technical writing course 2007 2008

8/8/2019 Technical Writing Course 2007 2008

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Technical WritingTechnical Writing

Mechanical Power DepartmenMechanical Power Departmen

Faculty of EngineeringFaculty of Engineering

Cairo UniversityCairo University

2007- 2008

techwriting

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Send your Questions to the follo

[email protected]

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What You Will Learn

Introduction: The problem with Commun

Planning your Report and Clarifying you

Analyzing your Audience and Targeting

Selecting the Information

Main Parts of your Ph.D.

Structuring the Report Keeping the Rea

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What You Will Learn

Writing a First Draft Efficiently and Rapid

Designing Illustrations (Use of Color, VisNumbers, Units and Equations)

Revising and Proof Reading your Report

Tools to Make your Job Easier

Avoiding Common English Pitfalls

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The exam of September 2007 w

answer are at the end of these


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Introduction: The Problem with Com


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Introduction: The Problem with Comm

Idea Write / speEncode

Tran

smit

Read / heaDecodeSame

Idea?


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Communicating your thoughts and ideas is a co

in both speech and in writing. At every stage of things can go wrong. Some of the problems thaoutside our control.

This means that we should take care to ensure tthe process that we can control are clear, simpl

understood.

The Problem with Communicati


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Planning your Report and Cyour Purpose


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Planning The Report and Clarifying you

The biggest cause of problems is the failure to clarify tstarting to write.

is vital that you think a lot BEFORE you start writing.

ix steps to producing the correct structure:

Aim - Establish and clarify the purpose

Gather data - Be creative! Write all thoughts and

paper.

Pause

Group - Group the ideas into themes unde

Order - Order and number the themes app

Pause


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Planning The ReportPlanning The Report

There is now a good outline if appropriate get it aptage. This may save time and effort later. Start writingnow what you want to say

. Write a first draft - Write bearing in mind tlanguage

- Re-write - No body gets it right at

- Revise and proofread - Get some one else to r

ote that the first four steps involve thinking. Only thewriting.


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Defining Your ObjectiveDefining Your Objective

Is your objective:

- To inform? (or to record)

- To explain?

- To Persuade?

Each objective has its own structure The structure will follow logically oncdetermined your objective.


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Defining Your Objective: The six question

These six questions will Keep the objective and themind:

Why, Who, What, How, When, Where?

All these points concern the reader rather than the w

Keeping the reader in mind will save a lot of timmake sure you hit the target.


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Defining Your ObjectiveDefining Your Objective

Why Do I write?

Do I have to? Could I see the reader or

first?will they want to read it?

Who am I writing to?

what sort of person is the reader? Is he

else is involved?

What do they want to know?

do they know already?

will they know after reading?

do I want the reader to do?

sort of tone should I use?


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Defining Your Objective

How will the reader react?

can I make it clear?

When will it be read?

Might it be read in years to come?

has it got to be done?

Where will it be read? Home or abroad?Internal or external to my organizatio


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Analyzing your AudAnalyzing your Aud

And Targeting their NAnd Targeting their N


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Who Reads What ?

I .For an Internal Company Report:

1. Your immediate supervisor will read it all, as

contemporaries working on similar problems.

2. The department head will read the abstract, tand the conclusions and results.

3. The vice-president will read the abstract.

4. At the end of the year, the title will be listed iprogress report.

5. Most of the rest of the world will either NEVEreport, or will see its title only.


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Who Reads What ?

II. For a Paper Published in an Academic Journal:

1. Subscribers to the journal, who also happein your field, will read it all.

2. Subscribers to the journal, who wish to keeyour field, will read the abstract only.

3. The title and abstract may be reprinted by service for wider circulation. Readers will thebasis of your abstract, whether or not to reapaper.


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It is important that you keep these audimind while you write the report, so that the

distribution of information can be made.


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Your Audience has Different View

Your first duty is to decide what is important ab

To illustrate, let us assume that you are about to wdescribing a series of products testing. What are sig

of the test? There might be several viewpoints.


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Technician:

I had to add three quarts of oil during that series; t

let go. Ill have to replace that before we run again.

Test Engineer:

That new carburetor looks pretty good, fuel consu

5% and exhaust aldehydes were down nearly 23%.

Engine Cycle Analyst:

Improving the homogeneity of the air-fuel mix

engines thermal efficiency to within 3% of its predic

Vice president, Marketing:

We are pleased to announce a major breakthragainst smog.


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Selecting the InformaSelecting the Informa


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Data Gathering Techniques

Brain Storming

Internet Searches

Libraries

Academic periodicals (e.g., Science Direct and EnVillage)

Interviews

Newspapers

Government Records


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Data Gathering Techniques: Brain S

Explore the topic not the problem

- Generate ideas and write them

- Don't evaluate ideas now

- Keep returning to the problem

Talk to your reader

- What questions would they ask?

- What different kinds of readers might you have?

Ask yourself questions


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Brain Storming

Journalistic questions

Who?

What?

Where?

When?

Why?

How?

So What?


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Brain Storming

Definition Questions

- How does the dictionary define -------?- What do I mean by -------?

- What group of things does ------- belong to?

- How is ------- different from other things?

- What parts can ------- be divided into?

- Does ------- mean something now that it didn't ye

If so, what?

- What other words mean about the same as ------

- What are some concrete examples of -------?

- When is the meaning of------- misunderstood?


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Brain Storming

Comparison/Contrast

- What is ------- similar to? In what ways?- What is ------- different from? In what ways?

- ------- is superior (inferior) to what? How?

- ------- is most unlike (like) what? How?

Relationship- What causes -------?

- What are the effects of-------?

- What is the purpose of-------?

- What is the consequence of-------?

- What comes before (after) -------?


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Brain Storming

Testimony

- What have I heard people say about -------?

- What are some facts of statistics about -------?

- Can I quote any proverbs, or sayings about -------?

- Are there any laws about -------?

Circumstance- Is ------- possible or impossible?

- What conditions, or circumstances make ------ posimpossible?

- When did ------- happen previously?

- If ------- starts, what makes it end?- What would prevent ------- from happening?


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Brain Storming

Tagmemics

- How is ------- different from things similar to it?- How has ------- been different for me?

- How much can ------- change and still be itself?

- How is ------- changing?

- How much does ------- change from day to day?

- What are the different varieties of-------?- Where and when does ------- take place?

- What is the larger thing of which ------- is a part?

- What is the function of------- in this larger thing?


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Brain Storming

Cubing

1. Describe it (colors, shapes, sizes, etc.)2. Compare it (What is it similar to?)

3. Associate it (What does it make you think of?)

4. Analyze it (Tell how it's made)

5. Apply it (What can you do with it? How can it be u

6. Argue for or against it


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Data Gathering Techniq

Internet Searches


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Internet Searches

A search engine is an Internet tool that locates sorts them according to specified keywords.

Yahoo, Google and Alta Vista are the most usefengines for beginning searches.

Use the advanced search options if possible.

Some search engines will search through seveengines at once.

Always refine your search.


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Types of Web Pages

Informative pages

Personal web pages

Political/interest group pages

Marketing-oriented pages


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Refining your Internet Search

AND tells the search engine to find your first wo

second word. Use OR when a key term may appear in two diffe

NEAR tells the search engine to find documentswords but only when they appear near each othewithin a few words.

NOT tells the search engine to find a reference thone term but not the other.


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Some Search Engines

Google at http://www.google.com/

Dogpile at www.dogpile.com and www.metacraw

metasearch engines (i.e., they search other searc

All4one at http://www.all4one.com allows simultasearching of 4 search engines.

Alta Vista at http://www.altavista.com/

Excite at http://www.excite.com/

HotBot at http://www.hotbot.com/

Infoseek at http://www.infoseek.com/

Lycos at http://www.lycos.com/ Northern Light at http://www.nisearch.com

Open Text at http://index.opentext.net


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Some Search Engines

Snap at http://www.snap.com

WebCrawler at http://webcrawler.com

World Wide Web Worm at http://www.goto.com

DejaNews at http://www.dejanews.com (searchepostings)

People Search at http://people.yahoo.com/ (has

page directories for telephone numbers, addresaddresses, etc.)

Big Yellow at http://www1.bigyellow.com (has epages)

WebSeer at http://webseer.cs.uchicago.edu (hadatabase of graphics)


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Dont Limit Yourself to Search En

Looking for information about job opportunitiesof the sites listing job vacancies. Try university

sometimes list jobs through their placement offprofessional organizations which also sometimethat field. Or look through the websites of varioucompanies because they usually have a sectionopportunities in their company.

Looking for information likely to be discussed oor chat rooms? Look through the lists of newsgsearch engine like DejaVu.


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Dont Limit Yourself to Search Eng

Looking for information about a current topic? C

newspaper and current newsmagazine sites. Mossearch engine for articles in their publications.

Looking for data that might have been collected ogovernment site? Start with sites such as the LibCongress (at http://www.loc.gov/ ) or The White Hhttp://www.whitehouse.gov/)


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Searching With a Subject Directory:

Subject directories are valuable for web researc

an area on which they want to focus, but do nospecific topic. They can help a writer get generaor a "feel" for the topic.

Some Subject Directories:

Yahoo About.comBig Hub Invisible Web

Link2Go Open Directory Project


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Searching with an Subject Directory: E

Go to Yahoo! (an index)

Find a topic that interests you ("education")

Follow it through specifics (Rural Education", Education Institute")

Rural Education Institute" is a specific topic tha

feasibly researched, either by following the listedusing that phrase in a keyword search.


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Getting Engineering Information

Argonne National Laboratory

Engineering Connections the Internet

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Lockheed Martin Energy systems MIT Directory of Research

National Institute of Standard and Technology

National Science Foundation


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Getting Engineering Information

The Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable T

The Online Material Information Resource

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

National Technology Transfer Center

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Penn State University Libraries (Engineering Collec

Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Stu

Mathematics Information Servers

Math-Search


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Health, Medicine Information

National Institute of Health

World Health Organization

Medscape

Medweb Plus


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But Be Careful, Because

Unlike most print sources, web sources do not

professionally accepted and edited to be publis

Virtually any person can publish almost anythinInternet.

Some personal sites are used to express indiviabout issues, but not necessarily facts.

Some marketing sites will offer misleading infoattempts to sell their products.


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Evaluating Web Sources

Who is the sites creator and what is his authority

What else comes up when you type the authors nsearch engine?

Is the site sponsored by a political or business gr

If so, what can you find out about that group?

Is the site affiliated with a business or a university

Can you purchase products at this site?


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Are there links to other credible sites with additinformation?

Does the site provide a link for emailing the authwebmaster?

Does the material show signs of research, suchto other sources, hyperlinks, footnotes, or a refe

Does the author consider opposing points of vie

How closely does the site match the informationknow about the topic?


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Can you locate a date on the web page?

Dates on web pages can mean: Date the author first wrote or developed the

Date site was first available on the Internet foaccess.

Date site was most recently updated, includiadditions, or subtractions to the material.

More importantly, does the information covechanges or advances in the field or topic youresearching?


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Main Parts of your Ph

Thesis


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A suggested thesis structure

The list of contents and chapter headings below is appropriate for some theses. In some cases, one or two of them may

irrelevant. Results and Discussion are usually combined in several chapters of a thesis. Think about the plan of chapter

and decide what is best to report your work. Then make a list, in point form, of what will go in each chapter. Try to ma

this rather detailed, so that you end up with a list of points that corresponds to subsections or even to the paragraphs of

your thesis. At this stage, think hard about the logic of the presentation: within chapters, it is often possible to present

ideas in different order, and not all arrangements will be equally easy to follow. If you make a plan of each chapter and

section before you sit down to write, the result will probably be clearer and easier to read. It will also be easier to write

Copyright waiver

Your institution may have a form for this (UNSW does). In any case, this standard page gives the university lib

the right to publish the work, possibly by microfilm or some other medium. (At UNSW, the Postgraduate Stude

Office will give you a thesis pack with various guide-lines and rules about thesis format. Make sure that you

consult that for its formal requirements, as well as this rather informal guide.)

Declaration

Check the wording required by your institution, and whether there is a standard form. Many universities require

something like: "I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge an

belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substan

extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of hig

learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text. (signature/name/date)"

Title page

This may vary among institutions, but as an example: Title/author/"A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor

Philosophy in the Faculty of Science/The University of New South Wales"/date.

Abstract

Of all your thesis, this part will be the most widely published and most read because it will be published inDissertation Abstracts International. It is best written towards the end, but not at the very last minute because y

will probably need several drafts. It should be a distillation of the thesis: a concise description of the problem(s

addressed, your method of solving it/them, your results and conclusions. An abstract must be self-contained.

Usually they do not contain references. When a reference is necessary, its details should be included in the text

the abstract. Check the word limit.

Acknowledgments

Most thesis authors put in a page of thanks to those who have helped them in matters scientific, and also indirec

by providing such essentials as food, education, genes, money, help, advice, friendship etc.If any of your work

collaborative, you should make it quite clear who did which sections.

ttp://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/thesis.html (8 of 13)3/29/2006 10:33:47 PM

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Table of contents

The introduction starts on page 1, the earlier pages should have roman numerals. It helps to have the subheadin

of each chapter, as well as the chapter titles. Remember that the thesis may be used as a reference in the lab, so

helps to be able to find things easily.

Introduction

What is the topic and why is it important? State the problem(s) as simply as you can. Remember that you have

been working on this project for a few years, so you will be very close to it. Try to step back mentally and take

broader view of the problem. How does it fit into the broader world of your discipline?

Especially in the introduction, do not overestimate the reader's familiarity with your topic. You are writing for

researchers in the general area, but not all of them need be specialists in your particular topic. It may help to

imagine such a person---think of some researcher whom you might have met at a conference for your subject, b

who was working in a different area. S/he is intelligent, has the same general background, but knows little of th

literature or tricks that apply to your particular topic.

The introduction should be interesting. If you bore the reader here, then you are unlikely to revive his/her intere

in the materials and methods section. For the first paragraph or two, tradition permits prose that is less dry than

scientific norm. If want to wax lyrical about your topic, here is the place to do it. Try to make the reader want t

read the kilogram of A4 that has arrived uninvited on his/her desk. Go to the library and read several thesisintroductions. Did any make you want to read on? Which ones were boring?

This section might go through several drafts to make it read well and logically, while keeping it short. For this

section, I think that it is a good idea to ask someone who is not a specialist to read it and to comment. Is it an

adequate introduction? Is it easy to follow? There is an argument for writing this section---or least making a ma

revision of it---towards the end of the thesis writing. Your introduction should tell where the thesis is going, an

this may become clearer during the writing.

Literature review

Where did the problem come from? What is already known about this problem? What other methods have been

tried to solve it?

Ideally, you will already have much of the hard work done, if you have been keeping up with the literature as y

vowed to do three years ago, and if you have made notes about important papers over the years. If you have

summarised those papers, then you have some good starting points for the review.

If you didn't keep your literature notes up to date, you can still do something useful: pass on the following advice to any

beginning PhD students in your lab and tell them how useful this would have been to you. When you start reading about

topic, you should open a spread sheet file, or at least a word processor file, for your literature review. Of course you writ

down the title, authors, year, volume and pages. But you also write a summary (anything from a couple of sentences to a

couple of pages, depending on the relevance). In other columns of the spread sheet, you can add key words (your own an

theirs) and comments about its importance, relevance to you and its quality.

How many papers? How relevant do they have to be before you include them? Well, that is a matter of judgeme

On the order of a hundred is reasonable, but it will depend on the field. You are the world expert on the (narrow

topic of your thesis: you must demonstrate this.

A political point: make sure that you do not omit relevant papers by researchers who are like to be your examin

or by potential employers to whom you might be sending the thesis in the next year or two.

Middle chapters

In some theses, the middle chapters are the journal articles of which the student was major author. There are


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several disadvantages to this format.

One is that a thesis is both allowed and expected to have more detail than a journal article. For journal articles,

usually has to reduce the number of figures. In many cases, all of the interesting and relevant data can go in the

thesis, and not just those which appeared in the journal. The degree of experimental detail is usually greater in a

thesis. Relatively often a researcher requests a thesis in order to obtain more detail about how a study was

performed.

Another disadvantage is that your journal articles may have some common material in the introduction and the

"Materials and Methods" sections.

The exact structure in the middle chapters will vary among theses. In some theses, it is necessary to establish so

theory, to describe the experimental techniques, then to report what was done on several different problems or

different stages of the problem, and then finally to present a model or a new theory based on the new work. For

such a thesis, the chapter headings might be: Theory, Materials and Methods, {first problem}, {second problem

{third problem}, {proposed theory/model} and then the conclusion chapter. For other theses, it might be

appropriate to discuss different techniques in different chapters, rather than to have a single Materials and Meth

chapter.

Here follow some comments on the elements Materials and Methods, Theory, Results and discussion which ma

or may not correspond to thesis chapters.

Materials and Methods

This varies enormously from thesis to thesis, and may be absent in theoretical theses. It should be possible for a

competent researcher to reproduce exactly what you have done by following your description. There is a good

chance that this test will be applied: sometime after you have left, another researcher will want to do a similar

experiment either with your gear, or on a new set-up in a foreign country. Please write for the benefit of that

researcher.

In some theses, particularly multi-disciplinary or developmental ones, there may be more than one such chapter

this case, the different disciplines should be indicated in the chapter titles.

Theory

When you are reporting theoretical work that is not original, you will usually need to include sufficient materia

allow the reader to understand the arguments used and their physical bases. Sometimes you will be able to pres

the theory ab initio, but you should not reproduce two pages of algebra that the reader could find in a standard

Do not include theory that you are not going to relate to the work you have done.

When writing this section, concentrate at least as much on the physical arguments as on the equations. What do

equations mean? What are the important cases?

When you are reporting your own theoretical work, you must include rather more detail, but you should consid

moving lengthy derivations to appendices. Think too about the order and style of presentation: the order in whiyou did the work may not be the clearest presentation.

Suspense is not necessary in reporting science: you should tell the reader where you are going before you start.

Results and discussion

The results and discussion are very often combined in theses. This is sensible because of the length of a thesis:

may have several chapters of results and, if you wait till they are all presented before you begin discussion, the

reader may have difficulty remembering what you are talking about. The division of Results and Discussion

material into chapters is usually best done according to subject matter.


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Make sure that you have described the conditions which obtained for each set of results. What was held constan

What were the other relevant parameters? Make sure too that you have used appropriate statistical analyses. Wh

applicable, show measurement errors and standard errors on the graphs. Use appropriate statistical tests.

Take care plotting graphs. The origin and intercepts are often important so, unless the ranges of your data make

impractical, the zeros of one or both scales should usually appear on the graph. You should show error bars on

data, unless the errors are very small. For single measurements, the bars should be your best estimate of the

experimental errors in each coordinate. For multiple measurements these should include the standard error in th

data. The errors in different data are often different, so, where this is the case, regressions and fits should be

weighted (i.e. they should minimize the sum of squares of the differences weighted inversely as the size of theerrors.) (A common failing in many simple software packages that draw graphs and do regressions is that they

not treat errors adequately. UNSW student Mike Johnston has written a plotting routine that plots data with erro

bars and performs weighted least square regressions. It is at http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/3rdyearlab/graphing

graph.html). You can just 'paste' your data into the input and it generates a .ps file of the graph.

In most cases, your results need discussion. What do they mean? How do they fit into the existing body of

knowledge? Are they consistent with current theories? Do they give new insights? Do they suggest new theorie

mechanisms?

Try to distance yourself from your usual perspective and look at your work. Do not just ask yourself what it me

in terms of the orthodoxy of your own research group, but also how other people in the field might see it. Does have any implications that do not relate to the questions that you set out to answer?

Final chapter, references and appendices

Conclusions and suggestions for further work

Your abstract should include your conclusions in very brief form, because it must also include some other mate

A summary of conclusions is usually longer than the final section of the abstract, and you have the space to be

more explicit and more careful with qualifications. You might find it helpful to put your conclusions in point fo

It is often the case with scientific investigations that more questions than answers are produced. Does your wor

suggest any interesting further avenues? Are there ways in which your work could be improved by future workWhat are the practical implications of your work?

This chapter should usually be reasonably short---a few pages perhaps. As with the introduction, I think that it i

good idea to ask someone who is not a specialist to read this section and to comment.

References (See also under literature review)

It is tempting to omit the titles of the articles cited, and the university allows this, but think of all the times whe

you have seen a reference in a paper and gone to look it up only to find that it was not helpful after all.

Should you reference web sites and, if so, how? If you cite a journal article or book, the reader can go to a libra

and check that the cited document and check whether or not it says what you say it did. A web site may disappeand it may have been updated or changed completely. So references to the web are usually less satisfactory.

Nevertheless, there are some very useful and authoritative sources. So, if the rules of your institution permit it,

may be appropriate to cite web sites. (Be cautious, and don't overuse such citations. In particular, don't use a we

citation where you could reasonably use a "hard" citation. Remember that your examiners are likely to be older

more conservative.) You should give the URL and also the date you downloaded it. If there is a date on the site

itself (last updated on .....) you should included that, too.

Appendices

If there is material that should be in the thesis but which would break up the flow or bore the reader unbearably

include it as an appendix. Some things which are typically included in appendices are: important and original


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computer programs, data files that are too large to be represented simply in the results chapters, pictures or

diagrams of results which are not important enough to keep in the main text.

Some sites with related material

How to survive a thesis defence

Research resources and links supplied by Deakin University

"Final year projects": a guide from Mike Hart at King Alfred's College, Winchester, UK

Postgraduate Student Resources supplied by University of Canberra

A useful aid to surviving meetings with management

The National Association of Graduate - Professional Students (USA)

Some relevant texts

Stevens, K. and Asmar, C (1999) 'Doing postgraduate research in Australia'. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne

ISBN 0 522 84880 X.

Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S. (1994) 'How to get a PhD : a handbook for students and their supervisors'. Open Univers

Press, Buckingham, England

Tufte, E.R. (1983) 'The visual display of quantitative information'. Graphics Press, Cheshire, Conn.

Tufte, E.R. (1990) 'Envisioning information' Graphics Press, Cheshire, Conn.


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http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/viva.htmlhttp://www.deakin.edu.au/library/findout/research/research_skills.phphttp://final-year-projects.com/http://aerg.canberra.edu.au/pub/aerg/edureso.htmhttp://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/meetings.pdfhttp://www.nagps.org/NAGPS/http://www.unsw.edu.au/http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/mailto:[email protected]://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jwhttp://www.nagps.org/NAGPS/http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/meetings.pdfhttp://aerg.canberra.edu.au/pub/aerg/edureso.htmhttp://final-year-projects.com/http://www.deakin.edu.au/library/findout/research/research_skills.phphttp://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/viva.html


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Scoring Rules for Different SectScoring Rules for Different Sect

Strategy/Purpose: Does the document mee

objective?

Well done: The objective of the document is identified; the content supports the objective

Acceptable Objective: is not immediately cle

additional content needed to support the obj

Some Weaknesses: Objective is difficult to dadditional content needed to support the obj

Problematic: The objective cannot be determ


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Strategy/Audience: Does the document aintended audience?

Well done: Content, structure, and languagegeared to intended audience

Acceptable: Document is missing some contby audience; some language used inapproprunfamiliar jargon, too much jargon)

Some Weaknesses: Document is missing a sportion of content required by audience; useinappropriate or ineffective language

Problematic: No organization apparent; cont

document reflects interests of writer but not inappropriate use of language


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Structure: Does the organization reflect the document and the needs of the aud

Well done: Subsections thematically cohereaccomplish their intended functions; documaccording to readers needs; relationship beclear

Acceptable: Coherence or function of subse

organization is evident but may be undermintransitions or occasional digressions

Some Weaknesses: Subsections are not logaccomplish their intended function; organizaconfusing or unclear

Problematic: No clear organization; thoughtsorder without connections between them.


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Support/Evidence: Is the evidence used toargument concrete, relevant, credible, ac

sufficient?

Well done: Argument is clearly supported byevidence considered credible by the audiencdetail to support the main points of the docu

Acceptable: Many details support argument,not fully elaborated or sufficiently specific; s

not relevant

Some Weaknesses: Some evidence is providnot fully explained, relevant to the argumentimportant pieces of evidence have not been some data inaccurate

Problematic: Little or no data to support the the argument; much of the data is inaccurate


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Coherence: Do sentences in paragraphs another in a logical way? Are relationshi

paragraphs clear?

Well done: Paragraphs are internally consistidea/theme runs through paragraph); transitparagraphs allow reader to easily follow threargument

Acceptable: A few paragraph lack internal cofew weak or unclear transitions

Some Weaknesses: Many paragraphs lack inconsistency; many transitions are weak or uinappropriately

Problematic: Main idea in most paragraphs cidentified; paragraphs have little or no discerelationship to one another


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Clarity/Conciseness: Are sentences structusuccinct, and easy to understan

Well done: Sentences flow smoothly, are strcorrect, and convey the intended meaning; n

Acceptable: Five percent or less of sentenceawkward, incorrectly constructed, or wordy

Some Weaknesses: Six to ten percent of senawkward, incorrectly constructed, or wordy

Problematic: More than 10 percent of sentenawkward, incorrectly constructed, or wordy


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Formatting: Are formatting elements used ato strengthen the document?

Well done: Formatting elements organize anideas as needed; formatting elements are usconsistently throughout the document

Acceptable: Formatting elements do not alwmain points; elements are used consistently

Some Weaknesses: Formatting elements oftsupport main points; elements are not alwayconsistently

Problematic: Formatting elements are confu

inconsistent; lack of any formatting


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Use of Tables and Graphs:

Well done: They support key parts of the argeasily comprehended, and are placed approp

Acceptable: They are not always tied to the kthe argument; design makes it somewhat difreader to interpret data

Some Weaknesses: They are disconnected f

of the argument; design makes it difficult forinterpret data; They are not placed in the optin relation to text

Problematic: They are disconnected from keargument; design makes it impossible for thinterpret data; crucial tables or graphs are mand graphs do not relate to the argument inc


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Mechanics: Are there grammar, punctuatioerrors?

Well done: No grammar, punctuation, or spe

Acceptable: No more than three grammar, puspelling errors

Some Weaknesses: Four to six grammar, pu

spelling errors

Problematic: Seven or more grammar, punctspelling errors


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Structuring the Report Keeping the Rea

The Ten Rules for Clear Writing

Which Font to Use?Connecting Words


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Ten Rules for Clear Writin

Rule # 1: Keep Sentences Sh

Control sentence length by noticingof lines in each sentence. A typewritten in average handwriting, averages 10 to 1

Remember to vary sentence length, but those that run more than two lines.


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Rule # 1: Keep Sentences Short: Why Sim

Small words are easier to read than the long words easier to recognize and interpret. We get more prac

words as we speak; so when we see a word which wconversation, it is harder for understand.

Never try to impress to reader by deliberately using

Use a short word (even two or three) instead of a lo

we need some long words for variety and precisionwords below 10% of the total.

Always try to use words whose meaning are precisedoubt.

Beware of jargon/technical/professional words whic

not understand.


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Words to use - Keep it Short and Si

Rather than using Use

Discontinue stopSubmit for consideration prop

Proceed go

Commence start

Intelligible clea

Occurrence even

Dispatch send

Make modification to mod

Demonstrate show

Is in a position to can

We would be grateful If you would plea


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Keep it Short and -Words to use

RathUse

do

try

use

build

lack

fairrare

end

But remember: Accuracy, and claritimportant than shortness


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Rule # 2: Prefer the Simple to the Co

We can't resist the use of four-syllable words. W

utilization when we could write "use," or "modwe could use "change.

This principle does not outlaw the use of a comneed both simple and complex forms for clear etimes, the complex form may be best. So, if the big word, go ahead and use it. But if a shorter wjob, use it.

Of the 10 rules, complexity is the one most viol


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Rule #2: Prefer the Simple to the Co

RatheUse

On the order of maboutIn like

Give encouencourage

In view ofsince

Make an aadjust

Is ehasTake into cconsider


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Rule # 3: Prefer the Familiar Wo

Intelligent people use their large vocabulary only

exact meaning -- never to show off.

The most familiar words are 10 short ones: the, ofthat, it, is, I. They make up 25 percent of all that isspoken in English.

The 50 words most often used make up 50 percenEnglish. The 1,000 most common words turn up 8time and the 10,000 words most often used accouof all that is written. Remember, there are more thin Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.


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Rule # 3: Prefer the Familiar Words:

Jargon is the technical, wordy language used by

associated with a trade or profession. Often it isvoice, acronyms, technical terms, and abstract w

Writers use jargon in an attempt to sound educasophisticated, or knowledgeable.

Actually, jargon muddies and even distorts the


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Jargon: Compare the Following Two P

Alex demonstrates a tendency to engage inap

verbal social interaction during class time. His grad

because he suffers from an unwillingness to complassignments between class periods.

Alex talks in class when he isn't supposed to.

because he doesn't do his homework.

The first paragraph above leaves the impressiosociopath with a serious problem. The second portrstudent who needs to talk less and work more.


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Rule # 4: Avoid Unnecessary Wo

Most reports can be cut in half and still say the s

Unnecessary words usually are included uncon

One minute spent organizing a mass of details wminutes in its writing. Furthermore, a few minutgoing over each sentence and making it more cpay off.


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Rather than using Use

12 midnight midn12 noon noon

3 am in the morning 3 ama person who is honest an hoa total of 14 birds 14 birbiography of her life biogrend result resulFree gift gift

Future plans plansperiod of four days four dReturn again returSmall in size smalSquare in shape squa


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Rule # 5: Prefer Active Over Passive

The verb is the most important part of the sentence.

onveys action. There are three types of verb:

. Active Verb (direct and concise - e.g. a message in o

Bob Hit James

. Passive Verb (Has less impact: i.e. the same messag

James was hit by Bob

Consider the following sentence:

in the event of rail strike, road transport will b

upplied by whom? Not clear!!!!


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. The Verbal Noun: Totally not recommended

This is usually used as padding as in school essayspseudo legal writing.

For example:

The hitting of James was carried out by Bob

Notice how the sentence is now made of nine w


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Active voice leads to writing which is clear and genemphatic. The active voice forces us to say exactly

have to clarify who took, or should take the action.

The active leaves the reader with complete understaclear of ambiguity and vagueness, and we have to aresponsibility for our statements.

It is particularly risky to use the passive voice wherprocedures are involved they may never get done


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Rule # 5: Prefer Active Over Passive Verb

assive

The problem of the need for revision of stock takin

discussed last year. It was pointed out that no respoaccepted for the inadequacy of the system at that ti

Active

We discussed the problem of the need to revise yo

procedures with Mr Brian Davis last year. We pointethought that the system was inadequate then and wresponsibility for it.


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When To Use The Passive Voice

To avoid the impression of being critical of people.

.g. The accounts have not been completed.The emphasis is on the object of the sentence rather

.g. Standards of safety have been allowed to deterio

To soften a passage which is predominantly active,scientific reports where by whom is self evident.

e.g. The computer was installed to mechanize the a


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Rule # 6: Write Like you Talk

"Write like you talk" has its limitations. Most of

untidy English. We repeat ourselves. We pause.However, in our speech we do not use long, invladen with multi-syllable words that usually occwriting.


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Rule # 7: Use Terms Your Reader Can

An engineer might say an alloy is "not fabricab

This is a general term that might mean several tasked for a more specific meaning, the engineeralloy cracks when it is cold-rolled."


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Rule # 8: Tie In With Your Reader's Exp

Many communications fail because writers ignobeliefs and experiences.

Words are not fixed. They vary in meaning fromperson, the meaning depending upon the experperson and the pictures the words call to mind.

In trying to persuade readers to accept your wothat the meaning they give them will be determintheir past experiences and purposes.

It isn't enough to write so you will be understoowrite so you can't be misunderstood.


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Rule # 9: Make Full Use of Variet

The style of your writing will grow as you write m

If you get "caught" writing simply, you have failed

Good writers work within a strict discipline of simthey introduce enough variety of sentence lengthvocabulary so that the simplicity is not noticed. Areaders never think the writing is choppy or child

Variety is a main ingredient in the art of writing. Ocan lead to the facility that produces variety. Beinpoint, however, helps one gain facility more rapid


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Rule # 10: Write to Express, not to I

A trap awaits the inexperienced writer. We oftenrather than express. We try to be someone else

Few are fooled by fanciness in language. It's besince any of us have heard anyone say, "I can'twhat he is saying; he must be highly intelligent

Don't get lost in the rules of grammar. Pay atten

expression, and worry about grammar later.


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Write to Express, not to Impress: E

Written to impress:

Males of advancing years are often character

by a deterioration of their recollective facilities

Written to express:

old men forget Shakespeare


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Which Font to Use?Which Font to Use?

For printed pages, most users prefer the type-s

New Roman) that is used in newspapers and pap

Computer users prefer Arial because the Arial are easy to read on a backlit screen.

Many computer users prefer Verdahas slightly larger and rounder charaArial.


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Connecting Words (Transitional Connecting Words (Transitional D

Transitional devices are like bridges between pareport. They help the readers to interpret ideas i

YOU want them to understand.

They carry over a thought from one sentence toone idea to another, or from one paragraph to awords or phrases.

Some lead your reader forward and imply the "bidea or thought, while others make your reader or draw conclusions from the preceding though

Here is a list of some common transitional devic

used to cue your reader in a given way.


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To add

and, again, and then, besides, equally impfurther, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly,moreover, in addition, first (second, etc

To Compare

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, howenevertheless, on the contrary, by comparicompared to, up against, balanced againsalthough, conversely, meanwhile, after allalthough this may be true



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To Prove

because, for, for the same reason, obvioevidently, furthermore, moreover, besidfact, in addition, in any case, that is, the

To Show Exception

yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spiteof course, once in a while, sometimes, b


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To Show Time

immediately, thereafter, soon, since, afthours, finally, later, previously, formerly(second, etc.), next, and then, as soon a

To Emphasize

definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, any case, absolutely, positively, naturalsurprisingly, always, forever, eternally, emphatically, unquestionably, without a

certainly, undeniably, without reservatio


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To Repeat

in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, anoted

To Show Sequence

first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, Cforth. next, then, following this, at this tithis point, after, afterward, subsequentlyconsequently, previously, before this,

simultaneously, concurrently, thus, thernext, and then, soon, since


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To Give an Example

for example, for instance, in this case, incase, on this occasion, in this situation,case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, asillustration

To Summarize or Conclude

in brief, on the whole, summing up, to cconclusion, as I have shown, as I have sbeen shown, hence, therefore, accordina result, consequently


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Writing A First DraEfficiently And Rap

Higher Order Concerns and Lower Order

Coping with Writing Anxiety


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Writing A First Draft Efficiently An

While writing your first draft, Focus ONLY on HiConcerns (HOC). Ignore Lower Order Concerns You also have to cope with the writing anxiety.

What is the writing anxiety and how to cope with


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Higher Order Concerns and Lower Ord

When you are writing your report, not every elemen

priority. The most important parts of your report, ofOrder Concerns" are the "big picture" elements sucreader and purpose, organization, and development

After you have addressed these important elements

your attention to the "Lower Order Concerns" suchstructure and grammar.


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Examples of Higher Order Con

Focus: Does the report have a central thesis?

Can you offer a one-sentence explanation or sumreport is about?

Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two anhe or she thinks the report will discuss.

Reader and Purpose: Do you have an appropriate redears in mind? Canthem?

Do you have a clear purpose for the report? Whatdo or accomplish?

Why would someone want to read this report?

Does the purpose match the assignment?


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Development:

Are there places in the report where more detailsspecifics are needed?

Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in nematerial than others?

Ask someone to read the report and comment if sunclear and needs more description explanation,


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Examples of Lower Order Conc

Sentence structure

Tenses Word choice

Spelling

Punctuation

Etc..


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Examples of Lower Order Con

Are there a few problems that frequentlya list of problems that recur and check f

Read the paper aloud watching and listeanything that sounds incorrect.

Ask yourself why you put punctuation m

certain places. Do you need to check anpunctuation rules?


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Coping with Writing AnxietyCoping with Writing Anxiety

Many situations or activities, such as wests, or speaking before a large audience, ma

nxious or apprehensive. It's important to remmoderate level of anxiety is helpful and produt, we might not perform as well.

However, If we let our anxiety overwheause problems.

If we control that anxiety we can make One way to do that is to use some of the copi

sted below.


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Coping Strategies

Focus your energy by rehearsing the task in yo

Stop the non-productive comments running throand replace them with productive ones.

If you have some "rituals" for writing success, u

Break the task up into steps.

Think of the present draft as a practice run. Writquickly, and revise it later.


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Coping Strategies

Begin in the middle

Talk the paper

Tape the paper

Imagine changing the reader

Take a break: physically walk away from the situ

minutes if you can.

Resign yourself to the fact that you have to writ


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Relaxation Strategies

Some relaxation techniques are proved to help ythe writing anxiety and refresh your energy

Stretch! If you can't stand up, stretch as many mas possible while staying seated.

Try tensing and releasing various muscle groupyour toes, tense up for perhaps five to ten secongo. Relax and then go on to another muscle grou

Breathe deeply. Close your eyes: then, fill your cslowly by taking four of five short deep breaths. breath until it hurts, and then let it out slowly.

Use a calming word or mental image to focus on

If you choose a word, be careful not to use an imcommand yourself to "Calm down!" or "Relax!"


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Designing Illustratio

Significant DigitsEffective Use of White spaceVisualsFiguresTables

NumbersUnitsEquations

Significant Digits


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Rules of Significant Figu

The most-significant digit (MSD) is the leftmost, nonz

The least-significant digit (LSD) is the rightmost, non*IF there is a decimal point, then the LSD also i

The number of significant figures equals the number nd including the least-significant digit and the most-s

How many significant figures are there in each of the

10.5800 105800 10.58

6 4 4

EXAMPLE:


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EXAMPLE: How Many Significant

Number of significant figures

Rounded off to 5 significant figures =

027.08450

MSD LSD


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Because 8.2 has only one digit to the right of the decimalthe answer, 19.4, MUST have NO more than one digit afte

Working with Significant DigAdding or Subtracting Two Nu


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Working with Significant DigMultiplying or Dividing Two Num

Because 8.2 has only two significant digits,

the answer, 10, MUST have NO more than two sign


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Effective Use of White spac

Effective report formatting can greatly increase appeal. Adding white space is just one method.

A page should not run on and on. A page is easbroken into groups of ideas, or sections with hesections should then contain paragraphs that ar

blocks.

This way readers can skip around to the areas t

interest them. Readers may not normally sit dowwhole page, but they tend to skim. So use mean

pull them into relevant sections.


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Why Visuals?

Visuals help to increase the amount of informatunderstood.

Readers will remember more when they see visu Visuals have more impact than plain text.

Designing Visuals

How much detail do YOU want to include? What design format would you like to use?

How can you keep it consistent?

How can color improve or detract from your pre


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Figures

Figures are used to quickly convey an understand

relationships between the variables of a problem. Each figure must be self explanatory.

The title should give a clear description of the figureader can quickly understand what is being show

Certain information must appear on each figure:

1. Title

2. Axis labels

3. Scale markings (ticks)


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Figures

Describe what exactly is plotted as function of w

The independent variable (the cause) is placed oaxis and the dependent variable (the result) is pvertical axis.

For example,

If you measure the resistance as function o

temperature: Place the resistance on the ver

If you measure the temperature as functionresistance: Place the temperature on the ver


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Figures

Indicate the variable (preferably a symbol) and theor t [s] near ach axes.

Near the vertical axis place the axis label horizontalack of space and you place it vertically, it should the right.

When comparing two results, use exactly the same

results being compared. Be careful when using abbreviations, and acronym

phrases on your slides.


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Figures

Include peripheral information wherever YOU feto prevent the reader from missing or misunders

point of the figure.

Carefully track the decimal points. A decimal pooccurs right at the intersection of two major gridconcealed and lost.

Critically important data should be tabulated as in figures.

Keep in mind the space that will be lost due to tthe report.


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Divisions on the Axis

The space should be used efficiently.

Usually the axes go preferably through theIf you dont start at 0, its good to show it (cumbersome with Excel).

Divide the axes in multiples of 1, 2, 5, 10, e

Do not put ticks every 3 or 4 units!

Have enough (but not too many) ticks.Consider the use of logarithmic divisions.

Realize what is useful and/or common.


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The Power of the Y AxisThe Power of the Y Axis

Notice how the same information looks veNotice how the same information looks ve

based on the scales of the Ybased on the scales of the Y-- axisaxis


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Measurement PointsMeasurement Points

Include all the measurement points, also the onebe out of range. Make them sufficiently large for th

them after you draw a curve through them.

Make sure during the measurement phase that twell distributed. Where the graph behaves strangepeaks and so on) there should be more points (horealized that when doing the measurement!)

Often it is useful to indicate an estimation of the using error bars (especially when large or critical)


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Curves

Draw a smooth curve between the points withouexactly force it through all of them, in accord wi

(expectation) and common sense (error bars arethat).

Use different curve styles, especially for curvestogether or have a different meaning, such as thmeasurement (solid, dashed,..).

If the theory predicts that the points lie on a straa straight through the points.

If the theory predicts the line to go through the oorigin in the graph.


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Example: A Poor Figure

Fig. 1: Results


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Example: A Better Figure

Fig.2. Measurement of evaporation rate asinput power (third order fit).


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Tables

The table must be self explanatory.

The title should give a clear description of the ta

reader can quickly understand what is being sh

In the heading above each column mention:

The contents, often using a symbol (e.g.

The unit between brackets (e.g. [mV]). Ch

be convenient in size, e.g. 17.3 mV instea Choose the sequence of columns in a logical wa

what belongs together).


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Tables

Shift repetitive information from the columns to

Consider rounding the number of digits for easiunderstanding (45000 versus 49487.876)

Dont put very long or wide tables in the text if nis better for the reader if you put them in an appthem up in smaller tables.

Avoid that tables continue from one page to ano


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Tables

Better not to make horizontal tables: They save difficult to read:

The vertical table has thleft and the result in themuch earlier to read an

Each table must ha


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Use of Numbers in Technical RUse of Numbers in Technical R

Whenever possible, give numerical values in sta

avoid ambiguous words.

For example,

"The voltage across a forward-biased silicon diode

"The voltage across a forward-biased silicon diode

OR

The voltage across a forward-biased silicon diode0.7 V)."


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Use of Numbers in Technical R

OLD: The CVT's highway mileage is slightly le

manual's, but not much. NEW: A car with a CVT consumes 102% of th

mile on the highway compared to the same car transmission.

The improved sentence is longer because word

to make the consumption of gasoline refer, proautomobile and not to the transmission; also "mexpanded to the proper "gasoline per mile". Hoincrease in sentence length is justified.


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Use of Numbers in Technical

Do not insert commas into numbers of more than t"1,000" is wrong). This is a violation of internationengineering practice. This rule is important becausused as a decimal point in some countries (e.g., G

Instead of commas, numbers with at least five digithe decimal point may have a space inserted betwthree digits.

For numbers between -1 and +1, insert a zero to thdecimal point in order to avoid a "naked decimal puse 0.47, not .47 The intent of this rule is to make ithe reader to overlook the decimal point.


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Use of Numbers in Technical R

If the values of X and Y are compared, then X anthe same dimensions.

In this design R was chosen to be larger than

The writer probably intended to compare R to treactance.

The current through the zener diode must be lepower rating.

The writer may be is saying that the power ratindiode should not be exceeded.

Watch out for phrases like "400 volts of ac curre

does not have units of volts.


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Improper Addition of Numb

In 1996, Delta Airlines and Finnair announcpartnership "with 145 years of experience". The

number 145 on the fact that Delta had 72 years oand Finnair had 73 years of experience. The proexperience is not additive.

It is not possible than any person at the comDelta/Finnair firm has 145 years of experience w

airlines, even if people had lifetimes longer thanmight also ask if even 72 years of experience is experience gained in the 1920s and 1930s with spropeller aircraft is not relevant to modern longaircraft.


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Improper Addition of Numb

Another example along the same lines is having

boiling water on the stove, each pot with a temp100C. If one poured all of the water into one cowater would nothave a temperature of 400C of 100C. Note that temperature is notadditive: onat 100C when mixed with one liter of water at 0two liters of water at 50C.


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Zero and Infinity

Be careful with zeros and Infinities in laboratory me

When tempted to claim that some value is unmeas

better to give an estimate of the smallest nonzero mbe detected. Dont just say that it is zero.

A concise way to phrase this is to write, e.g., "Vout winstead of a long-winded discussion of least significresolution, accuracy, and precision.

When using "unmeasurably small" in an analysis ancompute an upper or lower bound.


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Avoid These Situations

The voltage across the diode is smaller.

Sudso gets your clothes cleaner.

The range of options in the comparison must be sexample:

The voltage across the diode is smaller than the vresistor R

1

.

Sudso gets your clothes cleaner than Crudso.better be able to prove it to Crudso's attorneys!)


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Five or 5?

In general, most people spell out numbers that expressed in one or two words and use figures

numbers:

There are several exceptions to this simple rule:

1. Use figures for all numbers when there are nummore digits for related quantities in the same se

as "6 of 23 physicians recommend .

2. Always use figures when a unit of measurementA").

3. Repeat numbers in legal or commercial writing.

The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dolla


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Five or 5?Five or 5?

4. Always spell approximate values, "round numbapproximate value is followed by a unit, then the abbreviated. For example:

about five yearstwo orders of magnitudeabout four times largerseveral kilovoltsa few tens of megahertz

5. When a number is at the beginning of a sentencalwaysspelled-out. If this rule produces a result tawkward, it may be better to rewrite the sentencestarting with a number.


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Five or 5?Five or 5?

6- Numbers in series and statistics should be consistwo apples, six oranges, and three bananas

NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas

115 feet by 90 feet OR 115' x 90'The vote was 9 in favor and 5 oppose

7- Use a combination of figures and words for numbcombination will keep your writing clear.

Unclear: The club celebrated the birt6 90-year-olds who were born in the (may cause the reader to read '690' a

Clearer: The club celebrated the birth

six 90-year-olds who were born in the


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Five or 5?: Examples of Specific S

Days and Years

December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965

A.D. 1066 in 1900

in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972

the eighties, the twentieth century

the 1980's or the 1980s

Time of Day

8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morni

4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the aftern

Addresses

16 Tenth Street

3 West 114 Street


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Five or 5?: Examples of Specific S

Identification Numbers Room 5 Channel 16

Interstate 68 Henry VIII

Page and Division of Books Page 36

Chapter 8

In act 5, scene 6 (or) in Act V, Scene viDecimals and Percentag

A 3.7 average

12 1/4 percent

0.047 metric ton

Large Round Numbers

Five billion dollars (or) $5 billion

17,500,000 (or) 17.5 million


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Use of Units with Number

1. Allnumerical values that have dimensions muunits specified. In general, the units must followvalue everytime. However, in a table of numberbe specified at the top of the column, provided ahave the same units. If there are two numbers inthe same units(e.g., "frequency between 4 and put the units only after the second number.

2. Allunits, including those that are named for alower-case first letter when written out (notabbrwrite "ohm, farad, coulomb, volt, ampere, hertz"


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Abbreviations for Units

Units that are named for a person have an upper-cwhen abbreviated; all other units have a lower-cas

Only metric prefixes for 10+6 or more have an uppabbreviation (e.g., M = 10+6, G = 10+9, etc.). In partiprefix m indicates 10-3 and M indicates 10+6. The dan uppercase M and a lower-case m is nine orders

One should be warned that American manufacture

often use "mF" or "MF" to indicate microfarads, aboth incorrect and misleading.

The proper abbreviation for "kilohertz" is "kHz": oupper case.


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Abbreviations for Units

Note that the proper abbreviation for "second" is

The same abbreviation is used for the singular an

unit.

A period is notplaced after an abbreviated unit, uend of the sentence. (The only exception is in.)

The proper abbreviations for "alternating current

and root mean-square" are lower case "ac, dc, rmthe term appears in a title or as the first letter in athe entireabbreviation is upper case: "AC, DC, R


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Watch Out for Expressions suc

The signal generator had a 15 kHz frequenc

Units of measurement ("kHz") are nouns and cato modify another noun ("frequency").

The proper phrasing could be:

The signal generator had a frequency of 15 kHz.

6 cm long

The proper phrasing could be:

6 cm in length

The length is 6 cm

Having a length of 6 cm


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Units with Axis

Avoid labeling the axis on a graph or a coluas, for example, volts x 10-3

This is ambiguous: are the numbers to be mthe reader, or has the multiplication already bee

Maybe the number 3 on the axis of the grapcolumn of text means 3000 V, which times 10-3 is

a case, the author should have written 3 kV

Maybe the number 3 on the axis of the grapcolumn of text means 0.003 V, which is 3 x 10-3. the author should have written 3 mV


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Units with Prefixes

In general, choose a metric prefix that will make

value between 0.1 and 1000. However, the value or a variable over the range of a few paragraphs should have the same metric prefix to allow easyof different values.

Never use a double metric prefix. For example, in

American literature, one will find small capacitanin "F" (or, worse, "mmF"), for "micro-micro-fathe modern preferred unit, "pF" for picofarad.


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Spaces with Units

There should always be one blank spacebetweeand a unit: "5 kHz", not "5kHz

In modern word processors, the space betweenunit should be a non-breaking space, so the numappear on the same line as its unit.

There is no space between the metric prefix and


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Equations in Technical Repo

One must identify each of the variables and paraname when they first appear. (One might be exc

saying that t is the time, since this is such a stavariable.)

If an equation is so long that it requires more ththen consider introducing new variables for termequation. If each term has some physical signifi

also make it easier for the reader to understand For example:

D(t) is a damped oscillation that is superposed ooscillation to give the total voltage, V(t).


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Technical writing often contains equations. Som

Do not embed equations in a line of text: every eon its own line.

Number each equation at the right-hand marginnecessary to refer to the equation by number insomeone may want to refer to the equation in a

publication.


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Although equations are separated by white space, th

treated as part of the sentence:

To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1:

where is the stress estimated by FEPC and E

modulus of elasticity of aluminum.

= E

,



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The voltage, V, and current, I, in a resistor is given by

V = I R, (3)

The power, P, dissipated in any two-terminal device

P = I V, (4)

where I is the current in the device and V is the voltadevice. For the special case of a resistor, the relatvoltage and current, Eq. 3, can be used to expressfunction of only voltage:

P = V2 /R.

Notice the period at the end of Eq. 5, since it is the en


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Reviewing the Report

Things to check if your report will be translThings to check if your report will be transl

another languageanother language

Proof Reading StrategiesProof Reading Strategies

Checking Lower Order ConcernsChecking Lower Order Concerns


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If your Report will be Translated into AnotIf your Report will be Translated into Anot

Your report may end up being read by some one wEnglish

In our competitive environment, many products arand price. User friendly products and manuals may mbetween success and failure. Good translations will satisfaction and help control product liability claims

You must be aware of the audience that will be reatheir culture, what they know about the subject mattefrom the report, and how they want the information d

Both the author-and the translator-must be knowletarget readers' characteristics: the level of education

of origin, socioeconomic status, political beliefs, affiattitudes, etc


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Avoid culture-bound references (i.e., jokes, slannational figures and/or events including sports, at

politicians, national holidays, historical heroes, anavoid acronyms and abbreviations.

In English, there is a universal "you". The same when addressing children, friends or elders. In malanguages, however, there is a familiar and a formincorrect usage of this pronoun may result in offe

reader.

Be careful with pronouns: If the meaning is uncoriginal English, the ambiguity will probably lead tmistranslation in the target language.

Provide glossaries for key technical terms and d

Be consistent in your terminology. Is it always asometimes have you used the words case or casin



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Be careful with pictures, colors, numbering, dattelephone numbers, addresses, warranty informat

support information, paper size (letter, A4, tabloid

The color red in the U.S. means stop/danger, in Cprosperity and in India it means life. The color whimeans authority while for Muslims it means peace

English words are often shorter than their equivlanguages. Text expansion can range anywhere frdepending on the target language. Design your soto allow for text expansion: This will make the pagpage numbers consistent across several translate

Structure documents in small modules to give t

and the reader breathing room.

Provide your translator with source files.



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CARDINAL NUMBERS ORDINAL NU.S.A 1,107.61 1st, 2nd, 3rFRANCE 1 107,61 1er, 2eme,

GERMANY 1.107,61 1., 2., 3.

LONG DATES SH

U.S.A Tuesday, January 11, 2000 1/1

FRANCE Mardi, le 11 Janvier, 2000 11.

GERMANY Dienstag, 11 Januar, 2000 11.MEXICO Martes, 11 de enero, 2000 11/

Examples on How Numbers and Dates are Written inExamples on How Numbers and Dates are Written in


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Proof Reading StrategiesProof Reading Strategies

- Begin by taking a break: Allow yourself some time b

roof reading. Even a five-minute break is productive bet some distance from what you have written. The goresh eye and mind.

- Try to s-l-o-w d-o-w-n as you read through a paper: Tye catch mistakes.

- Try reading with a "cover." Sliding a blank sheet of page as you read encourages you to make a detailed, lf the report.

- Have another person check it over as well.


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Checking Lower Order Conce

Paragraphs

Sentences

Tenses

Spelling

Punctuations


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Paragraphs

Does each paragraph have a topic sentence whmain idea?

Have you used examples and vivid specific detayour topic?

Have you used explanatory sentences to give yojudgment on the topic?

Have you included sentences which pertain onl

Are transitions used between sentences and pa

Is there a concluding sentence?


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Sentences

Does each sentence follow clearly and logically fbefore it? Have you used some type of transition

between each sentence?

Check each sentence to make sure it has a subjea complete thought.

Have you run two sentences together incorrectly

period, conjunction or semicolon separating them Compute the average number of words per sente

close is that number compared to the average of


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Sentences

Have you varied the length of sentences in each

If your sentences are too long, break them into s

Sentences that are very short tend to produce awriting.

Is the rhythm of your paper interrupted?

(except for a good reason, like emphasis)


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Tenses

Have you incorrectly jumped between different

Have you used the correct form of the verb to exyou want?

Do your subjects and verbs agree?


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Spelling

Check any word you have doubts about.

If you are unsure of the spelling of a certain wor Be especially careful of the words listed as spel

nightmares: "ei" and "ie" words, words which a

"-ing" and "ed," and words with one or more setletters.

Have you capitalized names of persons, cities, cstreets, and titles?


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Punctuation

Have you ended every sentence with a period, qor exclamation point?

Are your thoughts within sentences broken up ccommas for easier understanding?

Have you broken up series with commas?

Have you used a period after abbreviations?

Consider these two sentences:

women without her man, can not liv

women without her, man can not liv


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Tools To Make

Your Job Easier


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Tools To Make Your Job Ea

Microsoft Office Tools: (You can try these t

front of a computer)

Spelling and grammar checks

Format copier

Word count

Synonyms and antonyms Auto correct

Hyper Links

Hiding columns, freezing pans

rows at top in Excel Macros and goal seek


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Microsoft Office Tools:

Merge

Track changes

Meta data

Other Tools:

Babylon dictionary and its glos

Online translation and dictiona

Printing to pdf

Speech

Digitizing figures (with Grab it)

Converting pdf files into word

Optical Character Recognition


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Study the Meta data on your


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The Gunning Fog Index

http://www.online-utility.org/english/readability_test

The Gunning fog index is a test designed to mea

readability of a sample of English writing. The resan indication of the number of years of formal edu

person requires in order to easily understand the reading.

If a passage has a fog index of 12, it has the readhigh school senior.

Texts that are designed for a wide audience gene

fog index of less than 12.


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The Gunning Fog Index: Exam

The sentence: I love you has a fog index of 1.

Readers Digest has a Fog Index of between 8 an

Time magazine has a Fog Index of about 11.

If you have a fog index higher than 13, your writread. The following paragraph, from the Wikiped"logorrhea", has a Gunning-Fog Index of 17.5:

The word logorrhoea is often used pejorativelyprose that is highly abstract and contains little clanguage. Since abstract writing is hard to visuaseems as though it makes no sense and all the wexcessive. Writers in academic fields that concemostly with the abstract, such as philosophy anpostmodernism, often fail to include extensive cexamples of their ideas, and so a superficial exatheir work might lead one to believe that it is all


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Some Online Translation and DicResources


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Avoiding Common English

Using Hyphens

Some spelling Rules and Mistakes

Commonly Confused Words


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Using HyphensUsing Hyphens1- Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving abefore a noun:

technical writing course 2007 2008

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