TEACHER TRAINING: OBJECTIVES & OBJECTIONS

BY

ARTHUR NOBLE

GRAHAMSTOWN

RHODES UNIVERSITYSOUTH AFRICA

1972

T E A C H E R - T R A I N I N G : O B J E C T I V E S A N D O B J E C T IO N S

I N A U G U R A L L E C T U R E D E L I V E R E D A T

R H O D E S U N I V E R S I T Y

O N

7 T H S E P T E M B E R , 1972

B Y

A R T H U R N O B L E

B . S c . , M . E d . (N a t a l )

P R O F E S S O R O F E D U C A T I O N

P r in t e d by theInstitute o f S o c ia l and E c o n o m ic R e s e a r c h

R h o d e s U n iv e r s i ty G r a h a m s to w n

TE A C H E R -T R A IN IN G : OBJECTIVES AND OBJECTIONS

M y a im this e v e n i n g i s t o p r e s e n t t h e o b j e c t i v e s , a s p ir a t io n s and m is g iv in g s o f a t e a c h e r - t r a i n e r - to c o m m e n t on s o m e o f the m e th o d s that a r e u s e d in t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g and to s u g g e s t c e r t a in ch a n g e s in th e se m e th o d s .

I sh a ll a ls o d i s c u s s the o b j e c t i o n s , that e x is t , to the v e r y id e a o f t e a c h e r - t r a in in g and to the m e th o d s that a re u se d .

D i s s a t i s fa c t i o n with t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n r e c e i v e d e m p h a s is 10 y e a r s ago when the B r i t i s h P s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c ie ty r e p o r t e d a d v e r s e l y on the te a c h in g o f E d u ca t ion a l P s y c h o l o g y in T ra in in g C o l l e g e s . P h i l o s o p h e r s o f e d u c a t io n a ls o s u p p o r te d d e m a n d s f o r g r e a t e r a c a d e m i c r ig o u r and p r o g r e s s has been m a d e in this d i r e c t io n .

H o w e v e r , T a y l o r , in 1969, f in d s the dom in a n t v a lu e o r i e n ­ta t ion s o f t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n o f the la s t s ix d e c a d e s s t i l l in o p e r a t i o n and l i s t s a m o n g th e s e , s o c i a l and l i t e r a r y r e m a n t i c i s m , r e j e c t i o n o f the p lu r a l i ty o f v a lu e s , s u s p ic i o n o f the in t e l l e c t , l a c k o f in t e r e s t in s o c i a l ch a n g e , a h un ger f o r the s a t i s fa c t i o n s o f in t e r p e r s o n a l l i fe within the c o m m u n it y and the s m a l l g r o u p , and a f l igh t f r o m ra t io n a l i ty .

C r i t i c i s m s o f t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s have not b e e n c o n f in e d t o te a c h in g p e r s o n n e l . S tudents ' c o m p la in ts about th ese c o u r s e s have a tta in ed a t r a d i t io n o f thei r ow n . The N a t ion a l Union o f Students in its " M e m o r a n d u m to the R o b b in s C o m m it t e e " and o th e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , w ish to s e e g r e a t e r e m p h a s is on c l a s s r o o m o r g a n iz a t i o n , d i s c ip l in e p r o b le m s and the te a c h in g o f r e a d in g (R o b in s o n , 1971) - th is la s t c o n c e r n is su p p o r te d by a r e c e n t s u r v e y on re a d in g s ta n d a rd s in the U nited K in g d o m w hich sh o w e d that " r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s io n s ta n d a rd s o f ju n io r s have d e c l in e d so m e w h a t s in c e 1 9 6 4 " , (S tart & W e l l s , 1972) a f t e r d e c a d e s o f s te a d y im p r o v e m e n t .

T h e s e a r e s e r i o u s c h a r g e s and f o r m the b a c k g r o u n d and r e a s o n s f o r this talk.

The d i s c u s s i o n w h ich f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on t e a c h e r ­tr a in in g r a th e r than t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n . In it ia l t ra in in g ca n no l o n g e r be e x p e c t e d to p r o d u c e the f u l l y - f l e d g e d , r e a c h - m e - d o w n , a l l - p u r p o s e t e a c h e r . T e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n is a l i f e - l o n g p r o c e s s in v o lv in g con t in u a l r e t r a in in g to m e e t the ch a n g e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s that w i l l fa c e the t e a c h e r d u r in g h is o r h e r f o r t y y e a r s o f s e r v i c e ; w h ich m a y take m a n y d i r e c t i o n s su ch as s c h o o l p r in c ip a l , s c h o o l i n s p e c t o r , s u b je c t o r g a n i s e r o r t e a c h e r - t r a i n e r .

T e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g ( o r b e t t e r s t i l l , t e a c h e r - p r e p a r a t i o n ) sh ou ld h a v e , in m y o p in io n , m o r e l im i t e d a im s and c o n c e n t r a t e

on p r e p a r in g the t e a c h e r f o r h is f i r s t p o s i t io n - in the c l a s s r o o m . The b e g i n n e r - t e a c h e r sh ou ld be r e g a r d e d as s i m i l a r to s o m e o n e who has r e c e n t ly g a in ed h is d r iv in g l i c e n c e - an a u th or ity on t h e o r y and r u le s o f the r o a d , but a bit o f a m e n a c e ju s t the s a m e . T o c a r r y the a n a log y fu r th e r we b e l i e v e in g iv in g the n e w d r i v e r p len ty o f p r a c t i c e but we d on 't u s u a l ly r e q u ir e h im to get it in the m id d le o f J o h a n n e sb u rg - in the sa m e w ay it i s u n fa ir and u n w ise to lo a d the b e g i n n e r - t e a c h e r with a h ea vy p r o g r a m m e and the w o r s t c l a s s e s in a " w i n - y o u r - s ' u r s " t ra d i t io n . T h is v i e w - o f l im it e d a im s - is c a r r i e d to its l o g i c a l c o n c lu s i o n s by the U nited K in g d o m J a m e s R e p o r t o f (1971 ) . T h is r e p o r t d iv id e s t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n in to th re e c o n s e c u t iv e c y c l e s . The f i r s t c y c l e c o n s i s t s o f p e r s o n a l h ig h e r e d u ca t io n w h ich w ould am ount to at l e a s t tw o y e a r s b e y o n d o u r S e n io r C e r t i f i c a t e l e v e l .

The s e c o n d c y c l e w ould c o n s i s t o f tw o y e a r s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t io n o f w h ich the f i r st w ould n o r m a l l y be spent in a T r a in in g C o l l e g e o r D e p a r tm e n t o f E du cat ion . Students who s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e t e d the f i r s t y e a r o f p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t io n w ou ld b e c o m e " l i c e n c e d t e a c h e r s " and w ould go on to the s e c o n d y e a r w hich w ou ld c o n s i s t l a r g e l y o f s c h o o l - b a s e d t ra in in g . D u r in g th is y e a r l i c e n s e d t e a c h e r s w ould be in s a la r i e d e m p lo y m e n t but with a r e d u c e d t im e ta b le and with r e g u la r r e l e a s e f o r fu r th e r s tu dy , f o r the eq u iv a len t o f not l e s s than one day a w eek . A f te r c o m p le t in g this y e a r they w ould b e c o m e fu l l m e m b e r s o f the p r o f e s s i o n .

In the th ird c y c l e , to w h ich the r e p o r t g iv e s the h ig h est p r i o r i t y , all t e a c h e r s w ould be e n t i t le d to r e l e a s e with pay f o r in - s e r v i c e e d u ca t io n and tra in in g , f o r at le a s t the e q u iv a len t o f one t e r m e v e r y s e v e n y e a r s .

It is in t e r e s t in g that the r e p o r t s e ts its f a c e aga in st the id e a o f in te g r a te d c o u r s e s in w h ich p e r s o n a l h ig h e r e d u ca t io n and p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u r s e s run c o n c u r r e n t ly .

T h is d i s c u s s i o n then is about t e a c h e r - p r e p a r a t i o n and m a in ly f r o m the U n iv e r s i t y point o f v ie w .

T o m ake this s ta tem en t is to im p ly that th e re a r e d i f f e r e n ­c e s b e tw een t e a c h e r - t r a in in g at T r a in in g C o l l e g e s and U n iv e r s i t i e s but it d o e s not im p ly that one is b e t te r than the o th e r - m e r e l y that th e re a re d i f f e r e n c e s . The tw o in s t i tu t ion s d i f f e r in that the s e n se o f c o m m o n a im s and p u r p o s e is s t r o n g e r at a T r a in in g C o l le g e - th e r e is u s u a l ly a ls o a c l o s e r c o m m u n a l l i f e in T r a in in g C o l l e g e s . Even i n the r e s id e n t ia l U n i v e r s i t i e s , s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r s a re caught up in the iden tity o f the U n iv e r s i t y as a w hole ra th e r than m ainta in in g a c o m m o n id en tity as p o ten t ia l t e a c h e r s . W hile u n iv e r s i t y students d e s c r i b e th e ir r u le s o f r e s i d e n c e as " p a t e r n a l i s t i c " , T r a in in g C o l le g e students r e g a r d th e ir r e s i d e n ­t ia l ru le s as " m a t e r n a l i s t i c " .

A n oth er d i f f e r e n c e b e tw een T r a in in g C o l l e g e s and U n i v e r ­s ity D e p a r tm e n ts o f E du cat ion l i e s in the fa c t that the T ra in in g C o l l e g e s and s c h o o l s w ork f o r the s a m e e d u ca t io n a l a u th or ity -

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o p e n to the " p o l l in a t i o n " o f the s a m e t e a m o f i n s p e c t o r s . It is n a tu ra l t h e r e f o r e f o r s c h o o l s and tr a in in g c o l l e g e s to be c lo se ly - a l ig n e d and t ra in in g c o l l e g e t e a c h e r s to be p r e p a r e d , in a v e r y d i r e c t way, f o r the s c h o o l s in w h ich they w i l l t e a ch . The U n i v e r ­s ity D e p a r tm e n ts o f E du ca t ion on the o t h e r hand a r e p art o f a u to n o m o u s in s t i tu t ion s w h ich d i f f e r f r o m o t h e r in s t i tu t ion s in the s t r e s s that is p la c e d on a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m .

M o r i , the f i r s t M i n i s t e r o f E d u ca t ion o f the M e i j i r e f o r m e r s , the f o u n d e r s o f m o d e r n Japan, " w a s c o n v in c e d that the p r e s e n c e o f f r e e thought within the U n iv e r s i t y 'm ig h t p o s e a th re a t to the r e g i m e ' and he t r i e d to m a k e s u re that 'U n iv e r s i t y g ra d u a te s sh ou ld not in f lu e n c e the m a s s e s d i r e c t l y ' , by e s t a b l i s h in g t e a c h e r - t r a in in g in s t i tu t ion s to t a l ly s e p a r a te f r o m the U n iv e r s i t y 'to fu n c t io n as a b r id g e bet w een the in te l le c tu a l w o r ld and the m a s s e s . . . ' T e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g s c h o o l s w e r e o r g a n iz e d a lon g m i l i t a r y l in e s in o r d e r to m o u ld t e a c h e r s who w ould a s s u m e the r e s p o n s ib i l i t y o f ed u ca t in g a p e o p le lo y a l to the state " (L ip s e t , 1972).

The c o n c e p t o f a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m is v a r i o u s l y d e f in e d , but is s u c c in c t l y s ta ted by M c M u r r in , 1969. " F o r the t e a c h e r p r i m a r i l y a r igh t to sp e a k , f o r the r e s e a r c h e r a r igh t to p u b lish , . . . an in s i s t e n c e that the s c h o l a r is to be ju d g e d by his p r o f e s s i o n a l p e e r s when his s c h o l a r l y p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a re at i s s u e . . . (it) is not a s p e c ia l p r iv i l e g e that is g r a n t e d the a c a d e m i c p r o f e s s i o n , a c o n c e s s i o n o f r igh ts to r e w a r d th e ir m e r i t and s h ie ld th em f r o m c r i t i c i s m o r c e n s u r e . It i s , r a th e r , a c o n d it io n w h ich the s o c i e t y im p o s e s upon i t s e l f as e s s e n t i a l to its ow n con t in u in g c r i t i c i s m and a d v a n c e m e n t , the c o n d it io n o f f r e e , c r e a t i v e thought and e x p r e s s i o n . T he t e a c h e r who f r o m f e a r , i n d i f f e r e n c e , o r a fa i lu r e o f u n d e rs ta n d in g is u nab le to g r a s p that f r e e d o m in the m o m e n t o f d e c i s i o n , p r e f e r r i n g the s a fe t y o f s i l e n c e and c o n f o r m i t y o r the a n on y m ity and a m b ig u ity o f i n d e c i s i o n , m a y win the a p p r o v a l o f the m a j o r i t y , but in s o d o in g he m a y b e t r a y the h igh r e s p o n s ib i l i t y w h ich h is s o c i e t y had c o n f e r r e d upon h im . "

T he U n iv e r s i t y D e p a r tm e n t o f E d u ca t ion is thus in a p o s i t io n o f s o m e c o n f l i c t - in c l o s e c o n ta c t , on the one hand, with the s c h o o l s w h ich la r g e l y in c u lc a t e l o y a l ty to the s o c i a l s y s t e m and, on the o t h e r hand, e m b e d d e d in an in st i tu t ion w h ich to a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g r e e b e l i e v e s that on e o f its fu n c t io n s is to do r e ­s e a r c h in to , and c r i t i c i s e , the s o c i e t y o f w h ich it is a part .

R e s e a r c h has show n that th ose o f f e r in g t h e m s e l v e s f o r t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g a r e on a v e r a g e w e l l - a d j u s t e d , ( B la i r , J o n e s , S im p s o n , 1962) as t h e y n e e d to b e , f o r t e a ch in g c h i ld r e n im p o s e s a p a r t i c u l a r kind o f e m o t io n a l s tra in . T he o c c u p a t io n a l h a z a r d s o f t e a c h in g su ch as a f e e l in g o f in fa l l i b i l i t y and r e l i a n c e on v e r ­b a l i z a t io n , o ften a c c o m p a n ie d by v e r b a l d e g e n e r a t io n , a re t e n d e n c ie s that n eed to be w a rd e d o f f th rou ghou t o n e 's p r o f e s s i o n a l l i fe .

T e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r s a r e w e l l a b ov e a v e r a g e in in t e l l i g e n c e but they do have s o m e l e s s - d e s i r a b l e g e n e r a l

3

t e n d e n c ie s in that they fe l t s e c u r e w hile pu p ils in a s c h o o l and " e n jo y e d b e in g pu p ils and a d m ir e d th e ir t e a c h e r s m o r e than o th e r s d id . . . they a r e m o r e r e a d y than m o s t p e o p le to adapt th e ir b e h a v io u r to a c c o r d with the e x p e c ta t io n s o f th ose with w h om they c a m e in c o n t a c t " ( M o r r i s o n and M c In ty r e , 1969). If one adds the te n d e n c y o f t e a c h e r s ' c h i ld r e n to b e c o m e t e a c h e r s , the net r e s u l t i s a ra th e r in g ro w n p r o f e s s i o n in c l in e d to p e rp e tu a te its p r a c t i c e s f r o m g e n e r a t io n to g e n e r a t io n in a w ay r e la t iv e ly im p e r v i o u s to o u ts id e in f lu e n c e . T e a c h e r s u s u a l ly c o m e f r o m a m i d d l e - c l a s s b a c k g r o u n d and have a m i d d l e - c l a s s s ta n d a rd o f l iv in g t h e m s e l v e s w h ich " a f f e c t s th e ir la n g u a g e , s ta n d a rd o f m o r a l s and m a n n e r s , l e i s u r e p u r s u its e t c " ( M o r r i s o n and M c In ty r e , 1969) - s ta n d a rd s to w h ich they e x p e c t th e ir pu p ils to c o n f o r m , w h a te v e r the b a c k ­g rou n d o f the pu p i ls m a y be.

T e a c h in g has a l s o a c q u ir e d a " w o m a n ly " im a g e due m a in ly to the p r e d o m in a n c e o f w om a n in the p r i m a r y s c h o o l . T h is d o e s not aid the status o f the p r o f e s s i o n f o r the batt le o f w o m e n 's l i b e r a t io n is not yet won.

T o m ake the p ic t u r e e v e n m o r e g l o o m y , th e re i s r e s e a r c h e v id e n c e that " t e a c h e r s a r e not s e e n as fu l ly hum an, b y a d o le s c e n t s a n y w a y " (W rig h t , 1962).

T he s ta tem en t that " t e a c h in g is a v o c a t i o n " n e e d s to be e x a m in e d b e c a u s e it a f f e c t s the r e c r u i t m e n t o f t e a c h e r s and th e ir tra in in g . Both b y d e f in it ion and c o m m o n u s a g e , the w o r d " v o c a t i o n " is a s s o c i a t e d with the id e a that s o m e o n e has b e e n c a l l e d by s o m e "d iv in e in f lu e n ce o r gu id a n ce t o w a r d s a d e f in ite c a r e e r " (S h o r te r O x f o r d D ic t io n a r y ) and is a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with " the r e n u n c ia t io n o f m a t e r ia l r e w a r d s and a d v a n c e m e n t in fa v o u r o f r e tu r n s o f a m o r e s p ir i tu a l n a tu r e " (A ltm a n , 1970). W hile it w ou ld be g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d that th ese a s s o c i a t i o n s w ou ld f it m i n i s t e r s o f r e l i g i o n s , nuns and m i s s i o n a r i e s , it is not e a s y to f ind o th e r o c c u p a t io n s w h ich have th ese a s s o c i a t i o n s . Why then has this f i c t i o n b e e n a p p lied to t e a ch in g f o r so l o n g ? T e a c h e r s t h e m s e l v e s s o m e t im e s u b s c r ib e to it. Is this b e c a u s e it is a c o m f o r t i n g thought f o r th ose who b e l i e v e t h e m s e l v e s to be u n d e r ­v a lu e d by s o c i e t y ? It is a l s o a u s e fu l f i c t i o n to the p u b lic who th rou gh th e ir g o v e r n m e n ta l a g e n c ie s p a y c o m p a r a t i v e ly lo w s a la r i e s to the t e a c h e r w hile at the s a m e t im e p r a i s i n g h im as a v a lu a b le m e m b e r o f s o c ie t y . It can be co n te n d e d that the c o n c e p t " t e a c h in g as a v o c a t i o n m u st be d ro p p e d b e c a u s e it p la c e s the e m p h a s is w r o n g ly u pon a s e a r c h f o r th ose in an in i t ia l s tate o f g r a c e in s te a d o f upon the n eed to d e v e lo p the r e q u is i t e att itudes and c o n d u c t " (A ltm a n , 1970) d u r in g the p e r i o d o f t e a c h e r - t r a in in g .

Up to th is t im e fe w a u th o r it ie s have b e e n ab le to be h igh ly s e l e c t iv e in ad m itt in g students to t e a ch e r -t ra in in g c o u r s e s . In ou r c o u n t r y it is done la r g e l y , in e f f e c t , by the p r in c ip a l o f the p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r ' s s c h o o l and the l o c a l c i r c u i t i n s p e c t o r o f e d u ca t ion who r e c o m m e n d the a w a rd o f a p r o v in c ia l tea ch in g b u r s a r y .

4

It has b een l a r g e l y le f t to the tra in in g in s t i tu t ion s t h e m s e l v e s to w e e d out th ose u n su ita b le f o r tea ch in g . It s e e m s p o s s i b l e in this c o u n t r y that c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s o f t e a c h e r s w i l l be in o v e r ­s u p p ly in the fu tu re and that s e l e c t i o n and te s t in g p r o c e d u r e s w i l l be t igh tened up. I note that the A m e r i c a n N at ion a l E du ca t ion A s s o c i a t i o n e x p e c t s the 197 1 s u rp lu s o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r s to d ou b le i t s e l f by 1976.

T e a c h e r — tra in in g in s t i tu t ion s a r e e x p e c t e d to a s s e s s p r a c t i c a l te a ch in g a b i l i ty by a s s e s s i n g a s tu d e n t ’s l e s s o n s th ro u g h ­out h is t ra in in g c o u r s e and b y w atch in g te s t l e s s o n s . A s with all e x a m in a t io n s this p r o c e d u r e is a ls o d e s ig n e d to m a in ta in s ta n d a rd s . Such r e s e a r c h as th e re i s s u g g e s t s s t r o n g ly that tu to rs do not in g e n e r a l k n ow what they a r e a s s e s s i n g and that tea ch in g m a r k s ev en within the sa m e in st i tu t ion do not m e a n anything like the s a m e thing. In e f f e c t a tu tor a s s e s s e s a l e s s o n in the l ight o f th ose p r o c e d u r e s and v a lu e s w h ich he found e f f e c t iv e in h is o r her ow n te a ch in g in h is o r h e r ow n s u b je c t - w h ich m a y not be at all su ited to the s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r ' s a b i l i t i e s and p e r s o n a l i t y . It is u n fo r tu n a te ly true that it i s a lm o s t unknow n f o r tu to rs to be g iv en any s y s t e m a t i c t ra in in g in o b s e r v a t i o n a l and g ra d in g s k i l l s . Just as we a r e at la s t beg in n in g to r e a l i z e that one n e e d s to be tra in e d to be a h e a d m a s t e r so sh ou ld we r e a l i z e that the s tep f r o m p r a c t i c in g te a c h e r to t e a c h e r - t r a in in g is on e r e q u ir in g s o m e f o r m o f r e o r ie n t a t io n t ra in in g . I w ou ld s a y that a s ix w eek tou r o f s o m e o v e r s e a s t e a c h e r - t r a in in g in s t i tu t ion s f o l l o w e d by a s i x - w e e k tour o f s o m e o f o u r ow n t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g in s t i tu t ion s w ou ld be v e r y d e s i r a b l e b e f o r e tak ing the s tep f r o m te a c h e r to t e a c h e r - t r a i n e r . T u t o r s d o a c h ie v e s o m e s o r t o f s ta n d a rd , in an i n f o r m a l w a y , by e a c h a s s e s s i n g the s a m e student but this is not g o o d enough . It m u s t be c o n c lu d e d that t e a ch in g m a r k s as c u r r e n t l y g iv e n a re o f l i t t le v a lu e as p r e d i c t o r s o f t e a ch in g a b i l i ty - p a r t i c u l a r l y in the lo n g t e r m . In ad d it ion to th is , the fa c t that an a s s e s s m e n t is b e in g m a d e o f a l e s s o n , in t r o d u c e s s t r e s s in to the r e la t io n s h ip b e tw een tu tor and s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r .

T h e s e a re d i f f i c u l t t im e s in w h ich to state o b j e c t i v e s and to d e s ig n c o u r s e s in t e a c h e r - t r a in in g . T he v e r y c o n c e p t o f s c h o o l in g is u n d er attack - at a t im e when South A f r i c a and B r ita in , f o r in s ta n c e , a re r a is i n g the s c h o o l - l e a v i n g age .

B lo o m , (1956) in h is " T a x o n o m y o f E d u ca t ion a l O b j e c t i v e s " has in s p i r e d m a n y d i s c i p l in e s to lo o k anew at th e ir o b j e c t i v e s . A lth ou gh B lo o m has a s i x - f o l d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , with m a n y s u b ­d iv i s i o n s , f o r c o n v e n ie n c e in this talk I sh a l l r e g a r d the f o l l o w in g f o u r d iv i s io n s as m o s t im p o r ta n t :K n o w le d g e , p r o m o t i o n o fth ou ght, attitude and s k i l l s .

It has g e n e r a l l y b e e n b e l i e v e d that the l e c t u r e is an e f f e c t i v e m e th o d o f b r in g in g about the f i r s t th re e o f th e se a im s but B ligh , (1971 ) , d i s a g r e e s , and s ta te s that " th e a v a i la b le e v id e n c e is that the l e c t u r e ca n o n ly e f f e c t i v e l y a c h ie v e one a im - the s tu d en t 's a c q u is i t i o n o f in f o r m a t io n " .

5

P r o m o t i o n o f thought and s k i l l s a r e b e s t a c h ie v e d b y m e th o d s in w h ich students p la y an a c t iv e p a r t , w h ich in turn m e a n s a s ta f f in g e s ta b l is h m e n t w h ich in n u m b e r s w i l l be b e y o n d the w i ld e s t d r e a m s o f th ose in U n i v e r s i t y E d u ca t ion D e p a r tm e n ts .

The t e a c h e r - t r a i n e r m a y f e e l r e lu c ta n t to a d m it that one o f h is task s is the in c u lc a t io n o f a p p r o v e d a tt itudes . It m a y s e e m that this s a v o u r s o f in d o c t r in a t io n but this is o n ly so i f su ch p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e s as s u g g e s t io n o r c o n d it io n in g a r e u s e d to p r o d u c e r igh t r e s p o n s e s a u to m a t ic a l l y a n d /o r in fo r m a t io n is r e s t r i c t e d so that o n l y one s ide o f an a rg u m e n t is p r e s e n t e d . Y et, as H udson (1972) sa y s " the t e a c h e r who l e a v e s h is s tu d e n ts ' m in d s op en , in a state o f p r o m i s c u o u s a t h le t i c i s m , is s c a r c e l y a t e a c h e r at a ll . H is p r o p e r fu n c t io n in o th e r w o r d s is an a m b ig u o u s one : he m u st t r a n s m it an in te l le c tu a l t ra d i t io n with gu sto and in s t i l l o y a l t y to it but le a v e op en the p o s s i b i l i t y o f g ra d u a l o r e v en r e v o lu t i o n a r y ch an ge . And what m a t t e r s in p r a c t i c e i s not so m u ch the tea ch er 's m o t iv e , n or e v e n h is s t y l e , as the e lb o w r o o m he a l l o w s . "

The a im sh ou ld be to p r o d u c e a t e a c h e r who c o n f o r m s s u f f i c i e n t ly c l o s e l y to a p p r o v e d s ta n d a rd s so as to be n e ith e r a d e linqu en t nor an e c c e n t r i c , but one who d o e s not c o n f o r m so b l in d ly that h is ow n f r e e d o m and c r e a t i v i t y a re d e s t r o y e d by r i g o r o u s co n v e n t io n a l i ty .

F o r this p u r p o s e g r o u p - s t u d y m e th o d s a r e a d v o ca te d . T y p e s o f g r o u p - w o r k in c lu d e : B u z z g r o u p s ; D o c u m e n t g r o u p s ;S y n d ic a te s ; S e l f - A s s e s s i n g g r o u p s ; A b e r c r o m b i e g r o u p s and " T " g r o u p s (Sutton, 1971). G r o u p - w o r k has b e c o m e a s p e c i a l i s e d s tudy in i t s e l f w h ich la c k o f t im e p r e v e n ts fu r th e r ex p la n a t ion h e r e . S c h o o l t e a c h e r s and e d u c a t io n l e c t u r e r s , who w e r e s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , f ind d i f f i c u l t y in adapting to th is type o f g r o u p - w o r k with its e m p h a s is on the p r o t e c t i o n o f d iv e r g e n c e o f op in ion . T o ch ange f r o m a p o s i t i o n o f d o m in a n c e to that o f g r o u p - m e m b e r r e q u i r e s a g ra d u a l , but su s ta in e d , e f f o r t on the p a r t o f t e a c h e r s . The N u ff ie ld H u m a n it ie s P r o j e c t , 1970, w h ich is d e s ig n e d f o r u se with 1 6 -y e a r o ld s , g iv e s in v a lu a b le a d v ic e in th is r e g a r d , f o r g r o u p - w o r k at a ll l e v e l s .

In d e s ig n in g a t e a c h e r - t r a in in g c o u r s e , o n e m u s t note that, "In g e n e r a l the t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e s s u c h as E d u ca t ion a l P s y c h o lo g y , E du ca t ion a l P h i lo s o p h y , S o c i o l o g y and H i s t o r y o f E du ca t ion a re about e d u ca t io n and not about te a ch in g , w hile the m e th o d c o u r s e s w h ich a r e about te a ch in g have no t h e o r e t i c a l fou n d a t ion s " ( M o r r i s o n and M c In ty r e , 1969).

M y v ie w is that we sh ou ld p r o v id e t h e o r e t i c a l fou n d a tion s f o r ou r m e th o d c o u r s e s at the e x p e n s e o f the t r a d i t io n a l t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e s le a v in g th em to be m o r e f u l l y d e v e lo p e d at a la t e r stage in a t e a c h e r ' s c a r e e r when h e / s h e is m o r e ab le to a p p r e c ia te th e ir v a lu e and the m a t e r ia l with w h ich he i s p r e s e n t e d is m o r e in fa s h io n . T he J a m e s R e p o r t , 1971, len d s its s u p p o r t to this v ie w by sa y in g " T h e e m p h a s is sh ou ld be u n a s h a m e d ly s p e c ia l i s t and fu n c t io n a l " .

6

T h e r e i s e v e r y r e a s o n f o r r e f r e s h e r c o u r s e s to be run in the t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e s as w e l l as the p r e s e n t r e f r e s h e r c o u r s e s w h ich so fa r have c o n f in e d th e ir e f f o r t s to s c h o o l s u b je c t s .

The p r e s e n t r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n s u b je c t m e th o d c o u r s e s and t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e s ca n be show n b y a d ia g r a m . T h is p a tte rn is in g e n e r a l u s e today .

S U B J E C T _________________ T E A C H IN G __________________ _M E T H O D P R A C T I C E

\' P h i lo s o p h y , H is t o r y ,P s y c h o l o g y , S o c i o l o g y , r e la t e d to E D U C A T IO N .

T he r a t io o f e f f o r t e x p e n d e d is r o u g h ly ;

T h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e s : S u b je c t M eth od c o u r s e = 6 : 1

T h e s e t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e s a ttem pt to p r o v id e g e n e r a l p r in c ip l e s that w i l l t r a n s fe r o v e r to p a r t i c u la r m e t h o d c o u r s e s . A lth ou gh in e f f i c i e n t in c o n c e p t , it w as a ll that c o u ld be done until c u r r i c u l u m d e v e lo p m e n t a c c e l e r a t e d a f t e r , but with about the s a m e s p e e d , as the f i r s t R u s s ia n sputnik. N o w a d a y s t h e o r e t i c a l fou n d a tion s o f e a c h s u b je c t m e th o d c o u r s e a r e exp a n d in g at an i n c r e a s i n g rate and s u b je c t m e th o d c o u r s e s ca n be c a l l e d s e p a r a te s tu d ies in th e ir ow n r ig h t , as I sh a ll a ttem pt to sh o w f o r one o f th e se s u b je c t m e th o d c o u r s e s - n a m e ly M a th e m a t ic s M ethod .

If we su p p ly t h e o r e t i c a l fou n d a t ion s to o u r m e th o d c o u r s e s the p a tte rn f o r t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g w ou ld be :

P h i lo s o p h y o f M a th e m a t ic s

P h i lo s o p h y o f t e a c h i n g 1 o f M a th e m a t ic s e. g. C h in e s e M a th e m a t ic s

R e v i s i o n in a c c o r d a n c e with the te a ch in g o f

M ao T s e - T u n g (Sw etz , 1971)

T he P s y c h o l o g y o f M a th e m a t ic s T e a c h in g

e. g. m o t iv a t io n , P ia g e t ia n s ta g e s e tc .

H i s t o r y o f M a th e m a t ic s and H i s t o r y o f T e a c h in g o f M a t h e m a t ic s , in c l u d ­in g the p r e s e n t S. A.

p o s i t io n

S U B J E C T P h i lo s o p h y , H is t o r yM E T H O D + P s y c h o l o g y , S o c i o l o g y (M A T H S ) r e la t e d to E D U C A T IO N

T he dotted line in d ic a te s

R e le v a n t t h e ra th e r w eak S o c i o l o g y i m p a c t w h ich the

t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e s T E A C H IN G . have on t e a ch in g p r a c t i c e . P R A C T I C E

P U P IL S

7

A s m u ch e f f o r t w ou ld be e x p e n d e d on a m e th o d c o u r s e as on the c o m b i n e d t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e s and it sh ou ld be r e m e m b e r e d that e a c h student f o l l o w s two su ch m e t h o d c o u r s e s . The r o l e o f t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e l e c t u r e r s w ou ld thus ch ange - th ey w ou ld p r o v id e in t r o d u c t o r y c o u r s e s in th e ir d i s c i p l in e s to be e x te n d e d at a la t e r stage in a t e a c h e r ' s c a r e e r , th ey w ou ld s u p p o r t the m e th o d l e c t u r e r s in the t h e o r e t i c a l fou n d a t ion s the m e t h o d l e c t u r e r s w ould have to supp ly f o r th e ir m e t h o d c o u r s e s (by t e a m - t e a c h in g and o th e r m e t h o d s ) , and in ad d it ion be m o r e a v a i la b le than h i th e r to - f o r e to p u rsu e th e ir w o r k at the B . Ed. , and h ig h e r , l e v e l s . The p o s i t i o n i s s i m i l a r to that w h ich has to be f a c e d when u s in g t e l e v i s i o n as a m e a n s o f s c h o o l in s t r u c t i o n - w h e th e r to te a ch M a th e m a t ic s , sa y , to a T . V . a c t o r so that he ca n r e t e a c h it o r w h eth er to g r o o m a M a th e m a t ic s t e a c h e r in to a t e l e v i s i o n p e r s o n a l i t y .

I f e e l that we shou ld add to the s k i l ls o f the M eth od l e c t u r e r r a th e r than e x p e c t the t h e o r e t i c a l c o u r s e l e c t u r e r to p r o v id e a ll the t h e o r e t i c a l b a s e s f o r the m e th o d c o u r s e s .

I shou ld ju s t i f y - b r i e f l y - m y s ta te m e n t that the te a ch in g o f M a th e m a t ic s is w o r th y o f study in its ow n r igh t .

The H i s t o r y o f M a th e m a t ic s has its ow n fa s c in a t io n and in m a n y in s t a n c e s ca n be u s e d to add in t e r e s t to s e c t i o n s o f s c h o o l M a th e m a t ic s e. g. the fa m o u s h a re and the t o r t o i s e p r o b l e m p u z z le d the a n c ie n ts until they r e a l i z e d that r e c u r r i n g d e c im a ls have a d e f in ite l im it .

The R o y a l S o c i e t y R e p o r t o f th is y e a r on the T r a in in g o f T e a c h e r s o f S c ie n c e and M a th e m a t ic s r e g a r d s the H i s t o r y and P h i lo s o p h y o f S c ie n c e as " e s s e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t s " o f t e a c h e r ­tra in in g .

The H i s t o r y o f the t e a ch in g o f M a th e m a t ic s has a s h o r t e r h i s t o r y as fa r as s c h o o l s a r e c o n c e r n e d . M u ch o f its h i s t o r y c e n t r e s a rou n d a lon g d r a w n -o u t c o n t r o v e r s y about the s u ita b i l i ty o f E u c l id e a n g e o m e t r y as a s c h o o l s u b je c t . E ven in thisc o u n t r y the h i s t o r y o f the t e a ch in g o f M a t h e m a t ic s , as fa r as c u r r i c u l u m d e v e lo p m e n t i s c o n c e r n e d , is r e a c h in g an in te r e s t in g stage with g r o u p s su ch as the M a th e m a t ic s A s s o c i a t i o n o f South A f r i c a se e k in g to e x e r t an in f lu e n ce on s y l la b u s r e v i s i o n .

F e w w ou ld d ispu te the im p o r t a n c e o f the p h i lo s o p h y o f M a th e m a t ic s as a s u b je c t o f study but m a n y , p e r h a p s , w ou ld be u n w il l in g to c o n c e d e that the te a ch in g o f M a th e m a t ic s has its ow n p h i lo s o p h y . A s an e x a m p le o f t h i s , M a th em a t ic s te a ch in g in C hina has had to r e a c t to a d i r e c t i v e , f r o m C h a i r m a n M a o -T s e - t u n g , to be m o r e p r a c t i c a l in its a p p r o a c h . A s a r e s u l t , f r o m 1966 o n w a r d s , the c h a r a c t e r o f a r t i c l e s in C h in e s e te a ch in g j o u r n a ls has ch a n g ed f r o m the kind o f a r t i c l e u s u a l ly a s s o c i a t e d with W e s te r n j o u r n a l s , to m o r e e a r th y a r t i c l e s on " H o w to e s t im a te the n u m b e r o f r i c e sh oo ts r e q u ir e d f o r a f i e ld o f p a d d y " .

8

P s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s p la y su ch an im p o r ta n t p a r t in the l e a r n in g o f M a th e m a t ic s that L and has w r i t te n on " T h e P s y c h o ­p a th o lo g y o f M a t h e m a t ic s " . M o t iv a t io n a l t h e o r y f o r M a th e m a t ic s t e a ch in g c l a i m s to d i f f e r f r o m that o f o th e r s c h o o l s u b je c t s and P ia g e t , a lthough r e c e n t l y u n d e r f i r e , has d i r e c t e d o u r attent ion to the d e v e lo p m e n ta l s ta g e s o f c o g n it iv e g ro w th in M a th e m a t ic s and o th e r f i e ld s .

S o c i o l o g y has not m a d e m u ch im p a c t on the t e a ch in g o f M a th e m a t ic s as y e t , a lthough th e re i s a n e e d f o r w o rk in this d i r e c t io n . A tte m p ts to g r a f t N u ff ie ld M a th e m a t ic s on to W est A f r i c a e d u c a t io n and the S c h o o l M a th e m a t ic s P r o j e c t onto E ast A f r i c a ' s e d u ca t io n have e n c o u n te r e d cu l tu r a l and s o c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s w h ich a p p e a r to have b e e n l a r g e l y u n e x p e c t e d - and sh ou ld not have b een .

We have had up to now , a c o u r s e c a l l e d G e n e r a l E d u ca t ion a l M eth od s w h ich a ttem p ted to p r o v id e m e th o d s f o r a ll s c h o o l s u b je c t s and w h ich in so d o in g , b e c a m e so g e n e r a l that it c o u ld be d e s c r i b e d , tru th fu lly , as a s e r i e s o f " c o z y h in t s " . I w ou ld p r o p o s e that th is c o u r s e be a b s o r b e d b y the c o u r s e on E d u ca t io n a l P s y c h o l o g y and the s u b je c t - m e t h o d c o u r s e s , and in s o d o in g add c o n s i d e r a b l y to the r ig o u r o f the t e a c h e r - t r a in in g c o u r s e .

Students v a r y in th e ir a b i l i ty to o b s e r v e what i s happen ing in the c l a s s r o o m and it i s doubtfu l w h e th e r e x p o s u r e to the tota l c o m p l e x i t y o f the t e a ch in g p r o c e s s is a g o o d w ay to in tr o d u c e students to p r a c t i c e - t e a c h i n g in the e a r l y p a r t o f th e ir t ra in in g .

It s e e m s d e s i r a b l e in the e a r l y stage o f t ra in in g to r e d u c e the s itua t ion to m a n a g e a b le p r o p o r t i o n s . One w ay o f d o in g this i s b y g a m in g and s im u la t io n , f o l l o w in g the e x a m p le o f the b u s i n e s s - w o r ld . C a r e f u l l y p la n n ed c l a s s r o o m s itu a t ion s a r e s im i la t e d with students p la y in g v a r i o u s r o l e s and u s in g this as a b a s is f o r a n a ly s is and d i s c u s s i o n .

" M i c r o - t e a c h i n g " i s b e in g u s e d to an in c r e a s i n g extent . A f t e r a l e c t u r e on a s p e c i f i c a s p e c t o f t e a ch in g , su ch as " q u e s t i o n i n g " , the s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r t e a c h e s a c l a s s o f about s ix pu p i ls f o r ten to tw enty m in u te s , g iv in g p a r t i c u l a r a ttent ion to this s p e c i f i c a s p e c t o f t ea ch in g . The student then s e e s a v id e o - t a p e o f h is te a ch in g , d i s c u s s e s it with a s u p e r v i s o r and la t e r r e - t e a c h e s the l e s s o n with a n oth er " m i c r o - c l a s s " .

Students a r e s o m e t im e s a s s ig n e d to te a ch in g p r a c t i c e in p a i r s as a w e l c o m e v a r ia t io n o f the " m o t h e r h en " s y s t e m o f tu tor p lu s t e a ch in g g ro u p . A l t e r n a t iv e ly te a ch in g and o b s e r v in g e a c h o th e r in a c t io n , students l e a r n the v a lu e o f s e l f - a s s e s s m e n t in a m o r e r e la x e d w ay - w ithout the th rea t o f a s s e s s m e n t by the tu tor .

I 'm s u re a g r e a t d e a l c o u ld be a c c o m p l i s h e d , u n d e r ou r p r e s e n t s y s t e m , i f s c h o o l s w ou ld a sk a w i l l in g t e a c h e r on th e ir s ta f f to a c t as t e a c h e r - t u t o r w hile students a r e in the s c h o o l s - p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r in g the " l o n g - p r a c t i c e " p e r i o d s when students a re

9

r e la t iv e ly u n s u p e r v is e d . Such a t e a c h e r - t u t o r co u ld be o f im m e n s e he lp to the student by a c t in g as a l i a i s o n - o f f i c e r b e tw e e n s c h o o l and student and I v en tu re to s a y that the t e a c h e r - t u t o r w ou ld f ind this a r e w a r d in g e x p e r ie n c e . T h is v i e w is a l s o s u p p o r te d by the J a m e s R e p o r t , w h ich r e c o m m e n d s e x t r a p a y f o r th ese t e a c h e r - tu to rs .

" O n e - w a y " s c r e e n s a re u s e fu l f o r o b s e r v in g students and a ls o f o r " d e m o n s t r a t i o n " l e s s o n s a lthough the la t te r a r e o f l im it e d u s e fu ln e s s and sh ou ld be s p a r in g ly u s e d . In the lo n g run the student m u st d e v e lo p h is ow n te a ch in g s ty le a lthough g iv en e v e r y a s s i s t a n c e and a d v ice in d e v e lo p in g it.

HOW SH O U LD THE S T U D E N T H A V E C H A N G E D DURING HIS T E A C H E R -T R A I N I N G C O U R S E ?

T h o u le s s , 1969, g iv e s this table w h ich sh ow s the d i s t r ib u ­t ion o f head t e a c h e r s ' r e p o r t s in r e s p e c t o f the e f f i c i e n c y o f t r a in e d and u n tra in ed t e a c h e r s .

M o r e than tw ice as m a n y o f the t r a in e d t e a c h e r s d id r e a l l y w e l l and c o n s i d e r a b l y f e w e r a re to be found in the c l a s s o f th ose who d id l e s s w ell .

E s t im a te s o f E f f i c i e n c y o f U n tra in ed and T r a in e d T e a c h e r s d u r in g the F i r s t Y e a r in S ch o o l .

H E A D T E A C H E R 'S R E P O R T

Did r e a l l y w e l l A bout a v e r a g e L e s s W ell T o ta l

U n tra ined 13 35 15 63T r a in e d 30 24 9 63

A s is u su a l , in e d u ca t io n a l r e s e a r c h , th ere a r e r e s e r v a ­t ion s . The m o s t s e r i o u s is the p o s s i b i l i t y that it is p e r h a p s the m o s t c o n s c ie n t i o u s and c o m m it t e d students who take up tra in in g w hich a c c o u n ts f o r th e ir g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y ; o r is the r e v e r s e p e r h a p s the c a s e ?

In any even t we a re c o m m it t e d to t e a c h e r - t r a in in g in this c o u n try . The supp ly o f n a t u r a l ly - g i f t e d t e a c h e r s fa l ls fa r sh o r t o f the d em an d . A fte r y e a r s o f in d e c i s i o n on the s u b je c t , E ngland is a ls o r e q u ir in g te a ch in g q u a l i f i c a t io n s .

We w ou ld like to see the fo l l o w in g qu a lita tive ch a n g e s in students a ft e r th e ir tra in in g :

1. We w ou ld o b v io u s ly e x p e c t g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y - h e n ce m y

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p le a f o r g r e a t e r e m p h a s is on m e t h o d in in i t ia l t e a c h e r ­tra in in g .

2. We w ou ld like to see an i n c r e a s e d c o m m it m e n t and ch ange in attitude t o w a r d s tea ch in g . T h e r e a r e d i f f i c u l t i e s in this r e g a r d : - the l e c t u r e m e th o d is in e f f i c i e n t in d o in g th is , and in add it ion students tend to ch ange th e ir e x p r e s s e d att itudes to c o in c i d e with th ose o f th e ir l e c t u r e r s f o r a v a r i e t y o f o b v io u s r e a s o n s w h ich p r o b a b ly in c lu d e the d e s i r e to p a s s at the end o f the y e a r . T h e r e a r e two e x ­c e p t io n s to this te n d en cy . D u r ing the tra in in g p e r i o d students tend to h a rd en th e ir att itudes t o w a r d s c o r p o r a l p u n ish m en t and t e a c h e r s ' l e i s u r e - t i m e in v o lv e m e n t with th e ir s c h o o l c h i ld r e n , (G ib so n , 1972) in c o n t r a s t to the te a ch in g s o f th e ir l e c t u r e r s .

T he att itudes o f the l e c t u r e r s a re u s u a l ly d i f fe r e n t , in s o m e r e s p e c t s , f r o m th ose ob ta in ing in s c h o o ls f o r the r e a s o n s g iv e n in m y o p en in g r e m a r k s s o m e l e c t u r e r s tak ing the v ie w that u n le s s they a r e a g g r e s s i v e agents f o r ch a n g e , then no ch ange f o r the b e t t e r w i l l o c c u r (W h it f ie ld , 1971). So it i s s m a l l w o n d e r that th e re a r e ch a n g e s in attitude in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n d u r in g the f i r s t y e a r o f tea ch in g . M u s g r o v e , 1971, d e v o te s a ch a p te r o f a b o o k on " P a t t e r n s o f P o w e r and A u th o r i ty in E n g l is h E d u c a t io n " to " Im p o te n t S c h o o l s " and th is c h a r g e o f im p o t e n c e w h ich ca n a ls o be l e v e l l e d at U n iv e r s i t y D e p a r tm e n ts o f E d u ca t io n in that they fa i l to p r o d u c e any p e r m a n e n t ch ange in att itude. M u s g r o v e g iv e s " b o r e d o m " as one r e a s o n f o r th is im p o t e n c e in s c h o o l s and q u o tes the S c h o o ls C o u n c i l In q u iry I, o f 1968, to su p p o r t h is s ta tem en t . W ould th is be true o f t e a c h e r ­tra in in g as w e l l ? If s o it i s up to us to ch ange i f we w ish to have any p e r m a n e n t e f f e c t .

3. We hope that students w i l l d e v e lo p an e x p e r im e n t a l attitude d u r in g th e ir c o u r s e o f t ra in in g - in fa c t they shou ld be a c t iv e ly e n c o u r a g e d to e x p e r im e n t d u r in g th e ir t ra in in g b e c a u s e th e ir f i r s t y e a r s o f te a ch in g w i l l be c o n c e r n e d with " s u r v i v i n g " r a th e r than t ry in g f r e s h id e a s .

4. L in k e d with e x p e r im e n t a l attitude is a n e e d to be r e s e a r c h - m in d ed . H ow m a n y t e a c h e r s r e a d r e s e a r c h j o u r n a ls o r have the n e c e s s a r y k n o w le d g e o f s t a t i s t i c s ? At a r e c e n t c o n f e r e n c e I a d d r e s s e d 100 M a th e m a t ic s t e a c h e r s - a ll M a th e m a t ic ia n s and a l l in p o s s e s s ion o f t e a c h in g q u a l i f i c a ­t ions - y e t , b e c a u s e at one point I u s e d s o m e e l e m e n t a r y s t a t i s t i c a l t e r m s , I w as r e w a r d e d with blank s t a r e s ! So we w ould tr y to e n s u r e that s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r s w i l l k n ow h ow to u s e a r e s e a r c h in d ex and r e a d and u n d e rs ta n d e d u ca t io n a l jo u r n a ls .

W e s te r n s o c i e t y is in a state o f ch a n g e - s o m e w i l l in s i s tthat it is a state o f p r o g r e s s i v e d is in t e g r a t io n and d e c a y - andm a n y v a lu e s a r e b e in g a tta cked . E ven o u r t r a d i t io n a l v i r t u e s o f

11

d is c ip l in e and h a rd w o rk a r e sa id by s o m e to p r o d u c e ou r s e e m in g ly f r a n t i c d e s i r e to po l lu te the earth .

O ur s c h o o ls a re a l s o u n d e r a ttack , in fa c t the v e r y c o n c e p t o f s c h o o l in g is b e in g c r i t i c i z e d . Ivan I l l i c h , 1971, i n h i s b o o k " D e s c h o o l in g S o c i e t y " is not a lon e in s a y in g that s c h o o ls a re s im p ly to o l s o f o u r c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y and that the d om inan t in st i tu t iona l s t r u c t u r e s o f s c h o o l in g have b e c o m e im p e d im e n t s to the d e v e lo p m e n t o f l i b e r a t in g , s o c i a l l y p r o d u c t iv e t e c h n o lo g ie s . G in t is , (1972 ) , o f I l l i c h 's b o o k , sa y s " th is l i t t le b o o k w ou ld have been unthinkable ten y e a r s a g o " . John H olt , 1972, i n " F r e e d o m and B e y o n d " , K oh l , 1969, in " T h e O pen C l a s s r o o m " , and o t h e r s , po in t to d e f i c i e n c i e s in ou r t r a d i t io n a l s c h o o l s y s t e m s . T it le s su ch as " S c h o o l is D e a d " c a t c h ou r attent ion a m o n g the P engu in p a p e r b a c k s . M ao T s e - T u n g , in h is ow n co u n t r y , c a l l e d f o r a s h o r t e r p e r i o d o f s c h o o l in g , in 1966.

In a s o c i e t y w h i c h k e e p s its c h i ld r e n e c o n o m i c a l l y dependen t on th e ir e l d e r s f o r l o n g e r than e v e r b e fo r e y e t a sk s th em to m ake th e ir ow n m o r a l , and o th e r , d e c i s i o n s e a r l i e r than e v e r b e f o r e , the s c h o o l s a r e h aving to b e a r the brunt o f the c o n f l i c t s in ou r s o c ie t y .

In ou r own c o u n t r y as w e l l as o v e r s e a s p u p i ls a r e r e a d in g The L itt le R e d S c h o o l B o o k o r e x t r a c t s f r o m it , and r e a c t in g to the id e a s put f o r w a r d . I t ' s c o m e to s o m e t h in g when L e i l a B e r g , a r a d ic a l c h i l d r e n 's w r i t e r and author o f " R i s i n g h i l l , D eath o f a C o m p r e h e n s i v e " , c r i t i c i z e d an a r t i c l e , c a l l e d " T h e B ust B o o k " in a r e c e n t i s s u e o f the m a g a z in e " C h i l d r e n 's R ig h ts " as " in te n d e d to p r o v o k e a f r e e - f o r - a l l b e tw e e n c h i ld r e n and a u th o r it ie s " ( T im e s E d u ca t io n a l S u p p le m e n t . 2nd June, 1972. )

So fa r the p h e n o m e n a , o f in s i s t e n c e on " C h i l d r e n ' s R ig h ts " has been m a in ly c o n f in e d to E n g l i s h - s p e a k in g s c h o o l s in this c o u n tr y , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e the E n g l i s h - s p e a k in g w h ites a r e p ro n e to s e l f -d o u b t , m a in ly b e c a u s e they a r e " . . . the h e i r s o f E n g l ish l i b e r a l i s m . T e n ta t iv e ly I w ould s u g g e s t that m a n y e x p e r i e n c e a kind o f s c h iz o p h r e n ia r e s u lt in g f r o m the c la s h b e tw e e n in t e r n a l i s e d l i b e r a l n o r m s and th e ir r e lu c t a n c e to s e e th ese n o r m s g iv en c o n c r e t e e x p r e s s i o n in the m u l t i - r a c i a l s o c i e t y o f w h ich they a re p a r t " (W e ls h , 1972).

J o h n V a iz e y , in r e g a r d in g the c o n s p i r a c y th e o r y , on student r e v o l t , to be an u n w ise g e n e r a l i z a t io n , says that we shou ld be r igh t ly p r o u d o f this k ind o f s e l f -d o u b t . He is s u p p o r te d by P o s tm a n , W e in g a r tn e r (1971) and R e in e r (1972) who m ake the point that "w h i le s u r v iv a l in a s tab le e n v ir o n m e n t d epends a lm o s t e n t ir e ly on r e m e m b e r i n g the s t r a t e g ie s f o r s u r v iv a l that have b e e n d e v e lo p e d in the p a st , s u r v iv a l in a r a p id ly ch ang in g e n v ir o n m e n t depends a lm o s t e n t i r e ly upon b e in g ab le to id e n t i fy w h ich o f the o ld c o n c e p ts a r e r e le v a n t to the d e m a n d s im p o s e d by the n ew threats to s u r v iv a l and w h ich a re n o t " . A n ew e d u c a t io n a l task then b e c o m e s c r i t i c a l - that o f u n le a rn in g o r " s e l e c t i v e f o r g e t t in g " . A c a s e in point is ou r attitude to the c o n t r o l o f hum an p op u la t ion .

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The t e r m " fu t u r e s h o c k " has b e e n c o in e d to d e s c r i b e the state w h ich o c c u r s when you a r e c o n fr o n te d by the fa c t that the w o r ld you w e r e ed u ca te d to b e l i e v e in , d o e s n 't ex is t .

F a c e d with the t u r m o i l and c o n f l i c t s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , the U n iv e r s i ty E du ca t ion D e p a r tm e n t ca n be sa id to be tra in in g f o r d y s fu n c t io n w h a te v e r c o u r s e it o f f e r s . It m u st p r e p a r e t e a c h e r s f o r the e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s e r v a t iv e s c h o o l s o f tod ay , y e t t e a c h e r s who w i l l be f l e x ib le en ough to adapt to the unknow n fu tu re .

T he d i l e m m a is w e l l put in a b o o k " D o n ' t S m ile until C h r i s t m a s " (R yan , 1970) on the p r o b l e m s fa c e d by n e w ly - q u a l i f ie d t e a c h e r s with the C h i c a g o , M a s te r o f A r t s , T e a c h in g , d e g r e e . F o r th is d e g r e e r e c r u i t s a r e s e l e c t e d f r o m the f in e s t u n d e r g r a d u a te c o l l e g e s in A m e r i c a and the M. A . T . p r o d u c ts a r e s u p e r b ly e d u ca te d and e x t r e m e l y a r t i c u la te . Yet when they s tart te a c h in g in the s c h o o ls they r e p o r t " b e w i l d e r e d c h a g r in and d is m a y in r e s p o n s e to the rou t in e d e m a n d s o f b o o k k e e p in g and d is c i p l in e , the d a rk s ide o f the t e a c h e r ' s d a ily e x i s t e n c e " . A r e c e n t s u r v e y sh o w e d that n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l task s take up 2 0% o f the t e a c h e r ' s day (H i ls u m & C a n e , 1971).

T h e y e x p e r i e n c e d in ten se a l ie n a t io n w ithin the s c h o o l co n te x t - in an a t m o s p h e r e w h ich they e x p e c t e d to find f a m i l i a r . I t i s true that they i r r i t a t e t e a c h e r s w ith th e ir s e n s e o f n o b le n e s s o b l ig e s t e m m in g f r o m a d e e p - r o o t e d s e m i - c o n s c i o u s b e l i e f that they a r e g iv in g up a g r e a t d ea l f o r a l t r u i s m (c f . m y r e m a r k s on t e a ch in g as a v o c a t i o n ) . T h is b r a s h n e s s " h id e s a g a l lo p in g in ­s e c u r i t y " but i s v e r y an noy in g n o n e t h e le s s , p a r t i c u l a r ly when they a l s o spout the late st, s o m e t im e s r a d ic a l , e d u c a t io n a l p h i lo s o p h ie s to t e a c h e r s who h ave , p e r h a p s , n e v e r h e a r d o f th em . The f l e d g l i n g - t e a c h e r s on the o th e r hand f e e l p r e ju d g e d as h ip p ie s by the s c h o o l c o m m u n it y - caught b e tw e e n the d i f f e r in g n o r m s on d r e s s , h a ir le n g th e t c . , b e tw e e n the s c h o o l a n d th e ir c o n t e m ­p o r a r i e s in the b u s i n e s s - w o r l d . T h e y find that in th e ir te a ch in g they do not have the a u d ie n ce r e a d y f o r th e ir m e s s a g e and that they do not have the sk i l l to m ake that a u d ien ce r e a d y and so turn b a ck to a u th o r ita r ia n w ays and f e e l gu ilty when they do so .

E ven w hile b e in g a u th o r ita r ia n they find that they a r e not g iv e n the p o w e r c o m m e n s u r a t e with th e ir a u th o r ity , to u se the d is t in c t io n m a d e by P e t e r s and in a ttem p tin g to e x e r c i s e p o w e r that w i l l be equ a l to h is a u th or ity the y o u n g t e a c h e r is " p e r p e t u a l l y p o i s e d on the b r in k o f a c t io n that is u lt r a v i r e s " (M u s g r o v e , 1971) - u s u a l ly that o f u s in g c o r p o r a l p u n ish m en t when they have no a u th or ity to do so .

On top o f th is the n ew t e a c h e r f a c e s a b re a k d o w n o f the s t r a t e g ie s that have a lw a y s le d h im to s u c c e s s at U n iv e r s i ty . At the U n iv e r s i t y he has b e e n r e w a r d e d f o r b e in g o r ig i n a l , in t e l l e c t u a l ly - c h a l l e n g i n g and e v e r - q u e s t i o n i n g with a b e l i e f in the v a lu e o f p e r s o n a l op in ion . T he t e a c h e r is g o in g to n eed a l l these q u a l i t ie s in the c o u r s e o f his c a r e e r as a t e a c h e r , y e t , i f he g iv e s th em f r e e e x p r e s s i o n in h is f i r s t y e a r s as a t e a c h e r , he w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d "a t b e s t , la u g h a b le , and, at w o r s t , e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s " (R yan , 1970).

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It is up to the U n iv e r s i ty E du cat ion D e p a r tm e n ts to b r id g e the gap f r o m U n iv e r s i t y to s c h o o l . T h e r e i s a l s o a n e e d fo r to le r a n t u n d e rs ta n d in g on the p a r t o f the s c h o o l s - l e s t we lo s e p r o m i s in g you n g t e a c h e r s to the c o m m e r c i a l w o r ld , w h e r e the v e r y q u a lit ie s that i r r i t a t e in the s t a f f r o o m b e c o m e in d is p e n s a b le and h ig h ly - r e w a r d e d v i r t u e s .

14

B IB L IO G R A P H Y

A ltm a n , E. T e a c h in g as a V o c a t io n : A R e a p p r a i s a l . E d u ca t ion f o r T e a c h in g , No. 82. S u m m e r , 1970.

B la ir , G, H. Jon es , R . S. S im p son , R . H.

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G in t is , H. " T o w a r d s a P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y o f E d u ca t ion : A R a d ic a l C r it iq u e in Ivan I l l i c h 's D e s c h o o l in g S o c i e t y " , H a r v a r d E d u ca t io n a l R e v ie w , V o l . 42 . F e b r u a r y , 1972.

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T e a c h e r s and T e a c h in g (H a rm o n d s w o r th , M id d le s e x : P en g u in , 1969).

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