Taj Mahal 1

Taj Mahal

Taj MahalNative name:Hindi: ताज महल

Southern view of the Taj Mahal

Location: Agra, India

Coordinates: 27°10′29″N 78°02′32″E

Elevation: 171 m (561 ft)

Built: 1632 - 1653

Architect: Ustad Ahmad Lahauri

Architecturalstyle(s):

Mughal

Visitation: More than 3 million (2003)

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Type: Cultural

Criteria: i

Designated: 1983 (7th session)

Reference #: 252 [1]

State Party:  India

Region: Asia-Pacific

Located in western Uttar Pradesh, India

The Taj Mahal ( /ˈtɑːdʒməˈhɑːl/;[2] Hindi: ताज महल, Urdu: لحم جات "crown of buildings", pronounced [ˈt̪aːdʒməˈɦəl]; also "the Taj"[3] ) is a mausoleum located in Agra, India. It is one of the most recognizable structures in theworld. It was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

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Taj Mahal is considered to be the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements fromPersian, Islamic and Indian architectural styles.[4] [5]

In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While the white domed marble mausoleum is themost familiar component of the Taj Mahal, it is actually an integrated complex of structures. The construction beganaround 1632 and was completed around 1653, employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen.[6] The construction ofthe Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'murKhan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.[7] [8] Lahauri[9] is generally considered to be the principaldesigner.[10]

Origin and inspiration

Shah Jahan, who commissioned the Taj Mahal -"Shah jahan on a globe" from the Smithsonian Institution Artistic depiction of MumtazMahal

In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when histhird wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their fourteenth child, Gauhara Begum.[11] Construction of theTaj Mahal began in 1632, one year after her death.[12] The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the lovestory traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal.[13] [14] The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 andthe surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the Tajin these words:[15]

Should guilty seek asylum here,Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin.Should a sinner make his way to this mansion,All his past sins are to be washed away.The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs;And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes.In this world this edifice has been made;To display thereby the creator's glory.

The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian architecture and earlier Mughal architecture.Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb ofTimur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand),[16] Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb(sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings wereprimarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-preciousstones, and buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.[17]

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Architecture

The tombThe central focus of the complex is the tomb. This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth andconsists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Likemost Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.

The Taj Mahal seen from the banks of riverYamuna

The base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube withchamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On each of thesesides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with twosimilarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif ofstacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, makingthe design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Fourminarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing thechamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi ofMumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.

Viewed from the east.

The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the mostspectacular feature. Its height of around 35 metres (115ft) is about the same as the length of the base, and isaccentuated as it sits on a cylindrical "drum" which isroughly 7 metres (23 ft) high. Because of its shape, thedome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guavadome). The top is decorated with a lotus design, whichalso serves to accentuate its height. The shape of thedome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris(kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onionshape of the main dome. Their columned bases open

through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges ofbase walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattrisand guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustanidecorative elements.

The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19thcentury. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements.The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement onthe main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape, reminiscent of traditionalHindu symbols of Shiva.[6]

The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. Theywere designed as working minarets — a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamicfaithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring thetower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb.The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets wereconstructed slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence with many tallconstructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.

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Base, dome,and minaret

Finial Main iwan and side pishtaqs Simplified diagramof the Taj Mahal

floor plan

Exterior decoration

Calligraphy on large pishtaq

The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are amongthe finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface areachanges the decorations are refined proportionally. Thedecorative elements were created by applying paint,stucco, stone inlays, or carvings. In line with theIslamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphicforms, the decorative elements can be grouped intoeither calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs.

Throughout the complex, passages from the Qur'an areused as decorative elements. Recent scholarshipsuggests that the passages were chosen by AmanatKhan.[18] [19] The texts refer to themes of judgment andinclude:

Surah 91 – The SunSurah 112 – The Purity of FaithSurah 89 – DaybreakSurah 93 – Morning LightSurah 95 – The FigSurah 94 – The SolaceSurah 36 – Ya SinSurah 81 – The Folding UpSurah 82 – The Cleaving AsunderSurah 84 – The Rending AsunderSurah 98 – The EvidenceSurah 67 – DominionSurah 48 – VictorySurah 77 – Those Sent ForthSurah 39 – The Crowds

The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He atpeace with you."[19]

The calligraphy was created by a calligrapher named Abd ul-Haq, in 1609. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity".[8] Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi."[20] Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script, made of jasper or black marble,[8] inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the

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marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesserextent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery ofincised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of theadjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles.Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour, creating geometricpatterns of considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas reliefdepictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvingsand the dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almostgeometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and leveled tothe surface of the walls.

Herringbone Plantmotifs

Spandrel detail Incised painting

Reflective tiles normal exposure Reflective tiles under exposed

Interior decoration

Jali screen surrounding the cenotaphs

The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditionaldecorative elements. Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura, but alapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamberis an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face,although only the door facing the garden to the south is used.

The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a"false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq archesdefine the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lowerpishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. Thefour central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and eachbalcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut frommarble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at thecorners. Each chamber wall has been highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refinedcalligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.

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Tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal

Cenotaphs, interior of Taj Mahal

The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs ismade from eight marble panels which have been carved through withintricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid inextremely delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twiningvines, fruits and flowers.

Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, thebodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain cryptbeneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right and towardsMecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of theinner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in)by 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in).

Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious andsemiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify andpraise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozengemeant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is besideMumtaz's to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetricelement in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's,but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base,again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary andcalligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of this casket is a traditionalsculpture of a small pen box.

The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and womenrespectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb ofMumtaz Mahal, in the crypt including "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ".The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He traveled from this world to the banquet-hallof Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."

Arch of Jali Delicatepierce work

Inlay detail Detail of Jali

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The garden

Walkways beside reflecting pool

The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbaghor Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each ofthe four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds.A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfwaybetween the tomb and gateway with a reflecting pool on a north-southaxis, reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble watertank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the "Tank ofAbundance" promised to Muhammad.[21] Elsewhere, the garden is laidout with avenues of trees and fountains.[22] The charbagh garden, adesign inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by the firstMughal emperor, Babur. It symbolizes the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise gardenderived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise isdescribed as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating thegarden into north, west, south and east.

Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual inthat the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or"Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is thatthe Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers ofParadise.[23] The similarity in layout of the garden and its architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggestthat they may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan.[24] Early accounts of the garden describe itsprofusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees.[25] As the Mughal Empire declined, thetending of the garden also declined, and when the British took over the management of Taj Mahal during the time ofthe British Empire, they changed the landscaping to resemble that of lawns of London.[26]

Outlying buildings

The Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)—gateway tothe Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by crenellated redsandstone walls, with the river-facing side left open. Outside the wallsare several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan'sother wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favorite servant. Thesestructures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of thesmaller Mughal tombs of the era. The garden-facing inner sides of thewall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindutemples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wallis interspersed with domed chattris, and small buildings that may havebeen viewing areas or watch towers like the Music House, which isnow used as a museum.

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Interior of the Taj Mahal mosque

The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure builtprimarily of marble which is reminiscent of Mughal architecture ofearlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of tomb's archways,and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates thetomb. It utilizes bas-relief and pietra dura inlaid decorations withfloral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometricdesigns, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of thecomplex.

Taj Mahal mosque or masjid

At the far end of the complex, there are two grand red sandstonebuildings that are open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallelthe western and eastern walls, and the two buildings are precise mirrorimages of each other. The western building is a mosque and the otheris the jawab (answer), whose primary purpose was architecturalbalance, although it may have been used as a guesthouse. Thedistinctions between these two buildings include the lack of mihrab (aniche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca) in the jawab and that the floorsof jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laidwith outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by threedomes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Masjid-Jahan Numa, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. TheMughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas, with a main sanctuary and slightly smallersanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an enormous vaulting dome. These outlyingbuildings were completed in 1643.

Construction

Ground layout of the Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city ofAgra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the centerof Agra in exchange for the land.[27] An area of roughly three acres wasexcavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and leveled at 50 metres (160 ft)above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone andrubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmenconstructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was soenormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According tothe legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from thescaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometer(9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to theconstruction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks onspecially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system wasused to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river bya series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a largedistribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.

The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in

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stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". For example, themausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex. Estimates of thecost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to beabout 32 million Rupees at that time.[28]

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia and over 1,000 elephants were used totransport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper fromPunjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while thesapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious andsemi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.

Artist's impression of the Taj Mahal,from the Smithsonian Institution

A labour force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India.Sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers fromsouthern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets,another who carved only marble flowers were part of the thirty-seven men whoformed the creative unit. Some of the builders involved in construction of TajMahal are:

• Ismail Afandi (a.ka. Ismail Khan) of the Ottoman Empire — designer of themain dome.[29]

• Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi of Persia — trained by Koca MimarSinan Agha of the Ottoman Empire and frequently credited with a key role inthe architectural design.[30] [31]

• 'Puru' from Benarus, Persia — has been mentioned as a supervisingarchitect.[32]

• Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore - cast the solid gold finial.• Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi — the chief sculptor and mosaicist.• Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran — the chief calligrapher.[33]

• Muhammad Hanif — a supervisor of masons.• Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz — handled finances and management of daily production.

History

Taj Mahal by Samuel Bourne, 1860.

Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by hisson Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. UponShah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next tohis wife.[34]

By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly intodisrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the TajMahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, whochiseled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the endof the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweepingrestoration project, which was completed in 1908.[35] [36] He alsocommissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modeled afterone in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodeled with British-style lawns that are still in placetoday.[26]

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Threats

Protective wartime scaffolding

In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding in anticipation of an airattack by German Luftwaffe and later by Japanese Air Force. Duringthe India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were againerected to mislead bomber pilots.[37]

More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on thebanks of Yamuna River including acid rain[38] due to the Mathura OilRefinery,[39] which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives.The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help controlthe pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj TrapeziumZone (TTZ), a 10,400 square kilometer (4,015 square mile) areaaround the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.[40]

TourismThe Taj Mahal attracts between 2 and 4 million visitors annually, including more than 200,000 from overseas. Adual pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens than for foreigners. Mosttourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near thecomplex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northerncourtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center.[41] [42]

The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed withcaravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen.[43] Lists of recommended traveldestinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modernworld, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll[44] with 100 million votes.The grounds are open from 6 am to 7 pm weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at themosque between 12 pm and 2 pm. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two daysbefore and after,[45] excluding Fridays and the month of Ramzan. For security reasons[46] only five items—water intransparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses—are allowed insidethe Taj Mahal.[47]

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MythsEver since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography,and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument.[48]

Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, one of thefirst European visitors to the Taj

Mahal

A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built inblack marble across the Yamuna river.[49] The idea originates from fancifulwritings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzebbefore it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in MoonlightGarden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavationscarried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that hadturned black.[50] A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleumwas demonstrated in 2006 by archeologists who reconstructed part of the pool inthe Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearlybe seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning ofthe pool itself.[51]

No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths,dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmenassociated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committingthemselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings.[52] Noevidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly plannedto demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arosefrom Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.[53]

In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P.N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal.[52] [54]

Oak claimed that origins of the Taj, together with other historic structures in the country currently ascribed toMuslim sultans pre-date Muslim rule of India and thus, have a Hindu origin.[55] A more poetic story relates that oncea year, during the rainy season, a single drop of water falls on the cenotaph, as inspired by Rabindranath Tagore'sdescription of the tomb as "one tear-drop...upon the cheek of time". Another myth suggests that beating thesilhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding thesilhouette.[56]

ReplicasAmong the buildings modeled on the Taj Mahal are the Taj Mahal Bangladesh, the Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad,Maharashtra, the Trump Taj Mahal in Atlantic City, NJ and the Tripoli Shrine Temple in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

See also• Fatehpur Sikri• Indian architecture• Persian architecture

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Dictionary.reverso.net. . Retrieved 2010-08-14.[4] Hasan, Parween (November 1994). "Review of Mughal Architecture: Its outline and its history". The Journal of Asian Studies 53 (4)[5] Lesley A. DuTemple, "The Taj Mahal", Lerner Publishing Group (March 2003). pg 26: "The Taj Mahal, a spectacular example of Moghul

architecture, blends Islamic, Hindu and Persian styles"[6] Tillitson, G.H.R. (1990). Architectural Guide to Mughal India, Chronicle Books.[7] History of the Taj Mahal Agra (http:/ / www. agrahub. com/ taj-mahal-agra/ history-of-the-tajmahal. html), Retrieved on: 20 January 2009.[8] Anon. "The Taj mahal" (http:/ / www. islamicart. com/ library/ empires/ india/ taj_mahal. html). Islamic architecture. Islamic Arts and

Architecture Organization. . Retrieved 22 may 2009.[9] From Lahore as the name suggests (Koch.p88)[10] UNESCO advisory body evaluation (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ archive/ advisory_body_evaluation/ 252. pdf).[11] "Public Broadcasting Service" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ treasuresoftheworld/ a_nav/ taj_nav/ main_tajfrm. html). PBS. . Retrieved

2010-02-02.[12] "Taj Mahal History" (http:/ / www. ourworldwonders. com/ TajMahal/ History. htm). .[13] Muhammad Abdullah Chaghtai Le Tadj Mahal D'Agra (Hindi). Histoire et description (Brussels) 1938 p. 46.[14] 'Abd al-Hamid Lahawri Badshah Namah Ed. Maulawis Kabir al-Din Ahmad and 'Abd al-Rahim u-nder the superintendence of Major W.N.

Lees. Vol. I Calcutta 1867 pp384-9 ; Muhammad Salih Kambo Amal-i-Sal\lih or Shah Jahan Namah Ed. Ghulam Yazdani Vol.I (Calcutta)1923 p. 275.

[15] Mahajan, Vidya Dhar (1970). Muslim Rule In India. p. 200.[16] Chaghtai Le Tadj Mahal p. 146.[17] Copplestone, p. 166.[18] Taj Mahal Calligraphy (http:/ / www. tajmahal. org. uk/ calligraphy. html).[19] Koch, p. 100.[20] "Public Broadcasting Service" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ treasuresoftheworld/ taj_mahal/ tlevel_2/ t4visit_3calligraphy. html). PBS. .

Retrieved 2010-02-02.[21] Begley, Wayne E. (March 1979). "The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of Its Symbolic Meaning". The Art Bulletin 61 (1): 14.[22] "taj-mahal-travel-tours.com" (http:/ / www. taj-mahal-travel-tours. com/ garden-of-taj-mahal. html). taj-mahal-travel-tours.com.. . Retrieved

2010-02-02.[23] Wright, Karen (July 2000). "Moguls in the Moonlight — plans to restore Mehtab Bagh garden near Taj Mahal" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/

articles/ mi_m1511/ is_7_21/ ai_63035788). Discover.[24] Allan, John (1958) (edition = First). The Cambridge Shorter History of India. Cambridge: S. Chand, 288 pages. p. 318.[25] The Taj by Jerry Camarillo Dunn Jr (http:/ / travel. howstuffworks. com/ taj-mahal-landmark. htm).[26] Koch, p. 139.[27] Chaghtai Le Tadj Mahal p54; Lahawri Badshah Namah Vol.1 p. 403.[28] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (http:/ / www. islamicity. com/ Culture/ Taj/ default. htm).[29] Who designed the Taj Mahal (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ treasuresoftheworld/ taj_mahal/ tlevel_2/ t3build_design. html).[30] William J. Hennessey, Ph.D., Director, Univ. of Michigan Museum of Art. IBM 1999 WORLD BOOK.[31] Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman. Architecture: from Prehistory to Post-Modernism. p. 223.[32] ISBN 964-7483-39-2.[33] "It Never Disappoints; The Taj Mahal has the sort of majestic beauty that catches you unawares" (http:/ / meaindia. nic. in/ bestoftheweb/

2006/ 02/ 25bw01. htm). Meaindia.nic.in. 2006-02-25. . Retrieved 2010-08-14.[34] Gascoigne, Bamber (1971). The Great Mughals. New York:Harper&Row. p. 243.[35] Lord Curzon's Brass Lamp (http:/ / www. taj-mahal. net/ augEng/ textMM/ brasslampengN. htm).[36] Yapp, Peter (1983). The Traveller's Dictionary of Quotations. London:Routledge Kegan & Paul. p. 460.[37] Taj Mahal 'to be camouflaged' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 1732993. stm).[38] Acid Rain and the Taj Mahal (http:/ / science. howstuffworks. com/ acid-rain2. htm).[39] Oil Refinery Impact on Taj Mahal (http:/ / www. industrialinfo. com/ showAbstract. jsp?newsitemID=139464).[40] "UNESCO" (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ courier/ 2000_07/ uk/ signe. htm). UNESCO. 1997-04-30. . Retrieved 2010-02-02.[41] Koch, p. 120.[42] Koch, p. 254.[43] Koch, pp. 201-208.[44] Travel Correspondent (2007-07-09). "New Seven Wonders of the World announced" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ travel/ main.

jhtml?xml=/ travel/ 2007/ 07/ 09/ etsevenwonders109. xml). The Telegraph. . Retrieved 2007-07-06.[45] "Archaelogical Survey of India: Night Viewings of Taj Mahal" (http:/ / asi. nic. in/ asi_monu_whs_agratajmahal_night. asp). Asi.nic.in.

2004-11-28. . Retrieved 2010-02-02.

Taj Mahal 13

[46] DNA India: Going to the Taj? This is all you can carry (http:/ / www. dnaindia. com/ report. asp?newsid=1145100).[47] tajmahal[48] Koch, p. 231.[49] Asher, p. 210.[50] Koch, p. 249.[51] Warrior Empire: The Mughals of India (2006) A+E Television Network.[52] Koch, p. 239.[53] Rosselli, J., Lord William Bentinck the making of a Liberal Imperialist, 1774-1839, London Chatto and Windus for Sussex University Press

1974, p. 283.[54] Supreme Court Dismisses Oak's Petition (http:/ / law. indiainfo. com/ legal-news/ tajmahal. html).[55] Oak, Purushottam Nagesh. "The True Story of the Taj Mahal" (http:/ / www. stephen-knapp. com/ true_story_of_the_taj_mahal. htm).

Stephen Knapp. . Retrieved 2007-02-23.[56] Koch, p. 240.

• Asher, Catherine B. Architecture of Mughal India New Cambridge History of India I.4, Cambridge UniversityPress 1992 ISBN 0-521-26728-5.

• Bernier, Françoi' Travels in the Moghul Empire A.D. 1657-1668 (Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co.) 1891.• Carroll, David (1971). The Taj Mahal, Newsweek Books ISBN 0-88225-024-8.• Chaghtai, Muhammad Abdullah Le Tadj Mahal d'Agra (Inde). Histoire et description (Brussels: Editions de la

Connaissance) 1938.• Copplestone, Trewin. (ed). (1963). World architecture — An illustrated history. Hamlyn, London.• Gascoigne, Bamber (1971). The Great Moguls, Harper & Row.• Havel, E.B. (1913). Indian Architecture: Its Psychology, Structure and History, John Murray.• Kambo, Muhammad Salih Amal-i-Salih or Shah Jahan Namah Ed. Ghulam Yazdani (Calcutta: Baptist Mission

Press) Vol.I 1923. Vol. II 1927.• Koch, Ebba (2006) [Aug 2006] (Paperback). The Complete Taj Mahal: And the Riverfront Gardens of Agra (First

ed.). Thames & Hudson Ltd., 288 pages. ISBN 0500342091.• Lahawri, 'Abd al-Hamid Badshah Namah Ed. Maulawis Kabir al-Din Ahmad and 'Abd al-Rahim under the

superintendence of Major W.N. Lees. (Calcutta: College Press) Vol. I 1867 Vol. II 1868.• Lall, John (1992). Taj Mahal, Tiger International Press.• Preston, Diana & Michael (2007) [2007] (Hardback). A Teardrop on the Cheek of Time (First ed.). London:

Doubleday, 354 pages. ISBN 9780385609470.• Rothfarb, Ed (1998). In the Land of the Taj Mahal, Henry Holt ISBN 0-8050-5299-2.• Saksena, Banarsi Prasad History of Shahjahan of Dihli (Allahabad: The Indian Press Ltd.) 1932.• Spiller, R (1994). "Agricultural Sites of the Taj Mahal', Chronicle Books.• Stall, B (1995). Agra and Fathepur Sikri, Millennium.• Stierlin, Henri [editor] & Volwahsen, Andreas (1990). Architecture of the World: Islamic India, Taschen.• Tillitson, G.H.R. (1990). Architectural Guide to Mughal India, Chronicle Books.

External links• Archeological Survey of India description (http:/ / asi. nic. in/ asi_monu_whs_agratajmahal. asp)• Government of India - Description (http:/ / www. indohistory. com/ taj_mahal. html)• Information from the Department of Tourism, Uttar Pradesh (http:/ / www. tajmahal. gov. in)• Taj Mahal travel guide from WikitravelGeographical coordinates: 27°10′27″N 78°02′32″E

Article Sources and Contributors 14

Article Sources and ContributorsTaj Mahal  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=385116330  Contributors: $yD!, 2, 568jj, AThing, Abdullah Geelah, Abecedare, Abhijitsathe, Abizar, Absar, AcademicChallenger, Achint.iips, Acred99, Addshore, Adrian, AdultSwim, Afinebalance, AgentCDE, Ageo020, AgnosticPreachersKid, Ahoerstemeier, Ahuskay, Aim krazy, Airknight, Aitias, Ajjstep10,Ajmint, Aks khandelwal, Aksi great, Alansohn, Albany NY, Alex.muller, Algebraist, Allmightyduck, Allstarecho, Almaqdisi, Alphakappa, Alren, Alsandro, Amakuru, Amartyabag, Ambarish,Ambuj.Saxena, Amir85, Amit jain online, Amorim Parga, AnOddName, Anand Karia, Anas999, Anchitk, Anchjo, Andre Engels, Andres, Andrewpmk, Andyjsmith, Anishkasana, Ankur.sinha,Antandrus, Anujkhandelwal, Apalaria, Arad, Arajagop, Aranel, Archer3, Arnon Chaffin, Arvind Iyengar, Ashishbhatnagar72, Ashwatham, Asiaexplorers, Aslamt, Asuofihasd, Atlantisv2,Atomicblah, Attilios, Autosol, AvicAWB, Avicennasis, Avik 007, Awalktm, 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Taj Mahal, Agra, India.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal,_Agra,_India.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:YannFile:Flag of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKoppFile:India location map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_location_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany  Contributors:Uwe Dedering. Original uploader was Uwe Dedering at de.wikipediaFile:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:AnduxFile:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Nethac DIU,Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, 5 anonymous editsImage:Shahjahan on globe, mid 17th century.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shahjahan_on_globe,_mid_17th_century.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:HashimImage:Mumtaz Mahal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mumtaz_Mahal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Redtigerxyz aten.wikipediaFile:Taj Mahal-11.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal-11.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dcastor, Faizhaider, 2 anonymous editsFile:Taj Mahal East Side.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_East_Side.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:UspnImage:TajAndMinaret.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajAndMinaret.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Joshua Issac, Nemonoman, Para, 1 anonymouseditsImage:Taj Mahal finial-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_finial-1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dcastor, Joshua Issac, 4 anonymous editsImage:TajEntryArch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajEntryArch.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Joshua Issac, Nemonoman, Para, 2 anonymous editsImage:Taj floorplan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_floorplan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Rannpháirtí anaithnid, User:Vmoscarda

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 15

File:Taj Mahal Calligraphy Example.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_Calligraphy_Example.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:UspnImage:TajGuldastaGeometricDeco.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajGuldastaGeometricDeco.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dcastor, NemonomanImage:TajFlowerCloseUp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajFlowerCloseUp.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dcastor, IlmariKaronen, VmoscardaImage:TajSpandrel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajSpandrel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Man vyi, Mattis, Nemonoman, ParaImage:TajPaintedGeometry.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajPaintedGeometry.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dogears, Ekabhishek, NemonomanImage:Taj_Mahal_reflective_tiles_in_normal_exposure.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_reflective_tiles_in_normal_exposure.JPG  License: CreativeCommons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:RobpinionImage:Taj_Mahal_reflective_tiles_under_exposed.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_reflective_tiles_under_exposed.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 3.0  Contributors: User:RobpinionFile:TajJoli1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajJoli1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aude, Cookie, Gryffindor, Minderbinder, Nemonoman, ParaFile:Tombs-in-crypt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tombs-in-crypt.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Donelsonat en.wikipediaFile:TajCenotaphs3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajCenotaphs3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aude, Cookie, Gryffindor, Kyro, Nemonoman, Para,3 anonymous editsImage:TajJaliArch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajJaliArch.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gryffindor, Lysippos, Nemonoman, ParaImage:TajJaliPiercwork.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajJaliPiercwork.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aude, Cookie, Gryffindor, Minderbinder,Nemonoman, ParaImage:TajJaliInlay.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajJaliInlay.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gryffindor, Lysippos, Minderbinder, Nemonoman, ParaImage:Jali-inlay.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jali-inlay.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Donelson aten.wikipediaFile:TajGardenWide.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajGardenWide.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Nemonoman, Para,1 anonymous editsFile:Entrance fort.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Entrance_fort.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Srikeit at en.wikipedia. Later version(s)were uploaded by Mdd4696 at en.wikipedia.File:Taj Mahal Mosque Interior Hall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_Mosque_Interior_Hall.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:UspnFile:TajMosque.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TajMosque.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Davepape, Nemonoman, Para,Phso2, 1 anonymous editsFile:GreatMughalsTM (complete).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GreatMughalsTM_(complete).svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Fred the OysterFile:Taj Mahal art.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_art.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Unidentified, Indian, Pen andopaque watercolor on paper H: 52.8 W: 34.4 cm India, Part of the Smithsonian Institution Collection[1]File:Sambourneagra1860s.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sambourneagra1860s.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Samuel Bourne, 1834–1912File:Taj protective scaffold.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_protective_scaffold.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Nemonomanat en.wikipediaFile:Jean-Baptiste Tavernier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean-Baptiste_Tavernier.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User Magnus Manske onen.wikipedia

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