teacher-based research and pastoral care
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Teacher-Based Research and Pastoral CareBob G. Burgess aa University of Warwick ,Published online: 16 Jun 2009.
To cite this article: Bob G. Burgess (1983) Teacher-Based Research and Pastoral Care, Pastoral Care in Education: AnInternational Journal of Personal, Social and Emotional Development, 1:1, 52-60, DOI: 10.1080/02643948309470421
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consider how to offer them all an opportunity of equality. And it asks questions of researchers and directs them to consider no t only issues of educational tasks — how schools can teach better, faster and more, but according to Wax and Wax (1971 , p . 16) also a far more important question, "what is happening to our children as hurhan beings?1.
REFERENCES BIyth, W.A. {W6b) English Primary Education Volume t, Routledge & Kegan Paul. Davies, L.D.(1980) The Organization of Two Middle Schools, B.Phil.Ed. Dissertation (Unpublished), University of Birmingham. DES (1965) Circular 10/65, HMSO. DES (1967) Children and their Primary Schools: The Plowden Report, HMSO. Douglas, J . (1971) Understanding Everyday Life, Routledge & Kegan Paul. Garfinkel, H. (1956) 'Conditions of Successful Degredation Ceremonies', in Manis, J . and Meltzer, B. (1967) (eds:) Symbolic Interaction, Allyn Bacon. Goffman, E. (1964) T h e Neglected Situation', in Gosin, B. et al (1971) (eds.) School and Society, Routledge & Kegan Paul. Hopper, E. (1971) 'A Typology for the Classification of Educational Systems', in Hopper (1971) (ed.) Readings in the Theory of Educational Systems, Hutchinson. Jackson, B. (1976) 'A question of Equality', in Macbeath, J . (ed.) A Question of Schooling, Hodder.
A number of key concepts have passed into contemporary educational debate that have direct implications for the role of the teacher. Such concepts include 'evaluation', 'self-evaluation', ' the teacher-as-researcher* and 'teacher-based research'.1 While each of these concepts involve situations where individual
Meighan, R. (1977) 'The Pupils as Client: The Learners Experience of Schooling', in Educational Review, 29(2). Meighan, R. (1978) 'A Pupil's Eye View of Teaching Performance', in Educational Review, 30(2). Moore, T. (1966) 'Difficulties of the Ordinary Child in Adjusting to Primary Schools', in Journal of Child Psychology. Ribbins, P. (1981) 'What Kind of Conferences do Teachers Really Need to Help Them Meet Their Pastoral Responsibilities', in West Midlands Journal of Pastoral Care in Education, 1(2). Schools Council (1972) Education in the Middle Years, Evans. Rutter, M. et al (1979) Fifteen Thousand Hours, Open Books. Thorp, J . (1980) From Primary School to Secondary School, BJPhiLEd. Dissertation (unpublished) , University of Birmingham. Wax, M. and Wax, R. (1971) 'Great Tradition, Little Tradition and Formal Education', in Wax, M., Diamond, S. and Gearing, F. (eds.) Anthropological Perspectives in Education, Basic Books. Willis, P. (1975) T h e Main Reality' Final Report of an SSRC Project The Transition from School to Work, University of Birmingham.
Correspondence John Thorp, Christchurch Primary School, Harden Road, Leamore, Walsall.
teachers or a complete school staff are involved in a critical scrutiny of their professional activities, there are different forms of self-evaluation and research which can be used by teachers in their own schools.
Teachers have been encouraged by many local education authorities to
Teacher-Based Research and Pastoral Care BOB G. BURGESS, University of Warwick
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become actively involved in self-evaluation and self assessment. In some cases, advisers and officials within local education authorities have devised evaluation strategies. Some are highly structured and include check lists of questions (Oxfordshire Education Committee, 1979), while others favour broad sets of questions which are to be addressed by teaching staff (Inner London Education Authority, 1977). However, many of these evaluation documents have been devised by individuals who are external to the school and classroom: advisers, inspectors and local education authority administrators (Shipman, 1979). Here, it is the teacher's task to address a series of questions and to use a set of methods that have been determined by individuals who are no t directly involved in teaching. Furthermore, the 'results' of such evaluation procedures have, in some cases, to be fed back not only within the school, bu t to school governors and to local education authority committees. In these terms, self-evaluation carries with it a series of social and political problems as the results of such exercises can be used to make judgements about teachers and about schools and the way in which they should be resourced.
Such an approach utilising check lists has been criticised by Elliott (1982) who considers that they may increase technical efficiency but exercise a control function over teachers rather than assisting them to reflect on their own professional actions. He argues that self-evaluation can be a process of action research which involves consciousness raising among teachers. In this respect, Elliott makes a distinction between self-evaluation based on external demands where neither the questions nor the methods of investigation belong to the teachers with self-evaluation which enhances the professional practice of. teachers (cf. Simons, 1981b).
This emphasis upon self-evaluation which results in professional development has also been discussed by Lawrence
Stenhouse (1975) when he considers the role of the 'teacher-as-researcher'. It is this approach where the teacher indulges in 'teacher-based research' (Burgess, 1978) which can be used by teachers investigating aspects of pastoral care. The terms that are used are deliberately chosen. Research is taken to be systematic inquiry that is subsequently made public, while the terms 'teacher-based research' and 'teacher-researchers' indicate that this type of investigation is by teachers, with teachers and for teachers. It is the teacher who establishes the kind of questions, that are to be asked, and selects the methods of investigation that are to be used. It is the teacher who has control of the data and decides what is to be disseminated, to whom and in what circumstances and also what is to be used in professional practice. In short, it is teachers who control these research situations.
There are a number of issues that surround the conduct of teacher-based research and it is, therefore, the purpose of this article to consider a number of questions in relation to teacher-based research on pastoral care. Firstly, why conduct teacher-based research? Secondly, who does it involve? Thirdly, what does it involve and how is it conducted? Fourthly, what topics can be investigated? Finally, how can the findings be used by teachers? In addition, some space will also be devoted to the problems of doing teacher-based research and the implications that this work has for the teacher's professional development.
The research setting
Imagine a school at nine o'clock in the morning. Pupils are moving from the playground into classrooms. A teacher appears with a huge thin book. She sits behind her desk, takes a blue biro and a red biro from her bag. She opens the book which is divided into columns. She quietens the class and begins to read
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'Paul Adams'. 'Yes, Mrs Jones ' , comes the reply from the middle of the room. 'David Bayliss'. 'Yes, Mrs Jones ' says a quietly spoken boy at the front of the class. The teacher continues to read the list of names and to make marks upon the page. When no reply is given in response to a name, she asks the class if they have seen the pupil concerned. In some cases, details can be provided, while in other instances the children shrug their shoulders and have nothing to say. It is the beginning of another day and a tutorial period in an urban comprehensive school. It is part of pastoral care.
After seven minutes the registers are complete and the teacher asks the boys to make one line and the girls to make another line. They are told to walk quietly to the House hall for House assembly. In the House hall classes are emerging through two doorways. A group of teachers hover at the entrance to the Hall talking quietly to each other. From within the hall can be heard cries of 'Stand up straight!' 'Keep quiet' 'Get those coats of P. It is the Deputy Head of House getting pupils ready for assembly before the Head of House appears to lead prayers.
Both of these scenarios are familiar to any teacher. They are part of the everyday life of our schools. Yet these two activities that have been described are often part of the taken- for-granted aspects of school life. They are the responsibility of teachers in Houses rather than Departments (cf. Burgess, 1983). They are pastoral duties that are regularly performed within our schools by Heads and Deputy Heads of Houses and by form tutors. They are routines that are seldom questioned.
These are just two separate aspects of pastoral care. What other elements could we have described? It may have been the distribution of a circular to parents, the investigation of a theft, the comforting of a sick child, the transportation of a child to hospital, a discussion with a
child's parents, a visit to a pupil's home or the administration of punishment. All of these situations are aspects of pastoral care. They are familiar elements of schooling and yet when we turn to research in schools we find that there are relatively few empirical studies that focus on pastoral care. Sociologists such as Hargreaves (1967), Lacey (1970), Woods (1979) and Ball (1981) have chosen to go into secondary schools and into classrooms to examine social processes associated with subject teaching with the result that we have relatively little direct knowledge of pastoral care. Even in studies which have examined pastoral care the questions that have been posed have focussed upon sociological issues as well as the concerns of the teacher. Thus, in my own study of a co-educational Roman Catholic comprehensive school (Burgess, 1983), I have examined pastoral care as a facet of the way in which teachers define and redefine situations in school settings, as a product of school organisation and as an element of interpersonal relations and social conflict between teachers whose primary responsibilities were in Houses and those whose main responsibilities were in Departments. In turn, I have also examined the relationships between teachers with pastoral responsibilities and pupils.
While these issues and questions may be of some interest to the teacher, many basic questions still remain unanswered. How do Heads of Houses use their time? What is the balance between teaching and counselling? How much administration is done? How are tu tor group periods used? How often do form tutors and House Heads administer punishment? Who administers corporal punishment? How often and under what circumstances? What do pupils think about 'pastoral care'? It is questions such as these that the teacher involved in pastoral care is best equipped to ask and to investigate. Often the topics that are listed are the subject of staff gossip when
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uninformed guesses are made about the time which a Head of House spends on kreaV teaching or the person who administers corporal punishment most often or the uses to which tutorials can be put or the type of work which pupils prefer to follow in tutor group periods. If teachers address these questions through some kind of systematic inquiry it is possible for the findings to be used in their own professional self development and in the formal and informal discussions in the school. In addition, these findings can contribute to decision-making and school policy.
In these terms, the questions which form the basis of teacher-based research arise out of professional actions and activities. They are questions that lead out from the teacher's familiarity with the school setting. In turn, the findings can be brought back into the school situation to directly influence school procedure, and future planning. I t is the teacher who can bring together teaching and research.
Methods of investigation and the teacher-researcher
At the heart of teacher-based research is the professional teacher with the result that Nixon (1981) has argued that ethnographic methods are best suited t o this mode of research. In this respect, teachers' observations of the situations within which they work are assumed to be the basic data that are collected. However, as I have commented elsewhere (Burgess, 1982a) to equate ethnographic methods merely with observation is too narrow and can result in some misinterpretation of the data that are collected. Accordingly, I choose to define ethnographic methods to include observation, participant observation, interviews and documentary evidence. But how can these different methods be used in the study of various elements of pastoral care? As in any study it is the problems posed which determine the particular
combination of methods that can be used, but first we need to consider what research resources are available to teachers of pastoral care.
Firstly, there are the teachers themselves. They already hold appointments in the school, have first hand knowledge of the institution and have access to a number of social settings: meetings with staff, pupils and parents, school assembly, tutor group periods, and staff-room conversation. However, we might ask, what right do teachers have to do research on their colleagues and their 'clients'? Should teachers, pupils and parents, be informed of the teacher's research intentions? Is it ethical to make notes on social situations in which a number of participants are involved, as for example in the staff common room? Issues such as these on the meritSjand demerits of 'open' as against 'closed' or 'covert* participant observation have been widely discussed in the social science literature (Barnes, 1979; Buhner, 198?), but cannot be resolved in a uniform manner. Much depends upon the re-searcher, those who are being researched and the topic of investigation. In short, compromise is essential. Some situations such as meetings between two teachers or between a teacher and two parents may allow teacher-researchers to discuss their research intentions with those to be researched, while a public meeting such as a parents evening that involves twenty teachers and three hundred parents makes the negotiation of permission to do research much more difficult (cf. Burgess, 1980).
Teachers who engage in pastoral care can use interviews as a resource for research.2 Interviews with teachers, pupils, parents, educational welfare officers, careers officers and local authority advisers may all be used in the conduct of research. Indeed, casual conversation may be used as a resource on which the teacher can draw for data. However, the teacher still needs to consider the questions concerning overt
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and covert research and the declaration of research access which are involved when making observations and recording conversations.
Finally, there is documentary evidence. For those involved in pastoral care there is often an embarrassment of riches here. The documents that are available include: newsletters, memoranda, registers, letters, photographs, notes, school reports, record cards, timetables, newspaper cuttings and the punishment book. Once again, some consideration needs to be given to the extent to which a teacher has a right to use letters from parents and allied documents on individual pupils for research without requesting permission. In this instance, the teacher needs not only to think about the materials that are collected but how they are to be used and disseminated and the extent to which situations and individuals can be disguised by means of pseudonyms.
Jus t on the basis of this brief review it is evident that there are a number of research resources which are immediately to hand for teaching staff involved in pastoral care. But how can these resources be used in actual studies? How can these different approaches be combined with each other in the course of an investigation? In short how can teacher-based research be done? To address this question, I will turn to three situations involving pastoral care that can be researched by teachers. In each case, I consider the problems that can be posed and the approaches that can be used during these investigations.
Doing teacher-based research
(a) Studying school assembly Of all the social encounters that occur within secondary schools involving pastoral care, school assembly is the most public. It provides an opportunity for pupils to be observed en masse and to observe teachers in their formal roles within a public setting. There are
numerous questions that could be posed about the activities that occur in this setting: what is the relationship between the religious elements of school assembly and the secular elements of the school curriculum? How is assembly used by different teachers? What is communicated to pupils in assembly? What do pupils 'do ' in assembly? Some of these questions may seem simple and straightforward. Indeed, teachers may feel instinctively that they know the answers to these questions. If this is the case, they might, therefore, engage in some research in order to check out their hunches and the unquestioned assumptions that they make in their daily activities. For example, the announcements that are made in assembly over a period of half a term, can be analysed to see what is said, by whom, to whom and for what purpose. In turn, this can be followed up in discussions with other teachers and with selected groups of pupils so that some investigation can be made of the ways in which teachers and pupils perceive the announcements and interpret and reinterpret them during the course of their day-to-day activities.
To begin with, a diary needs to be kept of the initial situations that have been observed. All field notes concerning what is said, and the reactions of those to whom it is said need to be recorded. In order to keep as detailed notes as possible, four key questions need to be addressed: Who? What? When? Where? If these questions are posed when the observations are being recorded, it will be possible to make comparisons of the different observations that have been made. In keeping a diary it is important to make regular entries and to write in as much detail as possible so that a detailed record is obtained (cf. Enright, 1981). Furthermore, these entries can then be scanned to see if they pose further questions that can be followed up in other ways (Burgess, 1981).
For example, if a headteacher were to announce in assembly that he or she did
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not want to be head of a school where pupils swore at teachers and several teachers were to smile at this statement, it would be essential to follow this through. The teachers concerned could be engaged in conversation or an unstructured interview so that their perceptions of the instructions that the head had given to pupils could be followed up. In turn, school rules and the way in which they were applied or not applied by teachers could also be discussed with pupils.3
The study of a dimension of school assembly could, therefore, involve the use of observations which could be recorded in a research diary together with unstructured or conversational interviews with teachers and pupils. In turn, this material could be analysed for the central themes in the announcements made in school assembly and might lead to a discussion of school rules; the way in which these rules were communicated, implemented or not implemented by teachers and obeyed and disobeyed by pupils. Clearly, such an investigation would have implications for a review of school policy regarding the implementation of school rules.
(b) The tutor group Among teachers as well as in the conventional educational literature, there is some debate about the way in which tutorial periods might be used. For the teacher-researcher and for the pupils a collaborative research exercise can be conducted. Here, the tutor group could be utilised as a research team who could give the teacher-researcher broader access to different dimensions of the schooling process.
Pupils might be engaged in keeping their own diaries of their school activities. However, questions need to be confronted about whether colleagues would be told about these research activities if accusations of 'spying' were to be avoided. Pupils could also be involved in the design and use of
questionnaires and interview schedules that could be deployed with other pupils. In both these instances, the research activity would have a dual role. Pupils would be learning first-hand about the collection and analysis of research data and about the processes involved in social research. Secondly, data could be collected from a pupil's perspective on the schooling process which would com-plement the data to which teachers have access. A tu tor group could, therefore, be involved in the initiation of a research project that would involve collaboration between teachers and pupils (cf. Pollard, 1982) as well as involving different methods of social investigation: diaries, interviews and questionnaires that could be utilised alongside one another in the same project. Overall, this would give the teacher-researcher some control over the collection and analysis of data as it would involve triangulation of multiple investigators, methods and data; activities that would increase the reliability and validity of the data gathered (cf. Denzin, 1970;Stacey, 1969; Burgess, 1982a).
(c) Studying corporal punishment A topic that has brought heated public debate following rulings by courts of law both in Britain and Europe is corporal punishment. In schools that still retain corporal punishment, teachers involved in pastoral care are often responsible for the administration of these punishments and for the maintenance of 'discipline'; although many teachers and headteachers would argue (cf. Marland, 1975 ; Honeyford, 1982) discipline is the responsibility of all members of a school staff. The public debate that has taken place through the pages of The Times Educational Supplement (cf. Temperton, 1981) focusses on the qase for and against corporal punishment. While this dimension of the debate may continue in conversations in staff common rooms, further topics are also explored such as who has been caned, by whom and for what offence.
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As Musgrave (1977) has shown in his discussion of corporal punishment in English elementary schools between 1900 and 1939, more systematic data collection and analysis can be conducted utilising school punishment books. The basic data that are available within a punishment book are: the date on which the punishment was administered, the name of the pupil punished, the number of strokes of the cane given for the offence, the nature of the offence and the initials of the teachers who administered and witnessed the punishment. Such data allow a number of issues to be considered. First, it is possible to review which pupils have been punished in this way and the reasons for which they have been punished. Secondly, it is possible to look at the offences for which corporal punishment has been used. Thirdly, the relationship between the of fence and the number of strokes of the cane administered can be examined. Finally, an analysis can be done of the teachers who have caned pupils and the offences for which they have administered the cane. The school punishment book is just one document that provides a rich source of data to shed light on pupils, teachers and teaching.
However, these data alone are not sufficient for a systematic analysis of either corporal punishment or of punishment. Data will be incomplete in cases where teachers cane pupils and fail to record it in the book. Secondly, the data may be inaccurate where dates have been changed, and where the number of strokes of the cane that have been administered have been subsequently adjusted upwards or downwards. Finally, the nature of the offence may not be accurately recorded. It is for these reasons that a study of corporal punishment using documentary evidence needs to be complemented by interview material with teachers and with pupils (cf. Burgess, 1982b). In addition) it is essential to talk not only to teachers who administer corporal punishment but
also to those who do not administer such punishments. Furthermore, these discussions would need to be complemented with data that could be derived from discussions with pupils who have and have not been punished in this way.
On the basis of this research, anumber of observations could be made about the pupils and teachers who are involved in the administration of corporal punishment. In particular, the teacher-researcher might look for patterns in terms of offences, offences committed b y particular pupils, offences committed with particular teachers and so on. In these terms, the results of such research within a particular school would hold the potential not only for an appraisal of the system of punishment, but could also contribute to discussions on teacher-pupil relationships and to school policy.
Conclusion
This article has presented a case for the conduct of teacher-based research and considered the settings in which this research could be done; especially by teachers involved in pastoral care. In turn, the methods of investigation that can be used have been considered in relation to potential projects that might be conducted on pastoral care. At this point, teachers might ask: but what is the purpose of doing teacher-based research? In my view teacher-based research can be used in three ways:
(a) To assist in evaluating published work. Teacher-based research not only allows teachers to gather data but also allows them to consider the questions that can be posed, the data that are obtained and the relationships between their questions and their analyses. In turn, teacher-reseafchers also gain some acquaintance with the methods of investigation that can be used, and the circumstances in which they can be used, together with an appraisal of their strengths and limitations (cf. Shipman, 1981). Once these
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skills are acquired, they can be used by teachers in reading and critically evaluating published work as their own research practice will allow them to critically evaluate the work of others.
(b) To assist in theory contraction. Much work in social and educational research results in a set of concepts that are devised by academics who force their concepts and theories of schooling upon teachers and intending teachers. In this case, teachers' data could be used as a basis for generating concepts and theories about patterns of schooling and about the social processes and social relations in the school system. In turn, this might help to narrow the gap that appears to have developed between researchers and practitioners within the educational community.
(c) To assist decision-making and school policy making. Many of the decisions that are taken within schools are made on the basis of 'professional judgement' , or on the basis of experience or on the basis of assumptions that are made by teachers about schools. Even when research evidence is available, it is rarely directly applicable to particular situations in individual schools. The advantage, therefore, of teacher-based research is that problems that are of direct relevance to the particular teacher can be examined. Systematic evidence can be gathered which can contribute to school policy and to the decision-making processes within the school.
Fundamentally, therefore, teacher-based research can contribute to different dimensions of a teacher's professional development. It demands hard work, creativity, technical skill and theoretical flair. Yet the rewards are high as we may get closer to understanding the process of schooling and to addressing the question: What really does go on within our schools?
NOTES 1. An earlier version of this paper was read to DES regional course W.3.3. 'Developing and Evaluating Pastoral Care' held at the University of Warwick, 7th July 1982.1 am grateful to the members of this course for their constructive • comments and criticisms. The faults remain my own. 2. For a discussion of interviewing in this type of research see, for example, Simons (1981a). 3. For a discussion of ways in which themes can be followed up in an investigation, see Burgess (1982b).
REFERENCES Ball, S.J. (1981) Beachside Comprehensive: A Case Study of Secondary Schooling, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Barnes, J.A. (1979) Who Should Know What? Social Science, Privacy and Ethics, Marmonds-worth: Penguin. Bulmer, M. (1982) (ed.), Social Research Ethics: the merits of covert participant observation, London: Macmillan. Burgess, R.G. (1978), 'Preparation for teacher-based research: a report from an in-service course', British Journal of In-Service Education, 5(1), pp. 14 -19 . Burgess, R.G. (1980),'Some fieldwork problems in teacher-based research', British Educational Research Journal, 6(2), pp. 165—173. Burgess, R.G. (1981), 'Keeping a research diary', Cambridge Journal of Education, 11(1), pp. 7 5 - 8 3 . Burgess, R.G. (1982a) (ed.) Field Research: A Sourcebook and Field Manual, London: Allen & Unwin. Burgess, R.G. (1982b), 'The practice of sociological research: some issues in school ethnography', in R.G. Burgess (ed.), Exploring Society, London: British Sociological Association, pp. 115—135. Burgess, R.G. (1983), Experiencing Comprehensive Education: A Study of Bishop McGregor School, London: Methuen. Denzin, N. (1970), The Research Act, Chicago: Aldine. Elliott, J . (1982), 'Self-evaluation, professional development and accountability'. Mimeo: Cambridge Institute of Education. Enright, L. (1981), 'The diary of a classroom', in J . Nixon (ed.), A Teachers' Guide to Action Research, London: Grant Mclntyre, pp. 37—51. Hargreaves, D.H. (1967) Social Relations in a Secondary School, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
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Honey ford, R. (1982) Starting Teaching, London: Groom Helm. Inner London Education Authority (1977) Keeping the School under Review, London: ILEA. Lacey, C. (1970) Hightown Grammar: the school as a social system, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Marland, M. (1975) The Craft of the Classroom, London: Heinemann. Musgrave, P.W. (1977), 'Corporal punishment in some English elementary schools, 1900—39', Research in Education, no. 17, pp. 1—11. Nixon, J . (1981) (ed.) A Teachers' Guide to Action Research, London: Grant Mclntyre. Oxfordshire Education Committee (1979), 'Starting points in self evaluation', Oxford: Oxfordshire Education Committee. Pollard, A. (1982), 'Opportunities and difficulties of a teacher ethnographer'. Paper prepared for the Ethnography of Educational Settings, Workshop 2, Whitelands College, London 5th—6th July. Shipman, M. (1979) In-School Evaluation, London: Heinemann.
Shipman, M. (1981) The Limitations of Social Research, (2nd edition), London: Longman. Simons, H. (1981a), 'Conversation piece: the practice of interviewing in case study research' in C. Adelman (ed.) Uttering Muttering, London: Grant Mclntyre, pp. 27—50. Simons, H. (1981b), 'Process evaluation in schools', in C. Lacey and D. Lawton (eds.), Issues in Evaluation and Accountability, London: Methuen, pp. 114—144. Stacey, M. (1969) Methods of Social Research, Oxford r Pergamon Press. Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, London: Heinemann. Temperton, P. (1981), 'A sordid and futile business', Times Educational Supplement no. 3395 (17th July), pp. 1 6 - 1 7 . Woods, P. (1979) The Divided School, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Correspondence Robert Burgess, Department of Sociology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL.
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