The Age of Nation-States

Chapter 23

General Overview

• The Crimean War(1854-1856)• Italian Unification• German Unification• France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic• The Habsburg Empire: the emergence of dual

monarchy in Austria-Hungary• Reforms in Russia: emancipation of the serfs (Most of this liberal agenda was enacted whileconservatives were in power)

Politics after 1848

• The failures of 1848 vanished the hopes of many liberals and reformers.

• Europe entered another post-revolutionary restoration.

• Struggles for constitutionalism continued.

The Eastern Question and The Crimean War, 1853-1856(I)

• One of first major political developments in Europe following Year of Revolutions was Crimean War.

• During the congress of Vienna in 1815, the European statesmen had found no long-term solution to the Eastern Question. They did not pay attention to their rivalries in the East.

• The Eastern Question: instability in the Ottoman Empire/ growing Russian hegemony in the region.

• Weakened Ottoman Empire posed security problems in the Balkans and Eastern Mediterranean.

• This provided an opportunity for Russia to extend her influence.

The Crimean War, 1853-1856(II)

• In 1853, diplomatic crisis drifted into the Crimean War.

• There were minor confrontations in the Baltic and Kamchatka, but most of the fighting was confined to the tiny Crimean peninsula on the northern cost of the Black Sea. (therefore the name Crimean War)

• This was the most serious international conflict since 1815.

The Crimean War(III)

Ottoman Empire was regularly shaken by revolts like the War of Greek Independence and by power struggles between the Sultan in Constantinople and local pashas in the far-flung regions of his Empire during 1830s and 1840s.

The Crimean War(IV)

The Crimean War(V)

• With the Ottoman Empire in a weakened state, Russia began to press demands on its southern neighbour, including for special rights concerning Empire’s Orthodox Christian population & Orthodox places of worship in Holy Land.

• The Ottomans resisted these demands & Russia then occupied the nominally Ottoman provinces of Moldavia & Wallachia(historical and geographical region of Romania)

The Crimean War (VI)

• Ottoman Empire, by 1854 supported by Britain & France, & then by Piedmontese forces too, declared war on Russia

• Though neither side fought very effectively the Russians, (partly fearful of domestic repercussions from a war-weary population), ultimately conceded defeat & were forced to make important concessions at an international conference held in Paris in March 1856

Consequences of the Crimean War

• Perhaps even more impt. than details of the Crimean War or specific conditions of the Treaty of Paris were consequences of the war. These included:

1) Perception of Russia as an invincible colossus that had existed before the war was erased

2) Russian prestige in the Balkans decreased3) The Concert of Europe seriously damaged

The Unification of Italy• Incl. weakening of Concert of Europe & lessening faith in need

to preserve Vienna settlement, (partly because states had been successful in suppressing revolution & so not now as fearful of prospect of new revolutionary uprisings), encouraged further dramatic change in Europe after Crimean War, most importantly substantial re-drawing of European political map following national unification of Italy & Germany.

• Italian uprisings of 1848/1849, led largely by romantic republicans(Mazzini and Garibaldi were dedicated to driving Austria from the peninsula and establishing a republic in Italy), failed to achieve objective of Italian unification. Yet, only a decade later, to an impt. extent as consequence of leadership & diplomatic maneuvers of Count Cavour of Piedmont, a new, united kingdom of Italy was successfully established.

The Italian Peninsula – post 1848

Count Camilo di Cavour• Cavour appointed Prime Minister Piedmont in 1852 by new king

Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour liberal, but also loyal to monarchy.• Cavour supported national unification of Italy so long as it was

unified under Piedmontese leadership. To this end he backed establishment of pro-Piedmontese ‘National Society’ in many different Italian states. He wanted to unify Italy under a constitutional monarchy.

• Cavour realized Piedmont could only defeat Austria with support of a Great Power - specifically he saw France, now under leadership of pro-Italian Napoleon III as potential ally *

• Cavour’s first impt. diplomatic move was to take Piedmont into Crimean War, thereby increased Piedmont’s prestige among Italians & gaining good-will/respect of Britain & France

* Keep in mind Napoleon III was also someone seeking fame & glory, hoping to return France to great days of his uncle, & saw Piedmont as potential ally vis-a-vis Austria

The ‘Pact of Plombieres’

• July 1858 Napoleon III & Count Cavour met at Plombieres-les-bains where they formulated a secret deal, signed later in December 1858 & known as the ‘Pact of Plombieres’

• France promised to help Piedmont against Austria, & in return for its help would receive provinces of Nice & Savoy from Piedmont.

• In line with agreement, Cavour mobilized army on border of Austrian controlled Lombardy

The Rise of Piedmont• Cavour’s decision to mobilize on the border of Lombardy was

designed to antagonize Austria & find a pretext for going to war. Unaware Piedmont was in secret agreement with France, Austria gave Piedmont an ultimatum, which Piedmont rejected, leading to Austria declaring war & appearing the aggressor.

• With backing of France, Piedmont heavily defeated Austrian forces in the battles of Magenta & Solferino in June 1859, took over Lombardy & was about to occupy Venetia too.

• Meanwhile, encouraged by defeat of Austria, revolutionary uprisings calling for Italian national unification under Piedmontese leadership were initiated throughout much of Italian peninsula. Everything appeared to be going right for Cavour...

The Treaty of Villafranca• Then, to Cavour’s surprise & disappointment, Napoleon III

changed course, & now signed the Treaty of Villafranca with Austria (July 11th 1859),. France would withdraw its support from Piedmont & Piedmont would get only Lombardy, not Venetia.

• Why had Napoleon III abandoned Cavour? Perhaps a combination of the following:i) lacked resolve (unlike his uncle)ii) feared entry of Prussia in war on side of Austriaiii) becoming concerned Piedmont might become too powerful a southern neighbour for France

Garibaldi• For a while Cavour was helpless, but forces of Italian nationalism

had been set in motion & by end of the year several central Italian states had voted in plebiscites to unite with Piedmont.

• Then, in May 1860, veteran republican nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi, (a leader of nationalist uprisings 1848), landed in Sicily taking over island held by king of Naples & later proceeding to take Naples itself.

• Fearing Italy might now unite as a republic, or that Garibaldi might provoke Roman Catholic states in Europe by attacking Rome, Cavour pre-empted Garibaldi’s movement further north. He sent troops south, taking over remaining central Italian states controlled by Pope (i.e. papal states), but being careful to avoid the region around Rome.

Italian Unification & Rome

• Cavour’s caution regarding Rome was a consequence of 2 factors:

i) He didn’t want to offend Catholics

ii) Rome was protected by French troops

POPE PIUS IX (1846-1878)

The Kingdom of Italy• Potential for war between Cavour & Garibaldi’s respective

forces, the former defending a united Italian kingdom under rule of King Victor Emmanuel II, the latter preferring a united Italy as a republic. Garibaldi, however, apparently so as not to jeopardize national unification of Italy by fighting against forces of Piedmont, accepted that a united Italy could be a kingdom & in late 1860 people of Naples & Sicily voted in a plebiscite to unite with Piedmont.

• 17th March 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was crowned king of the newly united Italy. Less than 3 months later Cavour had died. But for 2 major exceptions (Venetia & Rome), Cavour had lived to see his dream come true.

The Kingdom of Italy (2)

Cartoon showing Garibaldi help Victor Emmanuel II wear the “boot” of a united Italy.

The Formation of a United Italy (1)

The Formation of a United Italy (2)

German Unification• Unification of Germany could be

regarded as most significant European development till World War I, one that greatly affected the political, economical & military balance of power. It was achieved largely through military power & diplomatic maneuvers, rather than through idealist liberalism of participants in earlier Frankfurt Assembly. Leading role played by Otto von Bismarck, the great Prussian statesman first appointed Prime Minister in Sept. 1862 by the new King of Prussia William I.

OTTO VON BISMARCK

Otto von Bismarck (1)

• Bismarck was more of a Prussian patriot rather than a German nationalist, who aimed to strengthen Prussia & make sure the people remained loyal to their king & conservative institutions rather than follow the liberals who had begun to dominate Prussian parliament.

• For Bismarck successful politics was not based on ideals or principles or debates or democratically made decisions, but on effective exercise of power.

Otto von Bismarck (2)

“The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches & majority decisions – that was the mistake of 1848-1849 – but

by iron & blood.”

German Territorial Unification

3 Wars in the Process ofGerman Unification

• Prussia+Austria vs. Denmark 1864

• Austro-Prussian War 1866

• Franco-Prussian War 1870-71

Through the process of 3 major wars in less than a decade, Bismarck ended up engineering the unification of Germany

War with Denmark - 1864• War with Denmark began as result of the Schleswig-Holstein

Problem. These 2 duchies, though not officially part of the Danish state had come under domination of Denmark even though they had substantial German populations (a majority in Holstein) & though Holstein was a member of the Bund.

• 1863 Denmark tried to annex these territories. Germans everywhere were outraged & call rose for pan-German war. Bismarck resisted this call because he didn’t want smaller German states to gain prestige, & instead arranged for war with Denmark to be fought by Prussia in alliance with Austria.

• Denmark was quickly defeated & in Convention of Gastein it was agreed that Austria would administer Holstein & Prussia would administer Schleswig.

Austro-Prussian War of 1866

• Bismarck now looked for an opportunity to attack Austria, he needed to develop right circumstances. First he purposefully increased tensions between the two states over administration of Schleswig-Holstein, incr. these tensions further when he felt international circumstances had become suitable.

• Bismarck had already gained friendship of Russia by supporting Russian suppression of new uprising in Poland in 1863. He now convinced France to remain neutral in war with Austria & made a deal with Italy in April 1866, promising it Venetia if it gave its backing.

Austro-Prussian War of 1866 (2)

• When in June 1866 Austria appealed to Bund over Prussian activities in Schleswig-Holstein, Bismarck declared that according to Treaty of Gastein the issue was between the two great powers, not a matter for Bund; a new German confederation should be formed, one that this time excluded Austria. Bismarck (as he had planned), had tested Austrian patience too much, & the Austrians now declared war against Prussia.

• Known as ‘Seven Weeks War’, Austria was quickly defeated by superior Prussian military forces (& technology – incl., e.g., the ‘needle gun’)

The Treaty of Prague & the Results of the Austro-Prussian War

• Outcome of Austro-Prussian War determined in Treaty of Prague, signed between Prussia & Austria on August 23rd 1866. Accordingly:

1) Austria was to give Venetia to Italy2) Prussia annexed several German states which backed Austria in war (incl. Hannover, Hesse, Nassau & Frankfurt)3) A North German Confederation, dominated by Prussia & headed by the Prussian king was formed4) Austria promised not to get involved in German affairs5) Prussia’s (& Bismarck’s) prestige was further enhanced. Greater numbers of Germans now looked to Prussia for leadership & popular support in Prussia shifted from liberals towards conservative administration of Bismarck.

Crisis of Succession to the Spanish Throne (1)

• Bismarck’s final initiative for unification of Germany came with his finding of a pretext to go to war against France (which was becoming incr. concerned by growing power of Prussia). Bismarck’s excuse was related to succession to Spanish throne.

• Spanish queen Isabella overthrown by a military coup in 1868, but for almost 2 years Spaniards could not agree on a suitable replacement as monarch. Spanish eventually chose Prince Leopold who accepted offer on June 19th 1870.

Crisis of Succession to the Spanish Throne (2)

What was special about What was special about LeopoldLeopold was that he was a was that he was a member of the Hohenzollern member of the Hohenzollern familyfamily, the royal family ruling , the royal family ruling Prussia. For France his Prussia. For France his monarchy in Spain was monarchy in Spain was completely unacceptable. completely unacceptable. French did not want another French did not want another neighbouring state ruled by neighbouring state ruled by Hohenzollern family.Hohenzollern family. Prince Leopold

The Ems Telegram (1)• French ambassador Count Vincent Benedetti was sent to see

Prussian king William I at a place called Ems to resolve the issue. They had civilized gentlemanly discussions, but issue was not yet resolved.

• On 12th July Leopold’s father withdrew his son’s candidacy for the Spanish throne on behalf of his son. But, not yet satisfied, Benedetti was sent to meet the king again to ask for secure guarantees that there would never again be another Hohenzollern candidate. Even though there was no intention to support another Hohenzollern candidacy, this demand, William I said was not possible to accept.

• A telegram, later infamously called the ‘Ems Telegram’ was then sent to Bismarck to explain what had happened.

The Ems Telegram (2)

• While conversation between the ambassador & the king had been quite open & frank, it was still civil. Yet Bismarck, the opportunist that he was, saw a chance to create an excuse for war with France.

• Bismarck noticed that by slightly editing text of telegram, & leaking it to press, he could make a war almost unavoidable.

• By playing with the words of the text, Bismarck made it appear as if telegram had spoken of a v. hostile meeting where king was v. offensive to representative of French government.

• When telegram, as edited by Bismarck, was released to public, Germans felt pride in king’s tough stance, while French felt that their national honour had been attacked. Tensions & pressures built-up & on 19th of July 1870 France declared war ... Just what Bismarck had wanted!

Facsimile of the Abeken Text & Bismarck's editing.*

* Available at http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Ems%20Telegram.htm

The Abeken Text: *Ems, July 13, 1870.To THE FEDERAL CHANCELLOR, COUNT BISMARCK, No. 61 EOD. 3:10 P.M. (STATION EMS: RUSH!)His Majesty the King writes to me: "M. Benedetti intercepted me on the Promenade in order to demand of me most insistently that I should authorize him to telegraph immediately to Paris that I shall obligate myself for all future time never again to give my approval to the candidacy of the Hohenzollerns should it be renewed. I refused to agree to this, the last time somewhat severely, informing him that one dare not & cannot assume such obligations à tout jamais. Naturally, I informed him that I had received no news as yet, & since he had been informed earlier than I by way of Paris & Madrid he could easily understand that my Government was once again out of the matter." Since then His Majesty has received a dispatch from the Prince [Charles Anthony]. As His Majesty informed Count Benedetti that he was expecting news from the Prince, His Majesty himself, in view of the above-mentioned demand & in consonance with the advice of Count Eulenburg & myself, decided not to receive the French envoy again but to inform him through an adjutant that His Majesty had now received from the Prince confirmation of the news which Benedetti had already received from Paris, & that he had nothing further to say to the Ambassador. His Majesty leaves it to the judgment of Your Excellency whether or not to communicate at once the new demand by Benedetti & its rejection to our ambassadors & to the press. [Signed] A[beken] 13.7.70

* Available at http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Ems%20Telegram.htm

The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71

• With nationalist passions incr. by dispute with France, the southern German states now joined forces with Northern German Confederation led by Prussia.

• The French armies were destroyed relatively quickly, though Paris continued to resist till January 1871.

• Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians following the Battle of Sedan in Sept. 1870 & eventually sent into exile in England.

The German Emperor

• During the war, often under public pressure, leaders of the southern German states had called upon William I to become emperor of a united, but federal Germany, in which they would maintain some authority within their own territories. On 18th Jan. 1871, William I was crowned emperor of a united Germany in the famous ‘Hall of Mirrors’ in Palace of Versailles, which had been home to generations of French monarchs, (& which therefore was esp. humiliating for the French – they did not forget! – n.b. They sought revenge after World War I)

Outcomes of theFranco-Prussian War

Apart from the key outcome of the formation of a united German national state, & the exile of Napoleon III, the war had certain other significant consequences:

• In the Treaty of Frankfurt the French were made to accept payment of reparations & to give the disputed territories of Alsace & Lorraine to Germany

• German forces of liberalism were out-staged by the conservative forces led by Bismarck

• A 3rd republic was declared in France (The first was in 1792, the 2nd in 1848)

The Dual Monarchy:Austria-Hungary

Habsburg Emperor of Austrian Empire

Habsburg Emperor of Austria

Habsburg King of Hungary

Nationalities within Habsburg Empire

The Magyar – German Compromise• Dual Monarchy was basically a compromise between

Magyars & Germans. Empire divided into 2 autonomous halves, Austria in west (dominated by Germans) & Hungary in east (dominated by Magyars). A critical tie between 2 halves was that they would have same monarch, Habsburg ruler being simultaneously Emperor of Austria & King of Hungary. (Technically the new name for this new arrangement was ‘Austria-Hungary’, though many sources continue to refer to ‘Austrian Empire’).

Reasons for the Habsburg Acceptance of the Dual Monarchy

• Growing recognition that defeat of Magyar nationalist demands in 1848 was only temporary & would again surface unless Magyars were satisfied.

• Belief that Magyars (more than e.g. Slavs) were a noble & ancient nation.

• Inability to rely on further Russian support. (Russia helped Habsburgs in 1848, but Austria failed to provide support for Russia during Crimean War).

• Successive military defeats of Empire (first against Piedmont (+France) & then especially against Prussia had increased belief that a domestic reorganization of Empire was needed.

The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia

• As in Austrian Empire, abolition of serfdom in Russia was again based largely on pragmatic politics, not principles.

• Serfdom in Russia officially ended in Feb 1861. In evaluating military failures of Russia during the Crimean War, it was decided that a major cause had been low morale & motivation of serfs fighting for Russian armies, defending a state in which they had virtually no rights.

• Though “officially” freed, circumstances of serfs did not improve greatly in short term. Had to pay for compensation given to nobles who had lost their serfs & were not given title to land they worked till compensation was fully paid. So serfs economic servitude continued by other means.