SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE

Strengthening Decentralized Governance in Kiribati Project P.O. Box 75, Bairiki, Tarawa, Republic of Kiribati Telephone (686) 22741 or 22040, Fax: (686) 21133

TEERAINA ISLAND

PRODUCED BY THE MINISTRY OF INTERNAL AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS, WITH FINANCIAL SUPPORT FROM THE UNITED NATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM,

AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FROM THE SECRETARIAT OF THE PACIFIC COMMUNITY.

2008

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TEERAINA ANTHEM

ABARA AE TEERAINA Abara ae Teeraina Ti kukurei n titiku iai E mwaitoro angina iaona E maeu raoi iai te kai Ti rikirake iaona ngkai //Ngaira ni bane// (Solo) //Ngaira ni bane// (Bass) Ti kan tiku ni mena iai Abara ae Teeraina Bon abara ni kabwaia A rikirake arora iai Ti na unikia raoi ‘Unimwane’ unaine Rorobuaka ateiaine Te roro ae rikirake iaona Kamatoatoa

TEERAINA OUR HOMELAND Our homeland Teeraina Always a joy to stay on The breeze is always cool An oasis for trees to grow on We grow on it now //All of us// (Solo) //All of us// (Bass) Forever we would like to live on it Our homeland Teeraina Our island of blessings That has greatly enriched us We will cultivate it well Elderly men and women Men and maidens Youth and all growing on it Keep our island strong

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FOREWORD

By the Honourable Amberoti Nikora, Minister of Internal and Social Affairs, July, 2007

I am honored to have this opportunity to introduce this revised and updated socio-economic profile for Makin Island. The completion of this profile is the culmination of months of hard-work and collaborative effort of many people, Government agencies and development partners particularly those who have provided direct financial and technical assistance towards this important exercise. The socio-economic profiles contain specific data and information about individual islands that are not only interesting to read, but more importantly, useful for education, planning and decision making. The profile is meant to be used as a reference material for leaders both at the island and national level, to enable them to make informed decisions that are founded on accurate and easily accessible statistics. With our limited natural and financial resources it is very important that our leaders are in a position to make wise decisions regarding the use of these limited resources, so that they are targeted at the most urgent needs and produce maximum impact. In addition, this profile will act as reference material that could be used for educational purposes, at the secondary and tertiary levels. This is one of the intentions when the revision exercise was conceived in the first place. In its new format, the profile contains valuable information on the history, geography, demography, commerce and trade, natural resources, the environment, and many other important facts about the islands. The vision to make the island profile important reference material will be further enhanced with the launching of the Ministry’s website. This is indeed a revolutionary step in the sense that such valuable information will be made accessible on the internet, for everyone to use in and outside Kiribati. The profiles have potential economic value because they provide the kind of information that local and foreign investors need. This aspect of the profiles will be improved with time, as better information on marine and land resources becomes available and incorporated in the book. The island profiles are useful development documents for individual islands and the nation as a whole. Whether they are used by students, businessmen, tourists, politicians, or planners, I can say with conviction that it will prove a useful resource on Kiribati. Te Mauri, Te Raoi and Te Tabomoa to everyone.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The preparation of this profile involved the hard work and commitment of various individuals, Government ministries and external development agencies. At the outset, the initiative and financial support of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) must be acknowledged with deep appreciation. UNDP financed the revision of the profiles through a joint UNDP-GoK project known as Strengthening Decentralized Governance in Kiribati (SDGiK). Other regional organizations that have been very supportive to the profiling exercise include the South Pacific Geo-science Commission (SOPAC), who provided technical support in relation to the incorporation of GIS and CHARM in the project. The South Pacific Commission (SPC), who assisted in the establishment of POPGIS for use in data sourcing and analysis, provided input to the structure of the profiles, recommended the incorporation of valuable data and information, and generously offered to publish the profiles. Without their assistance, the profiles as you see them now will not have attained such a high quality in terms of content and appearance. The Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs owes much gratitude to these organizations particularly their concerned staff, for their readiness to assist even if it was beyond their terms of engagement. The project office of the Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) based in Fiji, through its Pacific Project, also contributed invaluable assistance to the project, in particular to Component 3, which focused on capacity development of local government bodies on the outer islands. Several of the activities under this component were jointly funded by CLGF, thereby absorbing much in terms of financial costs and time. For these contributions, we are very much thankful. The various ministries of Government have helped in one way or another, especially in the furbishing of valuable data and information used in this profile. The project has been successful in maintaining the good relationship that had developed with other ministries and civil organizations. In addition, inter-agency committees were established for monitoring and technical support during the implementation phase of the project. The most important of these committees is the Outer Island Project Coordinating Committee (OIPCC), which serves as the overall steering body of SDGiK. Other technical working committees were also instrumental in getting some of the difficult tasks done. These working committees include the committee on the review of the Local Government Act, and the committee on the review of development procedures. One of the important lessons learned from the establishment of these committees is that it is possible to cut across borders to get the kind of commitment and cooperation that are reflected in the achievements of the project. Hopefully the network of cooperation, which is necessary in sustaining and improving the profiles in future, is maintained between the various ministries of Government. As the leading agency in the production of this profile, the Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs must ensure that the linkages between the statistical units of various government departments remain intact. Due to its multi-dimensional nature, far too many people are involved in the profiling exercise to allow acknowledgement on a personal level. It is hoped that by according merit to their respective agencies will somehow convey the deep sense of gratitude, which the project owes to these committed individuals. With this in mind, we would like to acknowledge the great contribution and support of the Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs (MISA), in particular the Rural Planning Division (RPD), the Local Government Division (LGD), the Community Development and Services Division (CDSD), and the Accounting Unit, who spearheaded the various activities related to their areas of expertise. The successes that have been achieved in the different project components are indeed the result of their collective work. Ultimately the greatest contribution and sacrifice in the production of these revised Island Profiles is offered by a few committed individuals, both within the Ministry as well as from outside who deserve to be acknowledged. Nei Terautete Tareti, the computer operator in the Rural Planning Division who collected the initial data, Nei

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Buraieta Tekabwaara who worked hard to collect and update data required for the profiles as well as the GIS data maps. Nei Ruta Ioata, who assisted in data collection, designed the graphic formats in the profiles, willingly assisted in collection of outer island data and pictures and had to work extra hours to complete her profile responsibilities. Phil Bright and his colleagues at SPC in Noumea generously offered to edit and publish the profiles, besides arranging for a work attachment with SPC for two of MISA staff. The profiles will have not attained the very high quality in which you see them now without their assistance. In addition, the improved layout and presentation of information is also based on their professional views and guidance. The strong support and leadership of the Minister of Internal and Social Affairs, Honorable Amberoti Nikora has been a significant factor in the successful undertaking and completion of the profiling exercise, and for the whole SDGiK project for that matter. His support would have not been that strong without the equally solid support and guidance of the former Secretary of MISA, Karib'aiti Taoaba, and Rikiaua Takeke, the current Secretary. The Deputy Secretary, Manikaoti Timeon spearheaded the profiling and completed the first prototype on Makin after which project staff continued drafting the other outer island profiles. His immense effort and guidance in the profiling is a major contribution to the completion of these profiles. The unwavering efforts and dedication of Nei Erimeta Barako in the completion of the profiles even after the SDGiK project had ended, culminated in the completion of these outer island profiles. Tebwaania Taateria eventually came in and provided much required assistance in general profiling work. Ultimately, the KAPII project under the directions of Kautuna Kaitara, the KAPII Coordinator, Kaiarake Taburuea, the Project Manager and Paul Craig, provided the required funds and support in the eventual completion of the profiles. To everyone who have contributed in one way or another to the production of this useful document, including the many people and organizations on the outer islands, the Government of Kiribati is deeply indebted, and wish to thank you immensely for your useful contributions. AMI BAU TE MAURI TE RAOI AO TE TABOMOA. KAM BATI N RABWA.

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Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................................... - 4 - CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... - 10 - 

1.1 Summary of Main Socio-Economic Indicators ............................................................................. - 11 - CHAPTER 2: GENERAL BACKGROUND ........................................................................................... - 12 - 

2.1 LOCALE ................................................................................................................................. - 12 - 2.1.1 Location, Size and Land Area ............................................................................................ - 12 - 2.1.2 Physical features .............................................................................................................. - 12 - 2.1.3 Climate ............................................................................................................................ - 14 - 2.1.4 Soil .................................................................................................................................. - 15 - 2.1.5 Vegetation ........................................................................................................................ - 15 - 2.1.6 History and Culture ........................................................................................................... - 19 - 

CHAPTER 3: TE MAURI – ENVIRONMENT, RESOURCES AND SOCIAL SERVICES ........................... - 21 - 3.1 DEMOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... - 21 - 

3.1.1 Total population ................................................................................................................ - 21 - 3.1.2 Growth rate ...................................................................................................................... - 22 - 3.1.3 Population Density ............................................................................................................ - 22 - 3.1.4 Breakdown of Population ................................................................................................... - 24 - 3.1.5 Population by Gender ........................................................................................................ - 25 - 3.1.6 Population distribution by religion ....................................................................................... - 26 - 3.1.7 Migration .......................................................................................................................... - 26 - 

3.2 LAND RESOURCES ................................................................................................................ - 27 - 3.2.1 Terrestrial Flora ................................................................................................................ - 27 - 3.2.2 Terrestrial Fauna .............................................................................................................. - 27 - 3.2.3 Land and Marine Tenure ................................................................................................... - 28 - 3.2.4 Land Ownership and Land Use ......................................................................................... - 28 - 

3.3 MARINE RESOURCES ............................................................................................................ - 29 - 3.3.1 Size of reef and Lagoon area ............................................................................................. - 29 - 3.3.2 Fish resources and status .................................................................................................. - 29 - 3.3.3 Pattern of fishing ............................................................................................................... - 29 - 3.3.4 Marine Developments ....................................................................................................... - 31 - 3.3.5 Issues facing fishing and development of marine resources .................................................. - 31 - 

3.4 THE ENVIRONMENT .............................................................................................................. - 32 - 3.4.1 Environmental Issues ......................................................................................................... - 32 - 

3.5 EDUCATION ........................................................................................................................... - 33 - 3.5.1 Number of school age children, proportion enrolled in schools .............................................. - 33 - 3.5.2 Primary and JSS school proportional attendance ................................................................. - 35 - 3.5.3 Breakdown of school enrolment at different levels ................................................................ - 38 - 3.5.4 Percentage of pupils completing Primary and JSS ............................................................... - 38 - 3.5.5 Number of schools, type and state of facilities ..................................................................... - 40 - 3.5.6 Number of Teachers and Teacher/Pupil Ratio ..................................................................... - 40 - 3.5.7 Performance of Pupils in national tests/exams ..................................................................... - 41 - 3.5.8 Community involvement to improve standard of education .................................................... - 41 - 

3.6 HEALTH ................................................................................................................................. - 42 - 3.6.1 Health Facilities & Staff ..................................................................................................... - 42 - 3.6.2 Most Common Health Problems ......................................................................................... - 43 - 

3.7 HOUSING ............................................................................................................................... - 44 - 3.7.1 Total number of residential houses, type and status ............................................................. - 44 - 

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3.7.2 Other issues ..................................................................................................................... - 44 - 3.8 WATER .................................................................................................................................. - 45 - 

3.8.1  Water Supply Sources ....................................................................................................... - 45 - 3.8.2 Status of Water Supply ...................................................................................................... - 47 - 3.8.2 Status of Water Supply ...................................................................................................... - 47 - 

3.9 ENERGY ................................................................................................................................ - 47 - 3.9.1 Fuel ................................................................................................................................. - 47 - 

CHAPTER 4: TE RAOI – SOCIAL CAPITAL, COMMUNITY LIFE AND GOVERNANCE ......................... - 48 - 4.1 LOCAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL CHANGE ........................................................................ - 48 - 

4.1.1 The Mwaneaba System and ‘Unimwane’ Association ........................................................... - 48 - 4.1.2 Women Organizations ....................................................................................................... - 49 - 4.1.3 Youth Association ............................................................................................................. - 50 - 4.2.1 Main religious denominations ............................................................................................. - 50 - 

4.3 POLITICAL AUTHORITY AND GOVERNANCE ......................................................................... - 51 - 4.3.1 Traditional political system – description and status ............................................................. - 51 - 4.3.2 Local government system .................................................................................................. - 51 - 4.3.3 Interface between Local Government and Traditional Political System ................................... - 53 - 4.3.4 Crime and Justice System ................................................................................................. - 53 - 

CHAPTER 5: TE TABOMOA – ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES, INFRASTRUCTURE AND UTILITIES ............. - 55 - 5.1 ISLAND ECONOMY ................................................................................................................ - 55 - 

5.1.1 Subsistence Economy ....................................................................................................... - 55 - 5.1.2 Copra cutting .................................................................................................................... - 56 - 5.1.3 Employment ..................................................................................................................... - 58 - 5.1.4 Trade and Commerce ....................................................................................................... - 59 - 5.1.5 Local Finance ................................................................................................................... - 61 - 

5.2 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ......................................................................................................... - 64 - 5.2.1 Agriculture ........................................................................................................................ - 64 - 5.2.2 Livestock .......................................................................................................................... - 64 - 5.2.3 Fisheries .......................................................................................................................... - 67 - 5.2.4 Handicrafts ....................................................................................................................... - 68 - 

5.3 INFRASTRUCTURE ................................................................................................................ - 68 - 5.3.1 Land Transport ................................................................................................................. - 68 - 5.3.2 Sea Transport and Shipping ............................................................................................... - 71 - 5.3.2 Sea Transport and Shipping ............................................................................................... - 71 - 5.3.3 Air Service ........................................................................................................................ - 71 - 5.3.4 Issues facing Transportation .............................................................................................. - 71 - 5.3.5 Communication ................................................................................................................ - 72 - 

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES TABLES Table 1 Population by village Table 2 Population density in villages Table 3 Population by religion Table 4 Size of reef and lagoon Table 5 Sea cucumber species Table 6 Primary enrolment Table 7 JSS enrolment breakdown Table 8 School enrolment 2006 Table 9 Teacher:Pupil ratio Table 10 Senior Secondary Schools Table 11 Council priority projects 2004-2007 Table 12 Committed offenses 2006 Table 13 Committed offenses 2007 Table 14 Revenue from copra production Table 15 Village bank shares Table 16 Households by village and fishing locations Table 17 Vehicle hire costs FIGURES Figure 1 Christmas and Teeraina rainfall data 1910-2000 Figure 2 Geographical view of Teeraina Figure 3 Population trend 1947-2005 Figure 4 Population distribution by age in villages Figure 5 Population pyramid Figure 6 Household fishing location Figure 7 School attendance 2006 Figure 8 2006 primary enrolment Figure 9 Household types Figure 10 Sources of water Figure 11 Structure of traditional authority Figure 12 Copra production Figure 13 Line group copra production Figure 14 Types of businesses Figure 15 Access to food trees

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

SDGIK Strengthening Decentralized Governance in Kiribati MDGs Millennium Development Goals MOP Ministry Operational Plan NDS National Development Strategy UN United Nations GOK Government of Kiribati SOPAC South Pacific Geo-Science Commission CHARM Comprehensive Hazard and Risk Management GIS Geographic Information System CLGF Commonwealth Local Government Forum OIPCC Outer Island Project Coordinating Committee MISA Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs RPD Rural Planning Division LGD Local Government Division CDSD Community Development and Services Division SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community MOH Ministry of Health MELAD Ministry of Environment Land and Agricultural Development MEYS Ministry of Education Youth and Sport MFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development POPGIS Population GIS RC Roman Catholic Church KPC Kiribati Protestant Church SDA Seventh Day Adventist Church LDS Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints COG Church of God KHLP Kiribati Handicraft and Local Produce Company KSECL Kiribati Solar Energy Company Limited JSS Junior Secondary School

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION The first Island Profiles were published in the late 1980s, about 20 years ago. Apart from being used as a resource book by project personnel in the Rural Planning Division, it remained largely unutilized, and the information quickly became obsolete as the years passed without any attempt to update a lot of the statistics contained in them. This is the first time that the profiles are being updated and upgraded to suit today’s need for information. In addition to the upgrading exercise, the profiles will also be updated, annually if possible, depending on the regularity and availability of reliable statistics. The current revision is based on a mixture of methodologies including importation of data from different government ministries (MOH, MELAD, MEYS, and MFED), the use of PopGIS software to analyze and map data, face to face interviews, questionnaire surveys and the use of reference materials and the internet. While the purpose of the profiles is to serve as the basic information tool for planners and decision makers, it can also be used to meet the needs of students, business people, politicians, tourists, planners, and the public in general. This is possible due to the fact that it contains unique and interesting information on the island’s culture, economy, natural resources, environment, infrastructure, social services and various other features. With the incorporation of MDG indicators in this new version, the profiles will now serve a very useful purpose of becoming an important tool to monitor the country’s performance in respect of achieving MDG targets. Island-level statistics enables more specific analysis of the situation faced by Kiribati in the different sectors of health, education, poverty reduction, gender equality, the environment, and HIV/AIDS. These are the issues embodied in the eight goals set by the United Nations which countries are expected to achieve by the year 2015. Another new feature of the profiles is the introduction of a computerized back-up system, which is made up of an electronic copy of the profile, as well as a GIS program which enables detailed analysis of statistics right down to the village and household levels. The ultimate objective of the whole exercise is to have an efficient and reliable source of information about the outer islands, that is not only available in hard copy, but better still one that could be accessed immediately by the push of a keyboard button. This will enable professionals and lay people alike to acquire information quickly, for whichever purpose they may have. The profiles will be made available on the Ministry’s website – www.misa.com, or alternatively through PRISM. This will enable international access to the profiles for the use of traveling officials, overseas students, potential investors and visitors. Apparently the website will contain information other than the island profiles, from the various divisions of the Ministry and perhaps additional relevant information from other government ministries. Upon completion of the website two goals will be achieved, first, that the information will be available on line for the first time and, second, that such useful information will be accessible from anywhere in the world in electronic form. This is going to be a significant achievement in itself. The continual usefulness of the profiles, and other information contained in both the hard and electronic versions, will depend to a great extent on a reliable system of updating and upgrading. After all, information changes all the time, as do the technology upon which it depends. Finally, it is hoped that the profiles in their new format and accompanying electronic features will serve the purpose for which they are designed, and much more. We wish every user of this profile enjoyable reading, and trust that they find it interesting and rewarding.

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1.1 Summary of Main Socio-Economic Indicators NATIONAL TEERAINA Total Males Female Total Male Female Total population (November 2005) 92533 45612 46921 1155 625 530 Urban population 40311 19435 20876 NA NA NA Percent of national population 1.2 1.4 1.1 Percent urban (%) 43.6 NA NA NA Rate of Growth (%) of total population 2000-2005

1.2 NA NA

Population density 127 121 NA NA South Tarawa population density 2558 2558 NA NA % population younger than 15years 37 38 36 44 45 43 % population 15-24 years 21 21 20 15 15 15 % population 15-59 years 58 57 58 53 52 53 % population 60 years and older 5 5 6 3 3 4 Age dependency ratio 74 90 92 87 Households Number of private households 13999 198 NA NA Number of persons in private households 88644 43749 44895 1155 NA NA Average household size 6.3 5.8 NA NA Number of institutions (non-private) 43 NA NA NA Number of persons in institutions 3889 NA NA NA Labor market activity 36969 20013 16956 Employed population 34715 18883 15832 645 341 304 Cash workers 13133 8095 5038 91 60 31 Village workers 21582 10788 10794 284 247 37 Unemployed 2254 1130 1124 9 4 5 Non-labor market 21069 7926 13143 Students 7323 3496 3827 20 8 12 Persons engaged in home duties 6077 793 5284 204 3 201 Inactive persons 3662 1996 1666 7 5 2 Retired persons 3227 1179 2048 30 14 16 Disabled or sick persons 709 398 311 0 0 0 Prisoners 71 64 7 0 0 0 Labor market participation rate 63.6 71.5 56.3 59.53 91.2 24.01 Employment-population ratio 22.6 28.9 16.7 NA NA NA Unemployment rate (%) 6.1 5.6 6.6 76.3 Education School enrolment rates 6-15 year olds (%) 91.0 89.1 93.0 NA NA NA Proportion of population 15 years and older with secondary or higher education

50.5 51.6 49.5 NA NA NA

Proportion of total population with secondary or tertiary qualification

19.4 18.2 20.5 NA NA NA

Source: National Statistics Office and SPC PopGis

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CHAPTER 2: GENERAL BACKGROUND 2.1 LOCALE 2.1.1 Location, Size and Land Area Washington Island now known locally as Teeraina is the northern most island in the Line group of islands. It lies 282 nautical miles north of the equator, 75 miles northwest of Fanning and 238 miles northwest of Christmas. It has also been known as New York Island and Prospectus Island. Alternative Names: New York Island or Prospectus Island Area / Country: Line Group, KIRIBATI Coordinates: Latitude (DMS): 4° 43' 0 N

Longitude (DMS): 160° 24' 0 W (Degrees, minutes and seconds)

Area: Total land area: 1,420 ha /14.2 sq.km

Total lake area: 200 ha/2 sq. km Total swamp area: 100 ha/1 sq. km Source:http://www.traveljournals.net/explore/kiribati/map/m1947789/washington_island.html

It is a sandy coral atoll of about 5.5 kilometers long, 2.1 kilometers at its greatest width with a circumference of about 15 kilometers and an area of 14.2 square kilometers. Like other low lying atolls, it typically averages 2 meters above sea-level, with sandy and porous soil. However, due to its high rainfall, peat soil is found throughout where it is densely covered with coconut palms and forest trees (23 to 28 meters), shrubs and vegetation. It is surrounded by a fringing reef not over 183 meters wide, except at three places: 915 meters at the east point, 732 meters at the northwest point, and 549 meters wide at the southwest point. It is at these wide points of the island that the reef flats are seen during low tide otherwise, the rest of the reef flats surrounding the island are always submerged in water during high and low tide. 2.1.2 Physical features Teeraina has nine villages on the island located along the coast that can be accessed by a local gravel road mostly by pushbikes, motorbikes and trucks. Access of the villages by traveling the inner freshwater lake is impossible due to the thick dense coconut forest and marshland surrounding the lake. Instead the lake is used mainly to access other parts of the coconut forest for copra cutting and, or for fishing. Teeraina has a high annual rainfall reportedly 2900-4000mm per annum (Kishore Chand, 2002) and a unique fresh water lake/lagoon, a lush tropical coconut forest where three different kinds of ferns and some other trees not found in Kiribati grow. Its main geographical feature is the

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presence of a fresh water lake/lagoon surrounded by swampy land and coconut woodland. Bulrushes (‘titania’) and giant swamp taros (‘bwabwai’) grow in abundance in these swamp or wetlands and can be observed when traveling throughout the lake. Coconuts, giant swamp taro, pandanus and breadfruit grow well without much need of cultivation in the coconut forest surrounding the lake. Sometimes during the wet season, the lake overflows, flooding the villages and causing discomfort to the villagers however, the islanders have learned to live with and prepared for such floodings. The fresh water lagoon is accessed by canals dug during the copra schemes in the late 1800s and early 1900 for transportation of copra from all parts of the island. The soil under the coconut forest is rich in humus, coconut peat and cushiony to tread on. The peat consists of a dense, interlaced mass of partly decayed plant fibres, dark brown or black in colour, a major feature of this forest. The surface of the lake is about 1 meter above sea level. It measures nearly 3 kilometers long by 11 kilometers wide, and averages about 2 meters deep during rainy seasons. (www.janeresture.com) Heavy rainfalls experienced throughout the year maintain the fresh water quality and resources in the lake most notably the ‘tuna’, an eel like fish, the dusky jack, tilapia and milkfish. The latter was introduced to the islands of Kiribati in early 1990s with the aim of controlling mosquitoes. (www.janeresture.com). The only inlet of ocean water into the island is through a small opening at the end of the Te buka (Pisonia grandis) forest locally called the ‘tunga’ marked by a reef spout that can be seen during the onset of incoming tide. A rocky and bumpy road provides access to its nine (9) villages, Matanibike (Government station), Tangkore and Arabwata (where most of the initial settlers of Teeraina during the BP Company Scheme have settled), Mwakeitari, Abaiang, Kauamwemwe, Uteute and Tekaitara where the recent settlers of the re-settlement schemes of 1989 and 1995 have settled. This rocky and bumpy road provides the main access not only to the villages but to the different parts of the island to harvest coconuts for copra or to find other means of livelihood. On the outskirts of the forest towards the ocean, the normal gravely, rocky and sandy soil types can be observed. Unique also to this island is the lack of reef flats around most of the island resulting in deep water around the island all year round. On two parts of the island (northwest and southwest) the reef flats are wide enough to be exposed during low tides otherwise the rest of the reef flats are never exposed but submerged by the sea all year round. Fig. 2: The boat landing site (South) on a calm day (left) and a rough day (right)

Access to the island is by ship/vessels only as there is no airport on the island. The Southwest point landing site is not used anymore due to its risky location (unprotected). The present used landing site was later developed on the south side of the island, half a mile from the southwest point that is better but still risky during rough weather. Landing is therefore often a tolerated and dangerous experience especially when it is rough. Ships

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have been known to leave the island without off loading or loading cargo and passengers. However, it is good advice to always seek the islanders’ assistance in ferrying passengers and cargoes during rough weather as they are attuned to the ways of their seas and have been known to brave the rough seas of their island all the time. Fishing is greatly constrained by such stormy weather compounded by the physical feature of the island. The fundamental source of drinking water is the groundwater reservoir, tapped by digging wells 1 or so metres into the ground. The quality of groundwater is fresh throughout the year and not easily affected by droughts. There are over 196 open wells on Teeraina that the locals use for their livelihood, 3 of them are closed and there are 15 rainwater catchments in the form of cement tanks and polytanks. 2.1.3 Climate With the exception of Tarawa which has its own meteorological office, the non-availability of rainfall measuring equipment on the outer islands has resulted in the lack of rainfall data for all the outer islands of Kiribati including those in the Phoenix and Line group thus Teeraina as well. Fig 1: Rainfall data for Kiritimati and Teeraina (1910-2000)

Teeraina lies under the global precipitation band that occurs where the northern and southern trade winds converge, known as the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). It is a region where high rainfall can be experienced throughout the year. This is also strongly influenced by El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability as defined by the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), which measures the difference in pressure between Darwin, Australia and Tahiti. A negative SOI irregularity that occurs during an El Niño event increases rain on Teeraina and including Kiritimati as it increases the precipitation-evaporation ratio in the region Teeraina is located. Records are sparse for Teeraina, but rainfall records indicate El Niño events may nearly double annual rainfall on Teeraina from 2900 to over 5000 mm/yr (see above rainfall records for Kiritimati and Teeraina) (Saenger et. al. 2006). La Nina on the other hand is offset by a positive anomaly that would then produce the opposite effect of El Nino effects to Teeraina – drought. Drought spells though have not been noted in past reports and studies but considering that Teeraina is located in a rainfall zone and judging by the rainfall data in Fig….., it is probable droughts have never been an issue on the island, also reflected in the lush forest and freshwater alike. Dry spells though are experienced such as in the year 2000 when the rain had not

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fallen like it used to for 3 months (pers. comm.) Like other islands in Kiribati, Teeraina has an equatorial climate where temperatures are high and is humid all year round but with a distinct/dominant wet season. Generally in Kiribati, the wet season, according to records, falls between the months of September to February, while the dry season begins in March and ends in August. The temperature ranges between 28˚ Celsius at dawn to 32˚ Celsius in the early afternoon. Cool ocean breezes play an important role in keeping the temperature down during hot days. Teeraina is probably the wettest island according to the records in all of Kiribati most evident in the presence of the freshwater lake and abundance of trees, shrubs and vegetation, the likes not normally observed in the Gilbert group. 2.1.4 Soil Generally, Kiribati atoll soils are derived from the underlying coral reef and therefore consist mainly of calcium and magnesium carbonates (Town 1982). The soils tend to be shallow and alkaline with large soil (grain) particle rendering it highly permeable with low capacity to hold water and therefore highly porous. Top soil nutrients are therefore easily washed down or away making the soils very infertile. The average pH is high, falling between 7.8 and 8.3. The soils are deficient in carbon nitrogen, potassium and trace elements specifically iron, manganese, zinc and copper and the high pH restricts the availability and use of soil nutrients to plants. The top soil layer provides the main nutrient recycling and exchange layer between plants and soil. To cultivate, compost and organic material are added to planting holes, beds or trenches to lower the pH and make nutrients available for better plant growth. Composting and use of organic materials in cultivation methods is a requirement, not only for making primary elements such as NPK available to plants but also minor elements most notably iron, copper, zinc and manganese (Barr, 1993) 2.1.5 Vegetation As a Government owned island, other than the settlement areas, the rest of the island has been pretty much left in its natural state. It is the closest one can get to a tropical rainforest in Kiribati, only it is filled with coconuts (Cocos nucifera) growing so tall they provide a canopy for the underlying vegetation. Three different kinds of ferns grow in this coconut forest, the tuber ladder, birds nest (Asplenium nidus) and wart (Phymatosorus scolopendria) ferns. The tuber ladder and wart fern are used locally as ornamental plants in and outdoors however, the wart fern known locally as the ‘Keang ni Mwakin’ is also popularly used in leis, oil scenting and even as a spice for cooking mostly in baking recipes. The other, the birds nest fern (‘raukootaa’), sighted only on Teeraina and Butaritari in the Gilbert Group has no specific local use other than it growing wildly in these two high rainfall islands. Its name gives away how the fern looks, a birds nest.

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Breadfruits also grow wild (without cultivation) in this tropical coconut rainforest and in abundance around the settlements. The great lettuce tree (Pisonia grandis) known locally as ‘te buka’ , also forms part of this forest, found at the western side of the island and is a conservation area according to the land use plan as in the illustration in Fig. ….. The ’buka’ flowers mature into sticky barbed seeds that can stick to bird feathers causing inability to fly which must have given rise to the flower name being the ‘grand devil’s claw’. Fig 6: Giant African tulip tree Te ‘arongaa’ a tree shrub can be found on the island as well and is not known in the Gilbert group of islands, produces white fruits at certain times of the year that is popularly eaten by the ‘kura’, a colorful bird (lorikeet) that has made it’s home in the coconut forest of Teeraina. The common saltbush (scaevola), heliotrope or messerschmidia (ren), berry vine (ntanini), non (Citrifolia), ‘guettarda’ (uri), ‘kunikun’ can also be found in abundance along the shorelines of the island amongst the local grass and weeds. The giant African tulip tree (katiitii) is a tree that produces beautiful golden orange red flowers found only at the Government station, Matanibike, near to the Council office. The Polynesian or native banyan tree (kiri aaua) is also another Teeraina vegetation after the ‘katiitii’ and ‘arongaa’ that is now recorded as a flora of Teeraina where there are none in the Gilbert group. It is a tall branchy tree with a broad chambered trunk and has aerial vine-like roots hanging from the branches. The islanders call it Tarzan’s tree simply because the hanging roots are seen as the kind of vines that Tarzan swings from in the movies. The giant African tulip on the other hand can also be found at the NCL site in Tabuaeran (Fanning Island), the next island to Teeraina. The tobacco plant is a common sight near homes and provides the leaves for the traditional welcome smoke to visitors. As the Agricultural nurseryman stated, Teeraina is a fertile island that has great agricultural potential and should be used as such, starting off by sending in more vegetable seed varieties that can be grown for consumption and income generation. In the swamps, bulrushes locally called ‘titania’ crowd the canals as one travels to get to Washington Lake. Again, these bulrushes cannot be found in the Gilbert group but grow in abundance in the peat swamps of

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Teeraina. A similar tall grass in the Gilbert group also called ‘titania/maunei’ is used to string flowers into a lei and can also be weaved into a grass skirt used in dancing costumes (R. Ioata pers.comm.). Pest-wise, Teeraina seems free from the common vegetable and tree pests in Kiribati. In place, there is a vegetable pest that attacks cabbages, beans and corns eating the leaves of cabbages and the kernels on corn cobs. A name for such a pest is not known as yet to the locals but is a small, green cockroach like insect. Dried specimen of this green pest were brought back to Tarawa and given to the Division of Agriculture in Tanaea for identification. Bananas, sweet potato, tapioca, eggplants, corn, melon, cabbages (early ball) are but some of the vegetable crops that are grown on the island by the Agricultural branch there. Home gardens however, were rarely seen during the island visit in 2007 but then the houses were scattered and not individually visited.

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Fig 2: A geographical map of Teeraina

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2.1.6 History and Culture Due to it’s late addition to the republic of Kiribati, local legendary and cultural myths are hard to find if at all and therefore, Teeraina, including the other islands in the Line and Phoenix group of islands are mentioned in cultural and historical stories as ‘those islands in the east’. They are depicted and can be deduced in the cultural stories as the eastern islands due to their lying east of the Gilbert group of islands. Before discovery in 1798 by Captain Edmund Fanning who named it after the then USA president, George Washington and the Americans prospectors in 1856 who named it Prospect Island, Washington Island had never been permanently settled like those in the Gilbert group. Captain John English occupied the island in 1860 and in 1870 by William Greig and George Bicknell who established copra plantations on the island as well as in Tabuaeran Fanning). Greig and Bicknell used people from Manihiki (Cook Islands) to work on the plantations and later on in 1894, they recruited people from the Gilberts to work on these plantations Fig 8: Early coconut plantation recruits from the Gilbert group

Washington was annexed to Great Britain in 1889 and Captain Bernhard Anderson (married to William Greig’s daughter) was left in charge of the island at which time they were literally employing 200 Gilbert Island natives that later were employed by the Fanning Island Ltd. (Burns & Philip subsidiary – better known as BP) after the plantation abandonment in 1924. It became part of the colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands in 1916 which resulted in the increase of I-Kiribati recruitments to work on the plantations. BP renewed the copra business in 1935 and continued marketing copra from Teeraina including Kiritimati and Tabuaeran until Kiribati gained independence in 1979 at which time

Washington was then called Teeraina and became a constituent of the Government of Kiribati. Manihiki plantation workers called the island Arapata (now the name for one of its 9 villages) while the Tuamotuans from French Polynesia called it Teraina. (Source: Jane Resture’s homepage) Teeraina most probably is a derived modification of the initial Teraina of the Tuamotuans with an extra ‘e’ put into the spelling due to it being pronounced as such. The habitation of Kiribati islands according to folklore is tied up to ‘Nareau’ and the tree of the Kiribati beginnings, ‘Te Uekeraa’. Teeraina, being a new addition to the Kiribati islands after independence, is hardly if at all related in these Kiribati folklore of habitation. Historically, it has been habited and managed since founding by foreign people including those recruited from Manihiki (Cook Islands) and Tuamotu (French Polynesia) to work in the copra plantations. Since the recruitment of the I-Kiribati in the early 1990s, most the people from Manihiki and Tuamotu have gone back to their islands with a few inter-married with the copra recruits from Kiribati. The re-settlement schemes of 1989-1995 has further increased the population when people from all parts of the Gilbert were re-settled on the island resulting in an interesting mixture of the northern, central and southern cultural traits. The first re-settlement phase in 1989 brought in 84 families to settle in Teeraina followed by another 150 families in 1995, the second phase of the re-settlement scheme (Teeraina Island Council file)

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Of its nine villages, Matanibike is where the Government station (Teeraina Island Council) is located dividing the original villages of Tangkore and Arabwata. Matanibike was recently added as a village in the 1960s during Ratu’s time as MP to mark the progress of the local government (island council) and the fact that Teeraina is now an island where people from all over Kiribati can live on. Tangkore lies immediately east of Matanibike and following the same direction Tekaaitara is next, followed by Kauamwermwe, Abaiang, Onouea, Mwakeitari and Arabwata when the circle of the villages around the coast is completed. Arabwata (Arapata) and Tangkore are names from the copra plantation times when the island was still populated by plantation workers from Tuamotu and Manihiki. Onouea is the village where settlers from Onotoa and Tabiteuea resided and established themselves during the initial re-settlement schemes, Mwakeitari where settlers from Mwakin, Marakei and Butaritari resided. Abaiang was once a copra plantation mark area so called for Abaiang copra cutters using it as a dancing rehearsal site. Just as Abaiang was a copra plantation mark area, Tekaaitara and Uteute were also copra plantation marked areas, now retained as names for villages. Lastly, Kauamwemwe’s name came from the fact that the settlers in Tangkore had to be moved twice due to the island council establishment and developments such as in the primary and JSS schools. ‘Kaua’ meaning twice while ‘mwemwe’ meaning lift or move. A tiny coral gravel airstrip on the northern coastline of Teeraina once existed in the 1970s, built by Dr. (PhD) Martin J. Vitousek. Dr. Vitousek had had this airfield built in support of the operation of meteorological data collections under the auspices of the Pacific Equatorial Research Laboratory (PERL). PERL was initially established in Tabuaeran to collect meteorological data from the Line Islands including Teeraina and some of those in the Phoenix group. The construction and completion of the airfield was a community event accomplished with manual labour of the islanders. The fact that there is now no air service for the Line Islands apart from the international flights to Christmas Island, has left Dr. Vitousek’s airfield overgrown with bushes and weeds as it has not been used since their meteorological data collection years. Since it’s founding, Teeraina continues to have copra as its main export seconded recently by sea cucumber, now a growing industry in Kiribati. Its nine villages are now home to the initial copra plantation workers intermarried with the re-settled families from the Gilbert group resulting in a mixture of northern, central and southern Kiribati with Polynesian (Manihiki and Tuamotu) customs and culture

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CHAPTER 3: TE MAURI – ENVIRONMENT, RESOURCES AND SOCIAL SERVICES 3.1 DEMOGRAPHY 3.1.1 Total population The 2005 census recorded a total population of 1,155 people on the island, an increase of 68 people since the 2000 census of 1087. Of this 1,155, there are 625 males and 530 females scattered throughout the island’s nine villages. Table 1: Population by village

No. Village Population

(Census 2000) Population

(Census 2005) 1 Abaiang 59 91 2 Kauamwemwe 109 106 3 Uteute 68 72 4 Kaaitara 27 34 5 Tangkore 120 203 6 Matanibike 316 191 7 Arabata 177 190 8 Mwakeitari 93 92 9 Onouea 118 176 TEERAINA 1087 1155

Source: SPC PopGis Fig 3: Teeraina population trend 1947-2005

Teeraina & Line group population trend

469

1371 11801472

2115

2633

4782

58186275

8809

11551087978936

451416458437373158

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

1947 1963 1968 1973 1978 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Census year

Pop

ulat

ion

in n

umbe

rs

Line group population trend

Teeraina population trend

The population trend has been slowly increasing over the years since 1947with the most significant increase

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occurring in 1985 coinciding with the first phase of the Government of Kiribati resettlement scheme when people from all over the Gilbert group (North, Central and South) were selected and re-settled in Teeraina to ease the congestion specifically in South Tarawa. 3.1.2 Growth rate According to the 2005 census Analytical report on place of residence 5 years before the census, there was a net-flow of people from the Gilbert Group including South Tarawa to the Line Islands. This flow could have contributed to the increased growth rate of Teeraina however; this migration pattern does not determine the number of people that migrated to Teeraina if at all but could be an attribute to Kiritimati island having the highest growth rate in the country. This recent migration to the Line Islands is but a reversal of the longtime trend of people migrating to South Tarawa and is a strategy of the government to ease the congestion in South Tarawa. However, simply put on its own, Teeraina’s population growth or change between 2000 and 2005 is 6.3% (Population difference of 2000 and 2005/2000 total population*100 – 1155-1087 = 68. 68/1087*100). Compared to its previous annual growth rate of 11.1%, the growth rate has declined by 4.9% (11.1%-6.3%). Nationally, the Line Islands growth rate was 6.7% per annum since the last 2000 census with the most significant in the Line Islands being that in Kiritimati Island. Of the 8,809 Line group total population, Teeraina contributes 1155 of the enumeration, a mere 13% of the overall Line group total population compared to the other two islands – Tabuaeran 29% and Kiritimati 58%. Kiritimati Island has the fastest national growth rate of 8% on average (2005 Analytical report) 3.1.3 Population Density Population density is defined as the number of people living within a square kilometer of land. This is calculated by dividing the number of people in a given location with the area of land. Table 1 below presents the population density by villages, showing that the population is dispersed throughout the nine villages of the islands with greater density in the village of Onouea, an increase in density since the 2000 census when the density was 738. The other significant change in population density is the decrease of the population from the Government station at Matanibike from 1374 to 830. This could be attributed to people securing government leases from the Government and moving from Matanibike to other villages on the island such as Onouea, Abaiang, Mwakeitari and the others. Table 2: Population Density by village

Village Village Land Area

(sq.km) Density 2000 Density 2005 Density Change

% Abaiang 0.15 393 607 54 Kauamwemwe 0.11 991 964 -3 Uteute 0.1 680 720 6 Kaaitara 0.12 225 283 26 Tangkore 0.36 333 564 69 Matanibike 0.23 1374 830 -40 Arabata 0.34 521 559 7 Mwakeitari 0.18 517 511 -1 Onouea 0.16 738 1100 49

Source: NSO 2005 census; PopGis Teeraina is approximately 14.2 sq. km. and of this, a mere 1.75 sq. km is being lived on or is where the population resides, generally around the coastline. Consequently as a whole, the population for Teeraina in the

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2005 census is at an average density of 81 (Total population divided/Total land area) people per square kilometer, a slight increase of 5% since the 2000 Census 76 people per square kilometer.

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3.1.4 Breakdown of Population Taking into consideration the distribution of the people according to age in villages, the following chart depicts the breakdown of the population throughout the villages of Teeraina as such. Fig. 4: Teeraina Population distribution by age group in villages

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Abaiang

Kauamwemwe

Uteute

Kaaitara

Tangkore

Matanibike

Arabwata

Mwakeitari

Onouea

Villa

ges

No. of people

70+ years50-69 years18-49 years15-17 years6-14 years2-5 years1 year old<1 year old

Source: 2005 Census of Population, NSO/MFED, 2007 In the villages of Arabwata and Tangkore, the highest proportion of the population over 70 years old can be found which is mostly due to both villages being the villages where the initial copra plantation workers settled during the copra plantation years. In recent years during the re-settlement years, owing to lack of transport and a very bad road, people preferred to live close to the government station. There are 5 elderlies, more than 70 years old in Arabwata and 4 in Tangkore. The dominating age group of 473 is that of 18-49 years old followed by 296 six to fourteen (6-14) year olds, 2-5 year olds (143), 50-69 year olds (82) ,), 15-17 year olds (75), those less than or one year old (71) and lastly the elderlies numbering 15. From the 2005 census, it portrays Teeraina as an island with a young population aged

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5-49 (72%), 8.4% aging population aged 50 to over 75 and 14.8% very young newborns to 4 year olds. 29% of the young population are less than 15 years old while 22% are 15 and older than 15 years old and thus a great proportion of these young people are still in school. 3.1.5 Population by Gender Statistics indicate that in 2005, males outnumber the females by 95 (625-530) and as depicted in the population pyramid in Fig 3 (Kiribati 2005 Census, Vol. 2: Analytical Report, SPC, Noumea, 2007, page 8), the most significant changes are:

• The sex ratio in 2000 was 123 males to 100 females (Total males/total females * 100) while the sex ratio in 2005 decreased at 118 males to 100 females

• Female children aged 0-4 declined while the males increased since the last census of 2000 • 5-9 aged males and females both increased since the census of 2000 • 10-14 aged females increased while the males showed any change • Males aged 15-19 increased while the females slight decreased • 20-24 aged males and females both decreased in numbers since the 2000 census • 45-59 aged females increased a lot more than the males increased since the 2000 census • Where the 60-64 females increased in 2005, the males decreased.

Fig. 5: Population pyramid, Teeraina 2000 (shaded area) and 2005

Teeraina 2000 (shaded) & 2005 (outlined)

150 100 50 0 50 100 150

0- 4

5- 9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65-69

70-74

75+

Age

Gro

ups

Number of persons

Males Females

Source: based on the 2005 Census Analytical Report, SPC, 2007

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3.1.6 Population distribution by religion Table 2 below illustrates the population distribution by religion for Teeraina in 2005. The two most dominant churches on the island are the Roman Catholic Church (RC) with 558 (48% of the island population) followers, and the Kiribati Protestant Church (KPC) with 517 (45%). Other religious denominations are the Bah’ai Faith with 57 followers (5%) and the Seventh Day Adventist Church (SDA) 20 followers (2%). Table 3: Population by Religious denomination 2005

Religion Population % Kiribati Protestant Church 520 45 Roman Catholic 558 48 Seventh Day Adventist 20 2 Bah’ai 57 5 TOTAL 1155 100

Source: 2005 Census of population, NSO/MFED Roman Catholics on Teeraina represent 1.1% of the 51144 total national RC followers, KPC Teeraina representing 1.6% of the 33042 total Kiribati protestant followers, the Bah’ai constituting 2.8% of the 2034 national Bah’ai followers and the SDA, 1.1% of the 1756 national SDA followers. The other minor denominations Church of God, Assemblies of God, Jehovah’s Witness, Pentecost are absent on the island including the fast growing church of the Mormons or Latter Day Saints. 3.1.7 Migration In 2000 the population of Teeraina was 1087, slightly lower compared to 1155 in 2005, an increase of 68 people in the last five years. This increase could be attributed to an in-migration from other parts of Kiribati for settlement, an increase in birth or inter-island marriages. Unfortunately, records of migration patterns are not up-to-date for the Line group of islands to determine the migration pattern for Teeraina itself. Reliable records show that in 1988 people from the Gilbert Islands were re-settled and migrated to Tabuaeran (Fanning) and Teraina (Washington) under the Northern Line Islands Resettlement Scheme. Since then, many people from the Gilbert Islands have moved to the Line Islands where there is greater opportunity to earn income and gain the benefit of free access to state-owned land and marine resources. Where Kiritimati and Tabuaeran now have the highest population growth rates in Kiribati, Teeraina’s population growth rate is smaller. Generally, as a newly populated land with free access to the land and marine resources, the people have no intention of migrating out. Instead only those attending schools, working on German ships or seeking better employment opportunities in Kiritimati or Tarawa make up the general migrants, most of the time with the intention of going back to the island.

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3.2 LAND RESOURCES The island’s main resources can be found in its vast untamed forest, vast freshwater lake and swamp areas in the forms of: 3.2.1 Terrestrial Flora Coconut trees grow untamed and so high in the forest, they form a canopy, preventing sunlight from reaching the ground thus the ground and soil are always moist. Concealed in this forest’s vastness is a forest of breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) trees that compete with the surrounding coconut trees for sunlight. The freshwater lake is surrounded by swampy areas where the ‘bwabwai’ grow, some wildly and others cultivated and bulrushes as far as can meet the eye. An interesting feature of the island is the tendency for different stands of trees to be found in one location. Some of these trees can be found on other parts of the island but the majority was observed to be found in one location only. The tropical almond, Terminalia catappa (kunikun) and ‘tekaitua’, Leucaena leucocephalus are plentiful in the village of Matanibike. Stands of ‘aronga’ (still to find its English and scientific name) and ‘te kanawa’ (Cordia subcordata) can be observed in the villages of Kauamwemwe as one drives towards Abaiang after which a large stand of ‘buka’ trees (Pisonia grandis), probably the second largest of its kind in Kiribati after the pisonia forest of Millennium Island (Caroline Island – Kepler, 1994). These pisonia trees are also very tall and have been known to trap some of the birds ignorant enough to rest and perch on the pisonia flower seeds. The pisonia flower seeds turn into sticky barbed seeds as they mature that stick onto nesting bird feathers and wings rendering them unable to fly. There are two breadfruit stands, one amidst the coconuts in the forest at Tekabi and the other smaller one in the village of Ueute/Tekaaitara. This latter breadfruit stand is not as high as those at Tekabi mostly due to it being controlled by the villagers by pruning or chopping off branches to enable re-growth and a more branched tree for easier climbing to harvest the fruit. All these trees individually provide:

• Building materials • Food – coconuts, breadfruit, pandanus, bwabwai, great lettuce tree • Income generating products – copra and local handicrafts • Home to birds • Oil scenting and cooking ingredients – coconuts, wart fern, great lettuce tree • Home and social ornamentals – flower trees and shrubs • Other potentialities – ‘bebe’ (growing coconut seedling food) as a ‘millionaire salad’

3.2.2 Terrestrial Fauna Pigs and chickens are the main animal resources on the island excluding the common rats (Polynesian rats – Rattus rattus) and the rest small animal life or insects. Coconut crabs are not that abundant as once related by returned visitors, however, land crabs are still plentiful on the island. Together, these three animals, pigs, chickens and land crabs provide alternative sources of meat to the islanders from the main source of meat on islands, that of fish. Dogs and cats are also present on the island but where cats are not eaten at all, dogs are eaten every now and then. Both are kept generally as domestic animals as house guards to unwanted visitors and rats. Dogs are also bred sometimes to have male progeny sent to relatives in Christmas Island where female dogs are prohibited – an incentive to guard the bird population on the island.

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3.2.3 Land and Marine Tenure The whole island (land, lake and sea) is owned solely by the Government of Kiribati leased out to the Kiribati people that came from all over the Gilbert group during the re-settlement schemes of 1989-1995. Beforehand, the island was used for copra schemes by such companies as the Burns Phillip (BP) Copra Company which operated on the island after the Second World War (WWII). Company employees from the Gilbert group were given free acres to live on during these re-settlement schemes. (More internet and literature research for land tenure) Settlers established villages during their settlements on the island and their family buildings were restricted to their leased acres. The rest of the land is free for all to utilize for their consumption, building material and income generation needs as in copra cutting. Like the rest of Kiribati, all sea and reef area in Teeraina is owned by the Government of Kiribati. Unlike the rest of the Kiribati islands, there are no names for the different reef flats that can be related to local Kiribati myths or clans etc, hardly any reef flats or sites in Teeraina have such clan mythical named reef flats. 3.2.4 Land Ownership and Land Use The General Land Use Plan for Teeraina (pictured below) is as follows:

• Villages (Red) – to provide for housing development in the existing and new village areas during the resettlement schemes, whilst providing support uses such as commercial businesses, port and other community facilities. All developments are to be in accordance with the Detailed Land Use Plan (DLUP) as prepared for the villages on the island.

• Pond reserves (Light blue) – to protect and reserve existing pond areas

• Wildlife and conservation areas (Green) – to protect and enhance the wildlife and marine resources of Teeraina

• Government and environmental areas (Grey) – to provide for agriculture, tourism, conservation and selected development, whilst protecting the overall environmental significance of the island

• Foreshore protection areas (Yellow) - to provide access to the foreshore and provide a buffer so as to protect the landform and vegetation from man-made and natural disasters

• Government reserved areas (Pink) – to reserve land subject to future Government developments and policies

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3.3 MARINE RESOURCES 3.3.1 Size of reef and Lagoon area Table 4: Size of Reef/Lagoon Island REF(sq.km) REEF Base (sq.km) Lagoon (sq.km) Land (sq.km) Teeraina NA NA 3 11.2

3.3.2 Fish resources and status The main and major source of protein to the islanders is fish. It can be found in both the ocean, reef flats and the freshwater lake. Owing to its natural feature, ocean fishing can be greatly constrained by rough weather whence fish from the lake, land crabs or tinned food are then used to supplement the absence of fish. Unfortunately, a fish or marine profile for the island of Teeraina has not been carried out yet. However skipjack tuna, sharks and other ocean fish are also common catches on the island including the following freshwater lake fish:

• Dusty Jack (Caranx sp.) – a trevally that seems to have made it’s home in the lakes of Teeraina • Tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) – this was introduced to the Gilbert group by the Agricultural Department as a

biological control of mosquitoes that was later considered by Gilbert islanders as a pest believing it to predate on milkfish

• Milkfish (Chano chanos) – a popular bony fish • ‘Tuna’ (Anguilla marmorata) – freshwater eel

It is difficult to quantify the fish resources of Teeraina, or any island for that matter. However, it is generally accepted that the bigger the reef area the larger the fish resource, particularly reef fish. Therefore it could be concluded that due to its small reef area Teeraina has a limited reef fish resource. Free migratory fish such as skipjacks and yellow fin tuna (te ati, te baiura, te ingimea) flying fish (te onauti) and shark (te bakoa) are always available with the most people into ocean fishing. The smallness of the reef area, combined with the fact that a great part of the reef flats in Teeraina by nature are submerged in water (sea) all year round, fishing in the ocean and freshwater lagoon remain the alternatives for the locals to get their major means of protein, fish. As in other small lagoon-less atolls, such as Makin, Tamana and Arorae in the Gilbert group of islands, the islanders can only rely mainly on deep ocean fishing for their livelihood and to a lesser extent on the freshwater marine resources such as the ’tuna’, trevally and the tilapia. In times of rough seas people simply switch to tinned food (mackerel, sardines, corned meat, and chicken) from the shops. 3.3.3 Pattern of fishing Figure 4 (below) categorizes fishing activity generally by area and method. The chart shows that the most frequented area for fishing is the ocean fishing with 154 households followed by the ocean flat (reef area) with 143 households, fishing in the freshwater lake with 110 households, net fishing with 72 households and 6 households fishing in the freshwater lake flats.

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Owing to it’s rough seas, reef (ocean) flat fishing is common consisting of the collection of shellfish, hooking of octopus, spear-fishing (katebe) of eels and other small fishes, rod fishing (roaroa), torch/pressure lamp or night fishing (kibee), and more. Even though it is also quite popular, ocean fishing on the other hand requires fishing boats and outboard engines in order to brave the high waves during times of need for fish. Canoes are also used for ocean fishing but only during calm seas. The ocean flat fishing includes fishing methods such as the general net fishing, diving, long lining, fly (night) fishing. It should also be noted that the freshwater lake in the centre of the islands also homes the dusky jack trevally (Caranx sexfaciatus), the tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus niloticus), the milkfish

(Chanos chanos) and the freshwater eel (Anguilla marmorata) known locally as the ‘tuna’. This eel’s name probably came from the initial Polynesian copra workers as this same freshwater eel is also known in New Zealand as the ‘tuna heke’. Teeraina is the only island known in Kiribati that has this freshwater eel species that is normally displayed to visitors to the island especially those from the Gilbert group but then the freshwater is unique to the island (2007 Oceandots article). The look and flesh is similar to that of the normal sea eels except that it has pectoral fins, lives in freshwater, body covered in thick phlegm requiring that it be scraped off before it can be cooked. It is locally reported that this skin phlegm if not ridden off, will give the meat a muddy taste most of the time rendering it inedible. Unlike the sea eel, the tuna is speared where the sea eel is trapped with the use of eel traps that require certain skill to construct. Fig. 6: Households and Fishing locations

Teeraina does not have a lagoon in the real sense therefore the freshwater lake is normally called it’s lagoon and at one point in time, before it was closed off by a bridge wall made of gravel, this lagoon was inundated by the normal coming and outings of the ocean tides. As further illustrated in the picture below, the only inlet (‘te tunga’) of the seawater has been further closed or controlled with the establishment of a wall

of gravel that not only serves to control the incoming seawater but also acts as a bridge or causeway to get from one side to the other. A seawater spout marks and can also be found and observed during the incoming tide on the reef where this inlet is located.

143

6

154

110

72

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Collecting onOcean Flat

Collecting onthe Lake Flat

Ocean Lake Net

Fishing locations

No. o

f Hou

seho

lds

Collecting on Ocean Flat

Collecting on the Lake FlatOcean

LakeNet

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3.3.4 Marine Developments With the construction of the gravel wall/bridge at the site of the seawater, it will put a risk to the population of the tuna, which literature state normally go to the sea to spawn and later migrate to the freshwater lake to live or grow up in. The locals did state that the tuna population seem to have declined over the years and presently, are more abundant during the rainy seasons when the lake water rise and merge with the sea during high tides. Sea cucumber, a growing industry beside seaweed production, has been developed and coordinated from Kiritimati Island. Agents from Kiritimati travel on routine ship schedules to the islands (Tabuaeran and Teraina) to collect harvested seaweed and sea cucumbers. Sea cucumbers are sorted in Kiritimati by the agents before they are sent back to the Tarawa in the Gilbert group of islands for further processing and export overseas. Different prices are accorded to the different species of these sea cucumbers with the black teat fish locally called ‘te rommamma’ (Holothuria nobilis) being the most expensive at AUD2.00/kg and the popular lolly fish (Holothuria nobilis) as the lowest at AUD0.30/kg. Table 5: Sea cucumber species in Kiribati

LOCAL NAMES COMMON NAMES SCIENTIFIC NAMES Buying Price/kg AUD

Buraerae Prickly redfish Theleanata ananas 1.50

Kanimnim Sand fish Holothuria scabra 1.30

Kiriin Green fish Stichopus cholornatus 1.70 Mmamma mai White teatfish Holothuria fuscogilna 2.00

Nautoonga Blackfish Actinopyga miliaris 0.30

Ntabanebane Lolly fish Holothuria nobilis 0.30

Ro mmamma Black teatfish Holothuria nobilis 2.00

Taika/te kuntaika Tiger leopard Bohadschia argus 1.30

Uraura Red surf Actinopyga mauritiana 1.80 Waeura Surf redfish Actinopyrga mauritiana 1.80

Chalkfish 1.10

Curryfish 1.10

Source: CPP Kiritimati 2007 3.3.5 Issues facing fishing and development of marine resources Due to its isolation and recent development (re-settlement and establishment of the Island Council), fishery development on the island is slow and presently non existent from the Government other than the promotion of sea cucumber fishing as a means of income generation to the islanders. The only decline noted during the visit in November 2007 by MISA visiting officers was that of the freshwater eels, the tuna, which as already mentioned could either be due to its harvest by an increasing population or the prevention of their spawning habits

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due to the construction of the gravel wall/bridge at the ‘tunga’. However, ocean fish still exist in great numbers according to the locals and the only issue is accessing the ocean through lack of outboard motorboats, the most convenient fishing transport for those wishing to harvest ocean fish. This issue of lack of outboard motorboats is but an issue of the people lacking capital to purchase such boats or their own unwillingness to buy the boats. Boat suppliers such as Kiribati Supplies Company Limited (KSCL) have recognized the need for boats and increased their imports to meet this demand. The tuna and other freshwater development would further enhance the resources in the freshwater lake of Teeraina as it is more accessible to the islanders when compared to fishing in the ocean. To this end, feasibility studies on the state of the freshwater lake and its resources could report the potentials for Teeraina in marine resource development. It remains to be confirmed if the construction of the gravel wall/bridge at the inlet has contributed to the locally stated decline in the ‘tuna’. An ice facility still has to be established on the island wherefore an abundant catch if unable to be sold out is either salted for later sun-drying or given out on credit to those requiring to do so. A steady supply of fishing equipment is also lacking with most fishing equipment sent in by relatives outside the island or by the locals themselves when traveling away and back to the island. With MV Momi servicing the islands of the Line group, it has greatly assisted in the transportation of preserved fish harvests for sale or to relatives in Kiritimati and Tabuaeran. 3.4 THE ENVIRONMENT 3.4.1 Environmental Issues The environment is not pristine anymore since it’s late habitation before the second world war by plantation workers from the Gilbert islands including French Polynesia, followed by the re-settlement schemes from 1989-1990 of the people in Gilbert groups. Erosion is not a problem presently on Teeraina contrasting to other parts of Kiribati where erosion is now a major issue. Presently, the population is just 1155 and as such, the marine and land resources are still plentiful for those living on the island other than the said decline in ‘tuna’. Coconuts are plentiful and still provide the main income generating product (copra) for the islanders of Teeraina. The nature of it’s vast coconut forest does not allow for roads to be built into the forest to access the inner parts of the forest and thus the people have to rely on boats and canoes as transport to access other parts of the island otherwise the main road that runs around the island is used to travel from one point to another. For collection of coconuts, pushbikes or walking on narrow manmade pathways allow access to the inner parts of the coconut forest to collect coconuts for copra. Teeraina has been noted by Forshaw 1989, Holyoak and Thibault 1984, as also home to Kuhl's or the flame-crested lorikeet (Vini kuhlii). On Teeraina 1,000 individuals minimum have been reported while on Tabuaeran, 50, perhaps less have been recorded on a single islet in the atoll. It is effectively confined to coconut plantations and is especially vulnerable to nest predation by rats and, in particular, to the ship rat (Rattus rattus) which is present on Tabuaeran (United Nations Environment Program – World Conservation Monitoring Centre). The Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) has been reported to exist on Teeraina even though this still has to be confirmed. The local name of the said lorikeet is ‘te

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kura’ (left) which could be a local pronunciation of ‘Kuhl’ or it could be an attribute to the bird’s bright colors which coincides with the bright colors of the knitting wool rolls also known locally as ‘te kura’. The Christmas Island warbler (te bokikokiko) is indigenous to Kiribati specifically Kiritimati where it harbors the population. The Christmas Island warbler, one of the noteworthy fauna of Teeraina in numerous reports and articles of the Line Islands including that provided by K. Teeb’aki, has now been declared by the Environment & Conservation Division of the MELAD (Ratita pers. comm..) as not present in Teeraina anymore. Apart from the issue of predation by ship rats (Rattus rattus), the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) has not been reported to predate on these bird eggs and therefore, the bird species are safe in that aspect. The only threat that the birds now face is the increase in exploitation of the land and freshwater resources by the increasing population of the island. The bog areas though are still untouched areas due to the risks of disappearing into the depth of the bogs as had occurred in one of the peat bogs in the coconut forest outside the village of Kauamwemwe. 3.5 EDUCATION The data used in this section are derived from the Educational Statistical Yearbook for the years 2004 to 2006. The data are compiled by head-teachers and submitted to the Statistical Unit of the Ministry of Education who carry out annual school surveys at each school and including data from the National Statistics Office at the Ministry of Finance in Bairiki. All the islands of Kiribati now have primary and junior secondary schools on them with the number depending on the population and land size of the islands i.e. There is only one Primary school and one JSS in Teeraina due to its conveniently small size and population. There is no pre-school as yet on Teeraina and thus children start their formal education in their 6th year when they start primary school. 3.5.1 Number of school age children, proportion enrolled in schools There are 5 types of schools within the formal education system in Kiribati, namely, pre-school, primary, junior secondary, combined junior/senior secondary, and senior secondary. The first 3 types of school, pre-school, primary and junior secondary, are independently located on every island for accessibility by all children of school age. Pre-school attendance generally starts at the age of 3 when the children are still learning to talk and continue until the child is 5 years old. At 6, formal education officially commences at Class 1 in the primary school for the children. At the age of 12, primary education continues for 6 years at which time, the children then enter Junior Secondary School after completing Class 6 in Primary schools.. They remain in JSS for 3 years before competing for a place in one of the various Senior Secondary Schools located mostly in South Tarawa and an increased number church schools belonging to the Roman Catholics, Kiribati Protestants, Mormons and the SDA respectively on the outer islands of the Gilbert group (See Table: for Kiribati combined and senior secondary schools).

- 34 -

- 35 -

3.5.2 Primary and JSS school proportional attendance The 2005 statistics recorded 237 pupils aged 6-12 years of which 228 (96%) were recorded as having attended school, 7 (3%) had left and 2 (1%) had never set foot inside the school or enrolled for reasons that could have been due to a lot of reasons as later explained. 6 of the pupils who left school were male with the 7th being a female. The two who never enrolled were females. Among reasons such as being disabled, poor beyond reason or plain parental ignorance of the importance of education, it is interesting to know that in this present age that there are still children who are not attending school. Those that left the school if not accorded to subsistence activities such as fishing, bwabwai cultivation and copra cutting, could have been due to unavoidable migration by parents or the search for better schools. In the Gilbert group trend, families and parents are inviting and sending children to South Tarawa to access schools there that are believed to offer quality training than on the outer islands. This trend has been slowly solved through the upgrading of present teacher training and existing teacher qualifications. The establishment of JSS on the outer islands has also helped considerably in stemming the flow of junior secondary students from the outer islands such as Teeraina to Kiritimati or South Tarawa. Fig 7: Primary and JSS school proportional attendance (2006)

Teeraina JSS overall student attendance was 62% out of 92 students for those that attended school of which 46% (26) were males and 54% (31) females in 2006. These JSS students are those between the ages of 13-15 and as evident, their attendance is poorer compared to the primary school attendees whose school attendance was 96% in 2006.

Table 6: Primary enrolment 2006 No. of Pupils No. of Teachers 2006

Total 2006

Total F M F M Sunlight Primary School 99 101 200 5 3 8 Total 99 101 200 5 3 8

96

3 1

62

32

7

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

At School Left School Never Been

School Attendance

Num

ber o

f sch

ool a

ttend

ees

PrimarySecondary

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Table 7: JSS Teraina, Junior Secondary Enrolments by Level, Age and Gender.

F M F M F M10 0 0 0 0 0 0 011 0 0 0 0 0 0 012 24 23 0 0 0 0 4713 0 0 24 17 0 0 4114 1 0 0 0 20 19 4015 0 0 0 0 1 3 416 0 0 0 0 0 1 117 0 0 0 0 0 0 018 0 0 0 0 0 0 019 0 0 0 0 0 0 020 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 25 23 24 17 21 23 133Total M+F

Form 1 Form 2 Form 3Total

48 41 44

JSS Teraina

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- 38 -

3.5.3 Breakdown of school enrolment at different levels There is only one primary school in Teeraina called ‘Sunlight Primary School’ situated at Matanibike. 200 pupils were enrolled at the school in 2006 and 8 teachers, approximately 1:25 teacher pupil ratio. Out of these 8 teachers, 7 of them are both qualified (those that have attained at least a minimum academic qualifications required by the national authorities for giving classes at schools in Kiribati and certified (have completed at Fig 8: 2006 Primary enrolments

least the minimum required teacher training of two years) teachers. For the whole island, like all the other outer islands of Kiribati, there is only one Junior Secondary School. As of 2006 the number of pupils enrolled in primary and junior secondary totals 329 of which 237 were still at the primary level and the rest 92 attending the JSS. The national teacher pupil ratio was 26 pupils to 1 qualified/certified teacher in 2006.

3.5.4 Percentage of pupils completing Primary and JSS In 2006 there was a total of 333 students in Teeraina of which 200 (60%) of them were in primary school while the rest 133 (40%) were at junior secondary school. The 200 primary school pupils comprised 101 males and 99 females while for the JSS, there were 71 females and 62 males. 100% of primary school pupils completed primary school since they first entered as Class 1 pupils while in contrast 92% of secondary school students completed their junior secondary school. Table 8: Enrolment in Primary and Junior Secondary Schools, Teeraina 2006 Primary School Junior Secondary School

Year Class 1

Class 2

Class 3

Class 4

Class 5

Class 6 TOTAL

Form 1

Form 2

Form 3 TOTAL

2005 2006 37 34 34 29 29 37 200 48 41 44 133

Source: Digest of Education Statistics, MOE, 2005 and 2006. NB: Figures are the same for 2005 and 2006 implying that survey papers were not received from Teeraina for the year 2006.

1

37 36

3129

3234

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Pupil Ages

Num

ber o

f pup

ils

- 39 -

- 40 -

3.5.5 Number of schools, type and state of facilities Teeraina has two types of school, a primary school called ‘Sunlight Primary School’ and a Junior Secondary School called the Teeraina JSS, both pictured below. Both schools are located on the boundaries between the villages of Matanibike and Tangkore. Sunlight primary school boasts three class rooms (divided into two each) that are in better condition compared to the recently established JSS that is already deteriorating mostly due to vandalism. Teacher living quarters are located nearby in the village of Matanibike and generally in not so good conditions but still habitable. Both school buildings are of the permanent type and as such are more durable when compared to those made from local materials as in the Gilbert group. Generally, classrooms are under the jurisdiction of the mother ministry or the Government while the teachers’ living quarters have to be provided and maintained by the Island Council. Like most schools in general in the Kiribati islands, there is a great lack of furniture for the schools and pupils especially in primary schools have to sit on the floor. Sunlight Primary School pupils are no exception to sitting on the floor while JSS students on the other hand, have desks and chairs, some needing maintenance and upgrading. Updates or information requiring maintenance work to be carried out is collected annually by officers from the Ministry of Works and Energy who have to include the following year’s budget. Funds for maintenance are either sent to the Island Council to carry out the maintenance or materials are bought and sent to the island council where school buildings are of permanent material. On the other hand, permanent buildings (pictures above and right) have not received any maintenance work for years since establishment, from the government.

School furniture is generally lacking, and it is not unusual to find pupils learning while sitting or lying on the ground specifically those at the primary level. Sunlight Primary School is no exception, nevertheless, JSS Teraina has sufficient desks and chairs to go by. To try to provide much needed funds the school administration and parents sometimes help the teachers and students launch fundraising activities in order to generate income to meet the cost of teaching materials and stationery.. Most of these fundraising activities are in the form of raffle tickets and clean up activities for individual households. .

3.5.6 Number of Teachers and Teacher/Pupil Ratio In 2006 Sunlight Primary school had 200 pupils with 8 teachers while JSS Teraina had 133 students with 5 teachers. Sunlight Primary School has a ratio of 25 pupils for 1 teacher (25:1) while JSS Teraina has 1 teacher

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per 27 students. Combined, the ratio for the two schools was 1 teacher per 26 pupils. This is the same with the national ratio for all primary schools in Kiribati which was 1 teacher to 26 students in 2006. Table 9: Number of Pupils, Teachers and Ratio

School Pupils Teachers Ratio Sunlight Primary School 200 8 25:1 JSS Teraina 133 5 27:1 333 13 26:1

Source: Digest of Education Statistics 2006 3.5.7 Performance of Pupils in national tests/exams In the formal education sector, children at pre-school and primary school levels transit to primary and JSS respectively without having to sit entrance examinations. This policy supports the concept of compulsory and accessible education for every child, especially at the early stages of formal education. Nevertheless, in Teeraina, the absence of a pre-school means that children start their formal education on reaching the primary school age of 6 years. At the end of JSS at Form 3 level, students must compete with each other nationally for the limited places available in Form 4 in any of the few Senior Secondary Schools in the country (See Table XX below). The students of Teeraina JSS therefore have to compete with all Form three students from all over Kiribati to secure entrance to Form 4 in the senior high schools. Generally, students in the Line Group tend to select Meleangi Tabai Secondary School in Tabuaeran and recently St. Francis and Spivey in Kiritimati but some still elect to further their studies in the Gilbert group of islands most of the time in the South Tarawa senior schools. Table 10: Combined and Senior Secondary schools in Kiribati

Name of School School Type Location 1 Chevalier School Senior Secondary (SS) Abemama 2 Church of God High School SS South Tarawa 3 George Eastman High School SS Nonouti 4 Hiram Bingham High School SS Beru 5 Immaculate Heart College SS North Tarawa 6 Kauma High School Combined Junior & Senior (CS) Abemama 7 King George V & Elaine Bernacchi SS South Tarawa 8 Meleangi Tabai High School SS Tabuaeran 9 Moroni High School CS South Tarawa 10 Sacred Heart High School SS South Tarawa 11 St Joseph's College SS Abaiang 12 St. Francis High School SS Kiritimati 13 St.Louis High School SS South Tarawa 14 Stephen Whitmee High School SS Abaiang 25 Teabike College SS Tabiteuea North 16 William Goward Memorial School SS South Tarawa

Source: Digest of Education Statistics 2006 The Digest of Education Statistics does not provide information on the performance of pupils in national examinations, and to this effect, the Ministry of Education has been requested to provide this important information for inclusion in the profiles when they are ready. 3.5.8 Community involvement to improve standard of education Normally the community does not interfere with the school curriculum as it is the responsibility of Government to

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design them to suit the ages being taught to and ensure their effective implementation. However the community, through the school committee, often takes the initiative to address a wide range of other issues, such as children and teachers comfort, security, staffing, sports, and many more. In a lot of cases, the teachers have to take the initiative and assign each pupil a specific task to do for a class activity or a school project at which times, the children always seek and are given help and support from families. This kind of help and support from individual families can take the form of money, food or their own involvement such as in the building of a school mwaneaba or a dancing practice etc. Over the past years the community has assisted both the primary and junior secondary schools especially in performing critical maintenance work on classrooms, offices and teacher residences. These buildings are by right the responsibility of Government who, in many cases has been very slow in providing the financial support needed to keep school infrastructure in good shape. Teeraina is not an exception in these slow provisions of financial support from the Government, However, the community continue to support their school children and their schools by being guardians of the school property as well as in provision of pupil/student’s school needs for school activities or other school requirements as may arise from time to time. 3.6 HEALTH “The Ministry of Health and Medical Services will provide optimal level of health to the people of Kiribati using a Primary Health Care (PHC) approach that promotes both prevention and curative services to improve outcomes through accessible, affordable, integrated, and quality services at every level of the health delivery system” This is the mission statement of the Ministry of Health and Medical Services contained in its Operational Plan for 2004-2007, which reflects the overall responsibility of the Ministry of Health and Medical Services for the nation as a whole. 3.6.1 Health Facilities & Staff There is only one active health centre on Teeraina comprising of a dispensary (below left), a quaint obstetrical facility and two wards. The medical centre is staffed by a Medical Assistant, a nurse and an aid assistant. There used to be two other clinics but these have broken down and are no longer operational. The medical centre is located at the Government station, has a CB radio that it uses solely to put in orders to the health centre in Kiritimati who then forwards the requests to the main hospital in Tarawa and, for emergency calls to Kiritimati Island. Emergencies in Teeraina are treated by the team of doctors at the medical centre in Kiritimati. Emergency cases are rare with only one recorded since 2000, a stabbing case. Unfortunately for the people of Teeraina, the absence of an airport means that all emergency cases have to be transported by ship and in cases where the sea is rough, transportation of emergency victims can be a nightmare. Doctors from Kiritimati in such emergency cases normally travel on the transport ship to meet and perform the preliminary medical care before accompanying the patients to the hospital in Kiritimati for further diagnosis and treatment. Other than MV Momi, ‘Betiraoi’, a fisheries vessel provide the emergency transport services as required. There are only two wards at this centre (pictured right) that are without cooking and toilet facilities. In-patients rely on their families to bring in food from the homes. Toilet requirements are fulfilled by either going back to their homes or by borrowing nearby neighbor toilet facilities. The dispensary and obstetrical ward themselves

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also do not have toilet facilities. This lack of toilet facilities is not that much of an issue presently to the medical staff as they live nearby and can always go back home as necessary but is an issue to the patients. A motor bike (Honda) provides the means of transport for the nurses to visit and treat patients at their individual homes and other emergency cases. In-patients admitted are rare numbering 1-3 a month with the longest in-patient having stayed in one of the wards for 131 days, over four and half months (Teeraina medical records). The most common diseases on the island according to the nurse are the common flu medically recorded as ARI cases and epigastric (abdominal) pains, the

latter most of the time due to worm infestations and ulcers. Worm infestation is quite high on Teeraina, an attribute of Teeraina’s high rainfall, abundance of water and poor sanitation or lack of proper toilet facilities. Consolidated health data collected from the Health Centre on the island in November 2007 turned out the following morbidity report for the years 2005-2006: 3.6.2 Most Common Health Problems Health data for the island from the Ministry of Health and Medical Services could not be accessed and thus will not be included in this profile. However, the most common health problems though according to the medical assistant on the island as already noted earlier are:

• Epigastric pains due to worms and ulcers • The common flu • Headaches • Sores • Coughing • High temperatures

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3.7 HOUSING 3.7.1 Total number of residential houses, type and status According to the 2005 census report, there are 198 households on Teeraina of which 24 (12%) are made up of permanent materials, 80 (40%) made from local materials, 93 (47%) a combination of both local and permanent imported materials and 1 (1%) was not stated. Fig. 9: Household types

The permanent buildings consist of imported materials such as cement (bricks), corrugated iron roof slats and chicken mesh wire. The latter is used as windows most of the time and is generally used as such throughout Kiribati. This is due to hot climate requiring that homes be conventionally breezy for more convenient living standards. The local buildings on the other hand are made solely from local materials found on the island using pandanus or coconut woven leaves as thatches for roofs and local tree wood for the frames and pillars. Some of

these local houses are built, raised from the ground to allow better air circulation and normally used as socializing quarters where meals and other family social activities are carried out. The combined houses are those made from both imported materials and can feature homes made of imported corrugated iron slats with local wood frames or vice versa. Local wood use and imported roof slats are the popular trend in house building nowadays as wood is plentiful on the islands while iron roof slats are permanent and do not have to be changed every 2 years or so compared to local thatching having to be replaced every 2-4 years depending on the type of thatch being used. This preference is reflected in most homes on the island made from a combination of local and imported materials as in the above chart. Generally, pandanus leaf thatches last longer than those made from coconut leaves but the duration though depends greatly on the climate. Where the climate is rainy most year round, both coconut and pandanus will not last as long as those in a drier climate. 3.7.2 Other issues Local materials for construction of local houses exist in abundance on the island and therefore housing is not an issue on Teeraina but the skills to build a local house could be an issue which at this point is not as people have constructed their own homes using local or combined materials. The availability of permanent building materials such as imported timber and roof slates though is an issue only to those requiring to build permanent homes or as according to some; ‘too lazy to build their homes with the abundant local materials’! These concern only those of private homes or households that would like to build permanent homes as permanent building materials are hard to come by on the islands. On the other hand, building of homes with imported materials is also a measure of wealth for some. The Island Council office, rest house, and schools are those that are of a major issue to those working or visiting the island. All seconded staff houses are in need of maintenance while the Clerk and Social Welfare

93

1

80

24

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Permanent Local Combination NS

Household type

Num

ber o

f hou

ses

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Officer have no houses at all and therefore have to live with relatives which in the case of the Clerk is in the village of Kauamwemwe, quite far from the Council. Housing is not much of an issue to the Social Welfare Officer as she lives in the village next to Matanibike where the clinic is near and quite welcomes the walk as a means of exercise. 3.8 WATER 3.8.1 Water Supply Sources The main water sources for drinking and sanitary purposes are rainwater and groundwater respectively. The groundwater drawn out from open wells is also used for drinking purposes, but due to the close proximity of some open wells to pit latrines, it has been generally promoted and advised that water for consumption should be boiled at all times, including rainwater. Generally, the annual rainfall data varies between all the islands in Kiribati. Teeraina has high rainfall throughout the year (2,970 -3,000mm on record) as reflected in its vegetation, soil and freshwater lake. The dry season, according to records, falls between the months of September to February, while the wet season begins in March and ends in August. The temperature ranges between 28˚ Celsius at dawn to 32˚ Celsius in the early afternoon. Cool ocean breezes play an important role in keeping the temperature down during hot days throughout the year. Fig. 10: Sources of water supply

From the 2005 census, 196 of the 198 house-holds main source of water is from an open well, 15 households also have access to rainwater, 3 from closed wells and 1 using bottled water from the shops. It remains a mystery that one household is using bottled water from the shops considering that no bottled water was observed to be on the shelves of the retail shops and Cooperative on the island but then the lone statistic using bottled water from the shops could be a visitor to the island as most visitors tend to bring their own bottled water supplies from Kiritimati.

Closed wells are those that have been sealed and is where hand or manual pumps are used. Open wells on the other hand are open with water drawn out by pails or tin cans. The only house pipe water system was observed in the rest house, said to be home to those during the copra plantation years, later used as the Clerk’s home and now as a rest house for visiting officials and others caring to visit the island.

150

196

3 10

50

100

150

200

250

Rain Pipe Open Well Closed Well Shop

Water supply sources

Num

ber o

f Hou

seho

lds

- 46 -

- 47 -

3.8.2 Status of Water Supply Water supply on Teeraina is not an issue and is abundant all over the island all year round even during periods of drought. This abundance of water could contribute to Teeraina not having many rainwater tanks and rare need for rainwater tanks in projects (see Teeraina Island Council projects). The only water issue relating to health is the abundance of worms and thus a high incidence of epigastric (nurse pers. Comm.) health problems encountered by the medical staff all year round. A notably well known worm prevalent on Teeraina is known locally as the ‘naautoonga’ and has been observed to be a prevalent issue on the island affecting mostly the children. The water supply otherwise is fresh and abundant all year round. 3.9 ENERGY 3.9.1 Fuel The traditional form of fuel is firewood, mainly in the form of coconut husks, dry coconut leaves and dead wood of existing vegetation and trees. Firewood is never an issue in Teeraina due to its vast coconut forest where an assorted number of trees grow without being cultivated such as breadfruit and pandanus. Due to the abundance of firewood and including coconuts, dried copra is becoming a popular fire fuel especially during the times when it rains or when the copra sheds and other storage facilities cannot take in any more copra. At these times when the copra storage facilities are overflowing with copra, some of the islanders collect the strewn copra to fuel household cooking fires rather than leave them to rot awaiting the next shipment to Kiritimati. Even though nowadays people are resorting to the use of modern technology to provide energy to meet their private and public needs such as kerosene, benzene and diesel are the other forms of energy that have been introduced to the island, wood, coconut husks and copra remain Teeraina’s main means of household fuel. These fuels are imported and distributed to all the outer islands by the Kiribati Oil Company (KOIL) subsidiary in Kiritimati. To reduce dependency on fossil-based fuel Government has been promoting the use of solar energy on the outer islands, through its company – the Kiribati Solar Energy Company Limited (KSECL). Over the last 3 years KSECL, with funding from the European Union, has installed more than 2000 stand alone solar photovoltaic systems throughout the Gilbert group excluding those in the Line Group of islands. The objective of this “Outer Island Electrification Project” is to enhance economic activity and improve children performance in school through the provision of affordable and efficient lighting, as well as to provide an alternative environment-friendly energy source that does not pollute the air. Unfortunately, Teeraina and Tabuaeran are not yet included in this outer island electrification project however, the KSECL has plans to extend this service to the Line Islands, starting off in Poland, Kiritimati Island (CEO pers.comm.)

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CHAPTER 4: TE RAOI – SOCIAL CAPITAL, COMMUNITY LIFE AND GOVERNANCE 4.1 LOCAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL CHANGE 4.1.1 The Mwaneaba System and ‘Unimwane’ Association The mwaneaba was and remains the most important institutional symbol and foundation of community life in Kiribati. Its importance is related to its function as the center of social life, where matters pertaining to the social, economic and political life of the community are discussed and resolved with the leadership of the ‘Unimwane’ Fig: 34: A local material made mwaneaba (below right) and one made from imported material (below right)

Beside the traditional function as a community hall, court of judgment/reconciliation, and sanctuary for all, the purpose of the mwaneaba has considerably widened to include shelter for the sick, storage facility for copra, fundraising venue, and more. Despite the additional uses invented for this culturally important structure, the system of governance and leadership that developed with and revolves around the mwaneaba has remained largely intact. This was the result, first of colonial support, and later on of Government’s recognition of the importance of traditional leadership vested in the ‘Unimwane’. In all Island Councils (outer island local governments) including Teeraina, there is a seat for a representative of the ‘Unimwane’ Association, who embodies the highest traditional authority on the island. Fig. 11: Structure of traditional authority

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Social change has caused a shift in communities from village orientation to that of religion hence village ‘mwaneabas’ are now being replaced by those owned by the different denominations on the island most notably the Roman Catholic and Kiribati Protestant Churches. The ‘mwaneaba’s importance however still remains the focal point for meetings and other social activities, only now, it is not for all in the village but for those belonging to the different denominations. These church mwaneabas function as the center of community life, where matters pertaining to their social, economic and political life of the community are discussed and still resolved with the leadership of the ‘Unimwane’ (the elderly men). This social change shift does not mean that islanders are now only interested in religious matters to the exclusion of village or island matters as a whole but rather, to make contributions to village and island matters from their individual denominations.

This traditional governing system is a system of planning, discussion, arrangement and management of focal issues such as social, political and economical significance carried out by the elders of each community district. Elders are therefore the representatives of community district profound to be having a position within the Mwaneaba. In times of our ancestors, Mwaneabas were usually made of local thatches woven out from pandanus leaves, with rock, coconut wood or even pandanus trunk posts/pillars. The constant need for renewal of such mwaneabas has

nowadays led people all over Kiribati to alternatively use permanent building materials such as galvanized roofing, concrete floor and posts made out of cement and timber imported from overseas or a mixture of both (above picture) to build their ‘mwaneabas’. The ‘mwaneaba’ above has pandanus trunks as pillars, a concrete foundation/floor and a galvanized roof. 4.1.2 Women Organizations A visit to the island council for collection of data showed that no women associations were yet registered with the Island Council, however, there are women associations within the different denominations on the island such as the RAK (Protestant Women’s Association) – a sub-division of the national RAK based in Antebuka in South Tarawa. The Roman Catholic women on the other hand also have their own individual church women groups simply calling themselves Catholic women groups. In general the women associations on Teeraina share the following objectives:

• To enhance their skill, capacity, capability and understanding of both traditional and new knowledge; • To promote the sharing of ideas and knowledge of traditional art and craft; • To promote healthy living for all families; • To work together to generate income for their own church needs and national church contributions; • To provide catering and cleaning support to their churches and council and lastly, • To enhance integration among women.

Like in the Gilbert group, a major fundraising activity for the women of Teeraina is to play bingo. It is at these bingo fundraising activities that the women from the different denominations mingle together in respect and

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support of each other’s fundraising activities. 4.1.3 Youth Association There is only one registered youth association on the island made up of all the youth from the different denominations on the island. This association was established in response to the Line Inter-island Championship and serves as an umbrella association for all youth from the different denominations on the island. However, each denomination has their own individual youth groups who assist them with their income generating activities to meet their national and island church contributions. Pictured on the right are the members of the youth association made up of all youth on the island practicing volleyball in the middle of the day, with the sun baring down on them. Due to the island’s late development, there are no sports or training facilities as yet for the youth to develop their sports talents. This make-do volleyball court is the foundation for one of the houses during the copra plantation years – a kind of copra shed that has long gone down due to age. Similar to the national youth sports competition in the Gilbert group of islands, the Line Island group are too far for them to take part in this national youth event, however, they have their own Line Group Youth sports competitions featuring the three most popular sports on the islands, football, volleyball and basketball. Teeraina youth also take part in these Line group events Most of the time, the youth themselves collectively make efforts to raise funds on their own with copra cutting as their main fundraising activity. At such times, when youth need funds for these national competitions, they are given priority at general income generating activities most specifically, during loading of copra onto ships. All come from over the island to load the copra onto boats for further loading onto visiting ships, MV Momi and other KSSL ships. 4.2 RELIGION 4.2.1 Main religious denominations Chapter 2 also discusses the composition of population by religious denomination. According to the 2005 census, the two most dominant churches on the island are the Roman Catholic Church (RC) with 558 (48% of the island population) followers, and the Kiribati Protestant Church (KPC) with 517 (45%). Other religious denominations are the Bah’ai Faith with 57 followers (5%) and the Seventh Day Adventist Church (SDA) with 20 followers (2%).