T H E L A N D M A R K

H E RO DOTU ST H E H I S T O R I E S

A New Translation by Andrea L. Purvis with Maps, Annotations, Appendices, and Encyclopedic Index

Edited by Robert B. StrasslerWith an Introduction by Rosalind Thomas

PANTHEON BOOKS • NEW YORK

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Copyright © 2007 by Robert B. Strassler

All rights reserved. Published in the United States by Pantheon Books, a division of RandomHouse, Inc., New York, and in Canada by Random House of Canada Limited, Toronto.

Pantheon Books and colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Herodotus.[History. English]The landmark Herodotus : the histories / edited by Robert B. Strassler ; translated by Andrea L.Purvis.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978–0–375–42109–91. History, Ancient. 2. Greece—History—To 146 B.C. I. Strassler, Robert B., 1937– II. Purvis, Andrea L. III. Title.D58.H4713 2007 930—dc22 2007024149

Designed by Kim LlewellynMaps by Topaz Maps, Inc.Index by Margot LevyPhoto research by Ingrid MacGillis

www.pantheonbooks.com

Printed in the United States of America

First Edition

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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CONTENTS

Introduction by Rosalind Thomas ix

Editor’s Preface by Robert B. Strassler xxxvii

Translator’s Preface by Andrea L. Purvis xlix

Dated Outline of Text li

Key to Maps lxiv

BO O K ON E 1

BO O K TW O 115

BO O K TH R E E 205

BO O K FO U R 279

BO O K FI V E 365

BO O K SI X 425

BO O K SE V E N 491

BO O K EI G H T 599

BO O K NI N E 663

Appendix A The Athenian Government in HerodotusPeter Krentz, Davidson College 723

Appendix B The Spartan State in War and PeacePaul Cartledge, University of Cambridge 728

Appendix C The Account of Egypt: Herodotus Right and WrongAlan B. Lloyd, University of Wales 737

Appendix D Herodotean GeographyJames Romm, Bard College 744

Appendix E Herodotus and the Black Sea RegionEverett L. Wheeler, Duke University 748

Appendix F Rivers and Peoples of ScythiaEverett L. Wheeler, Duke University 756

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Appendix G The Continuity of Steppe CultureEverett L. Wheeler, Duke University 759

Appendix H The Ionian RevoltGeorge L. Cawkwell, University College, Oxford 762

Appendix I Classical Greek Religious FestivalsGregory Crane, Tufts University 769

Appendix J Ancient Greek Units of Currency, Weight, and DistanceThomas R. Martin, College of the Holy Cross 773

Appendix K Dialect and Ethnic Groups in HerodotusWilliam F. Wyatt, Brown University 781

Appendix L Aristocratic Families in HerodotusCarolyn Higbie, State University of New York, Buffalo 786

Appendix M Herodotus on Persia and the Persian EmpireChristopher Tuplin, University of Liverpool 792

Appendix N Hoplite Warfare in HerodotusJ. W. I. Lee, University of California, Santa Barbara 798

Appendix O The Persian Army in HerodotusJ. W. I. Lee, University of California, Santa Barbara 805

Appendix P Oracles, Religion, and Politics in HerodotusDonald Lateiner, Ohio Wesleyan University 810

Appendix Q Herodotus and the PoetsAndrew Ford, Princeton University 816

Appendix R The Size of Xerxes’ Expeditionary ForceMichael A. Flower, Princeton University 819

Appendix S Trireme Warfare in HerodotusNicolle Hirschfeld, Trinity University 824

Appendix T Tyranny in HerodotusCarolyn Dewald, Bard College 835

Appendix U On Women and Marriage in HerodotusCarolyn Dewald, Bard College 838

Glossary 843Ancient Sources 846Bibliography for the General Reader 848Figure Credits 850Index 851Reference Maps 951

CONTENTS

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ix

I NTRODUCT IONRosalind Thomas

1. Opening Remarks

§1.1. Herodotus’Histories trace the conflict between the Greeks and the Persianswhich culminated in the Persian Wars in the great battles of Thermopylae, Salamis,Plataea, and Mycale (480–479),a a generation or so before he was writing. Hedescribed his theme as comprising both the achievements of Greeks and barbarians,and also the reasons why they came into conflict (Book 1, Proem). This suggeststhat he sought the causes of the conflict in factors that took one back deep into thepast and into the characteristics of each society. He implies that he saw the deep-seated causes in cultural antagonism of Greek and non-Greek, but he went out ofhis way to describe the achievements and customs of many non-Greek peoples withastonishing sensitivity and lack of prejudice. The Histories are the first work in theWestern tradition that are recognizably a work of history to our eyes, for they coverthe recent human past (as opposed to a concentration on myths and legends), theysearch for causes, and they are critical of different accounts. Herodotus’ owndescription of them as an inquiry, a “historie

_,” has given us our word “history,” and

he has been acknowledged as the “father of history.” He also has a claim to be thefirst to write a major work on geography and ethnography. His interests wereomnivorous, from natural history to anthropology, from early legend to the eventsof the recent past: he was interested in the nature of the Greek defense against thePersians, or the nature of Greek liberty, as well as in stranger and more exotic talesabout gold-digging ants or other wondrous animals in the East. The Histories arethe first long work in prose (rather than verse) which might rival the Homeric epicsin scale of conception and length. Shorter works in prose had appeared before, buttheHistories must in their time have been revolutionary.

§1.2. Who, then, was Herodotus? As with most ancient Greek authors, we havelittle reliable information, and the later ancient biographers may have inventedbiographical “facts” by drawing from the content of the Histories themselves, as wascommon in ancient biographies of writers. He was born in Halicarnassusa in AsiaMinor,b now modern Bodrum in western Turkey. He spent much of his life in exile,

Intro.1.1a All dates in this edition of Herodotus and inits supporting materials are B.C.E. (Before theCommon Era), unless otherwise specified.

Intro.1.2a Halicarnassus: Map Intro.1.Intro.1.2b Asia Minor (Asia): Map Intro.1, locator.

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spending some time in Samos,c some in Athens,d and apparently ending up in Thurii,e

the Athenian Panhellenic colony founded in south Italy (Aristotle in the fourthcentury knew him as Herodotus of Thurii). The Histories themselves provide theevidence for his extensive travels in the Greek world, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Egypt andNorth Africa,f and perhaps the Black Seag (see below). Unlike in many modern travel-ogues, the main focus of interest is not on the traveling itself but on the informationit yields, so again the personal elements are not extensive. His life spanned much ofthe fifth century: here there is no reason to doubt the ancient tradition that he wasborn at roughly the time of the Persian Wars (480–479), and he probably lived intothe 420s, since the Histories make references to events in Greece early in the Pelo-ponnesian War of 431–404. It is usually thought that he was active as researcher andwriter from the 450s to the 420s. The Histories clearly constituted a life’s work.

2. The Historical Background

§2.1. The beginning of this period saw the triumph of the Greek mainland statesover the might of the Persian Empire, first in the initial invasion of 490 and the battleof Marathon,a then in the second invasion of 480/79, with the battles of Thermopylae,Salamis, Plataea, and finally Mycaleb in Asia Minor. This unexpected victory resonatedin Greek consciousness through the fifth century and indeed beyond, and it is impor-tant to recall this when reading Herodotus, who was researching a generation or twoafter the Greek victory. It helped crystallize Greeks’ attitudes to their own way of lifeand values, intensified their supreme distrust of monarchy and tyranny, and shapedtheir attitude to the Persians. In more practical terms, Athens’ naval success in thePersian Wars and its enterprise immediately after led to the creation of the AthenianEmpire, which started as an anti-Persian league and lasted for almost three-quarters of acentury (479–404). As the Spartansc were increasingly reluctant to continue anti-Persian activity into the Hellespont and Asia Minor, the Athenians were free to createtheir maritime league composed of many smaller Greek states situated around theAegean and up into the Hellespont.d Athenian power grew steadily and Athens eventried a disastrous expedition to help Egypt rebel against the Persian King. As her radicaldemocracy developed from the 460s, conflict arose between her and the other power-ful Greek states, particularly Corinthe and Sparta and the members of Sparta’s Pelopon-nesian League. By the late 430s tensions had reached their height. War broke out in431 between Athens and her allies and Sparta and hers. Athens was now a “tyrant city,”the Corinthians claimed (Thucydides 1.122.3; generally, 1.68–71, 1.120–124), andGreece must now be freed from Athens. Greece had been freed from the Persiansf onlyto be enslaved by Athens. The great historian of this later war, Thucydides, was succes-sor and rival to Herodotus. As he makes his Athenian speakers remark in the openingbook of his history, they are weary of pointing out that the Athenian Empire is justified

INTRODUCTION

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Intro.1.2c Samos: Map Intro.1. Intro.1.2d Athens: Map Intro.1. Intro.1.2e Thurii: Map Intro.1, locator. Intro.1.2f Phoenicia, Egypt, and North Africa (Libya):

Map Intro.2. Intro.1.2g Euxine (Black) Sea: Map Intro.1, locator. Intro.2.1a Marathon: Map Intro.1.

Intro.2.1b Battle sites of 480: Thermopylae and Salamis,of 479, Plataea and Mycale: Map Intro.1.

Intro.2.1c Sparta: Map Intro.1. Intro.2.1d Aegean Sea: Map Intro.1. Hellespont: Map

Intro.1, locator. Intro.2.1e Corinth: Map Intro.1. Intro.2.1f Persia: Map Intro.2.

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li

DAT E D OUTL I N E O F T EXT

Book 1

Proem, 1.1 Herodotus identifies himself, describes his subject, and states his purpose in writing the Histories. 450–420?

1.2–5 ASIA-GREECE Abductions of various Greek and Asian women.

1.6–29 LYDIA HISTORIES BEGIN: CROESUS OF LYDIA 716–547/46

1.7–12 LYDIA Gyges kills Kandaules and becomes king of Lydia. 716?

1.13–14 LYDIA Gyges is confirmed by Delphic oracle; his reign. 716–678

1.15 LYDIA Ardys’ reign; captures Priene, invades Miletus, Cimmerians. 678–629

1.16–17 LYDIA Sadyattes’ reign; drives out Cimmerians, takes Smyrna. 629–617

1.18–22 LYDIA-MILETUS Alyattes’ reign; makes peace with Miletus. 617–560

1.23 CORINTH Periandros (r. 627–587) informs Thrasyboulos of the oracle.

1.24 TARAS-CORINTH The tale of Arion.

1.25 LYDIA-DELPHI Alyattes’ gifts to Delphi. 617–560?

1.26–92 LYDIA CROESUS’ REIGN: CONQUERS GREEKS IN ASIA; DEFEATED BY CYRUS 560–547/46

1.29–33 LYDIA Croesus and Solon.

1.34–45 LYDIA The story of Adrastus; death of Atys, Croesus’ son.

1.46–56 LYDIA Croesus decides to attack Persia, tests oracles, rewards some. 550–?

1.57–58 Herodotus speculates on language of the Pelasgians.

1.59–64 ATHENS Peisistratos’ rise to tyrannical power at Athens. (r. c. 561–556, 555?–?, 546–528)

1.65 SPARTA Lykourgos reforms and establishes the Spartan government.

1.66–68 SPARTA Spartan conflict with Tegea.

1.69–70 SPARTA Spartans agree to assist Croesus. 548–547

1.71–1.73 CAPPADOCIA Lydians cross the Halys River into Persian-controlled territory. 547?

1.74–75 CAPPADOCIA Thales predicts eclipse (585); diverts Halys River (547?).

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Key to Maps

Halys R.

Heliopolis

MT. OLYMPUS

Kadousians

Athens

AS I A

Mountain; mountain range

Cliff or escarpment

River

Marsh

Seas and lakes(approximate extent in Classical Period)

Continents; regions

Large cities; other locations

Mountains

Bodies of water; islands; promontories

Peoples and tribes

Natural Features

Typography

A E O L I S

Deme

Settlements

Fortified place

Temple

Battle site

Road

City walls and fortifications

Map Configurations

Cultural Features

Locator map

Main map

Inset map

Distance ConversionsWherever possible and appropriate, I have converted Herodotus’ original units of distance(stades, plethra, cubits, etc.) into miles and feet, and noted in a footnote the original unitsthat are cited in the text. In calculating modern units, unless the text specifies other units, Ihave assumed the use of the Attic stade of 583 feet and the more or less standard cubit of oneand a half feet. The reader should realize, however, that different “standard” stade and cubitunits were in use in the ancient Mediterranean world, and Herodotus might have had one ofthem in mind when he gave his measurements, so that we can never know the actual lengthswith any precision. See Appendix J, Units of Currency, Weight, and Distance.

DatesAll dates in this volume and in its supporting materials are B.C.E. (Before the Common Era),unless otherwise specified.

lxiv

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B O O K T W O

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When Cyrus died, the kingship wasinherited by Cambyses. He was the son of Cyrus by Cassandane daughterof Pharnaspes. Cassandane had died before Cyrus, and he had grieved forher with great sorrow and ordered all of his subjects to grieve for her, too.[2] As the son of this woman and Cyrus, Cambyses considered the Ioniansa

and Aeoliansb as his slaves whom he had inherited from his father, and whenhe made his expedition to Egypt,c he took with him these Hellenes whowere under his rule, along with the rest of his subjects.

Now, before Psammetichos became king, the Egyptians used to believethat they were the earliest humans. But upon assuming the kingship, Psam-metichos became eager to ascertain which people were really the first; andever since his reign, the Egyptians consider that the Phrygiansb lived beforethey did, but that they themselves existed prior to all the rest of humanity.[2] Unable to find a means of discovering who were the first humans bymaking inquiries, Psammetichos devised an experiment. He selected twonewborn children from ordinary people and gave them to a shepherd totake into his flocks and raise according to the following instructions: no onewas to utter a word in their presence; the shepherd should place them in asecluded hut by themselves and at appropriate intervals bring in the goats,give the children their fill of milk, and then tend to the rest of their needs.[3] The reason he gave these instructions was because he wished to listen tothe children after they had outgrown their inarticulate crying and to findout what word they would speak first. And everything turned out as heplanned, for the shepherd had followed his orders for two years when oneday, as he opened the door and entered, both children rushed at him withoutstretched hands, crying out “bekos.” [4] At first the shepherd kept quietabout having heard this, but when the word bekos was repeated again andagain as he came and went in his care for the children, he told his master. Athis command the shepherd brought the children into his presence, and

2.1530 Cambyses succeeds Cyrusand prepares to attack Egypt.

2.2 EGYPTPsammetichos (r. 664–610) of Egypt determines by experiment that Phrygianswere the earliest people on earth.

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2.1.2a Ionia: Map 1.204, inset.2.1.2b Aeolis: Map 1.204, inset.2.1.2c Egypt: Map 1.204. See Appendix C, The

Account of Egypt: Herodotus Right andWrong, §1.

2.2.1b Phrygia: Map 1.204.

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Psammetichos himself heard the word. When he inquired which peoplemight use the word bekos, he discovered that the word bekos means “bread”in the Phrygian language. [5] Thus the Egyptians accepted this evidence andconcluded that the Phrygians are older than themselves. I heard this accountfrom the priests of Hephaistos at Memphis.a Hellenes tell many different sillystories—for example, there is one that Psammetichos cut out the tongues ofsome women and made the children live with them.

Such are the stories told about how the children were raised. But I heardother things in Memphis, too, when I conversed with the priests of Hephais-tos. And I also went to Thebesa and Heliopolis,b since I wanted to see if theyagreed with what was said in Memphis. For of all the Egyptians, theHeliopolitans are said to be the most learned in tradition. [2] I have no desireto relate what I heard about matters concerning the gods, other than theirnames alone, since I believe that all people understand these things equally.But when my discussion forces me to mention these things, I shall do so.

As to all matters concerning the human world, they were in agreement.They said that the Egyptians were the first of all peoples to discover theyear, by dividing up the seasons into twelve parts to total one year, and thatthey discovered how to do this from the stars. The Egyptians seem to me tobe much wiser than the Hellenes in the way they regulate the timing of theseasons. While the Hellenes attempt to preserve the timing of the seasonsby inserting an intercalary month every other year, the Egyptians divide theyear into twelve months of thirty days each and add just five days each yearbeyond that number, and thus their seasons do return at the same periodsin the cycle from year to year.

[2] They said that the Egyptians were also the first to establish the tradi-tion of identifying namesa for the twelve gods, and that the Hellenes adoptedthis practice from them. They were also the first to assign altars, statues, andtemples to the gods and to carve their figures in relief on stone. The priestsin fact demonstrated with proofs that these claims were valid, but they couldonly assert that the first man to be king of Egypt was Min.b [3] During hisreign, they said, all Egypt was swamp except for the district of Thebes, andnone of it protruded above water beyond what is now the lake of Moeris,awhich lies at a seven-day voyage upriver from the sea.

It seemed to me that they accurately described the nature of their land.For even if one has not heard about it in advance, it is obvious to anyonewith common sense when he sees it for himself: the Egypt to which theHellenes sail is land that was deposited by the river—it is the gift of the riverto the Egyptians, as is also the area south of the lake as far as a three-dayvoyage upriver. Although they said nothing further about this, there is

2.3 EGYPTHerodotus lists some of hisEgyptian sources.

2.4 EGYPTThe Egyptian calendar is superior to the Greek.Herodotus is told that thefirst ruler of all Egypt is Min,who is thought to havereigned c. 3000.

2.5 EGYPTEgypt consists of mud deposited by the Nile River.

118

2.2.5a Memphis: Map 2.6, Egypt inset. 2.3.1a Thebes, Egypt: Map 2.6, Egypt inset. 2.3.1b Heliopolis: Map 2.6, Egypt inset. The

name means City of the Sun; in Egypt-ian, the House/Abode of Ra/Re.

2.4.2a Herodotus uses a word which literallymeans “epithet” here. He probably

means that the Egyptians were the first touse specific and particular names for eachdivinity in contrast to theoi/gods—a col-lective designation.

2.4.2b Min is Menes. See 2.99. 2.4.3a Lake Moeris: Map 2.6, Egypt inset.

Herodotus’ Egyptian sources EGYPT BOOK TWO

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something more to add; [2] the nature of Egypt is such that if you are in aboat one whole day’s sail distant from the land and you let down a sound-ing line, you will bring up mud even to the depth of eleven fathoms.a Thisshows just how far the alluvial deposit of the land extends.

The length of the Egyptian seacoast, as we Hellenes define the territory ofEgypt, is 60 schoinoi,a from the Gulf of Plinthineb to Lake Serbonis,c alongwhich extends Mount Casius.d It is from this place that the 397 miles are mea-sured. [2] Whoever possesses very little property here measures his land infathoms; those who have somewhat more, in stades; those who have much, inparasangs; and those who have an extremely sizeable portion, in schoinoi. [3]A parasang is equal to thirty stades; each schoinos, an Egyptian unit of mea-sure, is equal to sixty stades.a Thus the coast of Egypt is 397 miles in length.b

From the coast, Egypt extends inland as far as Heliopolis in a broadexpanse, entirely flat, wet, and muddy. The road from the sea to Heliopolis isabout as long as the road leading from the Altar of the Twelve Gods atAthensa to the temple of Olympian Zeus in Pisa.b [2] If one measured thelength of both these roads, one would discover that they are not exactly equalin length, but that the difference between them is negligible, no more thanone and a half miles by which the road from Athens to Pisa is shorter than the165 milesa which is the full length of the road from the sea to Heliopolis.

From Heliopolis, Egypt becomes narrow as one travels farther inland.For on one side, toward Arabia,a there extends a mountain range fromnorth to south, and toward the south it winds all the way to the sea calledErythraean.b In these mountains are the stone quarries from which thestones for the pyramids near Memphis were cut. The mountain range ends

2.6 EGYPTLength of the Egyptian seacoast.

2.7 EGYPTA description of the dimensions of Egypt.

2.8 NILE VALLEYMountains border both sidesof the narrow Nile valleyabove Heliopolis.

119

2.5.2a The fathom = 6 feet. See Distance Con-versions, p. lxiv, and Appendix J, AncientGreek Units of Currency, Weight, and Distance, §4, 5, 19. Herodotus’ measurement is wrong; a depth of 11 fathoms is encountered much nearer thecoast of Egypt than a full day’s sail.

2.6.1a Herodotus’ “60 schoinoi” comes toapproximately 397 miles. Schoinoi(skhoinoi): literally, “ropes,” were anEgyptian unit of measurement whoselength can vary. See Appendix J, §5–7, 19.Herodotus occasionally shows off hisknowledge of foreign terms and units ofmeasure.

2.6.1b Plinthine Gulf: Map 2.6, Egypt inset. 2.6.1c Lake Serbonis: Map 2.6, Egypt inset.

Herodotus calls it the Serbonian Marsh in3.5.2.

2.6.1d Mount Casius: Map 2.6, Egypt inset. 2.6.3a The fathom = 6 feet.

The Attic stade = 583 feet. The parasang (30 stades or .5 schoinos) =

17,490 feet = 3.3 miles. The schoinos (60 stades) = 34,980 feet =

6.6 miles. But Herodotus may have had differentunits in mind when he made his estimate.See Appendix J, §4–7, 19.

2.6.3b If one schoinos = 60 stades, then the “60schoinoi” of the coast of Egypt wouldequal 3,600 stades, or about 397 miles.This is a significant overestimate. Justunder 300 miles would be more accurate.

2.7.1a Athens: Map 2.6, Aegean inset. 2.7.1b Pisa (Olympia): Map 2.6, Aegean inset. 2.7.2a Herodotus actually writes that the differ-

ence between the two distances (Athens toPisa and the Egyptian coast to Heliopolis)is negligible, that between Ayhens andPisa (Olympia) being barely one percentless than the 1,500 stades which he saysseparate the Egyptian coast from Heliopo-lis. The distances are not really equivalentat all. The 1,500 stades between theEgyptian coast and Heliopolis wouldcome to some 165 miles, whereas the thelength of the road from Athens to Pisa(Olympia) is closer to 110 miles. Ofcourse, the coast of Egypt has extended agood deal farther north into the sea todaythan it was in Herodotus’ day. See Appen-dix C, §3.

2.8.1a Arabia: Map 2.6. The Arabian mountainsextend along the western bank of the Nile.

2.8.1b Erythraean Sea, in this case the sea to theeast of the Nile, i.e., the modern Red Sea:Map 2.6 and Egypt inset.

BOOK TWO EGYPT Length of the coast of Egypt

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here at the quarries and slopes down toward the Erythraean Sea. This is thebroadest part of the range, so I am told, requiring a two-month journeyc

from east to west, and at its eastern extremity the land produces frankin-cense. [2] Such is this mountain range, but there is another one on theLibyan side of Egypt where the pyramids are located, which is composed ofstone. It is coated with sand and it extends parallel to the Arabian mountainto the south. [3] From Heliopolisa to the south, the land area of Egypt isnot large but becomes a narrow strip which is so long that it requires a four-

Mountains border both sides of the Nile valley NILE VALLEY BOOK TWO

120

2.8.1c There is no place where it can be a two-month journey from the Nile west acrossthis mountain range to the Red Sea.

2.8.3a Heliopolis: Map 2.6, Egypt inset.

U P P E R E G Y P T

EGYPT

Mt. Casius

LakeMoeris

LakeSerbonis

ErythraeanSea

PlinthineGulf

Nile R.

Thebes

MemphisHeliopolis

Elephantine200 km0 200 mi

I O N I A

A E O L I S

ACARNANIA

EchinadesIslands

Maeander R.

AegeanSea

Achelous R.Troy

EphesusPisa

Teuthrania

Athens

200 km0 200 mi

L I BYA

AS I A

E U ROP E

A R A B I A

A S S Y R I A

SY

RIA

ET

HIO

PI A

Mediterranean Sea

ErythraeanSea

Nil

eR

.

2000 km0 2000 mi

MAP 2.6

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723

A.1a Attica, Athens, Marathon Plain, Mount Pente-likon, Mesogaia Plain, Mount Hymettos, ThriasianPlain, Mount Aigaleos: Map A, inset.

A.1b Megara: Map A, inset.A.1c Salamis: Map a, inset.A.2a Solon appears at 1.29–33. See n. 1.29.1a.

APP END IX AThe Athenian Government in Herodotus

§1. Attica, the triangular peninsula of ancient Athens, has a number of plains inaddition to the one around Athens itself: the Plain of Marathon beyond Mount Pente-likon to the northeast, the Plain of the Mesogaia beyond Mount Hymettos to the east,and the Thriasian Plain beyond Mount Aigaleos to the west.a These plains might havesupported numerous independent city-states (poleis) of a typical size. According toAthenian tradition, the legendary Bronze Age hero Theseus had united the twelvepoleis of Attica long ago, although many scholars today place the unification later,some as late as the end of the sixth century. Certainly Athens in the archaic periodplayed only a limited role on the broader Greek stage, struggling even to keep its neigh-bor Megarab from annexing the island of Salamis,c just off the west coast of Attica.

§2. At the time of the Persian Wars, the Athenians had a democratic governmentin which every adult male citizen was entitled to vote in the Assembly. King Theseushimself was said to have made a “democratic” proclamation reducing the powers ofAthens’ traditional kings in some way, perhaps by recognizing certain families asEupatrid (“well-born”) and creating the Council of the Areiopagos as an advisorybody. But the man Athenians generally credited with creating their democracy wasSolon, archon in 594/93,a who was given extraordinary powers to write laws, notnecessarily in 594/93 but certainly within the first four decades of the sixth century.

§3. Legend said that centuries before Solon, Eupatrid archons (leaders or magis-trates) replaced the kings, at first archons ruling for life, later for ten-year terms, andfinally for a single year. The basileus (king), the polemarchos or polemarch (warleader), and the eponymous archon (who gave his name to the year) were the first tobe created. Later six thesmothetai (lawgivers) were also named annually, for a total ofnine archons, who became life members of the Council of the Areiopagos after theyleft office. The archons had the authority to give final judgments in legal disputes,and the Council of the Areiopagos supervised the city’s affairs.

§4. Solon’s special appointment grew out of increasing tension between rich andpoor. Poor Athenians had fallen into debt, some being sold into slavery when they

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Achaimenids: royal family of Persian empire. Founded by Cyrus in 550.acropolis: the citadel or high point of a Greek city; often the site of the original settlement, and inhistoric times well stocked with temples and sacred sites, enclosed by its own set of defensive walls.Aeolians: an ethnic group of Greeks, inhabiting Aegean islands and the west coast of Asia Minornorth of Smyrna.aegis: Athena’s shield or short cloak, with a fringe of snakes and device of Medusa’s head.Agiads and Eurypontids: Spartan royal hereditary families, each one supplying one of the tworeigning kings of Sparta.agora: the agora was the civic center of a Greek polis where all political, commercial, and muchsocial activity took place. A fundamental feature of every Greek city, it was a marketplace where cit-izens could buy and sell goods, gossip, and discuss politics or other topics. akinakes: a type of Persian and Scythian sword. An akinakes was short and straight.Amphiktyonic League/Amphiktyones: a league made up of representatives from mostly neighbor-ing states who were selected to maintain, protect, and defend the sanctuary of Delphi. They hadresponsibility for administering the sanctuary, and could impose fines, declare sacred wars, and awardcontracts for building projects.angareion: a system organized by the Persians of mounted couriers riding in relays to swiftly carryroyal messages.archon: a magistrate at Athens, chosen by lot in the later fifth century. The nine archons were con-cerned with administering justice, overseeing foreign residents of Athens, adjudicating family prop-erty disputes, and carrying out a variety of other tasks. The eponymous archon gave his name tothe civil year.Argonauts/Argo : the subject of an ancient Greek epic legend with common themes. To rid himselfof Jason, a dangerous pretender to the throne, King Pelias of Iolkoss in Thessaly, sends him far awayon a journey to bring back the Golden Fleece. Jason gathers a group of noble Minyans, togetherwith other heroes such as Herakles and Orpheus, and sails off in a ship built by the hero Argos, andcalled the Argo, to Colchis on the Black Sea, where the fleece is located. After many harrowingadventures they arrive at Colchis, where King Aeetes gives them further dangerous tasks to accom-plish. With the help of Medea, the king’s daughter, they successfully complete the tasks and obtainthe Golden Fleece. Then, taking Medea with them, Jason and the Argonauts return to Greece. battos : a North African word for king.Bosporus: a narrow strait separating two lands—Thracian Bosporus separates Europe from Asia,the Cimmerian Bosporus separates the Crimea from Eastern Scythia.Council of Elders/the Gerousia: the senate and highest council of Sparta. The Council was madeup of thirty members over the age of sixty, although it included the two reigning kings of Sparta atany age. Members, who were limited to certain aristocratic families, were elected and served for life.

843

G LOS SARY

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ANC I E NT SOU RCES

Aelian (c. 170–235 C.E.): Roman author and teacher of rhetoric, author of Historical Miscellany. Aeschylos (525/24–426): Athens’ most successful early tragic playwright. He fought the Persiansat Marathon and probably at Salamis. The titles of 82 plays that he wrote are known to us, but onlyseven have survived in their entirety. One of those plays The Persians, is the only eyewitness accountwe have of the battle of Salamis. Aesop: supposed sixth-century author of instructive fables, but there is doubt that he ever existedas one person. Alkaios: an aristocrat from Mytilene on Lesbos who wrote lyric poetry c. 620–580. Only frag-ments of his work survive. They include drinking songs, love songs, hymns and political songs. Thework mentioned by Herodotus in 5.95.2 has survived. Alkman (fl. 654– 611): lyric poet who lived in Sparta. Anaximander (610–547): Greek philosopher and mathematician. A friend and pupil of Thales. Archilochus: Greek lyric poet who flourished c. 650. Ctesias: a late-fifth-/early-fourth-century doctor at the Persian court, author of a history of Persia,a geographical treatise, and the first separate work on India, now all lost except for a few fragments. Diodorus Siculus (fl. 60–30): wrote a world history in 40 books, which reproduces elements ofmany historians, such as Hekataios, Ctesias, and others. Hekataios: author of geographical and historical accounts of Asia Minor and the East, late sixthcentury, and a source both used and criticized by Herodotus. He also plays a role in Herodotus’account of Ionian history. See 5.36, 5.125–126, and 6.137. Hesiod: flourished c. 700. Poet and author of two works which have come down to us: Works andDays and Theogony. Homer: the poet who the Greeks believed to be the author of the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey,which are thought to have been composed and compiled in the late eighth or early seventh century. Isocrates: Athenian speechwriter and pamphleteer of the fourth century; he encouraged Greeks tounite and attack Persia, even under Macedonian leadership. Pausanias: a travel writer of the second century A.D. who wrote Description of Greece (PeriegesisHellados). Pindar (518–438): a lyric poet active in the first half of the fifth century until c. 446. He was espe-cially known for the victory odes he composed for victorious athletes throughout the Greek world. Pliny the Elder (c. 23–79 C.E.): Roman encyclopaedic writer; author of both a history (lost) and aNatural History which has come down to us. Plutarch (46–120 C.E.): author of a series of biographies known as Plutarch’s Lives, and a largenumber of essays (Moralia) which have survived.

846

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B I B L IOGRAPHY FOR

TH E G EN ERAL READER

Bakker, Egbert J., Irene. J. F. de Jong, and Hans van Wees, eds. Brill’s Companion to Herodotus(Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers, 2002).

The Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press):Vol. 3, The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries B.C. (1982).Vol. 4, Persia, Greece, and the Western Mediterranean c. 525–479 B.C. (1998).Vol. 5, The Fifth Century B.C. (1992).

Cartledge, Paul. Thermopylae, The Battle that Changed the World (Woodstock and New York: Over-look Press, 2006).

Cawkwell, George L. The Greek Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).Dewald, Carolyn, and John Marincola, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Herodotus (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2006).Evans, J. A. S. Herodotus: Explorer of the Past: Three Essays. Princeton: Princeton University Press,

1991.Gould, John. Herodotus. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989). Green, Peter. The Greco-Persian Wars (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,

1996).Holland, Tom. Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West (London: Little,

Brown, 2005, and Abacus, 2006).Hornblower, Simon, and Anthony Spawforth, eds. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. (New

York: Oxford University Press, 1996).Lateiner, Donald. The Historical Method of Herodotus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989). Munson, Rosaria Vignolo. Telling Wonders: Ethnographic and Political Discourse in the Work of

Herodotus (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2001).Myers, John. Herodotus: Father of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958).Redfield, James. “Herodotus the Tourist,” Classical Philology 80 (1985): 97–118.Romm, James. Herodotus (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). Strauss, Barry. The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter that Saved Greece and Western Civiliza-

tion (New York: Simon & Schuster; Reprint, 2005).Talbert, Richard J., ed. Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 2000).Thomas, Rosalind. Herodotus in Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, New ed., 2002).

848

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951

Abai, Ref.5, BXAbdera, Ref.2, AXAbydos, Ref.2, AYAcarnania, 1.59, BXAchaea, Ref.2, CWAchaea Phthiotis, Ref.5, AXAchelous River, Ref.2, BWAcheron River, 8.47, AXAchilleion, 5.97, AYAchilles, Racecourse of,

4.53, insetAcropolis, 6.105, insetAdramyttium, 7.42Adramyttium, Gulf of, 7.42Adriatic Sea, Ref.1, AXAdyrmachidians, 4.175, BYAegae, 1.149, AYAegean Sea, Ref.1, BXAegina, Ref.5, CYAeolis, Ref.2, BYAetolia, Ref.2, CWAgathyrsoi, Ref.1, AXAglauros Cave, 8.47, insetAgora, 8.47, insetAgrianes River, Ref.2, AYAgrianians, 5.14Agylla (Caere), 1.166Aigai, 1.146, AXAigaleos, Mount, 8.86, insetAige, 7.123, BYAigeira, 1.146, BXAigilia?, 6.105, AYAigion, 1.146, AXAigospotamos, 9.107, insetAineia, 7.123, BXAinis, Ref.2, BWAinos, Ref.2, AYAiolidai?, 8.32, BYAisa, 7.123, BXAkanthos, Ref.2, AXAkragas, Ref.3, BXAkraiphiai, 8.134, insetAkrothooi, Ref.2, BXAlabanda, Ref.2, CYAlalie, Ref.1, AWAlarodians, Ref.1, BYAlazones, 4.53

Aleion Plain, 7.75Alopeke (deme), 5.63Alpenos, Ref.5, AXAmathous, 5.108, insetAmbracia, Ref.2, BWAmmonion, Ref.1, CXAmpelos Promontory,

7.123, BYAmphiareion, Ref.5, BZAmphikleia, 8.32, AXAmphipolis, Ref.2, AXAmphissa, 8.32, BXAnactorium, Ref.2, BWAnagyrous (deme), 8.86,

insetAnaphlystos (deme), 4.93,

insetAnaua, 7.34Andros, Ref.2, CXAngites River, 7.111, AXAngrus River?, 4.53, AXAnopaia Path, 7.213, insetAnopaia, Mount, 7.213, insetAntandros, 5.31, AYAnthela, 7.213, insetAnthemous, 5.97, AXAnthylla, 2.97, insetAntikyra?, Ref.5, AXAnysis?, 2.165, inset, AYAparytai, 3.94, AYAphetai?, Ref.5, AYAphidna (deme), Ref.5, BZAphrodisias Island, 4.165Aphytis, 7.123, BXApidanos River, Ref.2, BWApis, 2.19Apollonia (Hellas), Ref.2,

AWApollonia (Thrace), Ref.1,

AXApsinthis, Ref.2, AYArabia, Ref.1, CYArabian Gulf, 2.155Arados, 7.98, locatorAral Sea, Ref.1, AYAraxes River, Ref.1, BYArcadia, Ref.2, CW

Archandropolis, Ref.4, AXAreia, Ref.1, BZAreiopagos, 8.47, insetArgilos, 7.111, AXArgos, Ref.5, DXArgos, Gulf of, Ref.5, DXArisba, 1.149, AXArmenia, Ref.1, BYArtace, Ref.2, AYArtemision, Ref.5, AYAsbystaians, 4.175, BYAscalon, 1.103, BXAsia, Ref.1, BYAsian Thrace, 3.90Asine, 8.72, BXAsopos River, Ref.5, BYAssa?, 7.123, BYAssyria, Ref.1, BYAtarbechis, Ref.4, BYAtarneus, Ref.2, BYAthena Skiras, 8.86, insetAthens, Ref.5, CZAthos (peninsula), 7.123,

BYAthos Canal, Ref.2, AXAthos, Mount, Ref.2, BXAthribites, Nome, 2.165,

BYAthrys River, 4.53, AXAtlantic Ocean, Ref.1, AWAttica, Ref.5, CZAugila, 4.175, BYAuschisians?, 4.175, BYAuseans, Ref.1, BWAxios River, Ref.2, AXAxos, 4.150, BYAzania, 6.125, BXAziris, 4.165Azotos, 2.155

Babylon, Ref.1, BYBabylonia, 3.94, BXBakalians?, 4.175, BYBaktria, Ref.1, AZBaktrians, 3.94, AYBarke, Ref.1, BXBelbina, Ref.5, DZ

Bermion, Mount, 8.134, AXBisaltia, Ref.2, AXBisanthe, 7.98, AYBistones, 7.111, AYBistonis, Lake, 7.111, AYBithynia, Ref.2, AZBlack Cloaks?, Ref.1, AYBlack Gulf, 7.58Black River, 7.58Boebeis, Lake, 7.128, BYBoeotia, Ref.5, BYBolbitinic Mouth, Ref.4, AXBorysthenes (Olbia), Ref.1,

AX Borysthenes River, Ref.1,

AXBosporus (Cimmerian),

Ref.1, AYBosporus (Thracian), Ref.2,

AZBottiaia, Ref.2, AXBoubastis, Ref.4, BYBoubastites, Nome, 2.165,

BYBoudinoi?, Ref.1, AYBoura, 1.146, AXBousiris, Ref.4, AYBousirites, Nome, 2.165,

AYBouto, Ref.4, AYBrauron, 6.136Brindisi, Ref.3, AYBrongus River?, 4.53, AXBrygoi?, 7.186, AXBucolic Mouth, Ref.4, AYBybassian Peninsula, 1.173,

insetByzantium, Ref.2, AZ

Caere/Agylla, 1.166Caicus River, Ref.2, BYCamarina, Ref.3, BXCanal (Egypt), Ref.4, BZCanobic Mouth, Ref.4, AXCanopus, Ref.4, AXCappadocia, Ref.1, BYCaria, Ref.2, DZ

Carthage, Ref.1, BWCasius, Mount, Ref.4, AZCaspian Sea, Ref.1, AYCaucasus Mountains, Ref.1,

AYCaunus, Ref.2, DZCayster River, Ref.2, CYCephallania, Ref.2, CWCephisus River, 8.32, AXChaeronea, 6.34Chalastra, 7.123, AXChalcedon, Ref.2, AZChalcidice, Ref.2, AXChalcis, Ref.5, BZChalybes, 7.75Charadra, 8.32, AXChemmis, Ref.4, AYChemmites?, Nome, 2.165,

AXChersonese (Thracian),

Ref.2, AYChios, Ref.2, CYChoaspes River?, 1.183Chorasmia, 3.110Chorasmians, Ref.1, AZCilicia, Ref.1, BYCimmerian Bosporus, Ref.1,

AYCimmerians?, Ref.1, AYCithaeron, Mount, Ref.5,

CYCnidus, Ref.2, DYColchis, Ref.1, AYColophon, Ref.2, CYColossae, 7.34Copais, Lake, 8.134, insetCorcyra, Ref.2, BWCorinth, Ref.5, CXCorinth, Isthmus of, Ref.5,

CYCoronea, 6.34Corsica/Kyrnos, Ref.1, AWCos (island), Ref.2, DYCrathis River, Ref.3, AYCrete, Ref.1, BXCrimea, 4.18, BXCroton, Ref.3, AY

RE F E RENC E MAPSDirectory

This directory lists all the sites known, or possibly known (?) that appear in Herodotus’ text. Places mentioned only inthe Introduction or appendices have not been included. Places mentioned in the text, but whose locations are notknown are not listed. Names given are the ancient ones used in the text. The numbers that follow each name indicatethe reference map (Ref.1–5) or the map within the text (identified by book and chapter) on which the location can befound. Letters, if any, indicate map coordinates.

Hdt_RefMaps_951-960_1stPass 8/31/07 3:14 PM Page 951

REF.1

2

5

3

4

Pillars ofHerakles

CapeSoloeis

LakeTritonis?

LakeMoeris

Kinyps R.

Borysthenes R.Hypanis R.Tyras R.

PYRENEES MTNS.

E U RO P E

E G Y P T

HELLESPONT

L I BYA

I B E R I A ETRURIA

NILEDELTA

I T

AL Y

SCYTHIA

PAPHLAGONIA

VENETIA

TARTESSOS

Adriatic Sea

Alalie

CyreneBarke

Histria

Mesembria

Kerkinitis

Tyras

Olbia

Kydonia

Euesperides

Chemmis

Plynos

Karkine?

Apollonia

Gherla

Massalia

Croton

AthensCarthage Syracuse

Ammonion

Getai

Nasamones

Makai

Lotus-eaters?Gindanes?

Machlyes?

Auseans

Ligurians

Agathyrsoi

Atlantic Ocean

Crete

Sardinia

Sicily

AegeanSea

Mediterranean Sea

Euxine (Black)Sea

Nile R

.

Gulf ofSyrtis

Ister R.

Corsica/Kyrnos

Rhone R.

800 km0 800 mi

XW

A

B

C

D

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