Tip 1: Coaching Time Series Analysis for Performance Evaluation

Analysing your performance: time to get Trendy

Time series analysis is frequently used to track trends in the economy and predict future stock market performance. In the first of a two-part series, Alicia Filley explains this statistical method and how it can be useful in evaluating the effectiveness of your training and maximising performance Time series analysis is a statistical application used to detect trends in inventory, sales, and the economy. A time series is a set of data points that occur over regular intervals of time, such as the closing value of the stock market each day. There are two goals of analysing a set of time series data points. The first is to identify any relationship, or trend, among the points. The second is to forecast what might happen in the future based on the past trends within the data. Analysing time series data When collecting data over time, there is often significant variation among the data points. Translating the data  into  something  meaningful  requires  ‘smoothing’  the  data,  which  brings  the  outlying variations into line with the other data. For instance, if you were to record and graph the high temperature in Houston, Texas every day at the same time for the month of March, you would also see some large variations in temperature during that time (see figure 1).

A simple method of smoothing the data is basic averaging. However, averaging weighs all data points equally, resulting in a flat data curve with no evidence of a trend as noted in the monthly average in figure 1. A moving average however is a statistical technique that takes into account the history of the measurement. In other words, it gives more weight to the current measurements than the ones in the past. When calculating the moving average, old data points drop away from the calculation as new ones are added. The moving average in figure 1 calculates the average over a block of five days. Every day a new data point is added and an old one drops off. The variations then are presented as curves that begin to show evidence of a trend – a warming trend at the beginning of the month followed by a cooling trend that begins to shift to warmer again toward the end of the month.

Time series analysis in sport These same simple statistical principles can be used to monitor training effectiveness for one athlete, a particular training method, or an entire programme. Researchers at the University of Southern California used time series analysis to evaluate the performance trends of ten male subjects during three different resistance exercise sessions (2). The researchers were interested in detecting postactivation potentiation and fatigue effects within the exercise sessions. Their study showed how using a moving average to analyse the raw data collected during the high-power  resistance  sessions  eliminated  the  ‘within-session  variability’,  revealing  an  overall  trend. The raw data, collected using motion analysis, showed large variability in the average barbell power  for  sets  at  75%,  85%,  and  95%  of  an  individual’s  one  repetition  max  (see  figure  2).  The  reason for such variability can be physiological, psychological, or measurement error. With weightlifting, variability in performance is known to occur between supervised and unsupervised training as well as with or without verbal encouragement(2); sometimes an athlete  just  isn’t  firing  on  all  cylinders  while  at  other  times  he  or  she  may  be  ‘in  the  zone’.   The evaluation of the data using time-series analysis confirmed to the researchers that indeed the athletes were performing at a level that invoked a postactivation potentiation and fatigue pattern. Only by smoothing the data using the moving average was a trend detectible within the raw data.

Advice from an expert Many athletes are turning to gadgets and gizmos to formulate their training programme. While technology can provide useful tools for athletes, Loren ZF Chiu, PhD, CSCS, at the University of Alberta, cautions athletes to investigate the science behind the applications. ‘Many   people   confuse   technology  with   science,’   says  Dr   Chiu.   He   advocates   using   time   series  analysis as a way to evaluate the effectiveness of training and the trends in performance. Technological applications can be useful in the collection of time series data. Having objective data gives coaches the ability to quantify performance over the appearance of performance.  ‘Coaches  must  stop  adjusting  training  based  on  perception.  If  someone  has  an  off  day, time series analysis gives  you  the  ability  to  see  how  that  day’s  performance  fits  within  the  overall  trend  over  time,’  says  Dr  Chiu.   Calculations The calculations for moving averages and the resulting graphs are easily carried out using an Excel spreadsheet. The challenge for sports programmes, according to Dr Chiu, is to measure and record data. One way to start this within your programme or club is to provide every athlete with a journal. Trainers can assist athletes with recording times, measurements, number of tackles, distance covered, or any other data point that is important to the performance of a particular sport. If  your  athletes  or  trainers  are  ‘techies’  then  it  gets  even  easier.  Record  data  points  via  a  smart  phone or mobile device, and email them to whoever is the designated data input person for the team. If you are part of a university-based team, work with your computer science programme to write applications, or apps, that pertain specifically to the data you want to collect. Data can then be manually entered or directly imported into an Excel spreadsheet and results displayed quickly. Graphs and data can be uploaded to the internet on team websites, giving athletes and trainers rapid access with their mobile devices. Just remember, the technology is only as useful as the science behind it. In  the  future,  it’s  possible  that  athletes  will  begin  a  data  file  in  school  and  carry  that  with  them  into their college or club career. Coaches will be able to evaluate the results of previous training methods on performance. They would be able to note when injuries occurred and what the training and performance trend looked like at that time, perhaps avoiding future injury. Symptoms of overtraining might be detected earlier with this type of performance analysis. Successful training techniques would be recognised and broadened. The future could even see coaches   using   statistical   analysis   to   forecast   where   an   athlete’s   performance   will   be   at  competition and adjust the training schedule accordingly. Dr Chiu cautions, however, that forecasting will only be appropriate after a significant amount of data has been collected and analysed. Practical applications of time series analysis Start by deciding what parameters are important to your sport. What would you like to improve? Some examples are sprint times, pitch speed, vertical jump height, 1 repetition max, etc.  Decide  how  often  you  will  record  these  measurements  and  what  method  you’ll  use  to  do  so.  Will you need a 3D motion lab to evaluate movement patterns once a month, or simply measure your sprint times with a stopwatch every week? Find a method of recording your data that works for you and commit to maintaining your data log for at least three months. By that time you should have enough data to illustrate performance trends.

Conclusion Time series analysis is a method of evaluating a series of data collected over consistent intervals of time. The application of time series analysis to athletic performance is new and full of potential. Using simple tools such as a stopwatch and an Excel spreadsheet, you can collect data, evaluate training methods and monitor performance. In  the  next  issue,  I’ll  give  you  the  formula  to  calculate  a  moving  average  and  show  you  how  to  express your data in charts that reveal meaningful data trends. Time series analysis is a very simple  way  to  evaluate  performance;  however,  don’t  let  the  simplicity  fool  you.  The  technique  opens up exciting possibilities for making training decisions that improve performance. The challenge is to start collecting and recording data today! Alicia Filley, PT, MS, PCS, lives in Houston, Texas and is vice president of Eubiotics: The Science of Healthy Living, which provides counselling for those seeking to improve their health, fitness or athletic performance through exercise and nutrition References 1. www.accuweather.com/us/tx/houston/77001/forecast-month.asp?mnyr=2-01-2010 2. J Strength Cond Res. 2010 Jan;24(1):230-4

Look back to plan your future

In issue 295, Alicia Filley explained the statistical method of analysing data trends called ‘time series  analysis’.  In  this  article,  she  demonstrates  how  to  calculate  and  apply  a  time  series analysis to maximise your training results. The application of time series analysis in sports performance is relatively new and exciting. This statistical method, long used in the business and economic industries, evaluates a set of data points collected at consistent intervals over time. An example of such a set of data points is the daily closing value of the stock market or the monthly unemployment numbers. The analysis of a set of data in this way reveals trends in the data and allows future predictions to be made based on past performance. To be used in sports performance, data must be collected on parameters that are important to success. The first challenge is to decide what to measure; to do this, you should think first about your performance goals then choose a measurement that is meaningful. For example, are you trying to improve sprint times, endurance, strength, flexibility, or shooting accuracy? Each of these things can be easily reasured and recorded. You need to remember too that consistency is the key to keeping meaningful data. Athletes,trainers and coaches must commit to recording data at regular intervals for a set length of time. Here is an example of how keeping data helps decision-making and, therefore, performance.

Using time series analysis to evaluate performance A basketball coach notices in the game stats from the previous season that his team recovers only a small number of offensive rebounds. To rectify the problem, he begins an intensive pre-season, jump training program with his team. To evaluate the effectiveness of the program, the vertical jump height of each player is measured at the beginning of the program and at weekly intervals  during  the  training.  Each  player’s  vertical  jump  stats,  as  well  as  the  number  of  successful rebounds in each game, are plotted and a time series analysis is conducted using a moving average trendline. The results the coach hopes to see are two-fold: first, that each player shows an upward trend in their vertical jump height as a result of training; and secondly, that the number of successful rebounds also begins to trend upward.

If, after two months of pre-season training, the team’s  rebound  numbers  are  not  trending  upward as quickly as the coach would like, he has the hard data to look at each player individually. Perhaps his  power  forward  isn’t  showing  much  progress with the jump training. The coach can then tweak the training for an individual player in order to benefit  the  team’s  performance. Another  scenario  is  that  everyone’s  vertical jump is trending upwards, but the rebound numbers are not. One reason could be that communication or morale within the team. In this scenario, training the team harder might not actually be necessary since, individually, each player is improving. Without the quantitative data, the coach can only base his evaluation on his perception. How to plot the numbers The easiest type of time series analysis is called a simple moving average (SMA). The formula for calculating a simple moving average is: SMA = (nt + nt-1 + nt-2  +…  nt-y)/y where y is the period, or number of data points you want to include in each calculation, and n is the data point at time t. Using the previous example, let’s  plot  the  moving  average  of  the  vertical  jump of Player X, which was measured weekly (figure 1). The total period of time we want to evaluate is 13 weeks. However, we will take the moving average over a period of three weeks, therefore, y = 3. When you record the data in an Excel spreadsheet, graphing the raw data and the moving average trendline is quite simple. First, highlight the data that you want to graph. In this instance, highlight column A (the dates) and B (the data). Select Chart from the Insert menu (see figure 1) and select Line from the pop-up menu. Click Finish and the line chart will appear in the spreadsheet (see figure 2). If you want to go back and label your x and y axes, click on the chart, pull down the Chart menu, and select Chart Options. Click on the Titles tab and add labels to your graph. To add a trendline to your chart which illustrates the moving average, click on your chart. Select the Chart menu and click on Add Trendline. Select Moving Average from the pop-up menu and set your period length to three, since we are taking the average of groups of three weeks within the series. Click OK and the trendline will be added to your chart alongside your data (see figure 2). Decision-making Despite some fluctuation in the raw data, the jump training appears to be paying off for individual players according to the trendline from their graphs.  But  what  about  the  team’s  performance results?  Let’s  take  a  look  at  the  stats  for  offensive rebounds for the last 18 games (see figure 3). The number of rebounds in each game varies significantly. Using a moving average trendline smoothes the data when there are large fluctuations between the values of each data point. Therefore,  despite  the  ‘ups  and  downs’ from game to game, the coach in this example can make a decision on the effectiveness of his jump training on rebounds within the context  of  the  team’s performance over time.

Conclusions and practical implications With so many training theories and techniques available to athletes, it is difficult to evaluate which method actually produces results. Anyone with access to a basic office software package has the tools necessary to record, track and analyse performance data. Any training approach that ‘feels’  successful  should  be  objectively  evaluated using time series analysis to ensure that athletes are making the most of their time and effort! Coaches or self-coached sportsmen and women therefore need to commit to measuring and recording actual performance data. Using time series  analysis  is  not  a  ‘quick  fix’  answer,  however.  It is an approach to evaluating performance that will become more useful over time. Therefore, you should initially commit to at least three to four months of data collection. Secondly, you need to analyse your results and

study the trendline over time. As long as you are making progress in your performance parameters over time, you can be reassured  that  the  essentials  are  right  and  you  don’t need to panic when you have a bad day! Alicia Filley, PT, MS, PCS, lives in Houston, Texas and is vice president of Eubiotics: The Science of Healthy Living, which provides counselling for those seeking to improve their health, fitness or athletic performance through exercise and nutrition.

Tip 2: How To Get Rid Of Nutrition Mistakes (And Boost Your Performance)

Our sports nutrition knowledge has advanced massively in recent years. So why is it that so many sportsmen and women, even at elite level, are still making basic mistakes? In this two-part article, Andrew Hamilton investigates the problem and suggests some simple solutions to help keep athletes on the straight and narrow. Over the last 20 years, a number of studies have highlighted just how common nutrient shortfalls in sportsmen and women can be. These have included iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc and the B-vitamins(1-3).   Moreover,   these   nutritional   problems   haven’t   necessarily   been  confined to amateurs; even elite athletes (many of whom are likely to have access to specialist nutrition advice) have been shown to succumb to poor nutritional practice(4-5). The advent of the internet and an explosion of sports nutrition knowledge – particularly relating to sport performance – should (in theory at least) mean that athletes no longer have any excuses for missing the mark nutritionally. Even when lifestyles are chaotic and planning is not a forte, the good news is that software programmes to help design well-balanced, nutritionally complete menus are readily available for mere pennies or even for free. With that in mind, you might assume that in 2010, making basic mistakes with nutritional intake is a thing of the past, especially in elite/professional athletes. The link between nutrition and sports performance has never been more apparent and thanks to information technology, it’s  never  been  easier  to  amass  and  execute  the  information  required. Missing the mark But what does the recent evidence actually tell us about nutrition habits of 21st century athletes? Sadly, it seems that a significant number of sportsmen and women are still falling short of meeting their basic nutritional needs. This trend is not confined to any one group either; studies over the previous five years show that sportsmen and women across a wide range of sports and nationalities are still vulnerable to poor nutritional habits. For example, a 2007 study on 24 adventure racers in Brazil used food diaries and blood tests to determine the nutritional adequacy of their diets(6). Given that adventure racing typically involves long bouts of running and walking, you might think that these athletes would have

attended to ensuring a high-carbohydrate intake, with fat intakes under control. But no – their diets were high in protein and fat, while carbohydrate intakes in the men were considered borderline at best. Moreover, the male racers failed to meet their requirements for magnesium, zinc and potassium. Meanwhile, the females fell short of calcium and vitamin E needs. Elite woes A study earlier this year looked at the dietary habits of 72 elite female Australian athletes(11). Although their average macronutrient intake distribution of 18% protein, 31% fat, and 46% carbohydrate, was acceptable, in terms of general macronutrient intake recommendations, 65% of the athletes failed to meet the current Australian sports nutrition recommendations of 5 grams of carbohydrate per kilo of bodyweight per day. When the researchers looked at micronutrient intakes, they also found that a significant proportion of participants failed to meet the estimated average requirement for folic acid (48%), calcium (24%), magnesium (19%), and iron (4%). There’s   further   recent   evidence   that   even   some   elite   athletes   are   failing   to   meet   the   basic  nutritional requirements for sport. Canadian scientists looked at the diets of 324 high-performance athletes from eight Canadian sport centres(12). The subjects kept three-day dietary records, reporting all food, fluid, and supplement consumption. In this study, micronutrient intakes were considered satisfactory for all of the 17 nutrients analysed. However, the researchers were surprised to discover that average calorie intakes were below

that recommended for these activity levels and that this occurred mainly as a result of inadequate carbohydrate intake. Conclusion Despite our advancing knowledge in sports nutrition, it seems that many athletes are still making  basic  errors.  In  part  2,  we’ll  look  at  strategies  to  help  avoid  these  pitfalls. Andrew Hamilton BSc Hons, MRSC, ACSM is a member of the Royal Society of Chemistry, the American College of Sports Medicine and a consultant to the fitness industry References 1. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002 Jun;12(2):207-19 2. Int J Sport Nutr. 1999 Sep;9(3):295-309 3. Am Diet Assoc. 1989 Nov;89(11):1620-3 4. J Am Diet Assoc. 1992 Mar;92(3):299-305 5. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002 Sep;102(9):1293-6 6. Nutrition. 2007 May;23(5):404-11. Epub 2007 Mar 26 7. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002 Mar;102(3):374-9 8. Clin J Sport Med. 2008 Mar;18(2):159-61 9. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008 Oct;18(5):509-23 10. Nutr Res. 2009 Oct;29(10):736-42 11. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2010 Jun;20(3):245-56 12. Clin J Sport Med. 2009 Sep;19(5):405-11

Tip 3: Psychology: How To Get into the Zone by Adam Nicholls.

Athletes often describe the instances in which they experienced peak performance as being  in  the  ‘zone,’  but  what  is  this  state  referred  to  as  the  zone?  Adam  Nicholls  explains  and shows you how get into the zone more often and more intensely to enable you to improve your sporting performance Athletes  use  a  number  of  terms  to  describe  ‘being  in  the  zone’.  These  include  ‘in  the  bubble’,  ‘on  auto-pilot’,  ‘everything  just  clicking’  – the list is endless. Being in the zone or experiencing flow is the mind state that facilitates optimal performance. A researcher from Claremont Graduate University has  likened  the  zone  to  ‘flow’,  and  suggested  that  flow consists of nine dimensions, which athletes may experience when reporting a zone experience (see figure 1)(2). However, not all athletes will experience each facet of flow all of the time(3). The nine dimensions 1. Challenge-skills balance – According to a researcher from Queensland University of Technology, the most important characteristic for flow   to   occur   is   the   ‘challenge-skills balance’(4).  When an athlete is participating in a sport competition and he or she does not feel skilful enough to meet the challenge, the athlete will experience anxiety. However, when an athlete feels that his or her skills are too great for a competitive event, the outcome can be boredom. Only when there is an optimal balance between the challenge of the situation and the skills of the athlete will flow occur (see the red shaded area in figure 2). In other words, the challenge is not so great that anxiety occurs, but is significant enough that boredom will not be felt. 2. Action-awareness merging – When an athlete is in flow, there is a merging of action and awareness, due to total focus being a characteristic of flow. The athlete ceases to be aware of themselves as separate from their action and

experiences a feeling of oneness with the activity. Athletes have reported that their actions feel effortless and spontaneous(3). For example, golfers who have experienced their action and awareness merging have reported that their club feels as though it is an extension of their body. 3. Clear goals – Athletes in flow have a clear sense of what they want to accomplish during their sporting competition. As the event progresses so does the clarity of this moment-to-moment intent. Athletes have also reported that they knew exactly what they had to do and how they were going to do it, even before the event started. 4. Unambiguous feedback – During flow experiences, there is often immediate and clear feedback. Feedback usually comes from the activity itself, eg where the balls are landing in relation to the baseline in tennis. Feedback also comes from the body and in particular feelings during actions, such as the feelings in the leg during a free kick in football. All feedback received during flow experiences allows an athlete to know how successfully he or she is doing. 5. Concentration on the task at hand – Athletes have spoken about a clear sense of focus on what they want to do, which can last for hours. Furthermore, when athletes experience this concentration, they are aware of where their competitors are and the bigger picture of what they have to do, but do not perceive these factors in a negative way because there is complete concentration. 6. Sense of control – During a flow experience, an athlete can experience a sense of control without attempting to exert control. The athlete feels as though they can do nothing wrong, along with a sense of invincibility. This sense of control frees the athlete from the fear of failure and results in a sense of power, calmness and confidence(3). 7. Loss of self-consciousness – Concern for the self seems to disappear during flow as do worries or negative thoughts. There is no attention left over to dwell on everyday worries such as relationship issues, work problems, or worries about body image. 8. Transformation of time – During  flow,  some  athletes  have  reported  that  time   ‘speeds  up’.  For instance, a marathon runner could say that the race was over very quickly, whereas other athletes have said that time slowed down and they felt they had so much time to make a decision. This is the dimension that is probably least understood(2-4), and many athletes do not experience this transformation of time effect. 9. Autotelic experience – The experience of being in flow is extremely enjoyable. Typically, athletes report that they feel on a complete high, which can last for several hours after the sporting  competition  has  finished(3).  Descriptions  from  athletes  include  ‘It  felt  great  the  whole way’   and   ‘it   felt   like   such   a   rush.’   Getting in the zone It is evident that flow is a desirable psychological state, which enables or pushes athletes to the limits of their sporting capabilities. Based upon the recommendations from researchers at Queensland University of Technology(3), Table 1 outlines what you can do in order to experience the different components of flow more often, by revealing strategies that are associated with each of the nine dimensions of flow. Using the strategies presented in Table 1 will help you experience flow more often and more intensely. However, there are a number of other things you can do (and things that you shouldn’t   do!)   to   enter   this   state   on   a   more   regular   basis.   Researchers     at   Eastern Illinois University(5) and Queensland University of Technology(3) examined the factors that facilitate flow (see figure 3) and the factors that are likely to prevent flow from occurring.

In order to experience flow more often, you should: ●Develop a plan of what you are going to do during the competition in response to different scenarios.  For   instance,   ‘If  my  opponent   tries  push  the  ball  past  me,   I  will   try   to   intercept   the  ball’; ●Know your optimal level of arousal. Are you the type of athlete who performs better when you are psyched up, or an athlete who plays better when you are relaxed? If you play better when you are psyched up, increase you levels of arousal prior to competition starting by remembering previous competitions where you were pumped. Alternatively, if you perform better when relaxed, stay away from team-mates that like to psyche themselves up and engage in relaxation activities such as breathing exercises; ●Enhance your motivation prior to competing by deciding what you want to achieve in the upcoming competition; ●Earn the right to be confident by preparing properly; ●Make sure your training and diet leading up to the competition is appropriate; ●Use your experience by focusing on successful past achievements; ●Concentrate on what you want to do; ●Focus on the elements of your performance that have gone well; ●Interact positively with your team-mates and encourage your team-mates. Factors that prevent flow from occurring There  are  also  a  number  of  factors  that  make  it   less  likely  for  you  to  experience  flow(3,5).  It’s  essential that you are aware of these factors in order to minimise the likelihood of them occurring:

●Not being physically ready or prepared for sporting competition was cited as a factor that prevented flow from occurring. Therefore it is imperative that you establish pre-competition routines that work for you and make sure you perform these before every competition; ●Non-optimal environmental conditions such as noisy spectators or the weather can prevent flow from occurring. It is essential that you block out these environmental factors out as much as possible; ●Athletes lacking confidence also struggle to experience flow. Prepare mentally and physically and take confidence from your preparation. Every time you start a competition – whether that is stood on the first tee in golf or at the start line of a 100m sprint – make sure you have done everything possible to prepare fully; ●Inappropriate focus (where athletes have focused on the outcome of the competition they are participating in) has been cited as factor that may prevent flow from occurring. Focus on what you are doing and the actions required to enable you to attain your goals (eg body position during tackling in rugby or knee lift whilst sprinting); ●Unexpected pre-competition problems can prevent flow from occurring. Sometimes these problems (eg transport, opposition team arriving late, poor facilities) that are not within your control can have a negative influence on your pre-competition preparation. If problems occur, make a conscious decision to not let these factors affect you. Re-focus on what you want to do and how you are going to do it! Mental imagery In addition to the aforementioned strategies to enhance the likelihood of you experiencing flow during   your   sport,   there’s   evidence   that   mental   imagery   may   make   flow   experiences   more  common and more intense. Researchers from the University of Hull developed an imagery intervention among four high-level golfers over a period of 12 weeks(6). The golfers were given an audio CD that instructed them to engage in motivational general-mastery (MG-M) visualisation (see box for detailed explanation)(7). Overall the intervention improved the golfers performance, flow intensity, and flow frequency. Dr Adam Nicholls is a lecturer at the Department of Psychology, University of Hull. He is the editor of the book Coping in Sport: Theory, Methods, and Related Constructs

References 1. The Sunday Times, 22nd June, 2003 2. Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row, 1990 3. Flow in sports. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics, 1999 4. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 7, 138-166, 1995 5. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24, 83-107, 2001 6. Athletic Insight, 7 (1), 2005 7. The Sport Psychologist,14, 119-137, 2000

Tip 4: Training: How To Structure The Best Recovery Programs by James Marshall

When planning training programmes for athletes, it is easy to write down sets, reps, times, volumes, intensities and loads. However, structuring a recovery programme to effectively allow adaptation to take place between training sessions is a lot trickier, as James Marshall explains Before   we   look   at   how   recovery   can   be   optimised,   it’s   important   to   understand   why   it’s  important. This is crucial for both coaches and athletes; coaches because they are going to have to plan time and resources to assist recovery, and athletes because they are going to have to implement the strategies. According  to  ‘supercompensation  theory’  (see figure 1), after the body has been exposed to a stressful situation, providing that adequate recovery has taken place, it will adapt and become stronger(1). Without further exposure to this stimulus, the body will soon return to its previous state. However, if further training takes place during the supercompensation phase, then more work or higher intensities can be tolerated. But if training takes place too soon, recovery is incomplete, less work can be done and the athlete risks fatigue, injury or burnout.

Fatigue comes in different forms, including central, peripheral neural, hormonal and psychological; the recovery process therefore needs to target all these different areas. Different aspects of fatigue require different amounts of recovery, and it is very difficult to balance these recoveries. For example, competing in a final of a competition may actually be physically easier than a training session, but the emotional, psychological and hormonal stress will be much greater and this should

be taken into account when planning post-competition training.

Where recovery is useful is in trying to reduce the time between training stimulus and supercompensation.  Inadequate  recovery  strategies  will  mean  that  you’re  not  prepared  to  train  at the next session; instead of enhancing training status, another session actually puts you back. There are some times when inadequate recovery might be planned, such as on a training camp for a few days, but this must then be followed by a few easier days to allow supercompensation to take place. However, during hard competitive phases of the season, time might be one thing the  coach  doesn’t  have,  so  enhancing  the  recovery  becomes  crucial.

Comparing recovery strategies Which recovery strategies are best in a realistic training environment? Researchers from Australia looked at recovery interventions on netball players following a simulated netball circuit training session(2). The players performed the same circuit on two consecutive days and followed one of four recovery interventions:

Passive recovery; Active recovery; Cold water immersion (CWT); Contrast water therapy.

All four of the interventions were performed for 15 minutes, with the passive recovery group sitting still for all that time. The active recovery group performed low intensity exercise at 40% of their maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), while the cold water immersion subjects sat in a cold bath (9.3C) up to the top of their hip bone for 5 minutes, followed by 2.5 minutes out of the bath – repeated twice. The contrast water therapy group also sat in a similar temperature bath, but this time for 1 minute, then had a warm shower (39.1C) for 2 minutes and did this five times in total.

Recovery was assessed by subsequent performance (20m sprints, vertical jumps and total circuit time) as well as measurements of lactate, heart rates, ratings of perceived exertion and muscle soreness. The results showed that there was no difference statistically in performance on the two circuits or on the physical measurements for any of the recovery interventions (the fact that there was a whole 24 hours of recovery time between the two sessions may account for this, and that the circuit was challenging, but not maximal). However, there was a difference in perceptions of recovery; the subjects who did cold water immersion and contrast water therapy perceived themselves as better recovered. This may be important as it shows the relevance of mental recovery in the process. It also highlights the need to keep recovery strategies tuned to the individual. Compression clothing Another study on netball players also found no difference in performance following an intervention – this time using compression tights(5). The subjects did five sets of 20 drop-jumps from a 60cm height, followed by an immediate jump up as high as they could, with a 2-minute rest between sets. The two recovery interventions were either wearing compression tights for 48 hours afterwards or just wearing normal clothing.

The results showed that there was no difference in performance between the groups in subsequent sprint tests; both groups ran slower 48 hours after the drop jumps than before. However, perceived muscle soreness was lower in the compression garment group compared to the control group after 48 hours. There was also a slight reduction in CK levels (see box 2, below) in the female compression garment group after 24 hours compared to the controls, but no difference after 48 hours. Moreover, subjects who used compression tights reported that the tights were uncomfortable at night, as they raised their body temperature and disrupted their sleep.

By contrast, a study on New Zealand provincial rugby players found that compression garments did help reduce CK levels compared to passive recovery(7). Contact sports such as rugby and boxing have been shown to produce higher levels of CK following the match, than in similar training sessions with no contact(8,9) so CK is definitely a useful marker of measuring fatigue in these sports. The rugby players followed one of four recovery protocols post match:

Passive recovery (sitting on the bench for 9 minutes); Active  recovery  (7  minutes’  cycling  on  a  stationary  bike  at  80-100 rpm); Contrast water therapy (CWT – 3 sets of sitting in a bath of cold water [8-10C] for 1

minute followed by hot water [40-42C] for 2 minutes); Compression garments – wearing compression pants for 12 hours post-match.

CK levels were measured immediately post match and then subsequently at 36 and 84 hours post match. A comparison between peak levels and the levels at 84 hours was then made. The fastest recovery was found in the active group, with the CWT and compression groups also showing fast levels of recovery. The passive condition showed the slowest level of recovery by some degree. The nature of science investigations is to isolate one intervention at a time and to compare each intervention  against  a  control  group.  However,   it’s   interesting  to  speculate   if  a  combination  of  active recovery and CWT or compression garments worked better than one intervention alone. What is clear in this study was the short duration of all the post-match interventions; it could be

surmised that a longer active recovery session would have resulted in an even further reduction in CK levels at 36 and 84 hours post match. Implementing a recovery strategy Coaches  and  athletes  tend  to  fall   into  one  of  two  camps:  the  ‘throw  every  resource  we  have  at  this,  and  implement  everything  together’  camp  or  the  ‘let  them  get  on  with  it’  camp.  If  you  are  a  recreational athlete who trains on a Tuesday and Thursday, and competes on a Saturday, then you will have about 48 hours between sessions to recover naturally. Muscle glycogen can be restored through normal eating and most indicators of muscle damage such as creatine kinase will probably have returned to normal levels before your next training session. In short, recovery will likely take care of itself! However,  if  you  train  or  compete  more  frequently,  then  you’ll  need  to  do  something  to  aid  the  recovery process. If you’re  a  coach,   it   is  probably  best  to  have  some   ‘non  negotiable’  recovery  processes in place for the whole team:

An active warm-down immediately after competition/practice has finished; Fluid and fuel replacement within 15 minutes of finishing the session; Some form of water therapy such as showers, contrast showers, contrast bathing,

depending on facilities; A proper meal within two hours of finishing.

Depending on budget and the distance to travel home, compression garments could also be useful. Wearing compression tights is easy enough (although there is an initial cost) and many athletes   like   the  comfort  of  wearing   them.  However,   they  shouldn’t  be  worn  at  night  because  they can potentially disrupt sleep, which will hinder recovery. Table 1 shows the pros and cons of different recovery strategies. Other factors The importance of nutrition in recovery is beyond the remit of this article (this topic has been covered extensively in previous issues of PP).   However,   it’s   important   to   understand that carbohydrate, fluid and protein replacement is critical for speedy recovery. So, when looking at the  physical  aspects  don’t  forget  that  they  will  be  more  effective  with  fuel  and  fluid  intake.  The  importance of sleep should also not be overlooked; if all  else  fails,  getting  a  good  night’s  sleep  should  be  first  in  the  athlete’s  mind! Remember, too, that the psychological and social aspects of recovery are also important in the recovery  process.  The  individual’s  social  and  psychological  preferences  when recovering need to be taken into account. For example, some athletes might relax by taking a trip to the park as a group. For others, spending even more time with teammates could be an additional stressor and hinder the recovery process, so quiet time with a book or listening to music may be more appropriate. So-called   ‘team   building’   sessions   maybe   counterproductive   for   some   athletes;  

stress can be created if these sessions take them away from their home environment for too long, causing relationship stresses, or placing them with teammates for longer than usual! The  use  of  CWT  is  also  interesting,  as  plunging  into  a  cold  bath  may  not  be  to  everyone’s  tastes  and could add to the stress of post-match trauma. The sudden immersion into cold water stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and actually invigorates the athlete. Gradual cooling may be more suitable for some because it stimulates the parasympathetic system and will calm the  athlete  down(10).  It’s  also  worth  adding  that  although  other  forms  of  heat therapy, such as saunas and jacuzzis, may feel relaxing if used a few hours after training, they should not be used immediately afterwards as they encourage dehydration. Adaptation and personal preferences As with any other form of training, adaptation to the recovery strategies will take place. The more you use a form of recovery, the more likely it is that after a certain amount of time, you will adapt, which will reduce the response and benefits. Instead, coaches should get their athletes familiar with recovery strategies such as CWT, but only in small doses. Then at the time of most need, such as in a tournament phase, you can use it much more intensely so that it stimulates the recovery process. However,   it’s   important   to   emphasise   that   a   successful recovery  strategy  needs   to   consider   the  athlete’s  personal  preferences,  with   the  athlete  being  involved in planning their recovery strategies throughout the season and off-season. Of course this has to be done in conjunction with the coach and other support staff, but the athlete has to be familiar with and 100% comfortable with the choices made. If a coach introduces new methods the day before a competition, it will only lead to more stress for the athletes. Summary Recovery is essential in order to allow the body to adapt to the stresses of training and competition. Simply doing nothing may be okay for those who train two or three times a week, but for more serious athletes and those involved in contact sports, a recovery plan has to be put into place. The other tools here are important, but without good nutrition, sleep and relaxation they will be of limited value.

James Marshall MSc, CSCS, ACSM/HFI, runs Excelsior, a sports training company

References 1. Bompa, T. Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics (2001) 2. JSCR 23 (6), p 1795-1802 (2009) 3. Kellmann, M. & Kallus, K.W. Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes; User manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics (2001) 4. JSCR, 22 (3), p1015-1024 (2008) 5. JSCR 23 (6), p 1786-1794 (2009) 6. Isr J Med Sci, 31, 698-9 (1995) 7. Br J Sports Med 40, p260-263 (2006) 8. Med J Aust 1 p467-70 (1981) 9. Int J Sports Med 6 p234-6 (1985) 10. Kurz, T. Science of Sports Training. Island Pond, VT: Stadion (2001

Tip 5: Physiology, Beating the Heat by Alicia Filley

For northern hemisphere dwellers, the competitive season takes place in the heat of summer. Alicia Filley explains why hot-weather training is a delicate balance between staying cool and hydrated while performing at a competitive level When training in  hot  weather,  it’s  likely  that  you’ll  feel  more  sluggish.  This  is  because  your  body  regulates your activity level based on its ability to keep itself cool. However, whether this heat-based fatigue is a reactionary event once a critical core temperature is reached (somewhere around 40°C), or a feed-forward response where the body selects a pacing strategy that avoids the critical temperature, is a matter of debate among researchers. What everyone agrees upon is that training the body to take a longer time to reach this temperature will delay fatigue and provide a performance edge.

Excess heat generated during exercise is carried to the skin where it is lost via radiation, conduction, convection and evaporation. When nude and at rest,  60%  of  the  body’s  total heat loss comes from radiating heat in the form of infrared rays(1). Conduction is the transfer of heat from one object to another along a temperature gradient. In air, this accounts for only about 3% of   the   body’s   heat   loss,   but   becomes  more important when exercising in water because water is a far more efficient heat conductor. Convection is what makes us feel cooler on a windy day. As air moves across the skin, heat is transferred to it.

Evaporative heat loss is the most important cooling mechanism during exercise and occurs primarily through sweating. Evaporation accounts for 25% of the heat loss while at rest in a comfortable room(1). While that percentage increases with exercise, the exact amount varies based on weather conditions and individual tendencies for sweating. In  the  summer,  your  weather  bureau  probably  forecasts  an  apparent  temperature  (AT)  or  ‘heat  index’,  along  with  the  actual  air  temperature.  The  AT  adjusts  the  ambient  temperature  to  reflect  the level of humidity. What this produces  is  a  ‘feels  like’  temperature  that  allows  the  athlete  to  

make judgements about the activity level appropriate in that environment (see table 1). However, the AT does not take into account the effect of radiant heat or wind conditions. Common sense dictates that staying on the shady side of a course or field will reduce your radiant heat load. Heat related illness Heat  cramps,  heat  exhaustion,  and  heat  stroke  are  all  signs  of  the  body’s  inability  to  cope  with  the heat stress of the environment. When the environmental heat load is great, the body attempts to cool itself further by sweating more. Sweat is composed primarily of water and sodium, but the exact composition of sweat varies between people and circumstances. Doctors at the University of Oklahoma believe  that  those  who  suffer  from  heat  cramps  are  ‘salty  sweaters’(2).  When  they  matched   five  National  Collegiate  Athletic  Association   football  players  with a history of heat cramps with five without a history of heat cramps, the composition of their sweat was the most significant difference between them. The players with a history of cramping showed more than twice the amount of sodium in their sweat than those who did not cramp. The researchers concluded that heat cramps are a result of the loss of sodium through increased sweating, and encourage players prone to cramping to consume healthy salty snacks or add salt to their food. When the fluid lost from sweating is not replaced, dehydration results. This can trigger heat exhaustion, despite a core body temperature that is still within normal range. Signs of heat exhaustion include pallor, excessive sweating, and complaints of weakness, dizziness, thirst, nausea or fainting. Treatment in the field includes rest in a shaded area, cooling with water-soaked towels, and re-hydration, preferably with a sport drink to replace lost sodium. If the athlete is unable to keep fluids down, complains of other symptoms, or loses consciousness, emergency medical attention should be sought. Heat stroke results when the body can no longer handle the heat load and the core temperature begins to rise above 40°C. Early signs of heat stroke include disorientation and memory loss. The athlete may not be sweating, and complains of chills, flushing, weakness and dizziness. Complete collapse usually follows and emergency medical care should be implemented immediately. With heat stroke, the faster the body is cooled, the less damage occurs. To initiate cooling in the field, wrap the athlete in ice soaked sheets or towels. Place ice packs under the arms, in the groin, and around the neck and head. While heat stroke can be fatal, the prognosis is usually good if cooling is implemented immediately. Optimising performance To appreciate the delicate balance between the physiology of exercise and the physics of heat transfer to the environment, consider these three facts: 1. The resting body temperature is 37°C; 2.  Optimal  metabolic  function  occurs  at  around  39°C  (hence  the  practice  of  ‘warming  up’  prior  to exercise); 3. Heatstroke occurs at body temperatures greater than 40°C(3). The obvious question, therefore, is how do you maintain a safe body temperature while exerting your maximal effort in competition? The first thing to do is to acclimatise yourself to the weather conditions where your competition is held. This may mean travelling to train in a similar climate. Acclimatisation requires 14 successive days of training at 50% or more of maximal effort in the heat, for 100 minutes each

day(1). Simply being in the heat is not enough for the necessary physiological changes to take place and adaptations will be lost if the heat stress is no longer present (see table 2). The second is to make sure that you rehydrate properly during activity. Dehydration increases core body temperature and negates any advantage of acclimatisation(1). Hydration should begin 20-30 minutes before the competition does so that you start your work with a positive fluid balance. For activity longer than 30 minutes you should drink at a rate that closely matches your fluid loss. Your sports drink should be composed of 6-7% carbohydrates to maximise fluid absorption and at least 50 mmol/L of sodium for optimal fluid retention(1). The third way to make the most of your effort in the heat is by pre-cooling. Pre-cooling lowers your body temperature so that you are able to store more metabolic heat before reaching the critical temperature that signals fatigue. Although the theory has shown promise in the laboratory, practical applications are challenging due to the inability to reproduce outdoor environments in the lab, and the lack of indoor precooling mechanisms (full-body ice baths, cooling rooms, cooling jackets) in the field. Two recent studies, however,  examined  ‘real  life’  techniques  that  any  athlete  can  use. Pre-cooling strategies The first study was performed by researchers at Charles Sturt University in Australia who sought to bring precooling techniques to team sports players(4). Prior to a 30-minute session of training sprints in outdoor temperatures of 32.4°C with 44% relative humidity, seven male lacrosse players were either pre-cooled for 20 minutes using a cooling vest, cold towels to the neck, and ice packs to the quadriceps, or not pre-cooled. When the subjects were pre-cooled, they covered more distance during timed sprints at a moderate speed (7-15 km/h) and had a smaller rise in core body temperature with activity. The second study, conducted at Edith Cowan University, also in Australia, evaluated the use of drinking slushy ice as a practical way to increase core temperature capacity and improve running times(5). The rectal temperatures of the runners were significantly lower after drinking the ice slurry than when they drank the cold water. Core temperatures remained lower during the first 30 minutes of running. However, at exhaustion, rectal temperatures were significantly higher after the ice slurry ingestion trial, suggesting a greater capacity for heat storage before fatigue. In addition, after ingesting the ice slurry, the runners ran longer than when they drank the cold water. Considering the body of work conducted in the laboratory that shows the effectiveness of pre-cooling   on   performance,   and   the   ease   and   safety   of   the   techniques,   there’s   no   harm   in  implementing these strategies into your own training regimen and monitoring your results. For 20 minutes prior to activity in the heat, apply cold packs or towels soaked in ice water to your neck, underarms, and quadriceps. Make your own ice slurries by blending crushed ice with your favourite recovery drink in the blender, or pre-freezing your recovery drink for about one hour prior to ingestion. Remove drink from the freezer and shake vigorously to break up the ice crystals. The objective is to drink the actual ice crystals so that heat is required to melt them internally, thus making more room to store the metabolic heat generated during exercise.

Alicia Filley, PT, MS, PCS, lives in Houston, Texas and is vice president of Eubiotics: The Science of Healthy Living, which provides counselling for those seeking to improve their health, fitness or athletic performance through exercise and nutrition References 1. Sports Med 2007;37(8):669-682 2. Sports Med 2007;37(4-5):368-370 3. Sports Med 2007;37(4-5):324-327 4. J Strength Cond Res 2009 Dec;23(9):2524-2532 5. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010 April;42(4):717-725