Irene Hawkins

What is learning?

What is learning?

• Learning happens when experience

produces a stable change in

someone’s knowledge or behavior.

What is Direct Instruction?

• Direct instruction, also known as explicit teaching, is

the traditional method of teaching whereby the

teacher lectures and then questions students on the

content presented.

Pros of Direct Instruction

• It ensures that state mandated topics of study

are covered prior to state achievement tests

• It is easy to manage available instructional time

to include everything that needs to be taught

• It includes an opportunity for informal student

assessment and reteaching

• It keeps student behavior issues to a minimum

Cons of Direct Instruction

• Limited to lower-level objectives

• Ignores innovative models of teaching

• Discourages students’ independent

thoughts and actions

Is direct

instruction

bad?

Three General Theories of Learning

•1. Behavioral

•2. Cognitive

•3. Constructivist

Behavioral Perspective on Learning

A-B-C: Antecedent – Behavior – Consequence

• Reinforcement (encourages or strengthens behavior)

• Positive reinforcement

• Negative reinforcement

• Punishment (suppresses or weakens behavior)

• Direct punishment

• Removal punishment

Consequences

Positive Reinforcement

High grades

Good behavior rewards

Money for chores

The student is getting something he or she wants;

therefore, the behavior is reinforced and strengthens.

Exempt a student from a test

Excuse a student from class

Excuse a child from chores

Although something is being taken away, it is something

that the child does not want to do; therefore, the

behavior is reinforced and is strengthened.

Negative Reinforcement

Direct Punishment

• Detention

• In School Suspension

• Punish work

The student is receiving something they do not want;

therefore, the behavior weakens.

Removal Punishment

• Not going out for recess

• Not allowed to go to school dance

• Not receiving chore money

The child is losing something they want to do;

therefore, the behavior weakens.

Behavioral (Strengths)

• Highly effective way to target unwanted behaviors

• Based on observable behaviors

Behavioral (Weaknesses)

• What works for one student may not work for all.

• You must know, beforehand, what the student’s

motivating force is.

When should I use a

behavioral approach?

“Identify a situation in your school that you would like to change. Think about the participants (students, parents, or teachers) whose behaviors could change for the better to improve the situation. Now identify the possible reinforcers for their current behavior – what desirable outcomes do they achieve for acting the way they do or what unpleasant outcomes do they escape?”

-Hoy & Miskel

Behavioral Approach Example:

• The Good Behavior Game

• The entire class earns rewards based on the collective

behavior of the class. This is usually based on a point

system going toward the class total.

• Divide class into teams.

• Students receive points for inappropriate classroom behaviors.

• The team with the fewest points at the end of the

predetermined period of time wins.

• If all teams have fewer than a predetermined amount,

everyone wins!

Cognitive Approach to Teaching

• Uses the way people think to solve problems

• Takes what students already know to guide

future learning

Two Kinds of Knowledge

• General Knowledge

• Applies to a variety of situations

• How to use a computer

• How to read

• Domain-specific Knowledge

• Relates to a specific task or subject area

• Using Microsoft Word to type an essay

• Learning lines from Shakespeare

• Rehearsal:

• Maintenance Rehearsal

•Repeat information to get it to last longer

• Elaborate Rehearsal

•Associate information to something you

already know

Working Memory

Long-Term Memory

• Memorization strategies:

• Underline and highlight information

• Take notes

• Visual mapping

• Mnemonics

• Application strategies:

• Translate information into own words

• Create examples

• Explain to a friend

• Act out a concept

• Draw a diagram

• Apply knowledge to new problems

When to use Cognitive Approach to Learning

• Use when you want students

to understand and recall

information for a later time.

Cognitive (Strengths)

• Allows students to remember vast amounts of knowledge.

• Helps students focus on the most important information.

• Makes use of prior knowledge to learn new concepts

• Students mentally organize information into meaningful

chunks of knowledge

• Provides review and repetition of information

• Focuses on the meaning of the content, not just memorization!

Cognitive (Weaknesses)

• The information students learn

becomes part of their long-term

memories. If they learn it incorrectly

the first time, it is likely they will always

remember it that way.

Constructivist Approach to Teaching

• Students take an active role in their own learning.

• Social interactions improve learning.

• “Knowledge is not a copy of reality. To know an

object, to know an event, is not simply to look at it

and make a mental copy or image of it. To know an

object is to act on it. To know is to modify, to

transform the object, and to understand the process

in this transformation, and as a consequence to

understand the way the object is constructed.”

Jean Piaget

Three Characteristics

• Contingency Support: The teacher is constantly adjusting and tailoring responses to the student.

• Fading: The teacher gradually withdraws support as the students develop understanding and skills.

• Transferring Responsibility: Students assume more and more responsibility for their own learning.

-Hoy & Miskel

When to use Constructivist Approach

• Use with information that you want students to

be able to apply to the real world.

Classroom Examples:

• Jigsaw: Students are separated into learning

sections where they each learn something

different and teach it to the rest of the class.

• Scripted Cooperation: Students work in pairs

to complete an assignment then take turns

sharing information learned. One partner

summarizes the information learned while the

other listens, takes notes, then fills in incorrect

or missing information.

Constructivist (Strengths)

• This method is beneficial to ELL

students since it encourages them to

speak and explain themselves.

Constructivist (Weaknesses)

• Students with special needs

• These students need more time for planning and

preparation. They may have difficulty quickly

understanding new concepts; and therefore, struggle with

these activities.

• Gifted students

• If the class involves mixed ability groups, this may not be

beneficial to gifted students because the pace is often too

slow and repetitive. This leads to them taking over the

assignment rather than sharing responsibility and learning

from one another.

Review:

• Behavioral Approach:– Use it to control classroom misbehaviors so that all

students can gain the most from instruction.

• Cognitive Approach:– Use what students already know to be able to learn new

information. Repetition is key to improve long-term memory.

• Constructivist Approach: – Allow students to work collaboratively to learn, but also to

learn how to present information to others.

Works Cited

Hoy, W.K., & Miskel, C. G. (2013). Educational administration:

Theory, research, and practice. New York: McGraw-Hill.