seized Fort Jesus and banished the Portuguese from the

East Coast, the ruler of Oman took control over Kenya. Although his rule was not

very powerful the Omani people managed to have strong control through Arab

families who ruled the coastal towns of Kenya. In particular, the Mazrui family,

who began ruling Mombasa in 1727, was the strongest of these.

Said al Busaidi overthrew the sultan of Oman in 1741, and formed a

dynasty. At the change of rule, the Mazrui family took advantage of the

opportunity break away from Oman and established their own independent rule

in Mombasa. The Mazrui family rule eventually came to dominate the Kenyan

coast.

Said bin Sultan, a strong member of the Busaidi family came to power in

1806 with the intention of bringing Omani authority back to East Africa. Also at

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the same time, the British were trying to end the slave trade and piracy in the

Persian Gulf. The British involvement influenced how Said and his successors

ruled through most of the nineteenth century. One example of British influence

was convincing the Said to restrict involvement in slave trade in 1823. The treaty

did very little to curb slave trade except to keep it from spreading into new

markets, however the treaty did establish an acceptance of Omani rule as well as

begin to establish a British influence.

Said’s troop worked to overthrow the Mazrui influence and managed to do

so from the Archipelago by 1824. The Said wanted control of Mombasa, which

was an important coastal town at the time. Afraid that the Said would take over,

the town approached a captain of a British naval vessel to help them maintain

control over their town. The captain agreed that Mombasa would become a

protectorate of the British government as he found this to be a good opportunity

for the British to achieve their goal of curbing slavery in Kenya especially through

a port town like Mombasa. The captain did not have the authority to make such

kind of agreement and the British government did not hold the agreement valid.

In 1828, the Mazrui lost control of Mombasa to the Omani all except for Fort

Jesus, which managed to remain under Mazrui control.

The British, still concerned about slave trade, continued to influence the

Said especially when he moved his court from Oman to Zanzibar in 1840. At the

time, Zanzibar was the primary center of slave trade in East Africa. This move

gave the British the opportunity to influence the Said with yet another treaty in

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1845 that imposed trading limitations on the coast. The treaty did not to anything

to curb slave trade as it continued in full swing in that area. The horrors of slave

trade continued on and appalled the British public after hearing accounts from

British officers and other Europeans who had traveled. The public put pressure

and support for the British to establish a permanent station to patrol slavery on

the coast. Furthermore, the British made the Omani government to put more

restrictions on trade. By 1873, the British made the current ruler, Barghash, stop

all slave sales and shipping in coastal areas under his control. Slave trade

continued inland until finally in 1877, this was ordered to stop as well. To ensure

the end of the slave trade, British troops were placed in East Africa in a

missionary center for free slaves. In 1880, Swahili slave traders attacked the

British in Mombasa because they associated the trade restrictions with them.

This resulted in disgruntlement on the Kenyan coast till the twentieth century.

After slave trade came to a halt, the sultan tried to develop cloves as an

industry especially inland, this turned Zanzibar into a center of trade. Most

traders avoid going through Kenya because of restrictions, but Mombasa still

remained successful largely in part to due to illegal trade of slaves and ivory by

the Kamba people. As the elephants became depleted and tribal wars started to

break out and upset the trade in Kenya. This resulted in Zanzibar in becoming a

greater commercial center than Mombasa as all the commercial activity left

Mombasa and the antislave restrictions kept it from growing its trade. Thus

Mombasa lost its former prominence and did not recover until the twentieth

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century when Mombasa became a center of an important British project, a

railroad to Uganda.

The Europeans had started an influence in Kenya when they began their

anti-slaving operations and set up missionary stations and from 1840s to the end

of the 1800s, and set up a few coastal trading towns. The European influence

initially was largely in the area of religion as Johann Krapf and Johann Rebmann

started Christian missions in the middle of the nineteenth century near the town

of Mombasa as a part of the Anglican Church Missionary Service. Kramp then

established another mission near Mombasa when he joined the Methodist

Missionary Society. Each of them started the first Western schools in Kenya,

which would propagate European thought in influence and become a starting

point for other Western schools.

The locals of Kenya were unreceptive to the idea of missions and when

the European missionaries attempted to expand their ventures the native tribes

met the missionaries with resistance and opposition. In addition to the tribes, the

earlier Muslim influence left a significant part of the population with the Muslim

religion and they were vehemently against the missionaries teaching Christianity.

Yet these other influences managed to spread through Kenya creating a

religiously diverse country. “It has been estimated that the population of Kenya is

about 28% Roman Catholic, 38% Protestant, and 6% Muslim. The remaining

persons are largely followers of various traditional religions” (Geography and

History of Kenya).

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However Roman Catholic and Scottish Presbyterian missions were eventually

formed and by the end of the nineteenth century there were close to 300

missions in Kenya.

The European influence opened the doors to further involvement in East

Africa especially with the British. Kenya as a political entity did not exist until the

British became a major player in East Africa in the late nineteenth century.

Britain and Germany competed for control of Maasailand, leading to their 1890 agreement to divide the hinterland between them. Under the agreement, Britain took possession of the area north of the mouth of the Umba river, which is now located in modern Kenya and Uganda. The British Government gave the administration of the area to the Imperial British East Africa Company, which had been granted a royal charter to operate in East Africa” (East Africa Living Encyclopedia).

Shortly afterwards, the British established Kenya as a protectorate and a colony

of the crown and managed to bring the many different tribes and influences

under one country. Until then tribes had been coexisting in the East African area,

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(Kenya in Brief)

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but it was the British who drew the boundary lines of the country and named it

Kenya.

This separated many tribes as well as brought together many warring

factions under one government.

The intent of the British government in colonizing Kenya was to make it an

imperial state to derive its economic advantages as well as provide the

inhabitants of the country security and improve the general state of affairs.

However as was the case with many colonies at the time the " political,

economic, and social changes brought about by the British were not effected

smoothly, however, nor from an African perspective were they uniformly

advantageous.”(Bliss) Like the local tribes already living there, the British soon

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(Kenya: General Data)

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recognized that the climate and fertility made the Kenya Highlands and ideal

place to settle and began reserving these lands for the European settlers. Thus

the country’s best lands were in the hands of the white minority while oppressing

the needs of the Africans and Asians living in Kenya. This caused a growing

resentment of the white minority especially with the inferior status the majority

African community held, but when a population explosion occurred in the 1920s

made it impossible for the Africans to meet the needs of their people with the

limited amount of land available they decided to do something about their

situation and began forming political action groups according their respective

ethnic membership.

Despite their efforts, the life of the Africans did not improve until the end of

World War II. At that time Jomo Kenyatta led the Kikuyus in a political uprising

asking for representation in Kenya’s government which was controlled by the

white minority and the black majority had no role.

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(Jomo Kenyata)

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The British refused to give up any control and continued to deny Africans any

rights in government. They believed in the “white man’s burden” and wanted to

make the government exclusively white. This sparked a violent reaction in middle

of the twentieth century, which came to be known as the Mau Mau emergency.

The British managed to defeat the Kikuyu’s and put Jomo Kenyatta and other

leaders in jail for being suspected of a connection to the revolt. This setback kept

the Africans subdued for nearly ten years, but in 1950 “when the campaign for

majority rule within the framework of the colonial regime succeeded in

submerging ethnic differences among Africans and in winning the recognition of

British authorities” they set the stage for a move towards independence. (Bliss)

In 1961, the African majority achieved their goal of receiving a stronger

role in government. This led to Kenya’s independence from the British in 1963,

and in 1964 it became a republican form of government with only one party, the

Kenya African National Union. Jomo Kenyatta was the named the first president

of Kenya and he initially managed to unify all the major parties into one without

any resistance. As Kenyatta was of the Kikuyu tribe, other factions representing

different ethnic groups were apprehensive about his power and about the Kikuyu

dominating the government. Oginga Odinga left the KANU party for this reason

and started the Kenyan African Democratic Union towards the end of the 1960s,

but his rival party was banned in 1969 and Odinga was thrown in jail and one

party once again ruled Kenya.

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Kenyatta tried to unify the country but the varying interests of the differing

interests groups proved to be an obstacle in bringing the country together.

Ethnic antagonisms remained the principal stumbling block to national unity, but Kenyatta's firm, paternalistic rule nonetheless provided the country with a substantial degree of stability during the first decade and a half of Kenya's independent existence. (Bliss)

Kenyatta was firm and managed to suppress any uprisings from other ethnic

groups with little problems. He was fondly known as the Mzee which means old

man in Swahili despite the firm grip he held one the country. “Kenyatta was

recognized at the time of his death in mid-1978 as Mzee, “the wise old one,” not

only by his own people but by a wide sarray of world leaders”(Geography and

History of Kenya). Kenya remained a one party, democratic country due to

Kenyatta’s policies. Kenya had a parliament which, constantly contested

government policies, free elections, and freedom of press with a few restrictions

on reporting. Most of the European and Asian populations left during this time as

the government forced them to leave during their Kenyanization process of the

country. Kenya developed as a capitalist country and began to grow and

modernize under the direction of the a few African entrepreneurial people who

were connected to the political leaders. As the economy developed and the

country become stable people began to put more confidence in the government

and markets. However, things did not go well for long as internal corruption

created inequalities as the rich became richer and the poor became poorer

causing some political opposition.

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Kenyatta also tried to foster relations with the neighboring countries, as

there were many commonalities between cultures and ethnicities in the region.

However this proved to be a challenging task especially with Tanzania and

Uganda. The three countries tried to form the East African Community by

unifying the political and economic aspects, but these plans eventually fell

through especially with the difficulties Idi Amin, ruler of Uganda, caused.

“However, in Uganda the government was overthrown by Idi Amin in 1971 and

the heads of state ceased to meet, as the president of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere,

refused to meet Idi Amin” (East African Community). The countries are still

hopeful that something may happen in the future.

As the president got older, he became more displaced from his country

and people and the responsibilities of running the government were taken over

by Kenyatta’s advisors, and vice president Daniel arap Moi. There was quite a bit

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(East African Community)

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of corruption and internal strife within the government fighting for power. Factions

and divisions began to form within the KANU organization and brought down the

Kenyatta prominence that Kenya once saw. Kenyatta died in 1978 and Daniel

arap Moi took over his presidency in August that year.

Kenyatta’s death brought a lot of fear and unease to Kenya, as many

believed that a civil war would break out between the Luo and Kikuyu tribes in as

an opening of power could potentially become an opportunity for another tribe to

gain control of the country, furthermore Moi was part of the Kalenjin tribe which

scared the Kikuyu tribe which had been in power because of Kenyatta. But the

change in successors was very peaceful and Moi continued Kenyatta’s work.

Although Kenya was already a one party sate, Moi made it official in the 1980s.

Soon afterwards, the Kenyan air force tried to take him out of power, but this was

put down by the Kenyan troops. In the 1990s Moi responded to any threats by

throwing any critics or opposition in jail. This was met by a lot of criticism by the

international community and so in order to change these policies countries

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(African Studies Group)

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offering Kenya aid put pressure on Moi to hold elections. Kenya’s first real

election was held in 1992 that Moi easily won, but it set the stage for political

change in Kenya.

The primary opposition party missed its chance during the 1992 election

and still could not create a large following for the 1997 election. Although Moi did

not have the majority vote, there were so many opposing political parties that

they could not oust him out of office.

In both elections, they lost to KANU even though their share of total votes was more than KANU's. In the 1997 presidential election, for instance, about 14 opposition political parties, combined, had 59% share of total votes. Moi and KANU won with 41% share of total votes (Kenya Politics).

The parties came together in the 2002 and all coalesced into one opposition with

one candidate, Mwai Kibaki who is attempting to reform the country and rid the

government of corruption as well as unify the different factions.

With so many varying ethnic groups under one country, there are many

different people vying for their individual interests, which cause conflicts and

power struggles. The different influences that impacted the country over the

years played a large role in transforming and complicating the interactions

further. In addition, although the powerful minorities who ruled the country

seemed to suppress any uprisings, their firm grip not only buried resentment, but

also created more strife within the country. All this history and experience has led

to a country with more than thirty different ethnicities trying to play a role in

government in order to advocate for their own interests. This has caused growing

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prejudice within the country as internal corruption within the country has caused

growing concerns among the tribes. Thus, the histories of the past have shaped

the interactions of the country today.

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Other Images

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crawfurd.dk/ africa/1937bw_4.htm

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Bibliography

African Studies Group. http://cursos.uexternado.edu.co/africa/keing.htm

Blis, Timothy F. http://www.blissites.com/kenya/history.html

Demographics of Kenya. http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Demographics-of-Kenya

East African Community. http://www.angelfire.com/mac/egmatthews/worldinfo/africa/eAC.html

East African Living Encyclopedia. African Studies Center. University of Pensylvannia. http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/kdemography.htm

Geography and History of Kenya.http://www.garden-aids.co.nz/history.html

Giga, Azmina. Interview. May 2004

Jomo Kenyatta. http://www.africawithin.com/bios/jomo_kenyatta.htm

Kenya: General Data. http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Africa/kenyag.htm

Kenya in Brief.http://www.statehousekenya.go.ke/kenya.html#kenya11

Kenya Politics. http://www.kenyaweb.com/politics/

World: Africa Namibia sells ivory. BBC News. February 1999.

Présentation générale de l'expédition. http://objectif.kili.free.fr/planning.htm

Rhinehart, Robert. COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD, Kenya: Chapter 1A. Development Bureau, Inc. 1991

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