Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53 (2012) 3–14

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Tectonic evolution of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Guitang Pan a,b,⇑, Liquan Wang a, Rongshe Li c, Sihua Yuan d, Wenhua Ji c, Fuguang Yin a,Wanping Zhang a, Baodi Wang a

a Chengdu Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chengdu 610082, Chinab Qinghai-Xizang Center of Geology Research, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, Chinac Xi’an Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Xi’an 710054, Chinad Institute of Disaster Prevention, Yanjiao, Sanhe 101601, China

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 28 January 2011Received in revised form 6 December 2011Accepted 26 December 2011Available online 12 January 2012

Keywords:Qinghai-Tibet PlateauTethyan OceanComposite island arc-basin systemsGeological mappingTectonic evolution

1367-9120/$ - see front matter � 2012 Elsevier Ltd. Adoi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.12.018

⇑ Corresponding author at: Chengdu Institute of GeChina Geological Survey, 2# Yihuanlu Beisanduan, C+86 28 8322 0628 (O); fax: +86 28 8322 2657.

E-mail address: pguitang@cgs.cn (G. Pan).

a b s t r a c t

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, composed of several continental slivers within the eastern Tethyan domain, isone of the pivotal sites to examine to better understand the theory of plate tectonics and the orogenicevolution on Earth. This plateau is generally inferred to be a collage of several continental blocks that rif-ted from Gondwanaland and subsequently accreted to the Asian continent. However, recent recognitionof over twenty ophiolite mélange zones and their associated island arcs indicates that the traditionalmodel of tectonic evolution requires revision. Based on 177 recently finished 1:250,000 scale geologicalmaps and related studies, we summarize the main tectonic context of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and pro-pose a new integrated model to account for the new findings. The complex orogen of the immense Qing-hai-Tibet Plateau, consisting of multiple island arc-basin systems that developed at different stages whilesurrounded by the North China, Yangtze, Tarim, and Indian plates, is emphasized. The entire orogen, sur-rounded by suture zones that mark the locations of oceanic closure, is investigated by examining (I) thefirst-order tectonic units and ophiolitic mélanges (including arc–arc/continent collision zones) and (II)their internally enclosed blocks as the second-order tectonic units. Therefore, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateauis divided into three major orogenic systems, namely, from northeast to southwest, the Early PaleozoicQinling–Qilianshan–Kunlunshan (Qin–Qi–Kun), the Late Paleozoic–Triassic Qiangtang–Sanjiang, andthe Late Paleozoic to Cenozoic Gangdese–Himalaya orogenic systems, which are separated by theKangxiwa–Muzitagh–Maqin–Mianxian and the Bangong–Shuanghu–Changning–Menglian sutures,respectively. We propose that the formation and evolution of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau to have beenintrinsically related to those of the eastern Tethys, recorded by the Longmu Co-Shuanghu ophiolitemélange zone, the Southern Qiangtang Paleozoic accretionary arc-basin system, the Bangong–Nujiangsuture zone, and their associated, composite island arc-basin systems. The present-day Bangong–Shu-anghu–Changning–Menglian suture system marks the final closure of the Tethyan Ocean. The YarlungZangbo Ocean opened as a back-arc basin in response to the southward subduction of the Tethyan Oceanlithosphere in the Middle Triassic and closed as a result of the India–Asia collision at the end of Creta-ceous, followed by the northward indention of the Indian plate that resulted in significant intra-continen-tal deformation and plateau uplift in the Cenozoic.

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1. Introduction

It is very important to study the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau as a partof the eastern Tethyan domain to increase our understanding ofglobal tectonics, continental accretion, and ocean–land transfor-mation because of the unique tectonics and evolution of this pla-teau. Since the bloom of the plate tectonic theory in the 1960s,

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the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has been regarded as an ideal site forstudy to understand the plate tectonic theory and the processesassociated with the formation and evolution of continental orogenson earth. The Qinghai-Tibet plateau, which has traditionally beenconsidered to be composed of five suture zones and their interca-lated blocks for decades, is generally regarded as a collage of sev-eral continental fragments that rifted from Gondwanaland andthen accreted to the Asian continent (Chang and Cheng, 1973;Allegre et al., 1984; Dewey et al., 1988; Yin and Harrison, 2000).Nevertheless, a recently completed 1:250,000 scale geological sur-vey and associated studies indicate that this simple model needs tobe revised because it does not provide a logical interpretation for

4 G. Pan et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53 (2012) 3–14

the presence of over 20 recently discovered ophiolite mélangezones and island arc-basin systems (Li et al., 2004a; Pan et al.,2002a; Wang et al., 2004). This paper, based on the recently ob-tained data from this geological survey and studies, aims to (1)re-divide the tectonic units of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, (2) sum-marize their basic characteristics, and (3) present a new evolution-al model for the formation of the plateau. This study not onlyprovides a new tectonic framework of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateauand its adjacent areas but also an integrated geological settingfor better understanding the regional mineralization in differentgeological and tectonic units. In addition, because of the recogni-tion of the different tectonic boundaries reported in this paper, thisstudy also enhances our capacity to prevent and handle geologicaldisasters.

2. Tectonic framework of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The tectonic evolution of the global lithosphere involves theshift between continental and oceanic lithosphere. The continentallithosphere can be transformed into oceanic lithosphere throughrifting, while the latter can be converted into continental litho-sphere through subduction. The subduction of oceanic lithospherecan form several kinds of continental arcs and back-arc basins,namely, composite island arc-basin systems (Pan et al., 2004a,2009), the formation and evolution of which are a mark of the con-version of oceanic lithosphere into continental lithosphere. Duringthis conversion, a series of tectonic units, connected in their geody-namics but possibly differing in their evolution, can be shaped.Some of these units can disappear due to the subduction of oceaniclithosphere, and the remaining units are preserved in orogenicbelts that form the composite island arc-basin systems that canbe recognized today. Hence, tracking and recognizing the originof these tectonic units (including ophiolitic mélanges or subduc-tion-accretionary complexes and their enclosed blocks or micro-continents) in orogenic belts formed in diverse periods isexpected to provide important insights that help to better under-stand the evolution and transition between oceanic and continen-tal lithosphere.

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is not only a natural site to examineactive continent–continent collision, but also a key site to studythe evolution and transition between oceanic and continental lith-osphere over geological time. This plateau is an excellent place tostudy these processes because the first-order feature of the Qing-hai-Tibet plateau is that it is composed of huge orogenic systemsrelated to a series of composite island arc-basin systems formedin diverse periods, and the plateau is surrounded by the North Chi-na, Yangtze, Tarim, and Indian cratons. The formation of the hugeorogenic system of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has involved a seriesof geological processes related to oceanic lithosphere subduction,arc–arc/continent collision, such as the formation of the oceaniclithosphere subduction-related island arcs, subduction accretion-ary complexes, continental arcs, microcontinents, and their en-closed back-arc basins, inter-arc basins, and marginal sea basins.Such complicated geological processes are expected to be unrav-eled based on the analysis of the components, temporal–spatialfeatures and evolution of currently preserved geological recordsin the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

To date, many studies on the tectonic units and the evolution ofthe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau have been published over several dec-ades (Huang, 1945; S�engör, 1984; Chang et al., 1986; Wang andMo, 1995; Hsü et al., 1995; Pan et al., 1997, 2002b). This paper,based on 177 recently finished 1:250,000 scale geological mapsand associated studies, presents new tectonic units of the Qing-hai-Tibet Plateau delineated by performing a temporal–spatialstructural analysis of the comparative tectonics and the tectonic

facies to examine the temporal–spatial distribution, nature, andregional geophysics of key geological events. In this paper, thehuge orogenic belts surrounded by convergent crustal consump-tion zones (here, referred to as suture systems) that mark the loca-tions of oceanic closure (Wang, 1985) are considered as first-order(I) tectonic units and named after their geographic names plustheir first-order (I) tectonic attributes (e.g., Qin–Qi–Kun orogenicsystem) (Fig. 1); the ophiolite mélange (including arc–arc/conti-nent collision zone) and their internally enclosed blocks are con-sidered as second-order (II) tectonic units and named after theirgeographic name plus their second-order (II) tectonic attributes(e.g., Eastern Kunlun arc-basin system); and the geological unitsbounded by regional faults that were formed during an oceanic–continental transition (e.g., subduction complex, continental arc,back-arc basin, forearc basin, intraoceanic arc or oceanic arc, fore-land basin, retroarc foreland basin, pull-apart basin, epicontinentalrift or rift basin) are regarded as third-order (III) tectonic units andnamed after their geographic name plus their third-order (III)tectonic attributes (e.g., Northern Kunlun magmatic arc).

3. Main features of huge orogenic system

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau can be divided into three hugeorogenic systems, from northeast to southwest: (1) theQinling–Qilianshan–Kunlunshan, (2) the Qiangtang–Sanjiang, and(3) the Gangdese–Himalaya, which are bounded by theKangxiwa–Muzitagh–Maqin–Mianxian and Bangong–Shuanghu–Changning–Menglian suture systems, respectively (Fig. 1). Theplateau includes nine first-order, 37 s-order, and 81 third-ordertectonic units (Fig. 1; Table 1).

3.1. Early Paleozoic Qinling–Qilianshan–Kunlunshan (Qin–Qi–Kun)orogenic system of the Pan-Cathaysian continental margin

This orogenic system is situated as a huge belt to the north of theKangxiwa–Muzitagh–Maqin–Mianxian suture system and to thesouth of Tarim and North China cratons (Fig. 1). It is also referredto as the Central Orogenic Belt (Yin and Zhang, 1998) or CentralOrogenic System (Zhang et al., 2003). This system includes theZoulang back-arc basin, the Sunan–Tianzhu ophiolite mélange zone,the Zoulang Nanshan island-arc, the Yushigou–Yeniugou–Qingshui-gou (Northern Qilian) ophiolite mélange zone, the Central Qilian–Huangyuan block, the Danghe Nanshan–Lajishan ophiolite mélangezone, the Southern Qilian magma arc, the Zongwulongshan rift, theQuanji massif, the Tanjianshan magma arc, the Saishitengshan–Xitieshan (northern margin of the Qaidam basin) ophiolite mélangezone, the Hongliugou–Laipeiquan ophiolite mélange zone, the Cen-tral Altyn–Milanhe–Jinyanshan block, the Apa-Mangnai ophiolitemélange zone, the Qaidam block, the Hezuo-Lixian epicontinentalrift, the Xinghai–Zeku back-arc foreland basin, the Xiqingshan block,the Northern Qimantagh magma arc, the Qimantage ophiolitemélange zone, the Ayakeku Cenozoic fault basin, the Northern Kun-lun magma arc, the Elashan continent arc, the Saishitang–Xinghaiophiolite mélange zone, the Qiaerlong–Kuerliang back-arc rift basin,the Oytog–Tamuqi island-arc, the Kudi–Qimanyute ophiolitemélange zone, and the Liushitagh–Shangqihan magmatic arc (UnitIII and subunits; Fig. 2, Table 1). The Kunlun front arc developed inthe western margin of the Pan-Cathaysia continent in the EarlyPaleozoic. To the north of the Kunlun front arc, the Tarim, Qaidam,Qimantage, Altyn Tagh, Qilianshan, and Lajishan regions underwenta series of geological events during the Early Paleozoic, including, forexample, island-arc formation, back-arc spreading/subduction,arc–arc/continent collision. During the Devonian, most areasevolved into continental lithosphere as part of the southwesternmargin of the North China craton.

Fig. 1. Tectonic subdivision of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent areas.

G. Pan et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53 (2012) 3–14 5

The oldest zircons, obtained from the Delingha complex in theQuanji block, have U–Pb ages of 2300–2500 Ma (Lu et al., 2002,2006). No reliable chronological data are available in favor of theexistence of the Qin–Qi–Kun orogenic system in the Archean. Inthe late Paleoproterozoic era (2000–1800 Ma), tectonothermalevents such as crustal remelting, metamorphism, and magmaticemplacement were manifested. During the Mesoproterozoic, theTaxidaban Group volcanic rocks in western Kunlun formed underan intraoceanic arc setting (Guo et al., 2002). The basement ofthe Zoulangnanshan is composed of the Zhulongguan Group andthe Jingtieshan Group in Northern Qilain, while the basement ofthe Central Qilian magmatic arc is composed of the HuangyuanGroup. The emplacement of peraluminous calc-alkaline arc gran-ites during the early Neoproterozoic (850–1000 Ma), which in-truded into the Qaidam, Oulongbuluk, Altyn Tagh, Qilian, andNorthern Kunlun blocks, correspond with the coeval magmaticactivities in the Yangtze craton, implying a possible link with theYangtze craton. In the Qin–Qi–Kun orogenic system, the Cryoge-nian Baiyanggou Group (Northern Qilian), the lower HuangyuanGroup (Central Qilian), and the Quanji Group in Oulongbuluk con-tain glacial-marine diamictites, which can be compared with theTereiaiken tillites in Tarim and the Nantuo tillites in the Yangtzecraton (Lu et al., 2006). These geological observations, togetherwith the presence of bimodal volcanic rocks in different blocks ofthe pre-Cryogenian metamorphic basement (Li et al., 2003a), aremost likely associated with the opening of the proto-TethyanOcean. Thus, the breakup between the Tarim and the Yangtze cra-tons possibly indicates the formation of the proto-Tethyan Ocean.The other blocks (e.g., Qaidam, Qilian, Northern Kunlun, AltynTagh) that lie between these two cratons are possibly continentalfragment remnants in the proto-Tethyan Ocean.

During the Early Paleozoic, the tectonic evolution of the Qin–Qi–Kun orogenic system was most likely associated with the north-ward subduction of the proto-Tethyan Ocean lithosphere and thesouthward subduction of the ancient Asia Ocean lithosphere, whichis similar to the development of the composite island-arc basin sys-tem in southeastern Asia that was controlled by the opposite

subduction of the Indian and the Pacific oceanic lithospheres.Intermediate to felsic intrusives are widely exposed in the nearlyEW-striking Northern Kunlun magmatic front. In the region theOrdovician granitoids (472–439 Ma) are dominated by diorite andgranodiorite with calc-alkaline I-type granite affinity, implying asubduction environment. The Silurian intrusive rocks in the North-ern Kunlun magmatic arc are characterized by a spatial zonation.In the north, the granitoids are dominated by granodiorite andmonzogranite of 389–420 Ma, displaying geochemical signaturesof S-type granite; in the south, the granitoids are geochemically sim-ilar to the Ordovician subduction-related granites. The large Carbon-iferous–Permian batholiths consist mainly of diorites, granodiorites,and monzogranites (251–351 Ma) and are medium- to high-K calc-alkaline series. The Lower to Middle Triassic records are dominatedby a set of littoral facies-deep water turbidite facies clastic rocks andintermediate to felsic volcanic rocks interlayered with carbonateswith an unconformity above the subduction accretionary complex.The volcanic rocks are composed mainly of calc-alkaline series withminor calc-alkaline to alkaline transitional series and can be inter-preted as have formed in a fore-arc tectonic setting from subductionto collision. The Upper Triassic intrusions consist mainly of interme-diate to felsic volcanic rocks and terrestrial clastic rocks. Thevolcanic rocks, which are calc-alkaline, calc-alkaline to alkaline tran-sitional series, and alkaline series, have been dated to 183–226 Ma(Che et al., 1995). These rocks are likely emplaced in an arc–conti-nent collision environment that is quite similar to the Andean activecontinent marginal arc. The Triassic intrusives are dominated byLate Triassic granites (204–237 Ma) with minor amounts of EarlyMiddle Triassic granites (Hao et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2003). Theserocks are characterized by high potassium contents relative to theCarboniferous–Permian rocks, indicating a tectonic setting devel-oped from a syn-collision (T1-2) to a post-collision (T3). Moreover,the Late Triassic granites contain abundant mafic to ultramaficenclaves, including serpentinized peridotite, pegmatitic hornblendegabbro, pyroxenite, medium- to fine-grained hornblende gabbro,and diorite; the gabbro enclave and host granite are of the sameage at ca. 225 Ma (Liu et al., 2004a), indicating an extensive

Table 1Tectonic units of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau compound orogenic system.

I North China Craton V5 Qangdo-Langping blockI1 Alax block V5-1 Zhiduo–Jiangda–Weixi continental arc (P2–T3)

II Tarim Craton V5-2 Jingdong–Lvchun continental arc (P2–T3)II1 Dunhuang block V5-3 Qangdo-Lanping dual retroarc foreland basin (Mz)

II1-1 Dunhuang basement (Pt) uplift belt V5-4 Kaixinling–Zaduo–Zhuka continental arc (P2–T3)II1-2 Northern Altyn continental nuclei (Ar) V5-5 Yunxian–Jinghong continental arc (P2–T3)

II2 Tarim Craton V6 Ulan Ul Hu-Noth Lacangjiang suture zone (C–T2)II2-1 Tarim basin V7 Northern Qiangang–Tianshuihai blockII2-2 Southwest Tarim foreland thrust belt V7-1 Tashikuergan–Tianshuihai massifII2-3 Tiekelike basement (Pt1-2) uplift belt V7-2 Nuola Kangri continental arc (T3)

III Qin–Qi–kun orogenic system V7-3 Northern Qiangtang massif (T3–J retroarc foreland basin)III1 Northern Qilian arc-basin system V7-4 Nadi Kangri–Geladandong continental arc (T3)

III1-1 Zoulang backarc basin (O–S) VI Bangong–Shuanghu–Changning–Menglian suture systemIII1-2 Sunan–Tianzhu ophiolite mélange zone VI1 Longmuco–Shuanghu–Leiwuqi suture zoneIII1-3 Zoulang Nanshan island arc (O–S1) VI1-1 Longmuco–Shuanghu ophiolite mélange zone (S–T2?)

III2 Nothern Qilian suture zone (Pz1) VI1-2 Tuohepingco–Chaduo Kangri accretion complex (C–T2)III3 Central Qilian–Huangyuan block VI1-3 Leiwuqi–Qudeng ophiolite mélange zone (D–T2?)III4 Southern Qilian arc-basin system VI2 Southern Qiangtang accretional arc-basin system

III4-1 Danhe Nanshan–Lajishan ophiolite mélange zone (O–S1) VI2-1 Duoma massif (Pz)III4-2 Southern Qiliang magmatic arc (O–D1) VI2-2 Southern Qiangtang remanent basin (Pz accretion complex)III4-3 Zongwulongshan rift basin (C–T) VI2-3 Zhapu–Duobuza magmatic arc (J2–K1)III4-4 Quanji massif VI3 Zuogong massif (T2–J foreland basin)III4-5 Tanjiashan magmatic arc (O) VI4 Biluoxueshan–Chongshan block

III5 Saishitengshan–Xitieshan suture zone (Pz1) VI5 Lingcang–Lancang blockIII6 Altyn arc-basin system VI6 Bangong–Nujiang suture zone

III6-1 Hongliugou–Lapeiquan ophilite mélange zone (Pz1) VI6-1 Bangong–Nujiang ophiolite mélange zone (D–K1)III6-2 Central Altyn–Milan–Jiyanshan massif VI6-2 Nierong remanent arc (Pz)III6-3 Apa-Mangai ophiolite mélange zone (Pz1) VI6-3 Jiayuqiao remanent arc (Pz)

III7 Qaidam block VI7 Changning–Menlian suture zone (D–T2)III8 Western Qiling arc basin system VII Gangdese–Himalaya orogenic system

III8-1 Hezuo–Lixian epicontinental rift basin (Pz2) VII1 Ladakh–Gangdese–Chayu arc-basin systemIII8-2 Xinhai–Zeku retroarc foreland basin VII1-1 Nagqu–Luolong forearc basin (T2–K)III8-3 Xiqingshan massif VII1-2 Nganglong Kangri–Baingoin–Tengchong magmatic arc (J–K1)

III9 Eastern Kunlun arc-basin system VII1-3 Shiquanhe–Namco–Jiali ophiolite mélange zone (J–K1)III9-1 Northern Qimantagh magmatic arc (C–P) VII1-4 Coqen–Xainza magmatic arc (J–K1)III9-2 Qimantagh ophiolite mélange zone (Pz1) VII1-5 Lungar–Gongbo Gyamda compound island arc (P–K)III9-3 Ayakuke Lake faulted depression (Cz) VII1-6 Ladakh–Gangdese–Xiachayu magmatic arc (J–E)III9-4 Northern Kunlun magmatic arc (O, P–T) VII1-7 Xigaze forearc basin (K)III9-5 Elashan continental arc (T2) VII2 Baoshan blockIII9-6 Saishitang–Xinhai ophiolite mélange zone (T) VII3 Indus–Yarlung Tsangbo suture zone

III10 Western Kunlun arc basin system VII3-1 Yarlung Zangbo ophiolite mélange zone (T–K)III10-1 Qiarlong–Kuerliang backarc rift basin (C–P) VII3-2 Langjiexue accretionary wedge (T3)III10-2 Oytog–Tamuqi island arc (O, P) VII3-3 Zhongba massif (Pz)III10-3 Kudi–Qimanyute ophiolite mélange zone (Pz1) VII4 Himalaya blockIII10-4 Liushitagh–Shaqihan magmatic arc (C–P) VII4-1 Lhago Kangri passive margin basin

IV Kangxiwar–Muzitagh–Maqin–Mianxian suture system VII4-2 Northern Himalaya carbonate platformIV1 Kangxiwar–Subashi ophiolite mélange zone (Pz) VII4-3 Higher Himalaya basement complexIV2 Muzitagh–Xidatang ophiolite mélange zone (Pz) VII4-4 Lesser Himalaya passive margin basinIV3 Burhan Buda ophiolite mélange zone (Pz2) VII5 Burma arc-basin systemIV4 Buqingshan–Maduo–Maqin accretionary complex (Pz2–T) VII5-1 Naga–Araka accretionary wedgeIV5 Mianxian–Lueyang ophiolite mélange zone (P–T) VII5-2 Saramati Mt. ophiolite mélange zone

V Qiangtang–Sanjiang orogenic system VII5-3 Central Burma volcanic arcV1 Yulongtagh–Bayan Har foreland basin (T3) VII5-4 Myitkyina ophiolite mélange zone

V1-1 Motianling massif (Pz) VIII Yangtze continental platformV1-2 Kalatagh foreland basin (T3) VIII1 Upper Yangtze platformV1-3 Hoh Xil-Songpan foreland basin (T3) VIII1-1 Western Yangtze passive margin basin (Pz)V1-4 Luhuo–Daofu rift basin VIII1-2 Yanyuan–Lijiang depression (Mz)V1-5 Yajiang remanent basin (T3) VIII1-3 Chuxiong foreland basin (Mz)

V2 Ganze–Litang arc-basin system (P2-T3) VIII1-4 Kangdian basement complex (Neoproterozoic rift basin)V2-1 Garze–Litang ophiolite mélange zone (P2–T3) VIII1-5 Eastern Yunnan carbonate platform (Pz)V2-2 Yidun–Shaluli island arc (T3) VIII1-6 Western Sihuan foreland basinV2-3 Mian’ge–Qingdarou backarc basin (T3) IX Indian craton

V3 Zhongza–Zhongdian blockV4 Jingshajiang–Ailaoshan Suture zone (D-T2)

6 G. Pan et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53 (2012) 3–14

magmatic underplating and mixing in the Northern Kunlun mag-matic arc during the Late Triassic.

In Southern Kunlun, the Early Paleozoic Nachitai Group (O–S) iscomposed mainly of sub-abyssal to abyssal siliceous and argilla-ceous flysch, together with intermediate to basic volcanic rocks.This group has been strongly deformed and sheared, generally dis-playing a tectonic style similar to an accretionary complex. TheEarly Paleozoic mafic to ultramafic rocks occur as slices or blockswithin the Nachitai Group volcano-sedimentary rocks. Hence, this

paper attributes the Lower Paleozoic Wangbaogou Group in South-ern Kunlun that is synchronous with the Nachitai Group to anaccretionary complex that formed during oceanic lithosphere sub-duction. Among the Late Paleozoic Muzitage ophiolite mélangezone, the serpentinized peridotites and basalts occur as blocks ofvarying sizes within a sheared flysch matrix. The basalts showgeochemical characteristics of normal mid-ocean ridge basalt(N-MORB). The Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic sedimentarysequences are composed of extensive siliceous–lime–argillaceous

Fig. 2. Tectonic nature of different units in the Early Paleozoic Qinling–Qilianshan–Kunlunshan (Qin–Qi–Kun) orogenic system.

G. Pan et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53 (2012) 3–14 7

rocks with basic volcanic rocks that formed in a semi-abyssal toabyssal basin. The presence of radiolarian fossils (e.g., Lundbladis-pora sp.) found in these siliceous rocks indicates an Early Triassicage. These rocks are strongly sheared and deformed, but onlymetamorphose to greenschist facies, forming the major compo-nents of the matrix of the Late Paleozoic Buqingshan–Maduo–Ma-qin accretionary complex zone.

The Qimantage, Altyn Tagh, and Qilianshan areas north of theKunlun fore-arc underwent island-arc development, back-arc basinspreading, subduction, arc–arc/continent collision and formed aseries of composite island arc-basin systems during the Cryogenianto Early Paleozoic (Fig. 2). The Devonian molasses lying with anunconformity above its underlying sequences are indicative of anintercontinental setting for these areas, which were accreted tothe southwestern margin of the North China craton. Rift basinslikely developed in places (e.g., Zongwulongshan) during the Car-boniferous-Permian.

3.2. Late Paleozoic–Triassic Qiangtang–Sanjiang orogenic system ofthe Pan-Cathaysia continental margin

Located to the south of the Kangxiwa–Muzitagh–Maqin–Mianx-ian suture system and to the north of Bangong–Shuanghu–Chang-ning–Menglian suture system, this orogenic system covers a seriesof subtectonic units (Fig. 1), including the Motianling block, theKalatagh foreland basin, the Hoh Xil-Songpan foreland basin, theLuhuo–Daofu rift (ophiolite mélange zone?), the Yajiang remnantbasin, the Ganzi–Litang ophiolite mélange zone, the Yidun–Shaluliisland-arc, the Mian’ge-Qingdarou backarc basin, the Zhongzha–Zhongdian block, the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan ophiolite mélangezone, the Kaixinling–Zaduo–Zhuka continent marginal arc, theYunxian–Jinghong continent marginal arc, the Ulan Ul Hu ophiolitemélange zone, the Northern Lancangjiang ophiolite mélange zone,the Tashikuergan–Tianshuihai massif, the Northern Qiangtangmassif, the Nadi Kangri–Geladandong continent marginal arc, theBiluoxueshan–Chongshan block, and the Lincang–Lancang block(Fig. 3; Table 1).

The Tanggula–Ta’niantaweng remnant arc, separated from theKunlun front arc and Kang–Dian continent marginal arc, formsthe front arc of the Late Paleozoic Qiangtang–Sanjiang compositeisland arc-basin systems (Fig. 3) (Pan et al., 1997). The Qiang-tang–Sanjiang orogenic system was rifted in the Late Paleozoicera, as evidenced by (1) the Hoh Xil diabasic dykes (hornblende40Ar/39Ar age of 346 Ma), the Yushu–Jinshajiang Carboniferouscumulate gabbros, the dyke swarms, and the pillow basalts; (2)

the Northern Lancangjiang Late Devonian–Carboniferous rift ba-sins; and (3) the Carboniferous-Permian radiolarian–bearing sili-ceous rocks in different tectonic units. All of these observationsimply that a composite island arc-basin tectonic pattern (Panet al., 1997, 2004b) was formed with small oceanic basins inter-spersed among rifted blocks. The contemporaneous rifting mayhave affected the Northern Kunlun and Southern Qilian–WesternQinling areas. In Northern Qiangtang, in the Changdu–Lanpingand Zhongdian blocks, the Carboniferous and Permian biologicalassemblages bear features of Tethyan warm-water fauna, very sim-ilar to those of the Yangtze craton. During the Middle to Late Perm-ian, in most of the small oceanic basins, such as the SouthernKunlun, the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan, and the Ulan Ul Hu-NorthernLancangjiang, the oceanic lithosphere began to subduct andformed continental margin magmatic arcs along the southern mar-gin of the Northern Qiangtang, Zaduo–Leiwuqi, and Jiangda–Deq-ing areas (Fig. 3).

During the Early-Middle Triassic, most of these oceanic basinscontinued to subduct. The Bayan Har area, located between Qiang-tang–Sanjiang and Kunlun, converted into remnant oceanic basins(Fig. 3). In Kunlun (Northern and Central Kunlun) and the areas toits north, the pre-Triassic rocks were overlain by the Lower–MiddleTriassic sequences with an unconformity, and the Bayan Har, thesouthern Tanggula’nan basin, and the Zuogong basin convertedinto foreland basins during the Late Triassic, indicating that a col-lision-related orogeny was completed prior to the Middle to LateTriassic. During the Late Triassic, the Qiangtang–Sanjiang andHoh Xil-Bayan Har blocks had already been jointed together withthe Qin–Qi–Kun area.

3.3. Late Paleozoic–Cenozoic Gangdese–Himalaya orogenic system ofthe Northern Gondwana margin

The Late Paleozoic–Cenozoic Gangdese–Himalaya orogenicsystem is located to the south of the Bangong–Shuanghu–Chang-ning–Menglian suture system (Fig. 1). This system consists of theNaqu–Luolong forearc basin, the Nganglong Kangri–Baingoin–Tengchong magmatic arc, the Shiquanhe–Xainza–Jiali ophiolitemélange zone, the Coqen–Xainza magmatic arc, the Lunggar–Gon-gbo’gyamda compound island-arc, the Ladakh–Gangdese–Xiac-hayu magmatic arc, the Xigaze fore-arc basin, the Baoshan block,the Yarlung Zangbo ophiolite mélange zone (Fig. 4), the Langjiexueaccretionary wedge, the Zhongba block, the Lhagoi Kangri passivecontinent marginal basin, the Northern Himalayan carbonateplatform, the High Himalayan basement complex, the Lesser

Fig. 3. Tectonic nature of different units in the Late Paleozoic–Triassic Qiangtang–Sanjiang orogenic system.

Fig. 4. Tectonic nature of different units in the Late Paleozoic–Cenozoic Gangdese–Himalaya orogenic system.

8 G. Pan et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53 (2012) 3–14

Himalayan passive continental margin, the Najia–Alagan fore-arcaccretionary wedge, the Saramati ophiolite mélange zone, theCentral Burma volcanic arc, and the Mizhina ophiolite mélangezone (Table 1).

A regional geological survey indicates that the Gangdese bearssimilar Paleozoic metamorphic rocks to the Himalaya. The graptolitefossil-bearing basal Ordovician in the Gangdese is similar to the ba-sal Ordovician containing an unconformity above the Proterozoicmetamorphic basement (e.g., the Nyalam Group and the Lhagoi Kan-gri Group) in the Himalaya (Liang, 2004). This similarity, combinedwith the presence of the Cambrian-Middle Ordovician magmaticrocks and their inherited zircons with ages of 451–562 Ma that havebeen documented in basement metamorphic rocks (Li et al., 2004a,2004b; Xia et al., 2008b; Ji et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2012), indicates thatthe Gangdese shares a similar Pan-African basement to theHimalaya (Liang, 2004; Pan et al., 2006, 2004d). From the EarlyPaleozoic until the Devonian period, the Gangdese–Himalayaformed a stable and wide platform that tectonically belonged tothe passive continental margin (Pan et al., 1997, 2004d) south ofthe Tethyan Ocean. The Boshulaling–Gaoligong magmatic arc canbe considered as the Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic front arc along thenorthern margin of Gondwana, and the Nyainrong uplift and Jiayu-qiao metamorphic units are its remnant blocks. The continentward

side of the frontal arc underwent processes such as Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic Gangdese–Himalaya back-arc spreading, compositeisland arc-basin system formation, and arc–arc/continent collision.

The Gangdese is generally named the Lhasa block (Dewey et al.,1988; Yin and Harrison, 2000), Lhasa Terrane (Zhu et al., 2009b,2009c, 2010, 2011a, 2011b, submitted for publication), or the Gang-dese orogenic belt (Pan et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2006a, 2009a, 2009d).Its tectonic subdivision and evolution remains the subject of muchdebate (Pan et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2010, 2011a, 2011b). Recent re-gional 1:250,000 scale geological survey, mineral resource assess-ments, and associated studies have confirmed the presence of aseries of tectonomagmatic records, such as the Cambrian volcanicrocks in Xianza (501 ± 2 Ma; Ji et al., 2009) and SE Nyima (ca.492 Ma; Zhu et al., 2012), the Early Permian monzogranite to thesouth of the Jiali fault (286 ± 18 Ma), the Late Permian Songdohigh-pressure eclogite zone (262 ± 5 Ma; Yang et al., 2009), the LatePermian Pikang peraluminous granite (263 ± 2 Ma; Zhu et al.,2009b), the Late Triassic Namling peraluminous granite (Li et al.,2003b; Zhu et al., 2011a), and the widespread occurrence of Creta-ceous magmatic rocks (Zhu et al., 2006a, 2009a, 2009c, 2009d,2011a). These findings provide important constraints on the pre-Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the northern margin of Gondwana.Abundant zircon U–Pb chronological and Hf-isotope data indicate

G. Pan et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53 (2012) 3–14 9

that the central part of the Gangdese was once a microcontinentwith ancient basement rocks of Proterozoic and Archean ages, whileits southern and northern parts are characterized by the existenceof juvenile crust (Zhu et al., 2009c, 2009d, 2011a), which developedfrom the southward subduction of the Bangong–Nujiang Tethyanoceanic lithosphere before�110 Ma and the northward subductionof the Yarlung Zangbo Neo-Tethyan oceanic lithosphere since theEarly Cretaceous (Zhu et al., 2006a, 2009c, 2009d, 2011a). There-fore, the Gangdese is probably a compound orogenic belt with theLunggar–Nyainqêntanglha as the major nucleus, which underwentsix arc-forming growths in the Carboniferous–Permian, Early-Mid-dle Triassic, Late Triassic, Early-Middle Jurassic, Late Jurassic–EarlyCretaceous, and Late Cretaceous–Eocene time periods (Fig. 4) andthe related arc–arc/continent collisions, with its final amalgama-tion occurring in the Late Cenozoic (Pan et al., 2006).

The Yarlung Zangbo ophiolite mélange zone immediately southof the Gangdese contains complete ophiolitic assemblages that arethe best relic of ophiolite recorded on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateauor even in China. The Middle-Late Triassic and Jurassic–Early Cre-taceous radiolarian fossil assemblages (Zhu et al., 2004) and theEarly Jurassic (zircon SHRIMP U–Pb age of 191.4 ± 4.7 Ma) andEarly Cretaceous diabases within the Yarlung Zangbo ophiolitemélange zone indicate that the Yarlung Zangbo ocean possiblyopened in the Middle Triassic and only bore features of a back-arc rift basin in the Carboniferous–Permian (Pan et al., 2004b;Pan et al., 2006).

4. Site of the final closure of the Tethyan ocean: the Bangong–Shuanghu–Changning–Menglian suture system

The Bangong–Shuanghu–Changning–Menglian suture system issituated in the central Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 1) and com-posed of the Longmu Co-Shuanghu ophiolite mélange zone, theTuoheping Co-Chaduo Kangri oceanic island accretionary complex,the Duoma accretionary block, the Southern Qiangtang remnantbasin, the Zhapu–Duobuza magmatic arc, the Zuogong block, theBangong–Nujiang ophiolite mélange zone, the Nyainrong remnantblock, the Jiayuqiao remnant arc, and the Changning–Menglianophiolite mélange zone. The widely exposed Paleozoic–Mesozoicophiolites, the ophiolitic mélanges, the accretionary complex, andthe Proterozoic basement and the Paleozoic ‘‘tectonic blocks’’ inthe Bangong–Shuanghu–Changning–Menglian suture system rep-resent the geological relics of the final closure of the Paleo-TethyanOcean and bear abundant information concerning the formationand evolution of the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean in the Qinghai-TibetanPlateau. This zone is a vital and vast joint zone that separates theGondwanan and Laurasia–Pan-Cathaysia continental lithospheres(Li, 2008; Li et al., 2006a; Pan et al., 2004c; Wang et al., 2008a).

The Longmu Co-Shuanghu ophiolite mélange zone has beenproposed for decades (Li, 1987). The presently recognized LongmuCo-Shuanghu suture zone is exposed around Gangmari–Gemuri–Jiaomuri–Mayi Kangri–Qiagelela. Its matrix is composed mainlyof Carboniferous–Permian low-grade metamorphic conglomerate-bearing slate, sandstone, slate and strongly deformed middle-tohigh-pressure metamorphic rocks (blueschist, greenschist, mylo-nite, etc.). The tectonic bodies of this suture zone include ultra-mafic rocks, cumulate gabbros, pillow basalts, radiolarian cherts,crystalline limestones, marble, and gabbroic–diabasic dykes. Thesefeatures are similar to those of a subduction accretionary complex.

The Paleozoic ophiolites within the Longmu Co-Shuanghu ophi-olite mélange zone are composed mainly of Ordovician–Silurianophiolite, Permian ophiolite, Carboniferous–Permian oceanic is-land–ridge basalt, gabbro–diabase dykes, Devonian–Permian andTriassic radiolarian cherts, and a Permian oceanic island–seamountain accretionary complex. The Ordovician–Silurian ophiolite

mainly includes pyroxene peridotite, cumulate pyroxenite, cumu-late gabbro, albite, and pillow basalt. Zircons from the cumulategabbro were found to have SHRIMP U–Pb ages of 467 ± 4 Ma,461 ± 7 Ma, 460 ± 8 Ma, 438 ± 11 Ma, and 431.7 ± 6.9 Ma (Li et al.,2008; Wang et al., 2008a), and this cumulate gabbro has aMORB-type geochemistry. The Permian ophiolite consists mainlyof pyroxene peridotite, olivine pyroxenite, gabbro-diabase, olivinegabbro-diabase, pillow basalt, and radiolarian chert and was prob-ably formed in a mid-oceanic ridge setting (Zhai et al., 2006). Tothe east of Shuanghu near northern Caiduochaka, the dark siliceousrocks contain radiolarian fossils from the Devonian (Famenian) andPermian periods (Zhu et al., 2006b). All of these observations indi-cate that the formation of the Longmu Co-Shuanghu TethyanOcean can be tracked back to at least the Middle Ordovician-EarlySilurian. This ocean is the geological relic of the Proto-to Paleo-Tethyan Ocean, and it is also the oldest Tethyan oceanic crust reliccurrently recognized in the central-southern suture zones of theQinghai-Tibet Plateau.

The central Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau also contains middle tohigh-pressure metamorphic rocks (including eclogite, blueschist,and phengite schist) (Kapp et al., 2000; Zhai et al., 2011a, 2011b),which are spatially associated with the Longmu Co-Shuanghuophiolite mélange zone. Blueschist has two metamorphic episodes,late Early Permian and Late Triassic. The former is exposed inGangmari and has glaucophane 40Ar/39Ar ages of 275.0 ± 0.9 Maand 282.4 ± 0.8 Ma (Deng et al., 2000; Deng et al., 2001). The latteris found in Gemucuo and Hongjishanduomuchaka and has a glau-cophane 40Ar/39Ar age of 236.8 ± 4.5 Ma and phengite 40Ar/39Arages of 219.3 ± 1.5 Ma and 217.2 ± 1.8 Ma (Li et al., 2006b). BothMORB- and OIB-type geochemical varieties are present in theblueschist.

To the north of the Longmu Co-Shuanghu ophiolite mélangezone, the Upper Triassic sequence unconformably overlies itsunderlying strata (Fu et al., 2010), marking the final closure ofthe Paleo-Tethyan ocean, represented by the Longmu Co-Shuanghuophiolite mélange zone.

To the south of the Longmu Co-Shuanghu ophiolite mélangezone, the Southern Qiangtang arc-basin system contains reef-bear-ing carbonates interlayered with clastic rocks formed in isolatedplatforms and pillowed tholeiites, basaltic breccias, and carbonatesformed in oceanic islands/sea mountains of Carboniferous–Permianage. These volcanic rocks are compositionally diverse, including (1) aE-MORB-type geochemistry observed in the basic volcanic rocks ofthe Lower Carboniferous Chameng Formation, (2) OIB- and MORB-type geochemistries documented in the basic volcanic rocks of theMiddle Permian Longge Formation, and (3) an oceanic island-arcgeochemistry that is present in the volcanic rocks from the UpperCarboniferous–Lower Permian Zhanjin Formation, Lower PermianQudi Formation, Middle Permian Tunlonggongba Formation, andUpper Permian Jipuri’a Formation, which have characteristics of tho-leiitic basic volcanic rocks to high-potassium calc-alkaline interme-diate-basic varieties. The rock association of the Lower–MiddleTriassic includes shallow-sea to deep-water continental shelf clasticrocks and carbonate interlayered with basalt. The Late Triassic oliv-ine tholeiite, spilite, and basaltic tuff display the geochemicalfeatures of basalts formed in a sea mountain-oceanic island setting.Hence, it is concluded that most of the Paleozoic sequences in theSouthern Qiangtang basin can be considered to be oceanic islandaccretionary wedge complexes that are covered with the Triassic(mainly Upper Triassic) sequence in a fore-arc accretionary marginalsea basin.

To the south of the Southern Qiangtang arc-basin system, theBangong–Nujiang ophiolite mélange zone includes not onlyMORB-type ophiolite (Shi et al., 2005) but also supra-subductionzone (SSZ)-type ophiolite (Shi et al., 2005; Shi, 2007), oceanic is-land-sea mountain basalt (Wang et al., 2005), and oceanic ridge

10 G. Pan et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53 (2012) 3–14

plagiogranite (Zhang et al., 2007). The available chronological data,such as the Late Carboniferous Bitu abyssal radiolarian cherts(Albaillella sp., Pseudoalbaillella sp. fossils), the Triassic–Jurassicradiolarian fossils (Wang et al., 2002), the Late Permian Dingqingcumulate gabbro (SIMS zircon U–Pb age of 217.8 ± 1.6 Ma) (Qiang-ba et al., 2009), the Early Jurassic Dongqiao cumulate gabbro (zir-con SHRIMP U–Pb age of 187.8 ± 3.7 Ma) (Xia et al., 2008a), theLate Triassic Gaize Shemalagou gabbro (zircon SHRIMP U–Pb ageof 221.6 ± 2.1 Ma) (Qiu et al., 2004) in Gaize, and the Late JurassicBangong gabbro (zircon SHRIMP U–Pb age of 167.0 ± 1.4 Ma) (Shi,2007), together with the presence of unconformities between theUpper Triassic in the east, Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous inthe central, and Upper Cretaceous in the west of the Bangong–Nuji-ang ophiolite mélange zone, and their underlying strata (Pan et al.,2004d; Kapp et al., 2003), indicate that the Bangong–Nujiang oceannot only existed at least from the Carboniferous to Early Cretaceousbut was also closed progressively from east to west.

Integrating the geological observations (e.g., the oceanic ridgeophiolite–ophiolitic mélange and the oceanic island accretionarycomplex), isotopic geochronological data, geochemical data, andabyssal radiolarian cherts, we propose that the Longmu Co-Shu-anghu ophiolite mélange zone, the Southern Qiangtang accretion-ary arc-basin system, and the Bangong–Nujiang ophiolitemélange zone represent a huge suture zone marking the site ofthe final closure of the Qinghai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean. The north-ward subduction of this Tethyan ocean lithosphere during the LatePaleozoic led to the formation of the Qiangtang–Sanjiang compos-ite island arc-basin system, and the southward subduction of thisTethyan ocean lithosphere can account for the presence of the Car-boniferous–Permian continent-arc volcanic rocks (Wang et al.,2008b), the emplacement of the Permian Pikang granite (Zhuet al., 2009b), and the formation of the Permian Songdo oceanicsubduction-type eclogite (Yang et al., 2009) in the Gangdese. Theglaucophane 40Ar/39Ar age of 275.0–282.4 Ma (Deng et al., 2001)obtained for the Longmu Co-Shuanghu ophiolite mélange zonemay indicate that an accretionary tectonothermal event was asso-ciated with the early subduction of the Qinghai-Tibetan TethyanOcean.

5. Evolution of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau compound orogenicsystem

The formation and evolution of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateaucompound orogenic system are related intrinsically to those ofthe Qinghai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean recorded by the Longmu Co-Shuanghu mélange zone, the Southern Qiangtang Paleozoic accre-tionary arc-basin system, and the Bangong–Nujiang mélange zone,as well as the composite island arc-basin systems that developedin the adjacent continental margin (Fig. 5).

5.1. Pre-Cambrian

The Yangtze, North China, and Tarim cratons outside of theQinghai-Tibetan Plateau underwent continental nucleus formationin the Paleoarchean, Meso to Neoarchean cratonization (basementformation stage) resulting from the ocean–continent transition inthe Mesoarchean to Proterozoic and post-collision rift events(e.g., the Mesoproterozoic rift event in North China, the Cryogenianrift events in Yangtze and Tarim), followed by clastic sedimenta-tion and the development of a carbonate platform to form a stablecrustal tectonic unit (the thick platform cover formation stage).The Himalaya in the southern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau experienceda tectonothermal event during 500–600 Ma that resulted in theformation of the Pan-African metamorphic basement that has been

covered by continuous sedimentation since the Ordovician (Panet al., 1997, 2004d).

5.2. Paleozoic

To the north of the Qinghai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean, the Qin–Qi–Kun orogenic system was affected by the northward subduction ofthe Qinghai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean lithosphere and the southwardsubduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean lithosphere during the EarlyPaleozoic. The ophiolites and ophiolite mélange zones preservedin the Central Kunlun, Qimantagh, Apa-Mangnai, Northern Qaidam,Yema’nanshan–Lajishan, Northern Qilian, and Northern Qinlingareas document the histories of composite island-arc formation,back-arc spreading, back-arc basin closure, arc–arc collision, andarc–continent collision during the Early Paleozoic. The convergencethat occurred at the end of Early Paleozoic time led to the finalamalgamation of the regions north of the Southern Kunlun subduc-tion accretionary complex, which became part of the southwesternmargin of the North China craton. This convergence is mainlydocumented by an angular unconformity between the Devoniansequence and its underlying strata in the Qin–Qi–Kun area.

To the south of the Qinghai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean, thePan-African orogenic event is recorded in the basal Ordoviciansequence in the Himalaya, followed by the passive continentalmargin sedimentation (over 10,000 m thick) south of the Qing-hai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean for over �500 Ma. During the Carbonif-erous–Permian, the northern margin of Gondwana and its adjacentTethyan Ocean developed conglomerate-bearing sandstone andslate (of glacial-marine origin at the continental margin) and sili-ceous mudstone and distal turbidite (abyssal basin) with ice-raftand deglaciation conglomerates.

During the Carboniferous, the southward subduction of theBangong–Nujiang Tethyan Ocean (Hsü et al., 1995; Pan et al.,1997, 2009) led to the shift from a stable passive continental mar-gin to an active continental margin at the northern margin ofGondwana, the emplacement of the continental margin arc volca-nism in the Gangdese in the Carboniferous-Permian, and the tho-leiitic magmatism in the Himalaya in the Permian (Garzantiet al., 1999; Zhu et al., 2010). As a result, a paleogeography, fromnorth to south, comprises the Carboniferous–Permian continentalmargin arc in the Gangdese, the back-arc rift basin in the YarlungZangbo, and the continental margin rift basin in the Himalaya pres-ent at the northern margin of Gondwana (Fig. 5).

5.3. Mesozoic

In the southwestern Pan-Cathaysia continents and the northernTethyan Ocean, most oceanic basins, except for a possible oceanicbasin spreading in Xiewu–Ganzi, continued to subduct in theEarly-Middle Triassic, leading to a closure of the rift basin. TheBayan Har area located between Qiangtang–Sanjiang and Kunlunbecame the remnant oceanic basin. During the Late Triassic, theQiangtang–Sanjiang composite orogenic system accreted to theNorth China and Yangtze craton margin, forming part of the south-western margin of Asian continent.

During the Early to Middle Triassic, an active continental mar-gin was still present in the Gangdese as revealed by the Chaqupucontinental arc volcanism and the formation of the Yarlung Zangboinitial rift basin. In the northwestern Nagqu, the Middle Triassicradiolarian cherts, basalts, and carbonate gravity current sedi-ments possibly indicate that the rock assemblages in the fore-arcare related to the southward subduction of the Tethyan Ocean.During the Late Triassic, the continued southward subduction ofthe Tethyan Ocean led to the formation of the Jiali–Bomi intra-arc rift basin and the Quehala forearc basin. As the Yarlung Zangboback-arc oceanic basin developed continuously, the Gangdese

Fig. 5. Schematic diagrams showing the evolution of the Qinghai-Tibetan orogenic system. The Gondwana passive continental margin south of the Qinghai-Tibetan TethyanOcean and the Qinling–Qilianshan–Kunlunshan (Qin–Qi–Kun) composite island arc-basin systems north of this ocean characterize the Cambrian–Devonian evolutionalhistory; the northward subduction of the Qinghai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean lithosphere and the southward subduction of the Qinghai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean lithosphere led,respectively, to the formation of the Qiangtang–Sanjiang composite island arc-basin systems to the north of this ocean and to the shift from a passive continental margin to anactive continental margin to the south of this ocean during the Carboniferous–Triassic. This model emphasizes the importance of the Qinghai–Tibetan Tethyan Oceanrecorded by the Longmu Co-Shuanghu mélange zone, the Southern Qiangtang Paleozoic accretionary arc-basin system, the Bangong–Nujiang mélange zone, and thecomposite island arc-basin systems that developed at its abutting continental margin to understanding the formation and evolution of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau compoundorogenic system.

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separated from Indian plate. During the Early-Middle Jurassic, thedevelopment of the Yeba volcanic arc (Zhu et al., 2008), whichexhibits features of bimodal volcanic rocks in the southern marginof Gangdese, indicates that the initial northward subduction of theYarlung Zangbo oceanic basin occurred by means of low-angle sub-duction. The Lagongtang arc magmatism in the northern margin ofthe Gangdese likely developed at an extensional setting that wascontrolled by the low-angle southward subduction of the Ban-gong–Nujiang Tethyan Ocean lithosphere. Moreover, the south-ward subduction of the Tethyan Ocean possibly resulted in theopening of the Jiali–Bomi Ocean that originated from an inter-arcrift basin and shaped the Boshulaling island-arc. During the LateJurassic, a composite island arc-basin system was present in theGangdese, where the Sangri group accretionary arc developed atits southern margin, the Zenong and Baingoin magmatic arcsoccurred in its northern margin, and the Shiquehe–Lago Co-Yongzhu–Nam Co-Jiali inter-arc rift basin located between theZenong and Baingoin magmatic arcs further developed into alimited small oceanic basin (Fig. 5).

During the Early Cretaceous, a bi-directional subduction systemrelated to the southward subduction of the Bangong–NujiangTethyan Ocean lithosphere and to the northward subduction ofthe Yarlung Zangbo Tethyan Ocean might have been active in theGangdese, resulting in the closure of the Shiquehe–Lago Co-Yon-gzhu–Nam Co-Jiali inter-arc oceanic basin. The retrogressive sub-duction of the Bangong–Nujiang Tethyan Ocean lithosphere ledto the formation of the Dongqia Co accretionary arc. In the easternTethyan Himalaya, the development of the 132 Ma Comei LargeIgneous Province (LIP) led to the breakup of eastern Gondwana(Zhu et al., 2009e). During the Late Cretaceous, the Gangdese com-pound island-arc zone collided strongly with the Asian continentbecause of the final closure of the Bangong–Nujiang TethyanOcean, subsequently receiving voluminous molasse sediments ina retro-arc foreland area as indicated by the narrow but thickUpper Cretaceous Jingzhushan Formation. With the continuednorthward subduction of the Yarlung Zangbo oceanic basin, thenewly formed southern Gangdese magmatic arc overlying the exit-ing Yeba and Sangri volcanic arcs accreted to the south of the Lung-gar–Nyainqêntanglha compound island-arc zone, resulting in abroad lateral arc accretion. The deposition of the marine-terrige-nous facies recorded by the Shexing Formation developed in theback-arc area, while the Xigaze abyssal turbidite, submarine fandeposition and continental shelf carbonate deposition developedin the fore-arc area that is related to the northward subductionof the Yarlung Zangbo oceanic basin. The India–Asia collision thatoccurred at the end of the Cretaceous to Eocene time periods(Mo et al., 2008) led to the final closure of the remnant YarlungZangbo Tethys sea, the formation of the Cordillera-type subductionorogeny in the southern Gangdese, and the development of thefold-thrust zone in the central-northern Gangdese and the strike-slip pull-apart zone in the Bangong–Nujiang zone.

5.4. Cenozoic

During the late Eocene-early Oligocene, the Gangdese started torise and shaped the basic framework of the mountains and basinsof the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The continuous intracontinentalconvergence during the Cenozoic exerted a strong S–N compres-sion on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent areas, reacti-vating the early E–W faults and leading to formation of new thrustnappes, which largely shortened and, therefore, thickened thecrust in the S–N direction and triggered the fast uplift of the Qing-hai-Tibetan Plateau. The strong intracontinental convergence inthe early Miocene resulted in the formation of the Main CentralThrust (MCT) and the Southern Tibet Detachment System (STDS)(Fig. 1), as well as the vertical extrusion of the High Himalaya

(Burchfiel et al., 1992). The Tibetan plateau may have achievedits present elevation and size in the Miocene (Chung et al., 2005;Xia et al., 2011). During the middle to late Miocene, the MainBoundary Thrust (MBT) formed, the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateautopography extended further into the Qaidam basin, Altyn Tagh,Qilianshan, eastern Longmenshan, and western Qinling, formingthe archetype of the present-day Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The tec-tonic events that occurred in the late Early Pleistocene shaped thepresent-day crust architecture of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

In general, during the Cenozoic, three tectonic regimes becameestablished in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, including the conver-gent compression in the Himalaya–Gangdese, the strike-slip rampthrust in the Sanjiang–Bayan Har, and the vertical strike-slip thrustin the Qin–Qi–Kun area.

6. Conclusion

The Qinghai-Tibetan Tethyan Ocean, which originated from thebreakup of Rodinia, is a composite island arc-basin system that iscomposed of a series of large ophiolitic (mélange) zones, variablekinds of island arcs, and asynchronous rifted blocks. The formationand evolution of the Qinghai-Tibetan compound orogenic system isclosely related to those of the Tethyan Ocean, represented by theLongmu Co-Shuanghu suture zone, the Southern Qiangtang Paleo-zoic accretionary arc-basin system, and the Bangong–Nujiang su-ture zone, and to those of the composite island arc-basin systemsthat developed at its adjacent continental margin. The Early Paleo-zoic Qin–Qi–Kun composite island arc-basin system became partof the southwestern margin of the North China and Pan-Cathaysiancontinents in the Devonian. The Qiangtang–Sanjiang composite is-land-arc system accreted to the margin of the North China andYangtze cratons during the Late Triassic forming part of the south-western margin of the Asian continent. The Gangdese is a com-pound orogenic zone formed with the Lunggar–Nyainqêntanglhaas a nucleus, which underwent six arc-formed accretions in theCarboniferous–Permian, Early-Middle Triassic, Late Triassic,Early-Middle Jurassic, Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous, and Late Cre-taceous–Eocene, as well as the related arc–arc collision and conti-nent–continent collision. The India–Asia collision in the lateCretaceous–Eocene was followed by a strong intracontinental con-vergence that shaped the present-day Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Professor Sun-Lin Chung for inviting us tosubmit this contribution to this special volume of JAES, ProfessorsSun-Lin Chung, Clark Burchfiel, and Xuanxue Mo for their construc-tive comments, and Professor Bor-ming Jahn for editorial com-ments. We also thank Tianzhu Ye, Jun Ding, Jian Wang, YuxunZhuang, Gangyi Zhai, Zhiliang Chen, Qinghui Xiao, Songnian Lu,Yimin Feng, Jinfu Deng, Kexin Zhang, Xiaohan Liu, Guocan Wang,and Jiankang Zheng for useful discussions. We thank Bor-ming Jahn,Sun-Lin Chung, and Jiayu Lu for their encouragement and guidance,and B.C. Burchfiel, Xuanxue Mo, Zengqian Hou, Sun-Lin Chung, andDi-Cheng Zhu for comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.This research was financially supported by the National Key Projectfor Basic Research of China (Project 2009CB421003) and theRegional Geological Survey Achievements and ComprehensiveStudy in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China Geological Survey.

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