The 1960s: Kennedy, Johnson, and Vietnam

The Election of 1960: The Candidates

Richard Nixon – CA Republican Congressman/HUAC and VP (1946 – 1960) Emphasized experience and anti-Communism

Senator John F. Kennedy – MA Democrat Young (43), WWII veteran, wealthy family Promised a “New Frontier” at home and to

fight Communism abroad Election more about appearances than issues

The Election of 1960: The Issues

Religion JFK’s Catholicism Voting for me, not my religion

Cold War – Was the US losing? Space Race (1957) Cuba (1959) U2 Incident (1960)

Civil Rights JFK’s support of MLK after his arrest in 1960

support of Af. Am. voters

The Election of 1960: Television

First TV debate: September 26, 1960 Style vs. Substance Style wins JFK = youthful, energetic, poised Nixon = ill, uneasy, tired http://www.history.com/videos/the-first-jfk-

nixon-debate#the-first-jfk-nixon-debate

The Election of 1960

JFK’s Administration

A new “mood” in Washington Youthful, energetic, optimistic “Camelot” Inaugural Speech = inspiration and unity http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=ZdTDcA4QlTA

JFK’s Administration

Domestic Agenda – “New Frontier” Little support in Congress for social programs (education,

health care, etc.) Civil Rights

Reluctant until 1963 Civil Rights Bill after Birmingham Federal enforcement (freedom riders, Ole Miss) A “moral issue”

Space Race Yuri Gagarin – 1st human in space (1961) Increased federal $ “Race to the moon” Neil Armstrong on July 20, 1969

Peace Corps and Alliance for Progress Fight poverty in Asia, Africa, S. America Communism was

less appealing

JFK’s Administration

Cold War Policy “Flexible Response”

Maintain alliances Increase nuclear

capabilities/ICBM’s Increase $ on non-

nuclear options Special Forces

Berlin (June – August 1961) E. German refugees

Khrushchev threatened to block access to W. Berlin

US and USSR posture for war

Berlin Wall around W. Berlin (1961 – 1989)

Berlin WallJune 1963

JFK’s Administration

US – Cuban History Spanish American War, Platt Amendment,

Guantanamo Bay US involvement since 1898 Castro’s overthrow of dictator Battista in 1959; NOT a

Communist revolution harmed American $ and politics in Cuba

Growing Castro – USSR connections Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 1961) – covert action

US trained 1400 Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro failure

Castro sought closer USSR alliance for defense and aid in case of another US invasion

JFK’s Administration

Assassination in Dallas: November 22, 1963 http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=GNvjbVP31D0 (7:00 – 12:00 minutes) Warren Commission no conspiracy Does the image of JFK outshine the reality?

What did happen? vs. What could have happened?

Role of the media throughout his presidency? The power of “martyrdom”

1976: JFK = greatest of all Presidents LBJ used this to win big politically

LBJ takes the Oath of Office: November 22, 1963 on Air Force One

Johnson’s Administration

LBJ – a (successful) political “bully” Texan, Protestant, middle class balanced

JFK in 1960 Proven Congressional leader (26 years)

Senate Majority Leader in 1954 Issues: poverty and civil rights

Strong “New Dealer” Experience as a teacher in a Mexican-American

school in TX Civil Rights Act of 1957

“Johnson Treatment”

Johnson and Congress

Presidential Portrait of LBJ on display at the National Portrait Gallery (Peter Hurd, 1967)

What does this portrait suggest about President Johnson’s relationship with Congress?

Johnson’s Administration Domestic Policies – “Great Society”

“We have the opportunity to move not only towards the rich society and the powerful society, but upward to the Great Society. The Great Society rests on abundance and liberty for all. It demands an end to poverty and racial injustice…It is a challenge constantly renewed…So, I want to talk to you today about three places where we begin to build the Great Society – in our cities, in our countryside, and in our classrooms…” (May 1964 at Univ. of MI Commencement)

Key goals and priorities? Tone: optimistic and activist

Context: Era of Liberal Reforms What does this mean? Liberal vs. Conservative? Civil Rights Movement in 1964 Warren Court - an “activist” Court

Brown vs. Bd. of Education Gideon vs. Wainwright and Miranda vs. AZ – rights of accused Engel vs. Vitale – no prayer in school Griswold vs. CT – sale of birth control/right to privacy

Johnson’s Administration

Civil Rights Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965

“War on Poverty” Harrington’s The Other America (1962) “Affluence of 1950s” vs. “Culture of Poverty” for 40

million Americans (20%) Economic Opportunity Act (August 1964)

Job Corps Head Start VISTA

Johnson’s Administration

Election of 1964: LBJ vs. Goldwater Goldwater portrayed as a dangerous radical “Daisy” campaign ad:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AtYpnGZr6TA&feature=fvst

LBJ victory = popular mandate for reform Compare to JFK in 1960 1964 – 1968 60 Great Society programs

passed Continued Progressive and New Deal programs of

social welfare

Election of 1964

Vietnam, 1964 - 1973

French Colonial Policies

French imperialism: mid 1874 – 1940 Japanese occupation: 1940 – 1945 (WWII) Rise of Ho Chi Minh

Nationalist; asked for principles of self-determination at Versailles (1919) denied

Became Communist in 1920 Formed Vietminh in 1940 to overthrow Japan

and win Vietnamese independence Declared independence in August 1945

French fight to regain control

French Colonial Policies

French-Vietnamese Conflict, 1945 – 1954 Vietminh = north and

rural southern areas French = southern

urban areas US dilemma: Support

Vietnamese nationalists or French Anti-Communists?

Cold War in SE Asia

Clouded American perception of what was really a war for Vietnamese independence

Cold War fears America supports France by 1950 Containment Policy

E. Europe, China, Korea by 1950 Domino Theory Fear of “appeasement” 1953 80% of war funding was US $ Siege at Dien Bien Phu (May 1954) French

pull out of Vietnam

Cold War in SE Asia

Geneva Accords (April – May 1954) Divided Vietnam at 17th Parallel

Vietminh (Communists) = North French = South

1956: supposed to be unifying elections never happened Ngo Dinh Diem – US supported leader of S. Vietnam

Strongly anti-Communist, but very corrupt No political/religious dissent No popular support; Ho Chi Minh had this Diem and US agreed – no elections b/c of fears of losing power

1957 – Vietcong reorganize resistance to Diem in the South Vietnamese Civil War

Aided by Ho Chi Minh; supply route = Ho Chi Minh Trail US (under Eisenhower) increases aid to Diem (military

advisors/Special Forces and $)

Kennedy and Vietnam

US military presence gradually increased to 16,000 by 1963

Guerilla Vietcong attacks continue

S. Vietnamese government collapsing coup and Diem assassination on Nov. 1, 1963 No American opposition

Campaign of 1964

LBJ vs. Barry Goldwater Goldwater = dangerous radical “Daisy” ad http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=AtYpnGZr6TA&feature=fvst LBJ pressured not to “lose an inch” to

Communism, but also promised no more military involvement

Needed a decisive incident

Campaign of 1964

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August 1964

Reports of North Vietnamese attacks on US ship (USS Maddox) – questionable reliability

LBJ asks Congress for power to take “all necessary measures” to protect American interests blank check for LBJ

Info left out…beginning of the “credibility gap” Covert U.S. attacks on N Vietnamese island

bases night before reported shooting

Escalation Under Johnson, 1965 - 1968

US Basic Problem #1: No clear goal Secure a stable, democratic S. Vietnamese gov. NOT total defeat of Vietcong When will we know when victory has been won?

US Basic Problem #2: Fought a limited war No war declaration Slowly escalated troop #’s No economic or public support mobilization No major offensive into N. Vietnam Could not attack USSR or China to stop aid to N. Vietnam

N. Vietnamese Advantages Clear Goal: Unify Vietnam; independence Fought an all-out war Knowledge of terrain and support of people

Escalation Under Johnson, 1965 - 1968

Key People and Groups Robert McNamara – Sec. of Defense Dean Rusk – Sec. of State William Westmoreland – Top US commander

in Vietnam ARVN – South Vietnamese Army; US “ally”

Escalation Under Johnson, 1965 - 1968

US Strategies Air Bombings – Operation Rolling Thunder (Feb. 1965)

North Vietnam and Ho Chi Minh Trail Little success; downed pilots = POW’s

Ground troops to S. Vietnam (3500 Marines in March 1965) Westmoreland requested more and more through 1968 (escalation)

Ia Drang Valley – November 1965 Strategic Hamlet Program and Search-and-Destroy Missions

Elusive civilian enemy made this difficult and destructive War of Attrition – wear the enemy down over time

Underestimated the will of the Vietcong; independence = strong motivator

Defoliation Agents Napalm Agent Orange

Escalation Under Johnson, 1965 - 1968

The Soldier’s Experience Selective Service/the “draft” after 1965 Local draft boards determined deferments

College Physical/psychological ailments Minister Conscientious Objector Status

1969: draft lottery instituted an attempt to make the process fairer

Demographics Disproportionately poor and African American –

Criticisms?? Average age = 19

Anti-Draft Activities

Division at Home

Living Room War Influence of the press; “body counts” on nightly news Growing “credibility gap”

Protest Movement multi-dimensional Great Society Programs cut – MLK’s protest in 1967 Student Movements on college campuses

Students for Democratic Society (1960) and Free Speech Movement (1964) wanted greater individual liberties and protested government corruption (“New Left”)

Influenced by SNCC and beatnik poets of 1950s Increasingly militant and radical

Hawks and Doves