TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE(COHESION)

Sari Kusumaningrum

Shanti Widayani

Setiawan Bayu

COHESION

Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relation which provide links between various parts of a text

FIVE MAIN COHESIVE DEVICES IN ENGLISH1. Reference2. Substitution3. Ellipsis4. Conjunction5. Lexical cohesion

REFERENCE The term reference is traditionally used

in semantics for the relationship which holds between a word and what it points to in the real world.

The word “chair” referring to something that made of wood, use to sit, etc

Instead of denoting a direct relationship between words and extra linguistics objects, reference is limited here to the relationship of identity which holds between two linguistics expression.

“Mrs. Thatcher has resigned. She announced her decision this morning”

“Mrs. Thatcher has resigned. She announced her decision this morning”

The pronoun “She” points to Mrs. Thatcher within the textual words itself.

The most common reference items in English and a large number of other languages are pronouns.

Apart from personal reference, English also uses items such as the, this, and those to establish similar links between expression in the text.

Mrs. Thatcher has resigned. This delighted her opponents.

In this sentence, the reader has to go back to the previous stretch of discourse to establish what This refers to.

So, reference is a device which allows the reader/the hearer to trace participants, entities, events, etc in a text.

Some languages, unlike English, prefer to use proper names to trace participant through a discourse. So, where English would normally use a pronoun refer to a participant who has already been introduced, Hebrew is more likely to repeat the participant’s name, it is also happened in Brazilian Portuguese language.

In some languages, such as Japanese and Chinese, pronouns are hardly ever used and once a participant is introduced, continuity of reference is signalled by omitting the subject of following clauses

So, different preferences exist across language for certain general patterns of reference

SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS Substitution and ellipsis are grammatical rather than semantic relationship. In substitution, an item is replaced by another item

I like movies And I doIn the example above, do is a substitute for like

movies.Items commonly used in substitution in English

include do, one, the same.

You think Joan already knows? – I think everybody does. (Does replaces knows)

My axes is too blunt. I must get a sharper one (One replaces axes)

A: I’ll have two poached eggs on toast, please. B: I’ll have the same. (The same replaces two

poached eggs on toast)

Ellipsis involves the omission of an item. In other words, in ellipsis, an item is replaced by nothing

Joan brought some carnations, and Catherine some sweet peas. (elliptic item: brought in second clause).

The operation of substitution and ellipsis in English are not the same with other languages, for example Arabic.

Every language has its own battery of devices for creating links between textual elements.

Arabic uses a number of devices which cannot be easily represented in back translation.

Unlike the Arabic grammatical system, the English system makes very few distinctions in term of number, gender, and verb agreement

CONJUNCTION Conjunction involves the use of formal

markers to relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other. Unlike reference, substitution, and ellipsis, of conjunction does not instruct the reader to supply missing information either by looking for it elsewhere in the text or by filling structural slots.

CONJUCTIONConjunction : involves the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other. Unlike reference, substitution, and ellipsis, theuse of conjunction does not instruct the reader to supply missing information either by looking for it elsewhere in the text or by filling structural slots. Instead, conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relatewhat is about to be said.

TYPE OF CONJUNCTIONa. additive: and, or, also, in addition,

furthermore, besides,similarly, likewise, by contrast, for instance.

b. adversative: but, yet, however, instead, on the other hand.

c. causal: so, consequently, it follows, for, because, underthe circumstances, for this reason

e. continuatives now, of course, well, anyway, surely, after all

a. English, a temporal relation may be expressed by means ofverb such asfollow or precede, and a causal relation is inherent in the meanings of verbssuch as cause and lead to.

b. a temporal relation may be expressed by means of a verb such asfollow or precede, and a causal relation is inherent in the meanings of verbssuch as cause and lead to.

c. conjunctive relations do not justreflect relations between external phenomena, but may also be set up toreflect relations which are internal to the text or communicative situation.

temporal relations are not restricted to sequence in real time;they may reflect stages in the unfolding text. A good example is the use offirst, second, and third in this paragraph.

 whether conjunctions which occur within sentences can be considered cohesive, since cohesionis considered by some linguists to be a relation between sentences ratherthan within sentences .

For example : After they had fought the battle, it snowed.

by afterward They fought a battle. Afterwards, it snowed.

Compared to Arabic, English generally prefers to present information in relatively small chunks and to signal the relationship between.

The following is an example of a fairly free translation into Arabic.

The translated version conforms more to Arabic than to English norms ofcohesion. Not in particular, the use of typical.

for example : the use of typical Arabic conjunctions: wa(roughly: ‘and’),5 hatha-wa (literally: ‘this and’), and kama (roughly: ‘also’/

conjuction in english English: Today (temporal); so (causal); because ( causal) but(adversative )

and yet (additive + adversative),

howeve (adversative); and finally (additive +

temporal);

German: Today (temporal); so (causal); on the one hand (additive, comparison), but on the

other hand (adversative + additive, comparison); finally (temporal); now (continuative, with additional force of adversative); yet (adversative), because (causal); and then (adversative), for this purpose (causal); lastly (temporal); now (continuative or concession – see below); however/in any event (adversative); There are noticeably fewer conjunctions in the English text

(eight) than in the German (twelve). German seems to be generally more

conjunctive than English7 The use of explicit conjunction.

LEXICAL COHESION Lexical cohesion refers to the role

played by the selection of vocabulary inorganizing relations within a text.

lexical cohesion into two main categories:

reiteration and collocation.

REITERATION Reiteration : as the name suggests, involvesrepetition

of lexical items. A reiterated item may be repetition of an earlier item, a synonym or near-synonym, a superordinate, or a general word.

Example of Reiteration :

There’s a boy climbing that tree.

a. The boy is going to fall if he doesn’t take care. (repetition)

b. The lad’s going to fall if he doesn’t take care. (synonym)

c. The child’s going to fall if he doesn’t take care. (superordinate)

d. The idiot’s going to fall if he doesn’t take care. (general word)

COLLOCATION Collocation, as a sub-class of lexical

cohesion which involves a pair of lexical items that are associated with each other in the language in some way.

THE EXAMPLE PAIRS OF COLLOCATION - Various kinds of oppositeness of meaning: e.g. boy/girl;

love/hate; order/obey. - Associations between pairs of words from the same

ordered series: e.g.Tuesday/Thursday; August/December;

dollar/cent. - Associations between pairs of words from unordered

lexical sets: e.g.part–whole relations: car/brake; body/arm;

bicycle/wheel; - Part–part relations: mouth/chin; verse/chorus;co-

hyponymy: red/green (colour); chair/table (furniture). - Associations based on a history of co-occurrence

(collocation proper)

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