TECHNICIAN ENGINEERING TRAINING AND EMPLOYABILITY IN

KENYA:

FOCUS ON THIKA AND MERU TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTES

SAMSON IKINYA KARIUKI

THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN AFRICA

July, 2013

i

Technician Engineering Training and Employability in Kenya:

Focus on Thika and Meru Technical Training Institutes

Samson Ikinya Kariuki

Student Number: 1017473

A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Educational Research and

Evaluation in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Education

Faculty of Education

The Catholic University of Eastern Africa

July, 2013

ii

Declaration

Declaration by the Candidate

This dissertation is my original work and has not been presented for publication

anywhere, or for any award in any university, college, or institution. No part of this work

can be copied without the permission of the author and The Catholic University of

Eastern Africa.

Sign … …… Date …12th Sept 2013………

Ikinya Samson Kariuki

Student Number: 1017473

Approval by the Supervisors

This dissertation was conducted under our supervision. The final report is submitted with

our approval as university supervisors.

Sign … Date …14th Sept 2013……

Prof. Maurice Amutabi (PhD)

Associate Professor of Social Sciences,

The Catholic University of Eastern Africa

Sign … Date …12th Sept 2013…

Dr. Ngigi S. Kang’ethe

Lecturer, Faculty of Education

The Catholic University of Eastern Africa

iii

Dedication

This work is dedicated to my wife Winnie Muthoni Ikinya, lovely children Patience

Wachuka and Caleb Kariuki and my parents, for their extensive support, care and

sacrifice that enabled me to reach this far.

iv

Acknowledgements

My heart overflows with thanks to the Almighty God for enabling me to reach

this far. This piece of work could not have been a success without the contribution of

several individuals, groups of people and institutions to whom I am very much indebted.

It has not been possible to mention all of those people here, but mention has been made of

a few individuals for their special contribution.

I wish to express sincere appreciation to all the lecturers in the Faculty of

Education for having guided me through the course. Their efforts clarified most of the

areas related to my study variables and made the conceptualization of the study problem

much easier. I wish to express special gratitude to my Supervisors and Mentors, Prof.

Maurice Amutabi and Dr. Ngigi S. Kang’ethe whose careful guidance transformed my

original crude ideas into what has been presented here. My course mates, thank you for

your bright contributions and my wife Winnie Muthoni Ikinya for having read through

the drafts and for making suggestions that helped me polish the work.

Special thanks also go to the Technician engineering graduates, Management of

Thika and Meru Technical Training Institutes, Heads of department, trainers, employers

in various industries and all participants for their enthusiasm and willingness to

participate in the study. To Higher Education Loans Board (HELB) for the PhD

Scholarship awarded to me that enabled completion of these study. Kenya Institute of

Curriculum Development and Kenyatta University for resources. Finally, I whole-

heartedly thank everybody who contributed in one way or another towards the successful

completion of this work

v

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

AU The African Union

AUTOCAD Automated Computer Aided Drawing

CNC Computer Numerical Control

EBK Engineers Board of Kenya

GDP Gross Domestic Product

ICT Information Communication Technology

ILO International Labour Organisation

KAM Kenya Association of Manufacturers

KESSP Kenya Education Sector Support Program

KICD Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development

KIHBS Kenya Integrated Household Budget

KNEC Kenya National Examinations Council

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MOHE Ministry of Higher Education

MoHEST Ministry of Higher Education Science & Technology

TEP Technical Education Program

TET Technician Engineering Training

TVET Technical, Vocational Education and Training

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

vi

Abstract

Technician Engineering Training (TET) is a component within the Technical, Vocational,Education and Training (TVET). TVET is the provision of skills, knowledge, attitude,and values needed for the place of work. TET as a component of TVET is a necessaryintervention in attempts to empower people, reduce poverty, and realize the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs). TET is a priority area in achieving Kenya’s Vision 2030which is anchored in Science, Technology and Innovation. There has been great concernby development stakeholders in Kenya on the need of training more technicians in thefield of engineering and technology. Kenya needs over 68,000 engineers and 1.5 milliontechnician workers in the current labour market. Technician engineers’ graduates insearch of job in the world of work do not have adequate employable skills. Narrowing thegap between education and the world of work is thus a priority for this study so as toengage the ever increasing population into productive livelihoods. The studyconceptualized logical flow of variables as guided by human capital and job signalingtheory. Mixed method was adopted in an effort to seek the solution to the problem. Thestudy targeted 2008 and 2009 technician engineering graduates cohort who pursuedmechanical engineering trades from Thika Technical Training Institute and BuildingConstruction trade from Meru Technical Training Institute. Trainers and employers werealso targeted. Both probability and non-probability sampling techniques were used tosample respondents. Data was collected by use of questionnaires, interviews guide andfocus group discussion guide. The instruments were pretested to ensure their validity bysubjecting the instruments to intensive scrutiny by selected experts in TET sector. Toensure reliability the instruments were subjected to statistical analysis to determine theCronbach’s alpha. Data was analyzed as per the research questions and hypothesis. Thefindings show that Technician engineering graduates rate training process as poor. Theuse of application of ICT is perceived to be very poor. There is very minimal participationof industry in TET. Employers consider generic skills and theoretical skill as moreimportant compared to manipulative skills. There is no relationship between skills learntand skills required in labour market. Training is theoretical and examination oriented.Other than area of specialization, level of training, skills learnt and performance inexamination there are other factors that predict employability. This study recommendspromotion of ICT usage and linkages. The study further recommends curriculum reviewto meet the needs of labour market. These findings will inform the TVET policy andgenerate adequate information for the Government, TVET policy makers, Trainer, KenyaInstitute of Curriculum Development and Other TET official actors to promote thedevelopment of future skills and career development in technician engineering andtechnology in Kenya.

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Table of ContentsDeclaration...................................................................................................................................... iiDeclaration by the Candidate..........................................................................................................iiThis dissertation is my original work and has not been presented for publication anywhere, or for

any award in any university, college, or institution. No part of this work can be copied without the permission of the author and The Catholic University of Eastern Africa. .....ii

Sign ……… Date …12th Sept 2013………..........................................................................................iiIkinya Samson Kariuki......................................................................................................................iiStudent Number: 1017473..............................................................................................................iiApproval by the Supervisors............................................................................................................iiDedication...................................................................................................................................... iiiAcknowledgements........................................................................................................................ ivAbbreviations and Acronyms..........................................................................................................vTable of Contents..........................................................................................................................viiList of Figures..................................................................................................................................xList of Tables...................................................................................................................................xiCHAPTER ONE.................................................................................................................................1INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................11.1.Background Information...........................................................................................................11.2.Problem Statement...................................................................................................................61.3.Research Questions...................................................................................................................91.4.Null Hypothesis.........................................................................................................................91.5 Significance of the Study.........................................................................................................101.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study.......................................................................................111.7 Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................................111.8 Conceptual Framework ..........................................................................................................181.9 Operational Definition of Terms..............................................................................................21CHAPTER TWO..............................................................................................................................23REVIEW OF LITERATURE................................................................................................................232.2.2 Historical Development of Technician engineering training in Kenya..................................252.2.3 Training Process in TVET-Engineering ..................................................................................272.2.4 Employability of TVET graduates..........................................................................................282.2.5 Skills Shortage .....................................................................................................................292.3 Empirical Studies of Training and Employability .....................................................................302.4 Skills Learnt in School and Skills Required For Employability..................................................342.5 Summary.................................................................................................................................403.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................423.2 Research Design......................................................................................................................423.3 Target Population....................................................................................................................463.4 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size......................................................................................463.4.1 Sampling Procedure for Technician engineering graduates.................................................473.4.2 Sampling Procedure for trainers ..........................................................................................483.4.3 Sampling Procedure for Employers......................................................................................483.4.5 Sample Size and Sampling Plan............................................................................................493.5 Data Collection Instruments ...................................................................................................513.5.1 Graduate’s Questionnaire....................................................................................................513.5.2 Trainer’s Questionnaire........................................................................................................523.5.3 Employers Questionnaire.....................................................................................................52

viii

3.5.4 Interview Guide....................................................................................................................523.5.5 Trainers’ Focus Group Discussion Guide..............................................................................533.6 Pilot Testing.............................................................................................................................533.6.1 Pre-testing of Instruments...................................................................................................543.6.2 Validity of Data Collection Instrument.................................................................................543.6.3 Reliability of Data collection Instrument..............................................................................553.6.3.1 Internal Reliability of the Graduate’s Questionnaire........................................................563.6.3.2 Internal Reliability of the Trainer’s Questionnaire...........................................................573.6.3.3 Internal Reliability of the Employers’ Questionnaire........................................................583.7 Data Collection Procedures.....................................................................................................583.8 Data Analysis...........................................................................................................................593.8.1 Analysis of Research Question One......................................................................................593.8.2 Analysis of Research Question Two......................................................................................593.9Methodological Matrix.............................................................................................................623.10Logistical and Ethical Issues ...................................................................................................633.10.1 Ethical Issues .................................................................................................................633.10.2 Logistical Issues............................................................................................................64CHAPTER FOUR.............................................................................................................................65DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION..............................................................654.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................654.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents...................................................................664.2.1 Demographic Characteristics of Technician engineering graduates.....................................674.2.1.1Gender and Age Distribution of Technician engineering graduates...................................67 4.2.1.2 Distribution of Technician engineering graduates by Employment Status Two Years after Completion of Training..................................................................................................................68 694.2.1.3 Distribution of Gender and Technician engineering graduates by Area of Specialization 70 4.2.1.4 Distribution of Technician engineering graduates by Level of Training ...........................71 4.2.1.5 Distribution of Technician engineering graduates by Examining Body and performance 72 4.2.1.6 Distribution of Technician engineering graduates by Mode of Study of TVET Courses.. .734.2.2 Demographic Characteristics of the TVET Trainers..............................................................74 744.2.2.1 Distribution of TVET trainers by gender and level of qualification..................................744.2.2.2 Distribution of trainers by pedagogical training................................................................754.2.2.3 Distribution of trainers by gender and teaching experience.............................................764.3 Research Question One: How do Technician engineering graduates rate the training process

of Technician engineering training?................................................................................764.3.1Rating of Capacity of Lecturers to Deliver Subject Content...................................................774.3.2Rating of relevance of Skill Learnt.........................................................................................784.3.3Rating of Availability of Training Resources..........................................................................79 804.3.4Rating of Linkage and Collaboration......................................................................................814.3.5Rating of Application ICT in Training.....................................................................................824.3.6Rating of Training Process by Technician engineering graduates..........................................844.4 Research Question Two: How do TVET trainers rate availability of training resources,

application of ICT in training and linkage with industries?.............................................854.4.1Rating of Availability of Training Resources by Trainers........................................................864.4.2Rating of Application of ICT in Training by Trainers...............................................................874.4.3Rating of Linkage and collaboration of Training institution with industries by Trainers.......904.5Research Question Three: Which skills do employers consider important when hiring technician engineer graduate?......................................................................................................91

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4.5.1Rating of Importance of Manipulative Skills by Employers...................................................924.5.2Rating of Importance of Generic Skills by employers............................................................944.5.3Rating of Importance of Theoretical Skills by employers......................................................974.5.4Rating of Importance of Other Skills by employers...............................................................994.6 Research Question Four: What Strategies should be put in place to promote employability of

Technician engineering graduates? .............................................................................1034.6.2 Technician Engineering Curriculum ...................................................................................1064.6.3 Linkages with industries.....................................................................................................1074.7 Hypothesis testing.................................................................................................................1094.7.1 Null Hypothesis One: There is no significant relationship between skills learnt by Technician

engineering graduates at the time of completing their studies and skills required in the labour market...............................................................................................................109

4.7.2 Null Hypothesis Two: sex of respondent, age of respondent, area of specialization, level of training, performance in final examination and skills learnt in school are not significant predictors of employability of technician engineer graduate.................................................111

4.8 Summary .............................................................................................................................116CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................................................................................118SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................1185.0 Introduction .........................................................................................................................1185.1 Summary...............................................................................................................................1185.2 Conclusion............................................................................................................................1225.3 Recommendation.................................................................................................................1245.4 Suggestions For Further Research........................................................................................125Appendix 1: Graduates’ Questionnaire.......................................................................................131Appendix 2: Employers’ Questionnaire.......................................................................................140Appendix 3: Trainers’ Questionnaire...........................................................................................146 Appendix 4: Trainers Focus Group Discussion Guide.................................................................150Appendix 5: Employers Interview Guide....................................................................................152Appendix 6: Validation Form for Research Instrument..............................................................153Appendix 7: Work plan Schedule..............................................................................................156Appendix 8: Budget..................................................................................................................157Appendix 9: Research Authorization...........................................................................................158Appendix 10: Research Permit No. NCST/RCD/14/013/454........................................................159Appendix 11: Approval to Conduct Research at Thika T.T.I.........................................................160Appendix 12: Approval to Conduct Research at Meru T.T.I........................................................161

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework Logical Flow Diagram................................................................17Figure 2: Relationships between variables....................................................................................20Figure 3: Concurrent Triangulation Mixed Method Model Flow Diagram.....................................45

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List of TablesTable 1: Graduates Sampling Plan.................................................................................................49Table 2: Trainers’ Sampling Plan...................................................................................................50Table 3: Employers’ Sampling Plan................................................................................................50Table 4: Methodological Matrix....................................................................................................62Table 5: Gender and Age Distribution of Technician engineering graduates................................67Table 6: Employment Status Distribution of Technician engineering graduates ..........................68Table 7: Gender and Area of Specialization Distribution of Technician engineering graduates . .70Table 8: Gender and Level of Training Distribution of Technician engineering graduates............71Table 9: Examination Body and Performance in Final Examination by Technician engineering

graduates........................................................................................................................72Table 10: Examination Body and Mode of study of Technician engineering graduates................73Table 11: Gender and Level of Qualification Distribution of TVET trainers...................................74Table 12: Gender and Training Pedagogy by Trainers ..................................................................75Table 13: Gender and Trainers' Teaching Experience...................................................................76Table 14: Rating of Capacity of Lecturers to Deliver Subject Content...........................................78Table 15: Rating of relevance of Skills learnt.................................................................................79Table 16: Rating of Availability of Training Resources...................................................................80Table 17: Rating of Linkages and Collaboration............................................................................81Table 18: Rating of Application of ICT in Training..........................................................................83Table 19: Rating of Training Process by Graduates.......................................................................84Table 20: Rating of Availability of Training Resources by Trainers................................................86Table 21: Rating of Application of ICT in Training by Trainers.......................................................88Table 22: Rating of Linkage and collaboration of Training Institutions with Industries by Trainers

........................................................................................................................................90Table 23: Importance of Manipulative Skills by Employers...........................................................92Table 24: Rating of Importance of manipulative Skills by Employers............................................94Table 25: Importance of Generic Skills by Employers....................................................................95Table 26: Rating of Importance of Generic Skills by Employers....................................................96Table 27: Importance of Theoretical Skills by Employers..............................................................97Table 28: Rating of Importance of Theoretical Skills by Employers...............................................98Table 29: Rating Importance of Other Skills by Employer...........................................................100Table 30: Rating of Importance of Other Related Skills By employers........................................100Table 31: Can You Recommend the Course to a Friend..............................................................105Table 32: Correlation between skills learnt and skill required....................................................110Table 33: Variables Entered/Removed for Predictors of Employability......................................112Table 34: Model Summary for Predictors of Employability.........................................................113Table 35: ANOVA for Predictors of Employability.......................................................................114Table 36: Coefficient for Predictors of Employability..................................................................114

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the background information of the study, problem

statement, research questions and hypothesis used to guide the development of research

instruments and analysis of the findings. The significance of the study is articulated. In

addition, theoretical and conceptual frameworks for the study have been outlined in this

chapter.

1.1. Background Information

Technical, Vocational, Education and Training (TVET) is the provision of skills,

knowledge, attitude, and values needed for the work place of a modern state. United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and International

Labour Organisation(ILO), jointly recommend the use of TVET internationally as a

comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the educational process involving, in

addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, and the

acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to

occupants in various sectors of economic and social life (UNESCO & ILO, 2003). Thus

TVET is a range of learning experiences which are relevant to the world of work and may

occur in a variety of learning contexts, including educational institutions and the

workplace.

Technical training and skills acquisition is a way to engage the ever increasing

population and the youth into gainful and fulfilling livelihood. The TVET system is thus

expected to act as a vehicle to socio-economic and technological transformation. TVET

has attracted the attention of many researchers, in particular those with interests in

alleviating poverty, promoting economic development, and meeting the employment

needs of the workforce through human resource management (Association for The

2

Development of Education in Africa, (2008). In particular Akplu (2008) views the

provision of TVET as an intervention in attempts to empower people, reduce poverty, and

realize the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The logic is that if people,

especially the youth, are equipped with employable skills with which they can access

labour markets, then the incidence of unemployment, poverty, and other undesirable

consequences of social and economic exclusion would be reduced.

Training in TVET system has received increased attention as an area of priority

for stimulating economic and social growth. The World Bank, International Labour

Organisation (ILO), UNESCO, and other international and local organizations have

outlined the contribution of TVET towards economic and social developments in both

developed and developing countries. Boodhai (2010) outlines the contribution of TVET

system in promoting social and economic growth in Canada, Australia, Germany,

Singapore and Japan. The Republic of Kenya under the Vision 2030 recognizes that one

of the main characteristics that has lead to achievement of major technological

transformation in countries such as Taiwan and Chile is the availability of high quality

technical, industrial and entrepreneurial human resources (Republic of Kenya, 2007). The

key to success lies in the proactive measures to ensure training of human resource in

TVET in order to respond to the changes that are triggered by technological and global

economic transformation.

Although TVET has potential benefits as stated above, it has been criticized for

some practical problems. Atchoarena and Delluc (2002) summarized the main critics

facing TVET in Sub-Saharan Africa as: training not suited to actual socio-economic

conditions, high unemployment rate among graduates, disregard of the informal sector’s

needs, and disregard of the labor market. Kitainge (2009) maintains that in Kenya, these

problems have led to low enrollment in engineering courses in public institutions and a

3

shift to on job training and in-house training in industries. However, King’ombe (2011)

and Maclean (2013) recognise that criticisms against TVET are likely to be reduced by

equipping the Technician engineering graduates with quality, relevant and adequate skills

to the needs of labor market.

Technology is going through rapid changes that require skilled and employable

workforce to fulfill the needs and requirements of industries (Biggs, 2005); such

workforce is considered an asset to employers especially in the developing countries

(Borghans & De Grip, 2000). An inadequate supply of skilled workforce in engineering is

most likely to be a stumbling block to the development of industry. Kenya as an employer

today is depending on expatriates in construction and manufacturing industry as

witnessed in construction of Thika Superhighway and foreign investors in the

manufacturing sector. The question asked by Kenyan scholars is what employability

element do the Kenyan engineers lack when compared to the expatriates.

The Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia (MOHE, 2009) put emphasis on

employability skills of graduates through this statement “…to produce competent

graduates to fulfill national and international manpower needs, the graduates must be

employed in their relevant fields within six months of their graduation” (p.89). In order to

ensure that graduates are able to survive in the arena of employment today, The Malaysia

government developed an effective study mechanism that involves tracer studies for

continuous development of new skills and adaptation to changes. This study borrows the

strategy of tracing the Technician engineering graduates as a way to gathering reliable

and credible information for continuous development of technician engineering training

in Kenya.

4

The African Union (AU) in its plan of action for the second decade of education

(2006 – 2015), recognises the importance of training in engineering as a means of

empowering individuals to take control of their lives and recommends technical training

system that is geared towards equipping people with employable engineering skills

(UNESCO, 2009). The increasing importance that African governments now attach to

TVET engineering programmes is reflected in the various Poverty Reduction Strategy

Papers that governments have developed in collaboration with The World Bank (Biggs,

2005). Within the TVET, technician engineering in Africa has not received adequate

attention as compared to the general education and other skilled areas of study.

Kenya Vision 2030 is a long-term development blueprint for the country. It aims

at transforming Kenya into a newly industrialized middle income country providing a

high quality of life to all its citizens. The Vision is anchored on three key pillars:

Economic; Social; and Political Governance. Within the economic pillar, tourism,

agriculture, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, business process outsourcing and

financial services are the six key sectors identified to deliver 57 per cent of the 10 per

cent gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate (Republic of Kenya, 2007). For this to be

realized there is a need to address the shortage of skilled technician engineers in

manufacturing and construction sectors.

A report on status of engineers in Kenya by Engineers Board of Kenya (EBK)

indicates that shortage of engineers is the biggest obstacle to Kenya's industrialization and

realization of the vision 2030. The EBK engineer’s database shows that Kenya has a total

of 281 registered consulting engineers, 1,358 professional engineers and 5,689 registered

graduate engineers summing up to 7,328 engineers against the international benchmark

which requires Kenya to have 68,000 engineers (EBK, 2011).

5

The existing technician engineer’s worker stands at: 27,869 Artisans, 138,816

Craftsmen, 163,026 Engineering Technician with Ordinary Diploma and 8664

Engineering Technicians with Higher Diploma making a total of 306,341technician

engineers workers (MoHEST, 2007). This is far below the recommended national output,

if the documented ratio of one engineer to thirty technicians (1:30) was to be followed ,

the 68,000 engineers translates to an international benchmark gap of over two million

technicians leading to an existing gap of over 1.5 million technicians in the current labour

market. In order to have enough human resource for the manufacturing and construction

sector, the Kenya Vision 2030 strategy requires the TVET institutions to play a leading

role in training atleast 100,000 employable technician engineers annually.

The manufacturing sector in Kenya is expected to play a critical role in

propelling the economy by 10 per cent growth rate. The sector employs 254,000 people in

additional to 1.4 million people in the informal sector, which represents 13 per cent of

total employment (Republic of Kenya, 2007). The Eastern African market is dominated

by imports from outside the region. This is an indication that there is a large potential to

improve Kenya’s competitiveness in the region by replacing external suppliers gradually.

However, even within the country, manufacturing has been on the decline for a

considerable period of time and its contribution to the GDP has remained below 10 per

cent since the 1960s. Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM) maintains that capital

productivity in the Kenyan manufacturing sector is particularly low, compared to regional

and global productivity levels (KAM, 2010). For example, productivity is up to four times

lower than that of comparable Indian firms and seven times that of China. This has been

occasioned by lack of technological skills and competent work force that is able to adapt

to the new technologies.

6

An empirical study by Biggs (2005) on technology training in manufacturing

sub-sectors in Ghana, Kenya and Zimbabwe found out that the manufacturing firms

depend on in-house training in which the newly hired workers are taken through formal

and on-job training for a period of six months to four years depending on the task.

A report on assessment of training in workplaces in Nairobi conducted by

Ministry of Higher Education, Science and technology in 2012 shows that industries such

as Toyota Kenya, Nairobi Bottlers, Mersec Cables Limited, Mabati Rolling Mills among

other manufacturing firms have an established in house training institute. The industries

prefer to train their own since graduates from TVET institutions do not meet their skill

needs. The Consolidated Report on Audit of students, staff, equipment, infrastructure and

other training resources in TVET institutions in Kenya shows that only 4% of the enrolled

students pursue mechanical engineering, 3% building and construction technology and

9% pursuing other engineering related trades (MoHEST, 2005). This indicates that

engineering courses are under enrolled, yet this is a specialized area of study that Kenya

Vision 2030 expects to provide the required work force in the manufacturing and

construction sectors of the economy.

1.2. Problem Statement

Technical skills form the basis for the realization of industrial transformation

and a meaningful quest for Kenya’s Vision 2030. TVET sector is the major producer of

the workforce that is absorbed in the industries. It is therefore responsible for developing

a critical mass of personnel for social economic development and industrial transforming.

The rapid development in labour market needs proficient workers mainly in fields which

involve latest technology. The number of workforce in Kenya has drastically increased

and mainly constitutes the youth. Youth unemployment is a significant problem in Kenya.

7

A survey by the Kenya Integrated Household Budget (KIHBS) indicates that

unemployment rate stands at 40%, attributed mainly by lack of employable skills

(Republic of Kenya, 2005a). Kenya Association of Manufacturers in Muguthu, (2007)

articulates that youth seeking employment in engineering sectors do not meet the needs of

labour market. However, there are no adequate empirical studies that have articulated

what constitutes employable skills for technician engineers.

A comparative research conducted by Kitainge (2009) on challenges of training

motor vehicle mechanics in Kenya as compared to Australia, stated that the employers in

Kenya have questioned the quality and relevance of skills learnt in training institutions in

meeting the needs of the labour market. The ILO (2012) articulates that, skilled fresh

employees in engineering increase the level of productivity by 32.6%. A report by the

Kenya Association of Manufacturer (KAM, 2010), indicates that most trainees take at

least six months to two years to build the confidence and skills in their occupations.

According to Taylor (2006) and Ellis (2003), employers experience great revenue loss, in

such situations. Taylor recommends a maximum of 4 months training in form of

induction. Industries such Coca Cola Bottlers, Toyota Kenya and Mersec Cables Ltd have

opted to establish in-house training within their industry for the purpose of training their

own fresh workers (KAM, 2010). If such a practice and trend is to be replicated in all

industries, the TVET engineering programmes would be regarded redundant.

The main challenge facing the contribution of manufacturing sector in realizing

the 10 per cent GDP under the economic pillar as envisaged in the Kenya vision 2030 is

the shortage of technician engineers (Republic of Kenya, 2007; MoHEST, 2008). An

empirical study by Ponge (2013), employers complain that graduates are poorly prepared

for work. They believe that academic standards have fallen considerably over the past

decade and that a certificate is no longer a guarantee of skilled worker.

8

World Bank review of Skills in Sub-Saharan Africa shows that Kenya

engineering firms depend on cheap unskilled labour force as well as hiring expatriates

and skilled technicians from developed world. According to the Engineering Board of

Kenya (2010) Kenya requires over 1.5 million skilled technician engineers. Despite the

need for more skilled workers in engineering, the 306,341 available technician

engineering workers in Kenyan market, require retraining to meet the needs of labour

market. In reference to Kenya Association of Manufacturers the manufacturing and

construction industry requires 43% employable technician engineers for realization of the

Kenya Vision 2030. So far, there is no empirical data that shows the kind of skills

employers consider important when hiring the TVET engineering technicians in the 21st

century.

The Ministry of Higher Education Science and Technology conducted a baseline

survey in 2007 on challenges facing the TVET in Kenya (MoHEST, 2008). The study

realized the diversity in the TVET in regard to individual, social, institutional and

economic factors. It did not however link this diversities to employability. Most research

studies in TVET sector in Sub-Saharan Africa has adopted human capital theory in

advocating for a competent human resource. However this theory and methodology

applied do not adequately provide means of predicting the factors underlying the

employability of Technician engineering graduates in Kenya. In an effort to unvail the

variables that predict employability in Kenya, this study not only adopted human capital

theory but also job signaling theory in a learning system model.

Technician engineering training over the years has been operating under various

legislatives, key among them being the Education Act Cap 211 of 1968 revised in 1970

and 1980, Industrial Training Act Cap 237 of 1960, revised in 1983, Sessional Paper No.1

of 2005, a Policy Framework on Education, Training and Research and National Training

9

strategy (NTS) developed by government in 2006 among others.The engineering training

has thus lacked a consistent framework to bring together the many players within the

sector for purposes of developing a unified policy and harmonized standards. This policy

gap has translated into the fragmented legal framework for TVET, which has contributed

to challenges of employability of Technician engineering graduates. The purpose of this

study is therefore to provide reliable and credible information that will address technician

engineering training and employability in Kenya.

1.3. Research Questions

This study focused on four research questions:

1. How do Technician engineering graduates rate the training process of Technician

engineering training?

2. How do TVET trainers rate availability of training resources, linkages with

industries and application of ICT in Technician engineering training?

3. Which skills do employers consider important when hiring technician engineer

graduate?

4. What strategies should be put in place to promote employability of Technician

engineering graduates in world of work?

1.4. Null Hypothesis

This study focused on two research hypothesis:

i) H0: There is no significant relationship between skills learnt by

Technician engineering graduates at the time of completing their

studies and skills required in labour market.

10

ii) H0: Sex of respondent, age of respondent, area of

specialization, level of training and performance in final

examination are not significant predictors of employability of

technician engineer graduate.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study adopted a follow-up strategy as a means of receiving feedback from the

graduates, trainers and employers. The significance of this study is in line with Sessional

paper No1 of 2005 and the Kenya Vision 2030 in addressing the skills mismatch and

enhancing employability of Technician engineering graduates. To TVET curriculum

implementers, the study is an accountability initiative in providing reliable feedback of

the training process as perceived by graduates and trainers. This will enable reshaping the

training process to enhance effective and efficient ways on imparting quality, relevant and

adequate skill to the needs of labour market. The study thus provides credible information

that the school board members, administrators, teachers and other interested actors in

TVET can rely on making decision on instructional and curricular planning.

In reference to sessional paper No 1 of 2005, training in TVET is not matched to

industry needs. The current TVET curriculum structure and some of the syllabi are

outdated, as they were designed and developed by the government more than a decade

ago. The graduates are therefore inadequately equipped for the labour market. The key

significant contribution of this study is to provide basis of rationalizing and possibly

revamping TVET engineering curriculum and serve as a basis for future curriculum

review.

Technician engineering training over the years has been operating under various

legislatives. In 2013, there has been significant policies development in education and

11

training in Kenya witnessed, with enactment of TVET Bill 2012. This study will therefore

provide reliable information that will aid in the implementation of the newly enacted bills

in reference to the quality and relevance of engineering training and provide reliable

statistical data that will effectively inform the national training policy framework and any

other upcoming legislation for Technician engineering training in Kenya.

1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This study was conducted to determine the technician engineering training and

employability of graduates in Kenya. Several factors and issues exist that influences and

contributes to employability. However this study focused on trainings process as

perceived by Technician engineering graduates and trainers. The study also investigated

and compared the skills learnt in training institutions and skills required by labour market.

The researcher approached employers in a view to determine the skills considered

important when hiring graduates. The study adopted mixed method approach. The 2008

and 2009 Technician engineering graduates cohort from Thika and Meru technical

training institute were targeted. Trainers in the two training institutions and employers

were included in the study as well. The study was conducted between the months of April

to June 2013.

1.7 Theoretical Framework

In the formulation of a theoretical perspective for studying the technician

engineering training and employability in Kenya, human capital theory proposed by

Theodore William Schultz in 1961 and developed extensively by Gary Stanley Becker in

1964 (Becker, 1974), forms the basis of the theoretical platform . Human capital theory

12

will be enriched with job market signaling theory proposed by Michael Spence in

1973(Spence, 1973), to provide a useful model for guiding this study.

Human capital theory was developed in the sixties due to the realization that the

growth of physical capital has very small percentage growth in the revenue collected. The

physical capital requires a skilled human capital for its manipulation. The emergence of

education and skills training in military technology played an important part in the

discovery of this theory (Becker, 1974). The proponent Theodore Schultz introduced

return-on-investment concept in 1960s, which highlights the cost-benefit analysis

of training and education. Gary Stanley Becker developed the human capital theory based

on Schutlz’s research on return-on-investment and introduced the concept of general-

purpose human capital and firm-specific human capital that is widely used by human

resource development practitioners worldwide (Mincer, 1968).

Human capital theory suggests that education or training raises the productivity

of workers by imparting useful knowledge and skills, hence raising workers’ future

income by increasing their lifetime earnings (Gary, 1993). The theory postulates the

input, process and output model. The input which includes the trainees, human resources,

equipments and infrastructures’ should be considered as investment in education and

training. The process entails the strategies put place to enhance transformation of the

untrained trainees into a skilled and competent graduate who at the end is regarded as an

output of the training process.

The theory views the graduate as similar to physical means of production such as

machines. The worker is viewed as a machine and his worth is measured in terms of

economic value added in the work place. Thus human capital is the economic value that

an employee provides to an employer. In this study the economic value that Technician

engineering graduates are expected to contribute to the employer is the application of the

13

acquired skills in promoting production. The assessment of this economic value is related

to the body of skill, knowledge, and experience that the employee possesses.

The human capital theory has been applied in various research works.

Rumberger (1983) applied human capital theory in studying the factors that influence

employability in the coal mining industry, in which the skilled graduates were easily

absorbed in the mining industry when compared with the high school leavers. In his work

Rumberger measured employability in terms of transition to employment within a period

of one year. The key variables were employability and the acquired certificate. Kazilan,

Hamzah and Bakar (2009) used human capital theory in conducting a study on

employability skills among the students of Technical and Vocational Training Centers in

Malaysia. In the application of the theory, employability skills were considered as the

skill needed to enhance productivity in the industry. These skills could be classified

mainly as generic skills and professional skill. In reassessing the link between work and

training, Hoyt (2006) applies human capital theory but emphasizes the need of integrating

the theory with another theory that focus on transformation part in the context of the

input, process and output model indirectly advocated by many researchers. The strength

of human capital is thus evident on the linear relationship portrayed in training and rate of

return.

Some labour economists (Bowles & Gintis, 1975; Ferrer & Prat, 2010;

Schummer & Eso, 2008) have criticized the human capital theory on the bases that, it

tries to explain that productivity is directly related to education and training and bases the

success of the outcome on formal training. Bowles and Gintis (1975) have argued that

human capital theory is a poor concept of capital. It is unable to understand human

activity other than as the exchange of commodities measured on economic value. This

misses the point that capital is an independent social force where the creation of social

14

value comes about through its capital accumulation. Given this explanation, human

capital is an abstract form of labor - a commodity - and not capital. Commodities such as

human capital are therefore part of the life cycle of capitalism as a form of labor and not

able to be exchanged independently of it.

Another criticism that could be argued here is based on assumption that by just

going to school improves productivity and thus could explain higher wages. Training

institution as a school is a system that is influenced by external and internal factors which

the human capital does not consider. The quality and relevance of the output of this

training system is greatly influenced by the training process. Thus a higher productivity

indeed is influenced by many other factors.

Despite the critic of human capital theory, the theory enables effective empirical

analysis in social research and produces reliable findings that affect TVET stakeholder

and education policy in this study. In capitalizing the strength of the human capital in

conceptualizing the logical flow of input to outcome and impact, Spencer (1973)

advanced the job market signaling theory as an alternative to the critics of human capital

theory. According to job market signaling theory, education and training does not lead

directly to increased human capital, but rather acts as a mechanism by which trainees with

superior innate abilities acquire quality and relevant skills, and as graduates they can

signal those abilities to prospective employers and so gain above average wages.

In the job market signaling theory, the graduates are potential employees seeking

to sell their services to employers in exchange for wage. Generally, employers are willing

to pay higher wages to employ better workers. Since employers are not always able to

observe potential employees’ skills and productivity, they use various characteristics

associated with education and training such as level of training, area of specialization,

performance in examinations, demographic factors among others to estimate the abilities

15

of potential employees. Michael Spence applied signaling theory to job-markets and

argued that in job-markets, the signal is a college degree and in it, level of training, area

of specialization, grade attained in the final examination forms the basis of individual’s

employability. Since the ability as well as work ethic traits are intangible and difficult to

observe prior to an individual’s employment, signaling theory advocates employers to

resolve this uncertainty by giving a relatively low starting wage to everyone and raise the

wages based on individual’s productivity and work experience.

The figure 1 shows theoretical framework flow diagram representing logical flow

of the theoretical concept as discussed by human capital theory and job signaling theory

and illustrates how the two theories integrates into each other in an effort to inform this

study. Human capital theory brings out the aspect of input, process, output, outcome and

impact as a direct transformation of unskilled worker to skilled and hence productive

worker. This transformation involves investing in education and training through

acquiring financial contribution, physical and human resources as the main input towards

the process of acquiring quality and relevant skills. The ultimate output of this process is

a trained graduate.

Based on the quality, relevance and adequacy of training and skills attained, the

outcome of the training process is absorption to the job market as a productive worker

who then earns an income. Long life effect of the training is realized through economic

growth and improved livelihoods of the workers. In reference to a two way arrow

between the output and outcome, human capital theory postulates that workers

productivity can be enhance by further training and the output of a training process can be

enhance in the industry through experience, on job training and in house training.

Referring to figure 1, job signaling theory describes education classifies the

input, process and output as a block of mechanism, in which education and training is

16

viewed as mechanism in which transformation takes place. The success of this

transformation is greatly influence by the training process. An effective training process

will promote acquisition of quality, relevant and adequate skills this in return will raise

the chance of employability of the graduates. A reliable mechanism is signaled by the

academic records and attributes attained in school.

The outcome and impact are classified as labour market in which the workers

productivity and economic growth are the indicators of an effective training mechanism.

The labour market compares it skills needs with the skills learnt in school as portrayed in

academic records and decides whether to hire the graduates or not. Unlike human capital

theory, in job signaling theory workers productivity is not only influenced by formal

training and earning but other internal and external factors such as environmental,

perception, motivation and dedication influence productivity and formal training and vice

versa. This logical and interactions is of concept is directly shown in figure 1 that follows.

17

WORLD OF WORKMECHANISM

INPUT OUTPUTPROCESS OUTCOME

Trained Graduates(Skilled work force)

Training

(Process of acquiring skills)

Productive workerIncreased workers earnings

IMPACT

Investment in EducationPhysical resourcesHuman resourcesFinancial support

Economic growth and developmentImproved Employees Livelihoods

Internal factors and External factorsEnvironmental factors, Perception, Motivation, Dedication, earning among others

Job signaling Training levelSpecializationPerformanceDemographics

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework Logical Flow Diagram

Source, Author

18

1.8 Conceptual Framework

The study of TVET technician engineering graduates and employability involved an

empirical scrutiny of key issues realized from theoretical perspective, experience and

review of related literature. This study is mainly based on the concepts developed from

human capital theory and job signaling theory. The study draws a line between

employment and employability. Being employed means having a job and links to

employment, employability on the other hand means having the qualities needed to

maintain a job and progress at the work place.

The figure 2 illustrates a coherent and logical set of variables that primarily guided

the study. The study sought to find out how the Technician engineering graduates and

trainers rate the training process in terms of capacity of lecturers’ to deliver engineering

content, the relevance of skills taught in school, the level of linkages and collaboration

with industries and other training institution, application of information communication

technologies and availability and use of physical resources. The study also sought to find

out the extent to which the TVET institutions equip their graduates with the anticipated

skills. In reference to the labour market the study sought to find out the skills the

employers consider important when hiring the Technician engineering graduates. In

relation to the skill mismatch the study sought to find out whether the skills learnt in

school were different from the skills required in the labour market. As guided by the

theoretical platform the study sought to find out the predictors of graduates employability

of technician engineer graduate.

Trainees in training institutions invest in training and in return acquire technical

skills with an aim of being employable. Acquisition of quality, relevant and adequate

skills, calls for availability of adequate physical and human resources. Trainees join

training institution with varying entry behavior and varying demographic characteristics.

19

The inputs feeds directly to the training process, where the trainees are transformed

through teaching and learning by their trainers and in process acquire skills. The output of

this training process is a trained graduate whose competency level is characterized by

level of training, area of specialization, performance in examination and skills acquired.

The end result is an outcome of an employable and a productive employee. The ultimate

success and out of an effective training process is a trained graduate, in the long run is

graduate’s employability. Since employability is not directly affected by formal training,

there is possibility of a student gaining employability through on job training without

necessarily going through the formal training process this justifies the direct relationship

between the input and outcome. Other the variables and attributes such Labour market

factors are uncertainties that affect the graduate’s employability.

20

Graduates’ Employability

(Employable graduates’)

Skilled Technician engineering graduates

Skills learnt(Manipulative, generic, theory and other related skills)Indicators Level of trainingArea of specializationPerformance in final examination

Process of acquiring skills

Capacity to delivery curriculum Relevance of skillsLinkages and collaborationsApplication of ICTAvailability and use of resources

Training Process

Curriculum contentsOutlined skills

Human resourcesTrainers

expertPhysical resourcesTrainees demographic

AgeSex

Internal and External factors/ Environmental factors

Input OutcomeOutput

Figure 2: Relationships between variables

Source: Author

21

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Artisan: This is the lowest level in technician training in Kenya. The entry to this grade

is a certificate of Kenya Certificate of Primary Education. The tasks at this level

primarily involve the dexterous use of hands, hands/power tools, machines and

materials. It takes a minimum cumulative duration of 1980 hours.

Craft: This level is offered to trainees who passed artisan level or its equivalent. Also,

secondary school certificate holders who have attained a Kenya Certificate of

Secondary Education (KCSE) minimum aggregate Grade D- (D minus) At this

level, the emphasis is placed on non automated machinery (manual) operations

and the application of skills. It takes a minimum cumulative duration of 2310

hours.

Diploma: This level offer opportunities to trainees who have passed craft and Kenya

Certificate of Secondary Education holders to acquire relevant education and

training. It takes a minimum cumulative duration of 2970 hours.

Employability: This is ability to gain initial employment, maintain employment and be

successful in the chosen occupations. Employability is quantified in-terms of

transition to employment in the first two consecutive years after completion of

training.

Skill: Ability to perform a specific task or technical operations at a set level of

proficiency acquired through technical training.

Skills learnt at TVET institution: These are behaviors a graduate possesses by the time

of completion of the training.

Skills required at labour market by the employers: These are behaviors a graduate is

expected to displays in order to translate the knowledge, skills and attitudes into

performing job.

22

Technician engineer: A specialist who is trained in skills and techniques related to a

specific branch of engineering and often assist an engineer. They are trained in

TVET institutions at artisan level, craft level, diploma level or at higher national

diploma level.

Technician engineering training: This is a formal training of person to acquire artisan,

craft, diploma and higher national diploma certificate from TVET institution.

Person applies knowledge, skills and values learnt in school in labour market.

Training Process: This is a planned and systematic sequence of instruction under

supervision, designed to impart skills, knowledge, values and attitudes. It is

measured by quantifying teaching and learning provisions and conditions on a

perception scale. Items that constitute an effective training process include;

capacity of lecturer to deliver subject content, relevance of skills learnt, linkages

and collaborations, application of ICT in training and availability of training

resources

.

23

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses the context of TVET in the world, terms used to describe

TVET and its goal in Kenya. The chapter also looks at historical development of TVET

engineering. The chapter is organized in major themes as guided by research questions

and hypothesis.

2.2 Description of TVET

Technical, Vocational, Education and Training (TVET) is a comprehensive term

adopted in 1999 at the Second International Congress on Technical and Vocational

Education in Seoul and at the 30th Session of the General Conference of UNESCO in

Paris, to describe the combined process of education and training and recognize the

common objective of employment as their immediate goal (UNESCO, 2009). TVET has

fuelled phenomenal economic growth in some countries and fallen short of expectations

in others (Maclean, 2013). In developed nations TVET is the core pillar in technological

transformation and contributes significantly towards the economic growth. In Africa the

full potential of TVET is yet to be realized.

Beardwell and Holden (2008) conducted a comparison study on various TVET

systems in developed nations. In their finding they referred the Germany system of

vocational training (commonly referred to as directed and dual system) as an example of

excellent practice of TVET in the world. Agrawal (2013) conducted a study on Indian

experience of internal and international collaboration in TVET. The main purpose was to

determine the best TVET system in the world that Indian may embrace. In her findings

24

Agrawal regarded Australia’s TVET system as one of the best in the world. In both cases

the pathways to employment, career and personal advancement and further education are

well defined and supported. With a focus on industry engagement, competency-based

standards, nationally recognized qualifications and quality assurance.

In Africa, TVET has been left to the periphery and its significance has not really

been embraced. In their Studies Kerre (1995) and Mureithi (2008) show that, in Africa

TVET training centers have been neglected or overtaken by institutions concentrating on

purely academic education. According to Simiyu (2009) Kenya has on one hand a

relatively large percent of skilled yet unemployable people. On the other hand, Kenya has

a large cheap unskilled labor force, as a result of lack of relevant training. Sessional paper

No 1 of 2005 has clearly stated the issue of skills mismatch. On this basis, this study will

tracing the Technician engineering graduates in an effort to address their employability in

Kenyan labour market.

2.2.1 Terms Used to Describe TVET and Its Goal

Over time, various terms have been in use to describe TVET field. These

include: apprenticeship training, vocational education, industrial arts, technical education,

technical, vocational education (TVE), vocational education and training (VET), career

and technical education (CTE). These terms are commonly used based on geographical

areas (UNESCO, 2009). In Europe the term vocational education and training (VET) is in

common usage, while in the United States the current term is career and technical

education (CTE) (Maclean, 2013). Kenya used technical, industrial, vocational,

entrepreneurship and training (TIVET) until the coming up of TVET bill 2012 where the

general term TVET in place of TIVET was adopted. The term technical, vocational,

25

education and training (TVET) is an internationally agreed by the UNESCO and ILO in

consultation with their respective member states and partner in order to unite the field.

Originally, the direct preparation for work was the main goal of TVET and this

remains prominent in many developing nations. In reference Sessional Paper No 1 of

2005 the goal of TVET in Kenya is to enhance self reliance and preparation to the world

of work (Republic of Kenya, 2005a). However, with the technological revolutions and

innovations in science and technology in 21st century, new domains of knowledge and

new disciplines have become important at all levels of education and training. The current

focus is increasingly upon preparing competent workers to meet the challenges, demands

of 21st Century and technological changes in world of work. This poses a question to

TVET training system on how the courses offered are geared towards preparing the

graduates’ to the needs of the labour market. In this regard UNESCO, (2008) emphasizes

for developing nations to deliver training that meets the requirements of the industry.

2.2.2 Historical Development of Technician engineering training in Kenya

TVET Engineering as an art and science began in Kenya long before the arrival

of the Europeans. Kenyans knew how to build their own houses and make agricultural

implements. Traditionally, these skills were passed on from parents to offspring within

the family or clan through an apprenticeship system (Kingombe, 2011). The coming of

the Europeans and the decision to build the Kenya-Uganda railway attracted Indian

traders and labourers who, beginning in 1924, were instrumental in the training of artisans

and craftsmen in engineering at the Kabete Industrial Training Depot (Simiyu, 2009).

Christian missionaries brought in technicians engineers and made an effort to train

Kenyans in different skills to assist in the maintenance of tools, equipment and services

26

for the railway (Kitainge, 2009). Training at that time was based on-job training, which

required mastery of specific skills.

The early 1950s saw industrial depots being upgraded to vocational schools and,

by the early 1960s, they were further converted into secondary vocational schools

(Sifuna). A major breakthrough for engineering training in Kenya was the setting up of a

Commission for Higher Education in 1954, whose main recommendation was the

establishment of the Royal Technical College in Nairobi (Waithanji, 2002). This

institution later became the University of Nairobi. The Mombasa Institute of Muslim

Education was already in existence, having been established in 1948 to provide technical

and vocational education to Muslim students in East Africa, later it became Mombasa

Polytechnic in 1972. In 1961, the Kenya Polytechnic was established to provide basic

craft courses, which were phased out after 1966 following the introduction of similar

courses in technical and vocational schools (McLeanand & Kamau, 1999).

Today over twenty training institutions and two hundred youth polytechnics have

been established since then to train engineering among other discipline. After the

independence to 1984 graduate of engineering was directly absorbed to the job market,

there was greater demand of the skilled personnel in this sector. After 1984 and with

introduction of 8-4-4 system of education gave rise to new challenges to training of

engineers in Kenya. To counteract the challenges the Kenya government comes up with

Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP). Despite engineering training in

Kenya since then, the consumers of the Technician engineering graduates holds that the

skills learnt in training institutions are not adequate to the needs of labour market.

27

2.2.3 Training Process in TVET-Engineering

The major issue that concerns TVET engineering subsector in the world is its

effectiveness in promoting the people’s livelihood. The key concern in Kenya and other

developing nations is how to cater for high population growth and encourages

participation in engineering and technology. The Science, Technology and Innovation

Bill, 2012 enacted by an act of parliament of Kenya (Republic of Kenya, 2013), addresses

the need to focus on science, engineering and technology. To this end the training

institutions are mandated to equip their graduates with relevant and up-to date skills as

per the labour market needs.

The Kenya Vision 2030 which is anchored science, technology and innovation

(Republic of Kenya , 2007) expects TVET to provide the bedrock for the transformation

of requisite human resource skills for technological and industrial transformation that will

lead to increased wealth and social wellbeing as well as enhancement of the country’s

international competitiveness (MoHEST, 2008). In order to realize the goal, Kenya

government and stakeholders in education has continuously endeavored to support the

TVET through the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (Republic of Kenya,

2005b). Despite the efforts by the Kenya government a skill mismatch has been evident

between the skills imparted by TVET system and those demanded by the labour market.

This mismatch has been worsening in recent years with the integration of the advanced

technologies especially in engineering professional. When rising demand for skills is not

met by supply, the result is a persistent shortage of skilled labour and constrained growth.

Studies conducted in countries in Africa reveals that large numbers of

engineering graduates coming out of the formal school system are unemployed, although

opportunities for skilled workers do exist in the economy. This situation has brought into

28

sharp focus the mismatch between training and labour market skill demands. Critics argue

that the lack of inputs from prospective employers into curriculum design and training

delivery are partly responsible for the mismatch (Akplu & Amankrah, 2008). Others

researcher such as Biggs, (2005) base the problem of skills mismatch to weak policy

framework. Hoyt (2006) argues that skills mismatch is attributed by lack of teaching and

learning infractustures in training instituions. Further investigation is therefore necessary

to determine the actual factors contributing to the mismatch. Bolaane, Chuma, Toteng and

Molwane (2010), advocates that this requires understanding the needs of the labour

market followed by communicating these industries requirements to the Government and

TVET official actors to enable in the development of future skills and career development

policies. Narrowing the gap between education and the world of work is thus a priority in

Kenya so as to engage the ever increasing population into productive livelihoods.

2.2.4 Employability of TVET graduates

The term employability has gained prominence of late because of the changing

world of work. Employability is used interchangeably with other terms such as core

skills, key skills, generic skill and common skills. To Grip, Loo and Sanders (2009)

employability skills are the skills required to acquire and retain a job, including job-

specific skills, academic skills, attitudes and habits. Communication, problem solving and

management skills are also important. According to Nugroho, Nizam, Rahmat and

Handayani (2012, p.83) employability is ‘the ability to gain initial employment, maintain

employment, make ‘transitions’ between jobs and roles within the same organization to

meet new job requirements, and obtain new employment if required’ It follows that the

concept of employability refers to the ability of a Technician engineering graduate gain

initial employment, maintain employment, make transition and secure new employment if

29

required. The employability of a TVET graduate in manufacturing and construction

industry will be determined by looking at graduates’ labour market history for over two

years since the time of completion of studies.

According to Borghans and De Grip (2000), employability is a shared

responsibility of government, training institution, the firm and the individual. The concept

of employability in the 21st century has thus become a tool for realizing company goals.

An employable worker provides the organisation with extra flexibility, which allows

firms to react and adjust faster to changes. This is hardly a luxury anymore, since

technological and organisational developments as well as increased competition demand

an employable workforce

2.2.5 Skills Shortage

Kenya has a total of 281 registered consulting engineers, 1,358 professional

engineers and 5,689 registered graduate engineers summing up to 7,328 engineers against

the international benchmark which requires Kenya to have 68,000 engineers for the

current population of over 40 million (World Bank, 2007).TVET is mandated to

encourage self-employment while at the same time producing skilled artisans, craftsman,

technicians and technologist for both formal and informal sectors at the ratio of one

technologist to thirty technicians/craftsman/artisans (1:30) (MoHEST & K.I.E, 2010). In

reference to skills inventory studies conducted by MoHEST (2009) the existing workers

as at 2010 in the field of engineering were: 27,869 Artisans, 138,816 Craftsmen, 163,026

Engineering Technician with Ordinary Diploma and 8664 Engineering Technicians with

Higher Diploma. In total the number of trained technician engineer workers available to

the economy as at 2010 were 306,341.This is far below the recommended national output

inventory of skilled personnel as at 2010 which ought to be over one million technician

30

workers, thus as existing gap of over 700,000 skilled technician engineer workers in the

current labour market (EBK, 2011).

The dismal number of engineers and technician engineer workers in Kenya has been

attributed by low enrollment in TVET programme (Republic of Kenya, 2005a), poor

perception on Technician engineering training that they lead to manual jobs (Simiyu,

2009), lack of role models in the TVET engineering careers (Kitainge, 2009). This are not

the only factors that influence employability of technician engineers, there are many more

that requires to be dicumented and come –up with effective strategies to solve the issue.

The existing gap of skilled workers shows a need to invest more in Technician

engineering training to meet the recommended annual output. The figures do not reflect

the growth in the informal sector which is a heavy consumer of Technician engineering

graduates. Despite lack of adequate projection, it is expected that informal sector will

require a similar amount of qualified personnel as the formal sector. This requires

expansion of opportunities and shifting TVET from its current emphasis on low quality

learning opportunities, to a contributing role for the development of essential skills

necessary to support the attainment of Vision 2030 goals.

2.3 Empirical Studies of Training and Employability

The concept of employability affects both developed and developing countries, in

Asia for instance the unemployment rate increased from 5.6 percent in 2007 to 6.2

percent in 2010 (ILO, 2011).This has created a highly competitive environment for young

people aged 15-24 years, youth unemployment rates has risen from : 8 percent in 2007 to

12.7 percent in 2011 (ILO, 2012). Various empirical studies have been conducted to

address the issue of training and employability in developed and developing nations.

31

In June 2005, the Botswana Training Authority (BOTA) conducted a tracer study

to look at the types of employment activities that vocational training graduates do as well

as to get their opinion about their education in the light of their employment experience.

The study adopted qualitative approach and considered only the opinions of the

institutions and concluded that Botswana’s vocational training system do not produce

readily employable skilled graduates (BOTA, 2006). The findings of this study

necessitated another tracer study on the employment outcomes of the vocational training

graduates by Bolaane, Chuma, Toteng, & Molwane (2010). The purpose was to establish

employment outcomes of the vocational training graduates of BOTA accredited

institutions. This study used a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches and

targeted 1080 graduates, 100 trainers and 50 employers, and adopted employability model

as a conceptual benchmark. The main survey instruments were a closed format

questionnaire for graduates and semi structured questionnaires for key informants.

Based on their findings Bolaane, Chuma, Toteng, & Molwane (2010),

recommended an audit of skills required by the employment sector. The study generalized

all areas of training in relation to employment and assumed that the unemployed

graduates were due to lack of relevant skills. In reference to Job market signaling theory

the study did not consider other factors such as labour market and perception that could

affects the employment outcome of the vocational training graduates. Despite revealing a

skill mismatch, the study does not specify the skills and traits the employers consider

important when hiring Technician engineering graduates. The employability model used

as conceptual benchmark did not draw a line between employment and employability.

Being employed means having a job and being employable means having the qualities

needed to maintain a job and progress at the work place.

32

A research article by Waithanji (2002) focusing on skill training opportunities for

females in Technical Education Programmes (TEP) in Kenya reveals the fact that labour

markets have become so competitive that Technician engineering graduates need to be

assisted to enter such markets. The research article adopted informal interviews and

questionnaires to collect data that were analysed within the framework of human capital

theory. The study reveals 35% of engineering student’s failure in at least two subjects in

their final examination, with graduation rate standing at 46% of males and 69% of the

female students. The study shows that 23% of the engineering students change their

career to non engineering related courses for reasons not known. The study concludes

TVET institutions are internally inefficient, with endogenous factors forcing trainees out

of the training programmes. The study however does not point out these endogenous

factors neither does it trace the employability of the TEP graduates.

Kazilan, Hamzah and Bakar (2009) conducted a descriptive study on employability

skills among the students of TVET in Malaysia. The purpose of the evaluation was to

investigate the level of employability skills among the students of TVET institutions.

About 436 final year students from the institution were randomly sampled. The data was

collected by questionnaires which was adapted from Secretary’s Commission on

Achieving Necessary Skills. Descriptive analysis, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and t-

test were used to analyze the data. The finding showed that the 93% of the respondents

a