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Tai Ji Quan: An overview of its history, health benefits, and cultural value

Yucheng Guo*, Pixiang Qiu, Taoguang Liu

School of Martial Arts, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China

Received 4 March 2013; revised 2 October 2013; accepted 18 October 2013

Abstract

Tai Ji Quan is considered to be a part of traditional Chinese Wushu (a martial art) and comprises various styles that have evolved historicallyfrom the Chen, Yang, Wǔ, Wú, and Sun families (schools). Recent simplification of the original classic styles has made Tai Ji Quan easier toadopt in practice. Thus, the traditional legacy of using Tai Ji Quan for self-defense, mindful nurturing of well-being, and fitness enhancement hasbeen expanded to more contemporary applications that focus on promoting physical and mental health, enhancing general well-being, preventingchronic diseases, and being an effective clinical intervention for diverse medical conditions. As the impact of Tai Ji Quan on physical per-formance and health continues to grow, there is a need to better understand its historical impact and current status. This paper provides anoverview of the evolution of Tai Ji Quan in China, its functional utility, and the scientific evidence of its health benefits, as well as how it hasbeen a vehicle for enhancing cultural understanding and exchanging between East and West.Copyright � 2014, Shanghai University of Sport. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Culture; Health; Martial art; Tai Chi; Tai Ji Quan; Wushu

Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

1. Introduction

Tai Ji Quan (also known as Tai Chi) has traditionally beenpracticed for multiple purposes, including self-defense, mindfulnurturing of well-being, and fitness enhancement. For hundredsof years the Chinese have enjoyed many benefits that Tai JiQuan is believed to offer. Today, people of all ages and back-grounds from around the world are discovering what the Chi-nese have known for centuries: that long-term sustained practiceof Tai Ji Quan leads to positive changes in physical and mentalwell-being. As both the popularity and impact of Tai Ji Quan onhealth continue to grow in China and worldwide, there is a needto update our current understanding of its historical roots,multifaceted functional features, scientific research, and broad

* Corresponding author.

E-mail address: wushuxue@126.com (Y. Guo)

Peer review under responsibility of Shanghai University of Sport

Production and hosting by Elsevier

2095-2546 Copyright � 2014, Shanghai University of Sport. Production and hostihttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2013.10.004

dissemination. Therefore, the purposes of this paper are todescribe: (1) the history of Tai Ji Quan, (2) its functional utility,(3) common methods of practice, (4) scientific research on itshealth benefits, primarily drawn on research conducted inChina, and (5) the extent towhich Tai Ji Quan has been used as avehicle for enhancing cultural understanding and exchangingbetween East and West.

2. Historical evolution of Tai Ji Quan

Tai Ji Quan, under the general umbrella of Chinese Wushu(martial arts),1 has long been believed to have originated in thevillage of Chenjiagou in Wenxian county, Henan province, inthe late Ming and early Qing dynasties.1e3 Over a history ofmore than 300 years, the evolution of Tai Ji Quan has led tothe existence of five classic styles, known as Chen, Yang, Wǔ,Wú, and Sun.

At its birthplace in Chenjiagou, Chen Wangting(1600e1680) has historically been recognized as the firstperson to create and practice Tai Ji Quan, in a format known asthe Chen style.3 With the establishment of Chen style, tradi-tional Tai Ji Quan begins to evolve both within and outside the

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4 Y. Guo et al.

Chen family. Chen Changxing (1771e1853) broke his fam-ily’s admonitions to keep the art within the family by teachingChen style to his talented and hard-working apprentice YangLuchan (1799e1872) from Yongnian in Hebei province. YangLuchan later created the Yang style and passed his routine totwo of his sons, Yang Banhou (1837e1892), who developedthe “small frame” of the Yang style, and Yang Jianhou(1839e1917). Yang Jianhou’s son, Yang Chengfu(1883e1936), introduced Yang style to the public.4

Wǔ Yuxiang (1812e1880), who first learned Tai Ji Quanfrom his fellow villager Yang Luchan, acquired a thoroughknowledge of Tai Ji Quan theory from master ChenQingping (1795e1868) and, with assistance from hisnephew Li Yishe (1832e1892), combined techniques helearned from both Yang and Chen styles to eventuallydevelop the Tai Ji Quan theory that led to the formation ofhis unique Wǔ style.5

The fourth of the five main styles is Wú, which was createdby Quan You (1834e1902) and his son Wú Jianquan(1870e1942). Quan first learned Tai Ji Quan from YangLuchan and Yang Banhou. Wú’s refinement of Yang’s “smallframe” approach gave rise to the Wú style.6

The fifth and most recent style of Tai Ji Quan comes fromSun Lutang (1861e1932), who learned Tai Ji Quan from theWǔ style descendant Hao Weizhen (1849e1920). By inte-grating Xing Yi Quan and Ba Gua Zhang (two other forms ofChinese Wushu), Sun Lutang developed his unique Sun style.7

A schematic summarizing the history and evolution of the fiveclassic Tai Ji Quan styles is presented in Fig 1.

Fig. 1. Summary of the evolution of t

In summary, with its rich history and diversity of styles, TaiJi Quan offers an exercise and/or sport modality that has longbeen thought to promote health, encourage cultural exchange,and help with disease prevention. Since the 1950s, undersponsorship of the Chinese State Physical Culture and SportsCommission, further modifications have occurred includingvarying the number of movements (24-form, 42-form, 48-form, 88-form).1,8 Of these, the 24-form is the mostfrequently used in public programs and public health promo-tion. Subsequent development has further simplified the 24-form routine into 8- and 16-form routines.1

3. Functional utility of Tai Ji Quan

3.1. Self-defense

With its strong roots in Wushu, Tai Ji Quan is often prac-ticed as a self-defense program that involves combative ac-tions such as kicking, striking, subduing, and pushing down.These techniques must be skillfully executed through carefulmovement control and maneuvering rather than through overtexternal physical force.

3.2. Fitness-enhancement

Because Tai Ji Quan involves dynamic actions withcontrolled movements and coordination, long-term sus-tained practice is believed to improve the function of thenervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, and musculoskeletal

he five classic Tai Ji Quan styles.

An overview of Tai Ji Quan 5

systems, thus enhancing physical fitness, preventing chronicdisease, improving overall quality of life, and increasinglongevity.

3.3. Mindful nurturing of well-being

The foundation of Tai Ji Quan has deep roots in ancientChinese philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism, whichhave been embraced in various cultural practices such astraditional Chinese medicine. The blending of focused phys-ical activity with breathing exercises in Tai Ji Quan has longbeen thought to nurture the full integration of body, mind,ethics, and behavior. As Tai Ji Quan involves deliberatelyexecuted movements that are slow, continuous, and flowing, itresults in calmness, the release of stress and tension, andheightened awareness of the body in relation to its environ-ment. Therefore, the sustained practice of Tai Ji Quan isthought to help promote psychological well-being.

3.4. Performance and competition

Tai Ji Quan has also been used for sporting purposes thatoften involve elements of theatre and competition. Forexample, as a cultural manifestation of Wushu, Tai Ji Quanwas performed by a cast of thousands during the openingceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing.

With the growth of Tai Ji Quan, standards and classifi-cations have been developed for certifying practitioners inall classic styles.3e7 Similarly, standardized forms havebeen created, including the well-known simplified 24-form,and push-hand and sword routines. Tai Ji Quan has beenincluded as a formal event in many local, national, and in-ternational tournaments, including the Asian Games, bothJunior and Open World Wushu Championships, and JiaozuoInternational Tai Ji Quan Exchange Competition, whichprovide performance and competition platforms for Tai JiQuan practitioners at various levels to share their expertise.

3.5. Communication

Because Tai Ji Quan is often practiced in groups in publicplaces such as community centers, parks, and plazas, it offers aunique opportunity for the exchange of ideas, socialnetworking, and developing social and personal relationshipsamong practitioners. Its increasing popularity internationallyhas made Tai Ji Quan a resource for promoting cultural ex-change and appreciation.

3.6. Summary

Like Wushu, Tai Ji Quan serves multiple functions, fromthe traditional practice of self-defense to its contemporary usesfor promoting public health, enhancing quality of life, andfacilitating cultural exchange. The multidimensional nature ofTai Ji Quan makes it well suited for people from all walks oflife.

4. Common methods of Tai Ji Quan practice

4.1. Static-stance practice

Static-stance practice is a fundamental skill for practi-tioners of Tai Ji Quan. The most common types of static-stance practice are Wuji pylon stance (the preparatory formor opening stance of Tai Ji Quan), Chuan-character pylonstance, and the palm pylon stance. Practicing the static stancesnot only builds the strength of the legs and hips but also helpsestablish a sound posture and foundation for learning andpracticing more complicated forms/movements.

4.2. Single-form practice

The single-form practice is the most basic way of learningand practicing Tai Ji Quan. For example, Cloud Hand uses thewaist as a pivot and drives the arms for coordination, exercisingthe torso and shoulder joints. The single-form practice can alsobe used to alleviate pain and fatigue in specific parts of the body.Thus, for individuals who work at a sedentary job, the single-form practice may be a good method for reducing fatigue.

4.3. Combination practice

Combination practice refers to practice of movementscontained within a form. Repetitive practice of the movements(ward-off, rollback, press, push) involved in the form “Graspthe Peacock’s Tail” exemplifies this. Combination practiceplays an important role in mastering correct actions as well asdeveloping basic skills for engaging in more complicatedroutines (described below). In addition, this practice expandsthe number muscles and joints involved, thereby extending thebenefits of improving flexibility, reducing fatigue, andenhancing fitness.

4.4. Routine practice

Routine practice represents amainstream trainingmethod thatinvolves practicing Tai Ji Quan in accordance with its originalsequence (e.g., 24 forms). This typically begins with a particularstarting form and finishes with a predefined ending form.

4.5. Push-hand practice

The push-hand practice is a barehanded training routineperformed between two practitioners. Practice of push-handcan be divided into several forms, including fixed-step push-hand, single-hand push, double-hand push, and moving-steppush-hand, which requires coordination of the upper andlower limbs. The basics of the push-hand practice are devel-oped through eight techniques, including warding off, rollingback, pressing, pushing, plucking (or grasping), splitting,elbowing, and leaning. Push-hand practice is often viewed as away of evaluating the extent to which Tai Ji Quan techniquesare performed or have been mastered in accordance with pre-specified standards.

6 Y. Guo et al.

4.6. Summary

There are multiple practice options involved in Tai Ji Quan,all of which are essential for learning and mastering its fun-damentals. The most common include static-stance, single-form, combination, routine, and push-hand.

5. Research on Tai Ji Quan in China

Because Tai Ji Quan involves carefully controlled andexecuted physical movements, it has long been suggested thatvarious health benefits are derived from its practice.9e11

Despite its long history, evidence of these benefits has beenmostly anecdotal. During the last 2 decades, however, anincreased effort to clarify the health effects of Tai Ji Quan hasbeen made through scientific studies, including both obser-vational and experimental research. The following sectionprovides a brief review of the research evidence drawn pri-marily from studies conducted in China.

5.1. Blood pressure and blood lipids

Regular practice of Tai Ji Quan has been shown to lowerblood pressure, improve lipid metabolism,12,13 reduce car-diovascular risk factors in patients with dyslipidemia,14 protectthe cardiovascular system, and improve hemodynamic bio-markers of blood viscosity.15

5.2. Immunity

Studies of Tai Ji Quan have indicated that it has a positiveinfluence on protecting lymphocytes and enhancing immuno-regulation of cells thereby improving cellular immune func-tion, especially for middle-aged and older adults.16,17 Forexample, Yeh et al.18 found that after 12 weeks of training, TaiJi Quan participants showed a significant increase in the ratioof T-helper to cytotoxic (CD4:CD8) and regulatory(CD4:CD25) T-cells. A recent pilot study also showed that a16-week Tai Ji Quan intervention significantly attenuatedCD55 expression (decay-accelerating factor) among post-surgical non-small-cell lung cancer survivors.19

5.3. Cardio-pulmonary function

Tai Ji Quan practice, as an aerobic exercise at low tomoderate intensity and with long-term duration, has beenfound to enhance cardio-pulmonary function in terms ofimproved vital capacity, maximum ventilatory capacity, andoxygen consumption.20e23

5.4. Balance control

Tai Ji Quan has been shown to have a beneficial effect onbalance, or on delaying the decline of balance capacity, inmiddle-aged and older adults.24,25 Specifically, studies haveshown that Tai Ji Quan helps improve vestibular function,static balance, muscular strength, proprioception, physical

agility and coordination skills, consequently reducing thefrequency of falls.26e30

5.5. Bone health

There is some evidence suggesting that Tai Ji Quanmay be aneffective, safe, and practical intervention for maintaining bonemineral density.9,31 For example, two randomized controlledtrials indicated that Tai JiQuan practice helped retard bone loss inearly postmenopausal women.32,33 However, at the moment theevidence is inconclusive given the contradictory findings of aseparate randomized controlled trial of older adults.34

5.6. Cancer

The health benefits of Tai Ji Quan for patients with cancerare unclear, in part due to the lack of research in this area, butpromising. For example, a recent pilot randomized controlledstudy19 conducted in Shanghai showed that a 16-week Tai JiQuan training program for non-small-cell lung cancer patientssignificantly lowered CD55 expression, which has been shownto negatively impact T-cell function.35,36 Additionally Tai JiQuan training has been found to improve shoulder strengthand functional well-being in breast cancer survivors.37

5.7. Mental health

A recent review of the literature suggests that Tai Ji Quanmay be effective in dealing with negative emotions and psy-chological disorders such as depression, anxiety, hostility, anddelusion.38 For example, in a small-scale randomized controlledtrial, Cho reported that a 12-week Tai Ji Quan program reduceddepressive symptoms, including somatic and psychologicalsymptoms, related to interpersonal relationships and well-beingin a sample of older patients with major depression.39 Tai JiQuan training has also been shown to improve self-esteem andpsychological components of health-related quality of lifeamong nursing home residents40,41 and to alleviate the negativepsychological impact stemming from natural disasters.42

5.8. Sleep quality

Regular practice of Tai Ji Quan can improve sleep quality.For example, Yang43 found that Tai Ji Quan practice helpedovercome sleep disorders and shortened the time it took col-lege students to fall asleep.

5.9. Brain health

To date, two randomized controlled trials have shown thatTai Ji Quan training can have a positive effect on brain volumeand cognition in older adults. In one study, Tai Ji Quanpractice resulted in significant increases in brain volume andimprovements in memory and executive function in a sampleof Chinese elders without dementia,44 while a further studyshowed that Tai Ji Quan reduced the risk of developing

An overview of Tai Ji Quan 7

dementia while improving memory and executive function inolder Chinese adults at risk of cognitive decline.45

5.10. Summary

There is an increasing amount of empirical evidenceshowing that Tai Ji Quan improves health-related outcomes inadult populations.

6. Connecting the world via Tai Ji Quan

Since the 1950s, Tai Ji Quan has attracted tremendous interestworldwide. This is partly due to efforts made by the Chinese touse Tai Ji Quan as a bridge to connect its culture to the rest of theworld, especially theWest. Several areas inwhichTai JiQuan hashelped bridge the East-West divide are described below.

6.1. Education

Various efforts have been made to employ educational in-stitutions and cultural centers to promote Tai Ji Quan inter-nationally, including using the Confucius Institute as an outletfor dissemination. The mission of the Confucius Institute is toforge exchanges of language, culture, and research in countrieswith different cultural backgrounds. Information gatheredfrom the Fourth Confucius Institute Conference in 2009indicated that, among the 217 Confucius Institutes (andclassrooms) having a presence at the conference, nearly30% offered Wushu courses, including Tai Ji Quan. By of-fering opportunities to learn Tai Ji Quan, these institutes haveadvanced cultural understanding of traditional China throughscholarly exchanges and collaborative research efforts.

6.2. Scientific collaboration

Because of the potential of Tai Ji Quan to enhance variousaspects of health, there has been an increase in cooperationamong research and academic scholars in East and West. Arecent joint study by international researchers on the connec-tions between Tai Ji Quan and brain health of older adults inShanghai, China, is representative of this international collab-oration.43 Conferences or symposia on Tai Ji Quan have alsoprovided a platform for exchanging knowledge and expertiseamong scientists, researchers, and clinicians interested in theapplications of Tai Ji Quan in community and clinical practice.

6.3. Competition

Each year various international competitions are heldinvolving Tai Ji Quan, often integrated into Wushu events.Sponsored either by private or government organizations andattracting large numbers of competitors, some of the more well-known events include the Shaolin International Wushu Festival,Hong Kong International Wushu Festival, and World Tradi-tional Wushu Festival. In 2013, the annual Jiaozuo InternationalTai Ji Quan Exchange Competition in China attracted over 3500competitors from more than 30 countries and regions.

6.4. Cultural exchange and communication

Tai Ji Quan has also been used to create cultural exchangesamong people of different races, religions, and cultures. Forexample, World Tai Ji Quan Day, held on the last Saturday ofApril, was first organized in 1999 and is now observedannually by Tai Ji Quan enthusiasts worldwide. Its aim is topromote Tai Ji Quan culture and health. Tai Ji Quan and otherforms of Wushu have been used to promote international re-lationships and friendships. For example, during an eventcalled Chinese Culture Focusing on Africa, Chinese Wushuspecialists delivered demonstrations of Tai Ji Quan and Wushuon trips to South Africa and Liberia. Similarly, in eventspromoting the theme of “Peace, Friendship, and Health”sponsored by the Chinese Wushu Association and the Per-manent Mission of China to the United Nations in 2013,Chinese Wushu artists provided a performance attended bymore than 1600 international guests.46

6.5. Summary

Originating in China several hundred years ago, Tai Ji Quanhas gained international recognition and is now practiced bymillions of people worldwide for health improvement, per-formance/competition, and cultural understanding. Dissemi-nation of Tai Ji Quan has narrowed cultural gaps betweenChina and the West, and has offered opportunities to connectpeople from different cultural backgrounds to promote healthand enjoy performances of this ancient art.

7. Conclusion

From its classic status as a martial art in ancient times to itsdiverse applications in the modern era, Tai Ji Quan has un-dergone a continual process of evolution, refinement, inte-gration, and standardization. With increased recognition of itshistorical value and health-enhancing potential, Tai Ji Quan ismaking contributions in the areas of performance, biomedicalresearch, and community health promotion through contem-porary applications. Tai Ji Quan has clear potential to build onits existing reputation for optimizing and enriching humanhealth and well-being.

Acknowledgments

The work presented in this article was supported by a grantfrom the National Social Science Foundation of China (No.12BTY052). The authors wish to express appreciation to ShuangWang, Xiaoxin Ma, Wenjing Zhai, Amber Ziqian Li, and Fuz-hong Li for their assistance and constructive feedback and sug-gestions during the various stages of writing this manuscript.

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Tai Ji Quan: An overview of its history, health benefits, and cultural value1 Introduction2 Historical evolution of Tai Ji Quan3 Functional utility of Tai Ji Quan3.1 Self-defense3.2 Fitness-enhancement3.3 Mindful nurturing of well-being3.4 Performance and competition3.5 Communication3.6 Summary

4 Common methods of Tai Ji Quan practice4.1 Static-stance practice4.2 Single-form practice4.3 Combination practice4.4 Routine practice4.5 Push-hand practice4.6 Summary

5 Research on Tai Ji Quan in China5.1 Blood pressure and blood lipids5.2 Immunity5.3 Cardio-pulmonary function5.4 Balance control5.5 Bone health5.6 Cancer5.7 Mental health5.8 Sleep quality5.9 Brain health5.10 Summary

6 Connecting the world via Tai Ji Quan6.1 Education6.2 Scientific collaboration6.3 Competition6.4 Cultural exchange and communication6.5 Summary

7 ConclusionAcknowledgmentsReferences