THE

HISTORIESIN TWO VOLUMES

TACITUS

Transcriber'snoteFootnoteshavebeenrenumberedallreferencestothemusethenewnumbers.Spellingsintheoriginal aresometimesinconsistent.Theyhavenotbeenchanged.

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TACITUS THEHISTORIESTRANSLATEDWITHINTRODUCTIONANDNOTES

BY

W.HAMILTONFYFEFELLOWOFMERTONCOLLEGE

INTWOVOLUMES VOLUMEIMainindexVolumeII

OXFORDATTHECLARENDONPRESS 1912

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HENRYFROWDEPUBLISHERTOTHEUNIVERSITYOFOXFORD LONDON,EDINBURGH,NEWYORK TORONTOANDMELBOURNE

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TO

LONDON,EDINBURGH,NEWYORK TORONTOANDMELBOURNE

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TO

D.H.F. 'Thecauseofundertakingaworkofthiskindwasagoodwillinthisscriblingagenot todonothing,andadisproportioninthepowersofmymind,nothingofmineowne inventionbeingabletopassethecensureofmineownejudgement,muchless,I presumed,thejudgementofothers.... 'IfthystomackebesotenderasthoucanstnotdisgestTacitusinhisownestile,thou artbeholdingtoonewhogivestheethesamefood,butwithapleasantandeasie taste.' SIRHENRYS AVILE(A .D.1591).

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CONTENTSVOLUMEI INTRODUCTION TEXT:BOOKSI,II VOLUMEII TEXT:BOOKSIIIV INDEXO FN AMES MAPS 9 231 5 17

VOLUMEI INTRODUCTION SUMMARYOFC HIEFEVENTS BOOKI PREFACE THES TATE OFTHEEMPIRE GALBA 'SP OSITION THEDISTRIBUTION OFF ORCES THEGERMAN REVOLTAND THEADOPTION OFP ISO GALBA 'SMEASURES OFP RECAUTION THERISEOFO THO THEF ALLOFGALBA OTHOONTHETHRONE DRAMATIS P ERSONAE THERISEOFVITELLIUS THEMARCHOFVALENS'C OLUMN THEMARCHOFC AECINA 'SC OLUMN OTHO'SGOVERNMENTAND THEDISTRIBUTION OFF ORCES OTHO'SP LANS BOOKII VESPASIAN AND THEEAST THETRIALOFANNIUS F AUSTUS OTHO'SMEASURES OFDEFENCE THEDECISIVES TRUGGLE VITELLIUS'P RINCIPATE THEREVOLTOFVESPASIAN VITELLIUSINROME

VITELLIUSINROME

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INTRODUCTIONTacitusheldtheconsulshipunderNervaintheyear97.Atthispointheclosedhispubliccareer.Hehadreachedthegoal ofapolitician'sambitionandhadbecomeknownasoneofthebestspeakersofhistime,butheseemstohaverealized thatunderthePrincipatepoliticswasadullfarce,andthatoratorywasoflittlevalueinatimeofpeaceandstrong government.Therestofhislifewastobespentinwritinghistory.Intheyearofhisconsulshiporimmediatelyafterit,he publishedtheAgricolaand Germania,shortmonographsinwhichhepractisedthetransitionfromthestyleofthe speakertothatofthewriter.IntheprefacetotheAgricolaheforeshadowsthelargerworkonwhichheisengaged.'I shallfinditapleasanttasktoputtogether,thoughinroughandunfinishedstyle,amemorialofourformerslaveryanda recordofourpresenthappiness.'HisintentionwastowriteahistoryofthePrincipatefromAugustustoTrajan.Hebegan withhisowntimes,andwroteintwelveorfourteenbooksafullaccountoftheperiodfromNero'sdeathin68 A .D.tothe

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deathofDomitianin96 A .D.Thesewerepublished,probablyinsuccessivebooks,between106and109 A .D.Onlythe firstfourandahalfbookssurvivetous.Theydealwiththeyears69and70,andareknownasTheHistories.The Annals,whichsoonfollowed,dealtwiththeJuliandynastyafterthedeathofAugustus.OfAugustus'constitutionofthe principateandofRome's'presenthappiness'underTrajan,Tacitusdidnotlivetowrite. TheHistories,astheysurvivetous,describeinastylethathasmadethemimmortaloneofthemostterribleandcrucial momentsofRomanhistory.ThedeadlystruggleforthethronedemonstratedfinallytherealnatureofthePrincipate basednotonconstitutionalfictionsbutonarmedforceandthesuppleinefficiencyofthesenatorialclass.Therevolton theRhineforeshadowedthedebacleofthefifthcentury.Tacituswaspeculiarlywellqualifiedtowritethehistoryofthis period.Hehadbeentheeyewitnessofsomeofthemostterriblescenes:hewasacquaintedwithallthedistinguished survivors:hispoliticalexperiencegavehimastatesman'spointofview,andhisrhetoricaltrainingastylewhichmirrored boththeterrorofthetimesandhisownemotion.MorethananyotherRomanhistorianhedesiredtotellthetruthandwas notfatallybiassedbyprejudice.ItiswrongtoregardTacitusasan'embitteredrhetorician',an'enemyoftheEmpire',a 'dtracteurdel'humanit'. Hewasnoneofthese.Asamemberofanoble,thoughnotanancient,family,andasonewho hadcompletedtherepublicancursushonorum,hissympathieswerenaturallysenatorial.Heregrettedthatthedayswere1

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passedwhenoratorywasarealpowerandtheconsulswerethetwintowersoftheworld.Butheneverhopedtosee suchdaysagain.Herealizedthatmonarchywasessentialtopeace,andthatthepriceoffreedomwasviolenceand disorder.Hehadnoillusionsaboutthesenate.Faultandmisfortunehadreducedthemtonervelessservility,aluxuryof selfabasement.Theirmeeknesswouldneverinherittheearth.Tacituspoursscornonthephilosophicopponentsofthe Principate,whowhilerefusingtoservetheemperorandpretendingtohopefortherestorationoftherepublic,could contributenothingmoreusefulthananostentatioussuicide.Hisowncareer,andstillmorethecareerofhisfatherinlaw Agricola,showedthatevenunderbademperorsamancouldbegreatwithoutdishonour.Tacituswasnorepublicanin anysenseoftheword,butratheramonarchistmalgrlui.Therewasnothingforitbuttoprayforgoodemperorsand putupwithbadones. ThosewhodecryTacitusforprejudiceagainsttheEmpireforgetthatheisdescribingemperorswhowereindubitably bad.WehavelosthisaccountofVespasian'sreign.HispraiseofAugustusandofTrajanwasneverwritten.The emperorswhomhedepictsforuswerealleithertyrannicalorcontemptible,orboth:nofloodsofmodernbiographycan washthemwhite.TheyseemedtohimtohavedegradedRomanlifeandleftnoroomforvirtusintheworld.Theverdict ofRomehadgoneagainstthem.SohedevotestotheirportraiturethevenomwhichthefifteenyearsofDomitian'sreignof

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terrorhadengenderedinhisheart.Hewasinevitablyapessimisthisidealslayinthepastyetheclearlyshowsthathe hadsomehopeofthefuture.WithoutsharingPliny'sfaiththatthemillenniumhaddawned,headmitsthatNervaand Trajanhaveinaugurated'happiertimes'andcombinedmonarchywithsomedegreeofpersonalfreedom. Thereareotherreasonsforthe'darkshadows'inTacitus'work.HistorytoaRomanwasopusoratorium,aworkof literaryart.Truthisagreatbutnotasufficientmerit.Thehistorianmustbenotonlynarratorbutornatorrerum.Hemust carefullyselectandarrangetheincidents,composethemintoaneffectivegroup,andbythepoweroflanguagemakethem memorableandalive.InthesebooksTacitushaslittlebuthorrorstodescribe:hisartmakesthemunforgettablyhorrible. Thesameartisreadytodisplaythebeautyofcourageandselfsacrifice.Butthesewererarerphenomenathancowardice andgreed.ItwasnotTacitus,buttheage,whichshowedapreferenceforvice.Moreover,thehistorian'sartwasnotto beusedsolelyforitsownsake.Allancienthistorywaswrittenwithamoralobjecttheethicalinterestpredominates almosttotheexclusionofallothers.Tacitusisnevermerelyliterary.ThewhichPlinynotesasthecharacteristic ofhisoratory,neverletshimsparkletonopurpose.Allhispictureshaveamoralobject'torescuevirtuefromoblivion

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andrestrainvicebytheterrorofposthumousinfamy'. Hisprimeinterestischaracter:andwhenhehasconductedsome skilfulpieceofmoraldiagnosisthereattachestohisverdictsomeoftheseverityofasermon.Ifyouwanttomakemen betteryoumustuncoverandscarifytheirsins. FewChristianmoralistsdealmuchineulogy,andTacitus'diatribesarethemorefrequentandthemorefiercebecausehis wasthemoralitynotofChristbutofRome.'ThePoor'areasdirttohim:hecanstooptoimmortalizesomegleamof

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andrestrainvicebytheterrorofposthumousinfamy'. Hisprimeinterestischaracter:andwhenhehasconductedsome skilfulpieceofmoraldiagnosisthereattachestohisverdictsomeoftheseverityofasermon.Ifyouwanttomakemen betteryoumustuncoverandscarifytheirsins. FewChristianmoralistsdealmuchineulogy,andTacitus'diatribesarethemorefrequentandthemorefiercebecausehis wasthemoralitynotofChristbutofRome.'ThePoor'areasdirttohim:hecanstooptoimmortalizesomegleamof goodnessinlowlife,buteventhenhismainobjectisbyscornofcontrasttogalvanizethearistocracyintobetterways. Onlyinthemcantruevirtusgrow.Theirdegradationseemsthedeathofgoodness.Tacitushadlittlesympathywiththe socialrevolutionthatwasrapidlycompletingitself,notsomuchbecausethosewhorosefromthemasseslacked'blood', butbecausetheyhadnotbeentrainedintherighttraditions.InthedecayofEducationhefindsaprimecauseofevil.And beingaRomanwhereverhemayhavebeenbornheinevitablyfeelsthatthedecayofRomanlifemustrottheworld. HiseyesarenotreallyopentotheEmpire.Heneverseemstothinkthatinthespaciousprovincestowhichtheold Romanvirtueshadtakenflight,menwereleadinghappy,usefullives,becausethestronghandoftheimperialgovernment hadcometosavethemfromtheinefficiencyofaristocraticgovernors.Thisnarrownessofviewaccountsformuchof Tacitus'pessimism.

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RecognitionoftheatmosphereinwhichTacituswroteandtheobjectsatwhichhishistoryaimedhelpsonetounderstand whyitsometimesdisappointsmodernexpectations.Particularscenesaresearedonourmemories:personsstandbefore uslittothesoulbyafiercelightofpsychologicalanalysis:welearntoloaththecharacteristicvicesofthetime,andto understandthemoralcausesofRomandecadence.Butsomehowthedominanceofthemoralinterestandthefrequent interruptionofthenarrativebyscenesofsenatorialinefficiencyservetoobscuretheplainsequenceofevents.Itisdifficult afterafirstreadingoftheHistoriestostateclearlywhathappenedinthesetwoyears.Andthisdifficultyisvastlyannoying toexpertswhowishtotracethecourseofthethreecampaigns.ThosewhoseinterestisnotinTacitusbutinthemilitary historyoftheperiodarerecommendedtostudyMr.B.W.Henderson'sCivilWarandRebellionintheRomanEmpire, adelightfulbookwhichmakesthedarkplacesplain.ButtheyarenotrecommendedtosharehiscontemptforTacitus becausehisaccountsofwarfareareasbadas,forinstance,Shakespeare's.Tacitusdoesnotdescribeindetailthetactics andgeographyofacampaign,perhapsbecausehecouldnotdoso,certainlybecausehedidnotwishto.Heregarded suchdetailsasdrybones,whichnoamountofliteraryskillcouldanimate.Hisinterestisinhumancharacter.Plansof

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campaignthrowlittlelightonthat:sotheydidnotinteresthim,or,iftheydid,hesuppressedhisinterestbecauseheknew thathispublicwouldotherwisebehaveasDr.JohnsondidwhenFoxtalkedtohimofCatiline'sconspiracy.'Hewithdrew hisattentionandthoughtaboutTomThumb.' Thereisnoworsefaultincriticismthantoblameaworkofartforlackingqualitiestowhichitmakesnopretension. Tacitusisnota'badmilitaryhistorian'.Heisnota'military'historianatall.Botticelliisnotabotanist,norisShakespearea geographer.ItisthisfaultwhichleadscriticstocallTacitus'astiltedpleaderatadecadentbar',andtocomplainthathis narrativeofthewarwithCivilisis'madedullandunrealbyspeeches'becausetheyhavenotfoundinTacituswhatthey hadnorighttolookfor.Tacitusinsertsspeechesforthesamereasonthatheexcludestacticaldetails.Theyaddtothe humaninterestofhiswork.Theygivescopetohisgreatdramaticpowers,tothatpassionatesympathywithcharacter whichfindsexpressioninastyleasnervousasitself.Theyenablehimtodisplaymotives,toappraiseactions,toreveal moralforces.Itisinterestinhumannatureratherthanprideofrhetoricwhichmakeshimloveagooddebate. ThesupremedistinctionofTacitusis,ofcourse,hisstyle.Thatislostinatranslation.'Hard'thoughhisLatinis,itisnot obscure.Carefulattentioncanalwaysdetecthisexactthought.LikeMeredithheis'hard'becausehedoessomuchwith

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words.Neitherwriterleavesanydoubtabouthismeaning.Itisthereforeatranslator'sfirstdutytobelucid,andnotuntil thatdutyisdonemayhetrybyfaintflushesofepigramtoreflectsomethingofthebrillianceofTacitus'Latin.Veryfaint indeedthatreflectionmustalwaysbe:probablynoaudiencecouldbefoundtolistentoatranslationofTacitus,yetone feelsthathisLatinwouldchallengeandholdtheattentionofanyaudiencethatwasnotstonedeaf.Butitisbecause Tacitusisneveramerestylistthatsomeofuscontinueinthefailuretotranslatehim.Hishistoricaldeductionsandhis revelationsofcharacterhavetheirvalueforeveryage.'Thisformofhistory,'saysMontaigne,'isbymuchthemost useful...thereareinitmorepreceptsthanstories:itisnotabooktoread,'tisabooktostudyandlearn:'tisfullof sententiousopinions,rightorwrong:'tisanurseryofethicandpoliticdiscourses,fortheuseandornamentofthosewho haveanyplaceinthegovernmentoftheworld....Hispenseemsmostproperforatroubledandsickstate,asoursat presentisyouwouldoftensayitisushepaintsandpinches.'SirHenrySavile,WardenofMertonandProvostofEton, whotranslatedtheHistoriesintoracyElizabethanEnglishatatimewhenthestatewasneither'troubled'nor'sick'isas convincedasMontaigneorthetheoristsoftheFrenchRevolutionthatTacitushadlessonsforhisage.'InGalbathou maiestlearne,thataGoodPrincegouernedbyevillministersisasdangerousasifhewereevillhimselfe.ByOtho,thatthe fortuneofarashmanisTorrentisimilis,whichrisesataninstant,andfallesinamoment.ByVitellius,thathethathathno

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vertuecanneuerbehappie:forbyhisownbasenesshewilllooseall,whicheitherfortune,orothermenslabourshave castuponhim.ByVespasian,thatincivilltumultsanadvisedpatience,andopportunitiewelltakenaretheonelyweapons ofadvantage.Inthemall,andinthestateofRomeunderthemthoumaiestseethecalamitiesthatfollowcivillwarres, wherelaweslieasleepe,andallthingsareiudgedbythesword.Ifthoumisliketheirwarresbethankfullforthineowne peaceifthoudostabhortheirtyrannies,loveandreverencethineownewise,iustandexcellentPrince.'Sowhatever guiseouragemayassume,therearelessonstobedrawnfromTacituseitherdirectlyorpercontra,andhistranslators maybeacquittedatatimewhenLatinscholarshipisnolongeranessentialofpoliticaleminence.

ofadvantage.Inthemall,andinthestateofRomeunderthemthoumaiestseethecalamitiesthatfollowcivillwarres, wherelaweslieasleepe,andallthingsareiudgedbythesword.Ifthoumisliketheirwarresbethankfullforthineowne peaceifthoudostabhortheirtyrannies,loveandreverencethineownewise,iustandexcellentPrince.'Sowhatever guiseouragemayassume,therearelessonstobedrawnfromTacituseitherdirectlyorpercontra,andhistranslators maybeacquittedatatimewhenLatinscholarshipisnolongeranessentialofpoliticaleminence.

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Napoleon'sphrase. Ann.iii.65.

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SUMMARYOFCHIEFEVENTSI.THEF IGHTFORTHETHRONE.A .D.68.

June

9. DeathofNero. 16. Galba,GovernorofNearerSpain,declaredEmperoratClunia. FonteiusCapito,GovernorofLowerGermany,ClodiusMacer,GovernorofAfrica,andNymphidius Sabinus,PrefectoftheGuard,murderedaspossiblerivals.VerginiusRufus,GovernorofUpper Germany,refusestocompete

October

GalbaentersRome.MassacreofMarinesatMulvianBridge. HisgovernmentcontrolledbyLaco,Vinius,andIcelus.

A .D.69.

January

1. NewsofmutinyinUpperGermany,nowgovernedbyHordeoniusFlaccus. 3. ThearmiesofUpperGermany(underCaecina)andofLowerGermany(underValens)salute Vitellius,GovernorofLowerGermany,asEmperor. 10. GalbaadoptsPisoLicinianusashissuccessor. 15. OthodeclaredEmperorinRomeandrecognizedbyPraetorianGuard. MurderofGalba,Vinius,andPiso. OthorecognizedbytheSenate.

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February

TheVitellianarmiesarenowmarchingonItaly:CaecinathroughSwitzerlandandovertheGreatSt. BernardwithLegioXXIRapaxanddetachmentsofIVMacedonicaandXXIIPrimigenia:Valens throughGaulandoverMountGenvrewithLegioVAlaudaeanddetachmentsofIItalica,XV Primigenia,andXVI. CaecinacrossestheAlps. OthodispatchesanadvanceguardunderAnniusGallusandSpurinna. OthostartsforthePowithSuetoniusPaulinus,MariusCelsus,andProculus. TitianusleftinchargeofRome. OthosendsfleettoNarboneseGaul,andordersIllyricLegions toconcentrateatAquileia. SpurinnarepulsesCaecinafromPlacentia. Otho'smainarmyjoinsGallusatBedriacum. Titianussummonedtotakenominalcommand.3

March

April

6. BattleofLocusCastorum.Caecinadefeated. ValensjoinsCaecinaatCremona. 15. BattleofBedriacum.Othoniandefeat. 17. OthocommitssuicideatBrixellum. 19. VitelliusrecognizedbytheSenate.

May

VitelliusgreetedbyhisownandOtho'sgeneralsatLyons. 24. VitelliusvisitsthebattlefieldofBedriacum.

June July16

VitelliusmovesslowlytowardsRomewithahugeretinue. 1. Vespasian,GovernorofJudaea,proclaimedEmperoratAlexandria. 3. AtCaesarea.

24. VitelliusvisitsthebattlefieldofBedriacum. June July16

VitelliusmovesslowlytowardsRomewithahugeretinue. 1. Vespasian,GovernorofJudaea,proclaimedEmperoratAlexandria. 3. AtCaesarea. 15. AtAntioch. TheEasternprincesandtheIllyricLegions declareforVespasian.Hischiefsupportersare MucianusGovernorofSyria,AntoniusPrimuscommandingLeg.VIIGalbiana,andCornelius Fuscus,ProcuratorofPannonia. MucianusmovesslowlywestwardwithLeg.VIFerrataanddetachmentsfromtheotherEastern legions. VespasianholdsEgypt,Rome'sgranary. TitustakescommandinJudaea. AntoniusPrimuswithArriusVarushurriesforwardintoItaly.4

August

VitelliusvegetatesinRome. Caecinamarchestomeettheinvasion.(Valensaegrotat.)HisLegionsareI,IVMacedonica,XV Primigenia,XVI,VAlaudae,XXIIPrimigenia,IItalica,XXIRapax,anddetachmentsfromBritain.

NOTE ThetextfollowedisthatofC.D.Fisher(OxfordClassicalTexts).Departuresfrom itarementionedinthenotes.

3 i.e.inPannoniaLegs.VIIGalbianaandXIIIGeminainDalmatiaXIClaudiaandXIVGeminainMoesia IIIGallica,VIIClaudia,VIIIAugusta. 4

Seenoteabove.

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BOOKI PREFACE[A .D.69.]IproposetobeginmynarrativewiththesecondconsulshipofServiusGalba,inwhichTitusViniuswashis colleague.Manyhistorianshavedealtwiththe820yearsoftheearlierperiodbeginningwiththefoundationofRome,and thestoryoftheRomanRepublichasbeentoldwithnolessabilitythantruth.AftertheBattleofActium,whentheinterests ofpeacewereservedbythecentralizationofallauthorityinthehandsofoneman,therefollowedadearthofliterary ability,andatthesametimetruthsufferedmoreandmore,partlyfromignoranceofpolitics,whichwerenolongera citizen'sconcern,partlyfromthegrowingtasteforflatteryorfromhatredoftherulinghouse.Sobetweenmaliceonone sideandservilityontheothertheinterestsofposteritywereneglected.Buthistoriansfindthatatoneofflatterysoon incursthestigmaofservilityandearnsforthemthecontemptoftheirreaders,whereaspeoplereadilyopentheirearsto thecriticismsofenvy,sincemalicemakesashowofindependence.OfGalba,Otho,andVitellius,Ihaveknownnothing eithertomyadvantageormyhurt.IcannotdenythatIoriginallyowedmypositiontoVespasian,orthatIwasadvanced 1

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byTitusandstillfurtherpromotedbyDomitian butprofessing,asIdo,unbiassedhonesty,Imustspeakofnomaneither withhatredoraffection.Ihavereservedformyoldage,iflifeissparedtome,thereignsofthesaintedNervaandofthe EmperorTrajan,whichaffordaricherandwithalasafertheme: foritistherarefortuneofthesedaysthatamanmay thinkwhathelikesandsaywhathethinks. ThestoryInowcommenceisrichinvicissitudes,grimwithwarfare,tornbycivilstrife,ataleofhorrorevenduringtimes ofpeace.Ittellsoffouremperorsslainbythesword,threeseveralcivilwars,anevenlargernumberofforeignwarsand somethatwerebothatonce:successesintheEast,disasterintheWest,disturbanceinIllyricum,disaffectioninthe provincesofGaul,theconquestofBritainanditsimmediateloss,therisingoftheSarmatianandSuebictribes.Ittellshow DaciahadtheprivilegeofexchangingblowswithRome,andhowapretenderclaimingtobeNeroalmostdeludedthe Parthiansintodeclaringwar.NowtooItalywassmittenwithnewdisasters,ordisastersithadnotwitnessedforalong 26

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periodofyears.TownsalongtherichcoastofCampaniaweresubmergedorburied.Thecitywasdevastatedbyfires, ancienttemplesweredestroyed,andtheCapitolitselfwasfiredbyRomanhands.Sacredritesweregrosslyprofaned, andtherewerescandalsinhighplaces. Theseaswarmedwithexilesandtheislandcliffs wereredwithblood.Worse horrorsreignedinthecity.Toberichorwellbornwasacrime:menwereprosecutedforholdingorforrefusingoffice: meritofanykindmeantcertainruin.NorweretheInformersmorehatedfortheircrimesthanfortheirprizes:some carriedoffapriesthoodortheconsulshipastheirspoil,otherswonofficesandinfluenceintheimperialhousehold:the7 8

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periodofyears.TownsalongtherichcoastofCampaniaweresubmergedorburied.Thecitywasdevastatedbyfires, ancienttemplesweredestroyed,andtheCapitolitselfwasfiredbyRomanhands.Sacredritesweregrosslyprofaned, andtherewerescandalsinhighplaces. Theseaswarmedwithexilesandtheislandcliffs wereredwithblood.Worse horrorsreignedinthecity.Toberichorwellbornwasacrime:menwereprosecutedforholdingorforrefusingoffice: meritofanykindmeantcertainruin.NorweretheInformersmorehatedfortheircrimesthanfortheirprizes:some carriedoffapriesthoodortheconsulshipastheirspoil,otherswonofficesandinfluenceintheimperialhousehold:the hatredandfeartheyinspiredworkeduniversalhavoc.Slaveswerebribedagainsttheirmasters,freedmenagainsttheir patrons,and,ifamanhadnoenemies,hewasruinedbyhisfriends. However,theperiodwasnotsoutterlybarrenastoyieldnoexamplesofheroism.Thereweremotherswhofollowed theirsons,andwivestheirhusbandsintoexile:onesawhereakinsman'scourageandthereasoninlaw'sdevotion:slaves obstinatelyfaithfulevenontherack:distinguishedmenbravelyfacingtheutmoststraitsandmatchingintheirendthe 37 8

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famousdeathsofoldertimes.Besidesthesemanifolddisasterstomankindtherewereportentsintheskyandontheearth, thunderboltsandotherpremonitionsofgoodandofevil,somedoubtful,someobvious.Indeedneverhasitbeenproved bysuchterribledisasterstoRomeorbysuchclearevidencethatProvidenceisconcernednotwithourpeaceofmindbut ratherwithvengeanceforoursin.

5 ToVespasianTacitusprobablyowedhisquaestorshipandaseatinthesenatetoTitushistribunateof thepeopletoDomitianthepraetorshipanda'fellowship'ofoneofthegreatpriestlycolleges,whosespecial functionwasthesupervisionofforeigncults.ThislastaccountsforTacitus'interestinstrangereligions. 6 7

Thisproject,alsoforeshadowedinAgricolaiii,wasnevercompleted.

ReferringinparticulartothescandalsamongtheVestalVirginsandtoDomitian'srelationswithhisniece Julia.8 i.e.theAegeanislands,suchasSeriphus,Gyarus,Amorgus,wherethoseindisfavourwerebanishedand oftenmurdered.

THESTATEOFTHEEMPIREBeforeIcommencemytask,itseemsbesttogobackandconsiderthestateofaffairsinthecity,thetemperofthe armies,theconditionoftheprovinces,andtodeterminetheelementsofstrengthandweaknessinthedifferentquartersof theRomanworld.Bythismeanswemayseenotonlytheactualcourseofevents,whichislargelygovernedbychance, butalsowhyandhowtheyoccurred. ThedeathofNero,afterthefirstoutburstofjoywithwhichitwasgreeted,soonarousedconflictingfeelingsnotonly amongthesenators,thepeople,andthesoldiersinthecity,butalsoamongthegeneralsandtheirtroopsabroad.Ithad divulgedasecretofstate:anemperorcouldbemadeelsewherethanatRome.Stillthesenatewassatisfied.Theyhad immediatelytakenadvantageoftheirlibertyandwerenaturallyemboldenedagainstaprincewhowasnewtothethrone21

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and,moreover,absent.Thehighestclassofthe knights secondedthesenate'ssatisfaction.Respectablecitizens,who wereattachedasclientsorfreedmentothegreatfamilies,andhadseentheirpatronscondemnedorexiled,nowrevived theirhopes.Thelowestclasses,whohadgrownfamiliarwiththepleasuresofthetheatreandthecircus,themost degradedoftheslaves,andNero'sfavouriteswhohadsquanderedtheirpropertyandlivedonhisdiscreditablebounty,all showedsignsofdepressionandaneagergreedfornews. Thetroopsinthecity hadlongbeeninuredtotheallegianceoftheCaesars,anditwasmorebythepressureofintrigue thanoftheirowninclinationthattheycametodesertNero.TheysoonrealizedthatthedonationpromisedinGalba's namewasnottobepaidtothem,andthatpeacewouldnot,likewar,offeropportunityforgreatservicesandrich rewards.Sincetheyalsosawthatthenewemperor'sfavourhadbeenforestalledbythearmywhichproclaimedhim,they wereripeforrevolutionandwerefurtherinstigatedbytheirrascallyPraefectNymphidiusSabinus,whowasplottingtobe emperorhimself.Hisdesignwasasamatteroffactdetectedandquashed,but,thoughtheringleaderwasremoved,many ofthetroopsstillfeltconsciousoftheirtreasonandcouldbeheardcommentingonGalba'ssenilityandavarice.His austerityaqualityonceadmiredandsethighinsoldiers'estimationonlyannoyedtroopswhosecontemptfortheold methodsofdisciplinehadbeenfosteredbyfourteenyearsofserviceunderNero.Theyhadcometolovetheemperors' vicesasmuchastheyoncereverencedtheirvirtuesinolderdays.MoreoverGalbahadletfallaremark,whichaugured wellforRome,thoughitspeltdangertohimself.'Idonotbuymysoldiers,'hesaid,'Iselectthem.'Andindeed,asthings thenstood,hiswordssoundedincongruous.10

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9 10

Probablythosewhoownedonemillionsesterces,thepropertyqualificationforadmissiontothesenate.

Thisincludes'TheGuards'(cohortespraetoriae)and'TheCityGarrison'(cohortesurbanae),and possiblyalsothecohortesvigilum,whowereasortofpolicecorpsandfirebrigade.

GALBA 'SPOSITIONGalbawasoldandill.OfhistwolieutenantsTitusViniuswasthevilestofmenandCorneliusLacothelaziest.Hatedashe 6

GALBA 'SPOSITIONGalbawasoldandill.OfhistwolieutenantsTitusViniuswasthevilestofmenandCorneliusLacothelaziest.Hatedashe wasforVinius'crimesanddespisedforLaco'sinefficiency,betweenthemGalbasooncametoruin.Hismarchfrom Spainwasslowandstainedwithbloodshed.HeexecutedCingoniusVarro,theconsulelect,andPetroniusTurpilianus, anexconsul,theformerasanaccompliceofNymphidius,thelatterasoneofNero'sgenerals.Theywerebothdenied anyopportunityofahearingordefenceandmightaswellhavebeeninnocent.OnhisarrivalatRomethebutcheryof thousandsofunarmedsoldiers gaveanillomentohisentry,andalarmedeventhemenwhodidtheslaughter.Thecity 12 wasfilledwithstrangetroops.AlegionhadbeenbroughtfromSpain, andtheregimentofmarinesenrolledbyNerostill 11 13 remained. MoreovertherewereseveraldetachmentsfromGermany,Britain,andIllyricum, whichhadbeenselected byNero,dispatchedtotheCaspianPass fortheprojectedwaragainsttheAlbanians,andsubsequentlyrecalledtoaid 15 incrushingtherevoltofVindex. Thesewereallfinefuelforarevolution,and,althoughtheirfavourcentredonnobodyin particular,theretheywereatthedisposalofanyonewhohadenterprise. IthappenedbychancethatthenewsofthedeathofClodius MacerandofFonteiusCapitoarrivedinRome simultaneously.Macer, whowasundoubtedlyraisingadisturbanceinAfrica,wasputtodeathbytheimperialagent TreboniusGarutianus,actingunderGalba'sorders:Capito hadmadeasimilarattemptinGermanyandwaskilledby twoofficers,CorneliusAquinusandFabiusValens,withoutwaitingforinstructions.WhileCapitohadafoulreputationfor24 17 16 14 11

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extortionandlooseliving,somepeopleyetbelieved thathehadwithheldhishandfromtreason.Hisofficers,they supposed,hadurgedhimtodeclarewar,and,whentheycouldnotpersuadehim,hadgoneontochargehimfalselywith theirownoffence, whileGalbafromweaknessofcharacter,orperhapsbecausehewasafraidtoinquiretoofar, approvedwhathadhappenedforgoodorforill,sinceitwaspastalteration.Atanyratebothexecutionswereunpopular. NowthatGalbawasdisliked,everythinghedid,whetherrightorwrong,madehimmoreunpopular.Hisfreedmenwere allpowerful:moneycoulddoanything:theslaveswerethirstingforanupheaval,andwithsoelderlyanemperorwere naturallyexpectingtoseeonesoon.Theevilsofthenewcourtwerethoseoftheold,andwhileequallyoppressivewere notsoeasilyexcused.EvenGalba'sageseemedcomicanddespicabletoapopulacethatwasusedtotheyoungNero andcomparedtheemperors,assuchpeoplewill,inpointoflooksandpersonalattraction.18

11

i.e.themarines,whomNerohadformedintoareserveforce(LegioIAdiutrix).TheyhadmetGalbaat theMulvianBridge,probablywithapetitionforserviceintheLine. LegioVIIGalbiana,sentlatertoPannonia. IllyricumincludedalltheDanubeprovinces.

12 13 14

ThePassofDarieloverthecentreoftheCaucasus.TheAlbanianslaytotheeastofitssouthernend,on thesouthwestcoastoftheCaspian.

15

Vindex,PropraetorintheLyonsdivisionofGaul,hadrevoltedagainstNeroearlyintheyear68and offeredhissupport toGalba,thengovernoroftheTarragonadivisionofSpain.Hewasdefeatedby VerginiusRufus,commandingtheforcesinUpperGermany,andcommittedsuicide.Verginiusafterwards declaredforGalba,thoughhistroopswantedtomakehimemperor.Cp.chap.8.16

ClodiusMacercommandedLegioIIIAugustaandgovernedNumidia,whichTiberiusattheendofhis reignhaddetachedfromtheproconsulateofAfrica. GovernorofLowerGermany.Seechap.58andiii.62. Cp.chap.58.

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THEDISTRIBUTION OFFORCESSuchthenatRomewasthevarietyoffeelingnaturalinsovastapopulation.Toturntotheprovincesabroad:Spainwas25

8

underthecommandofCluviusRufus,amanofgreateloquence,andmoreskilledintheartsofpeacethanofwar. The GallicprovinceshadnotforgottenVindex:moreover,theywereboundtoGalbabyhisrecentgrantofRomancitizenship andhisrebateoftheirtributeforthefuture.Thetribes,however,whichlaynearesttothearmiesstationedinGermanyhad notreceivedthesehonours:someevenhadlostpartoftheirterritoryandwereequallyaggrievedatthemagnitudeoftheir owninjuriesandoftheirneighbours'benefits.ThetroopsinGermanywereproudoftheirrecentvictory,indignantattheir treatmentandperplexedbyanervousconsciousnessthattheyhadsupportedthewrongside:averydangerousstatefor sostrongaforcetobein.TheyhadbeenslowtodesertNero,andVerginius didnotimmediatelydeclareforGalba. Whetherhereallydidnotwantthethroneisdoubtful:withoutquestionhissoldiersmadehimtheoffer.Thedeathof FonteiusCapitoarousedtheindignationevenofthosewhohadnorighttocomplain.However,theystilllackedaleader: GalbahadsentforVerginiusunderapretenceoffriendship,and,whenhewasnotallowedtoreturnandwaseven chargedwithtreachery,thesoldiersconsideredhiscasetheirown. ThearmyofUpperGermanyfeltnorespectfortheircommander,HordeoniusFlaccus. Weakenedbyageandan affectionofthefeethewaswithoutresolutionorauthority,andcouldnothavecontrolledthemildesttroops.Thesefiery spiritswereonlythefurtherinflamedwhentheyfeltsuchaweakhandonthereins.ThelegionsofLowerGermanyhad21 20

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beenforsometimewithoutacommander, untilAulusVitelliusappeared.HewasthesonoftheLuciusVitelliuswho

22

chargedwithtreachery,thesoldiersconsideredhiscasetheirown. ThearmyofUpperGermanyfeltnorespectfortheircommander,HordeoniusFlaccus. Weakenedbyageandan affectionofthefeethewaswithoutresolutionorauthority,andcouldnothavecontrolledthemildesttroops.Thesefiery spiritswereonlythefurtherinflamedwhentheyfeltsuchaweakhandonthereins.ThelegionsofLowerGermanyhad26 21

9

beenforsometimewithoutacommander, untilAulusVitelliusappeared.HewasthesonoftheLuciusVitelliuswho hadbeencensorandthriceconsul, andGalbathoughtthissufficienttoimpressthetroops.ThearmyinBritainshowed nobadfeeling.Allthroughthedisturbanceofthecivilwarsnotroopskeptcleanerhands.Thismayhavebeenbecause theyweresofarawayandseveredbythesea,orperhapsfrequentengagementshadtaughtthemtokeeptheirrancour fortheenemy.QuietruledinIllyricumalso,althoughthelegions,whichhadbeensummonedbyNero, whilelingeringin ItalyhadmadeoverturestoVerginius.Butthearmieslayfarapart,alwaysasoundassistancetothemaintenanceof militarydiscipline,sincethemencouldneithersharevicesnorjoinforces. TheEastwasstilluntroubled.LiciniusMucianusheldSyriawithfourlegions. Hewasamanwhowasalwaysfamous, whetheringoodfortuneorinbad.Asayouthhewasambitiousandcultivatedthefriendshipofthegreat.Laterhefound25 24 23

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himselfinstraitenedcircumstancesandaveryambiguousposition,and,suspectingClaudius'displeasure,hewithdrewinto thewildsofAsia,wherehecameasneartobeinganexileasafterwardstobeinganemperor.Hewasastrangemixture ofgoodandbad,ofluxuryandindustry,courtesyandarrogance.Inleisurehewasselfindulgent,butfullofvigouron service.Hisoutwardbehaviourwaspraiseworthy,thoughillwasspokenofhisprivatelife.However,withthosewho wereunderhimornearhim,andwithhiscolleagueshegainedgreatinfluencebyvariousdevices,andseemstohavebeen thesortofmanwhowouldmorereadilymakeanemperorthanbeone. TheJewishwarwasbeingconductedbyFlaviusVespasianusappointedbyNerowiththreelegions. Hehadnoill willagainstGalba,andnothingtohopefromhisfall.IndeedhehadsenthissonTitustocarryhiscomplimentsandoffer allegiance,anincidentwemustreserveforitsproperplace. ItwasonlyafterVespasian'srisethatRomansocietycame tobelieveinthemysteriousmovingsofProvidence,andsupposedthatportentsandoracleshadpredestinedthethrone forhimandhisfamily. OfEgyptanditsgarrison,eversincethedaysofthesaintedAugustus,theknightsofRomehavebeenuncrownedkings. Theprovincebeingdifficulttoreach,richincrops,tornandtossedbyfanaticismandsedition,ignorantoflaw,unusedto28 27 26

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bureaucraticgovernment,itseemedwisertokeepitinthecontrol oftheHousehold. Thegovernoratthatdatewas 30 31 TiberiusAlexander,himselfanativeofEgypt. Africaanditslegions,nowthatClodiusMacerhadbeenexecuted, werereadytoputupwithanyruleraftertheirexperienceofapettymaster.ThetwoMauretanias,Raetia,Noricum, Thrace,andtheotherprovincesgovernedbyprocuratorshadtheirsympathiesdeterminedbytheneighbourhoodof troops,andalwayscaughttheirlikesordislikesfromthestrongestarmy.Theungarrisonedprovinces,andchiefamongst theseItaly,weredestinedtobetheprizeofwar,andlayatthemercyofanymaster.SuchwasthestateoftheRoman worldwhenServiusGalba,consulforthesecondtime,andTitusViniushiscolleague,inauguratedtheyearwhichwasto betheirlast,andalmostthelastforthecommonwealthofRome.

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19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Hewroteahistoryofhisowntime,whichwasoneofTacitus'chiefauthorities. Seenote17. Verginius'successor. SinceCapito'sdeath,chap.7. Hediedin A. D.54.InthecensorshipandintwoofhisconsulshipshehadbeenClaudius'colleague. ForthewarwithVindex. Seenote164.ThefourthlegionisIIIGallica,afterwardsmovedintoMoesia. Seenote163. ii.1.

Cp.Ann.,ii.59.'Amongstothersecretprinciplesofhisimperialpolicy,AugustushadputEgyptina positionbyitself,forbiddingallsenatorsandknightsofthehighestclassto enterthatcountrywithouthis permission.ForEgyptholdsthekey,asitwere,bothofseaandland'(tr.Ramsay).Cp.iii.8. i.e.togovernitbytheemperor'sprivateagents.Theprovincewasregardedaspartoftheemperor's estate(patrimonium).Thispostwasthehighestintheimperialservice. AmemberofaJewishfamilysettledinAlexandriaandthusentitledtoRomancitizenship.Hewasa nephewofthehistorianPhilohadbeenProcuratorofJudaeaandchiefofCorbulo'sstaffin Armenia. Seechap.7.

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THEGERMANREVOLTANDTHEADOPTION OFPISO29

AfewdaysafterthefirstofJanuaryadispatcharrivedfromBelgica,inwhichPompeiusPropinquus, theimperialagent, announcedthatthelegionsofUpperGermanyhadbrokentheiroathofallegianceandwereclamouringforanew emperor,butthatbywayoftemperingtheirtreasontheyreferredthefinalchoicetotheSenateandPeopleofRome. Galbahadalreadybeendeliberatingandseekingadviceastotheadoptionofasuccessor,andthisoccurrencehastened hisplans.DuringallthesemonthsthisquestionformedthecurrentsubjectofgossipthroughoutthecountryGalbawasfar

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AfewdaysafterthefirstofJanuaryadispatcharrivedfromBelgica,inwhichPompeiusPropinquus, theimperialagent, announcedthatthelegionsofUpperGermanyhadbrokentheiroathofallegianceandwereclamouringforanew emperor,butthatbywayoftemperingtheirtreasontheyreferredthefinalchoicetotheSenateandPeopleofRome. Galbahadalreadybeendeliberatingandseekingadviceastotheadoptionofasuccessor,andthisoccurrencehastened hisplans.DuringallthesemonthsthisquestionformedthecurrentsubjectofgossipthroughoutthecountryGalbawasfar spentinyearsandthegeneralpropensityforsuchatopicknewnocheck.Fewpeopleshowedsoundjudgementorany spiritofpatriotism.Manywereinfluencedbyfoolishhopesandspreadselfinterestedrumourspointingtosomefriendor patron,therebyalsogratifyingtheirhatredforTitusVinius, whoseunpopularitywaxeddailywithhispower.Galba's affabilityonlyservedtostrengthenthegapingambitionofhisnewlypowerfulfriends,forhisweaknessandcredulity halvedtheriskanddoubledtherewardoftreason. Therealpowerofthethronewasdividedbetweentheconsul,TitusVinius,andCorneliusLaco,theprefectofthe GuardsandaninfluenceasgreatwasenjoyedbyIcelus,oneofGalba'sfreedmen,whohadbeengiventhegoldring andwasnowgreetedbythenameofMarcianus.Thesethreeordinarilydisagreed,andfollowedeachhisowninterestin34 33

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smallermatters:onthequestionofthesuccessiontheyfellintotwocamps.ViniuswasforMarcusOtho.LacoandIcelus wereagreednotsomuchonanyoneasonanyother.GalbawasawareofthefriendshipbetweenOthoandVinius.Otho wasabachelorandViniushadanunmarrieddaughter:sogossip,neverreticent,pointedtothemasfatherandsoninlaw. Galba,onemaysuppose,feltsomeconcernforhiscountry,too.WhytakethethronefromNero,ifitwastobeleftto Otho?Othohadledacarelessboyhoodandadissoluteyouth,andendearedhimselftoNerobyapinghisvices.Thusit wastoOtho,asbeingalreadyinthesecret,thatNeroentrustedhisfavouritemistress,PoppaeaSabina, untilhecould getridofOctavia.LaterhegrewjealousandremovedOthototheprovinceofLusitaniaundercoverofagovernorship. Othohadbeenpopularinhisadministrationoftheprovince,andwasoneofthefirsttojoinGalba'sparty.Beingamanof actionandoneofthemostdistinguishedofGalba'sofficersinthewar,whenoncehehadconceivedthehopeof succeedinghim,heeagerlyindulgedit.MostofthesoldierswereonhissideandtheCourtsupportedhimasNero's double.35

31

AfterreceivingthenewsoftheGermanrevolt,althoughGalbaknewnothingforcertainofVitellius'plans,hewasfearful towhatlengthstheoutbreakofthetroopsmightgoso,beingunabletotrustthetroopsinthecity, hehadrecourseto whatseemedhissoleremedyandheldanImperialElection.BesidesViniusandLacohesummonedMariusCelsus, consulelectandtheCityPrefectDuceniusGeminus. Afterprefacingafewwordsabouthisownadvancedagehe 38 orderedPisoLicinianus tobesentfor,eitheronhisowninitiative,or,assomebelieved,attheinstanceofLaco.Laco hadmetPisoatRubelliusPlautus'houseandtheyhadformedafriendship,buthecunninglypretendedthathewas supportingastranger,andPiso'sgoodreputegavecolourtothispolicy.Pisowasanobleonbothsides,beingthesonof MarcusCrassusandScribonia.Therewasanoldworldausterityinhisfaceandbearing,andjustcriticsspokeofhis strictmorality:peoplewhotookalessfavourableviewthoughthimsoured.Butwhilethosewhodislikedthissideofhis charactercarpedatit,itwasarecommendationintheeyesoftheemperorwhointendedtoadopthim. GalbaissaidtohavetakenPiso'shandandaddressedhimasfollows:'WereIaprivatecitizen,andwereItoadoptyou37 36

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inthepresenceofthePriestsbytheusualformalityofacurialstatute, itwouldbeanhonourformetointroduceintomy familyadescendantofCnaeusPompeiusandofMarcusCrassus,andforyouitwouldbeadistinctiontoaddtoyour nobleancestrythegloriesoftheSulpicianandLutatianhouses. Asitis,Ihavebeencalledbytheconsentofgodsand mentobeanemperor.Yourdistinguishedqualitiesandyourpatriotismhavepersuadedmetooffertoyoupeacefullyand quietlythethroneforwhichourancestorsfoughtonthefieldofbattle, andwhichItoowonbywar.InsodoingIam followingtheprecedentsetbythesaintedAugustus,whoraisedtotheranknexthimselffirsthisnephewMarcellus,then hissoninlawAgrippa,thenhisdaughter'ssons, andfinallyhisstepsonTiberiusNero.However,whileAugustus lookedforasuccessorinhisownfamily,Ihavesearchedthroughoutthecountry.NotthatIlackeitherkinsmenor supporters,butitwasbynofavourofbirththatImyselfcametothethrone,and,toprovemypolicyinthismatter,42 41 40

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considerhowIhavepassedovernotonlymyownrelativesbutyours.Youhaveanelderbrother, asnobleasyourself. Hewouldhavebeenworthyofthisposition,butyouareworthier.Youareoldenoughtohaveoutlivedyouthfulpassions. Yourlifehasbeensuchthatyouhavenothinginyourpasttoexcuse.Sofaryouhaveonlyexperiencedmisfortune. Prosperityprobestheheartwithakeenertouchmiseryonlycallsforpatience,butthereiscorruptioninsuccess. Honesty,candour,andaffectionarethebestofhumanqualities,anddoubtlessyouyourselfhaveenoughcharacterto retainthem.Butthecomplaisanceofotherswillweakenyourcharacter.Flatteryandservilecomplimentswillbreakdown itsdefencesandselfinteresttoo,thebaneofallsincerity.WhatthoughyouandIcantalkplainlywitheachothertoday? Otherswilladdressthemselvesnottousbuttoourfortunes.Topersuadeanemperorwhatheoughttodoisalaborious task:anyonecanflatterhimwithoutasparkofsincerity. 'Ifthevastbulkofthisempirecouldstandandkeepitsbalancewithoutaguidinghand,theRepublicmightwellhave dateditsbirthfromme.Asitis,thingshavelongagocometosuchapassthatneitherIinmyoldagecangivetheRoman peopleanybettergiftthanagoodsuccessor,noryouinyourprimeanythingbetterthanagoodemperor.UnderTiberius, 16

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Caligula,andClaudius,Romewastheheirloomofasinglefamily.Thereisakindoflibertyinthefreechoicewehave beguntoexercise.NowthattheJulianandClaudianhousesareextinct,bytheplanofadoptionthebestmanwillalways bediscovered.Royalbirthisthegiftoffortune,andisbutvaluedassuch.Inadoptionwecanuseafreejudgement,andif wewishtochoosewell,thevoiceofthecountrypointstheway.ThinkofNero,swollenwiththeprideofhislonglineof royalancestry.ItwasnotVindexwithapowerlessprovinceathisback,norIwithasinglelegionthatfreedRome's

peopleanybettergiftthanagoodsuccessor,noryouinyourprimeanythingbetterthanagoodemperor.UnderTiberius,34

Caligula,andClaudius,Romewastheheirloomofasinglefamily.Thereisakindoflibertyinthefreechoicewehave beguntoexercise.NowthattheJulianandClaudianhousesareextinct,bytheplanofadoptionthebestmanwillalways bediscovered.Royalbirthisthegiftoffortune,andisbutvaluedassuch.Inadoptionwecanuseafreejudgement,andif wewishtochoosewell,thevoiceofthecountrypointstheway.ThinkofNero,swollenwiththeprideofhislonglineof royalancestry.ItwasnotVindexwithapowerlessprovinceathisback,norIwithasinglelegionthatfreedRome's shouldersofthatburden:itwashisowncrueltyandprofligacy.Andthatwasbeforetherewasanyprecedentforthe convictionofanemperor. 'Wehavebeencalledtothethronebytheswordsofthosewhothoughtusworthy.Ourhighstatewillnotescapetheeye ofenvy.Youmaybesureofthat.Butthereisnoreasonforyoutofeelalarmbecauseinthisworldwideupheavala coupleoflegionshavenotyetsettleddown.Imyselfdidnotsucceedtoasafeandpeacefulthrone,and,whenoncethe newsofyouradoptionisspread,Ishallceasetobechargedwithmyadvancedage,whichisnowtheonlyfaulttheyfind inme.TherascalswillalwaysmissNero:youandIhavegottoseethatgoodcitizensdonotmisshimtoo. 'AlongersermonwouldillbefitthetimeandIhavefulfilledmypurpose,ifIhavedonerightinchoosingyou.Thesoundest

35

andeasiestcriterionofrightandwrongpolicyistoconsiderwhatyouwouldhaveapprovedorcondemnedinanother emperor.ForRomeisnotlikethenationswhichareruledbykings,whereonehouseissupremeandtherestareslaves. Yourfuturesubjectsaremenwhocannotenduretheextremeseitherofbondageoroffreedom.' Galbaspokethesewordsandmoretothesameeffectinthetoneofonecreatinganemperor:therestaddressedPisoas thoughhewereemperoralready.Heissaidtohavebetrayednosignofamazementorelationeitherbeforethosewho werethenpresent,orlaterwheneverybody'seyescentreduponhim.Hislanguagetohisemperorandadoptivefather wasdeeplyrespectfulandhespokemodestlyofhimself.Hemadenochangeinhisexpressionorbearing,showinghimself moreablethananxioustorule.Adiscussionthentookplacewhethertheadoptionshouldbeannouncedbeforethe peopleorinthesenate,orintheguards'camp.Theydecidedinfavourofthecamp,onthegroundthatitwouldbea complimenttothetroops,whosegoodwillwashardtowinbyflatteryorbribes,butwasbynomeanstobedespised,ifit couldbewonbygoodmeans.Meanwhilethecuriosityofthepopulace,impatientofanyimportantsecret,hadbrought togethercrowdsallroundthePalace,andwhenoncetherumourbegantoleakoutanattemptatsuppressiononly resultedinspreadingit. ThetenthofJanuarywasadrearywetday,andanextraordinarystormofthunderandlightningshowedthedispleasureof Providence.Suchphenomenawereregardedinolddaysasasignforthesuspensionofpublicbusiness,buttheydidnot deterGalbafromproceedingtothecamp.Eitherhedisregardedsuchthingsastheresultofpurechanceorelsehefelt thattheblowsoffatemaybeforetoldbutnotforestalled.Headdressedacrowdedassemblyofthesoldierswithtrue imperialbrevity,statingsimplythatinadoptingPisohewasfollowingtheexampleofthesaintedAugustus,andtheold militarycustomwherebyeachmanchoseanother. HewasafraidthatbysuppressingthenewsoftheGermanrebellion hemightonlyseemtoexaggeratethedanger,sohevoluntarilydeclaredthattheFourthandTwentysecondlegionshad beenledbyafewtraitorsintoseditiousmurmuringsbutnofurther,andwouldsoonreturntotheirallegiance.Hemadeno attempttoenhancehiswordseitherbyeloquenceorlargess.However,thetribunesandcenturionsandthoseofthe soldierswhostoodnearesttohimgavewellsoundinganswers.Therestweresorryandsilent,forthewarseemedto havelostthemthelargessthathadalwaysbeenusualeveninpeace.Everybodyagreesthattheycouldhavebeenwon overhadtheparsimoniousoldemperormadetheleastdisplayofgenerosity.Hewasruinedbyhisstrictoldfashioned inflexibility,whichseemstoorigorousforthesedegeneratedays. Fromthecamptheyproceededtothesenate,andGalba'sspeechtoitsmemberswasnofullerorfinerthantothe 1944

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soldiers.Pisospokegraciously,andtherewasnolackofsupportinthesenate.Manywishedhimwell.Thosewhodid notwerethemoreeffusive.Themajoritywereindifferent,butdisplayedareadyaffability,intentontheirprivate speculationswithoutthoughtofthecountry'sgood.NootherpublicactionisreportedofPisoduringthefourdayswhich intervenedbetweenhisadoptionandassassination.

32 33 34

i.e.theemperor'sfinanceagentintheprovinceofBelgica. Cp.chap.6.

AgoldsignetringwasthesignofafreebornRomanknight.Itsgranttofreedmenwasaninnovationof whichTacitusdisapproved.

35

TacitusherefollowsthestorytoldbySuetoniusinhislifeofOtho.IntheAnnals,xiii.45,46,Tacitus givesindetailamoreprobableversion.ItismorelikelythatPoppaeaused Othoasastepping stoneto Nero'sfavourthanthatOtho,asSuetoniusquotes,'committedadulterywithhisownwife.'36 37 38

Seechap.5,note10. OneofthethreeCommissionersofPublicRevenueappointedbyNeroin A. D.62(Ann.,xv.18).

LuciusCalpurniusPisoFrugiLicinianuswasthesonofM.LiciniusCrassusFrugi,andadoptedsonofL. CalpurniusPisoFrugi.Hismother,Scribonia,wasadescendantofPompey. AdoptionfromonefamilyintoanotherneededinolddaysthesanctionoftheComitiaCuriata.Whenthat assemblybecameobsolete,thepriestssummonedaformalmeetingofthirtylictors,andtheirsanctionofan actofadoptionwasstillcalledlexcuriata.GalbawasnowPontifexmaximus. GalbabelongedtotheGensSulpicia,andwasconnectedthroughhismother,Mummia,withQ.Lutatius Catulus,whohadledthesenatorialpartyinthefirsthalfofthelastcentury. i.e.Galba'sgreatgrandfatherhadfoughtforCaesaragainstPiso'sancestor,Pompey.

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CalpurniusPisoFrugi.Hismother,Scribonia,wasadescendantofPompey.39

AdoptionfromonefamilyintoanotherneededinolddaysthesanctionoftheComitiaCuriata.Whenthat assemblybecameobsolete,thepriestssummonedaformalmeetingofthirtylictors,andtheirsanctionofan actofadoptionwasstillcalledlexcuriata.GalbawasnowPontifexmaximus. GalbabelongedtotheGensSulpicia,andwasconnectedthroughhismother,Mummia,withQ.Lutatius Catulus,whohadledthesenatorialpartyinthefirsthalfofthelastcentury. i.e.Galba'sgreatgrandfatherhadfoughtforCaesaragainstPiso'sancestor,Pompey. ThechildrenofJuliaandAgrippa. CrassusScribonianus,cp.chap.47,andiv.39. i.e.cooptation,employedinformerdaystoraiseaspecialcontingentforemergencies.

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41 42 43 44

GALBA 'SMEASURESOFPRECAUTIONReportsoftheGermanrebelliongrewdailymoreinsistentandthepublicwasalwaysreadytobelieveanynews,provided itwasbad.AccordinglythesenatedecidedthatacommissionmustbesenttothearmyinGermany.Itwasdiscussedin privatewhetherPisoshouldgohimselftoadddignitytothecommission,sincehecouldcarrytheauthorityoftheemperor, whiletheothersrepresentedthesenate.ItwasalsoproposedtosendLaco,theprefectoftheGuards,butheobjected. ThesenatehadallowedGalbatonominatethecommissionersandheshowedthemostmiserableindecision,now nominatingmembers,nowexcusingthem,nowmakingexchanges,yieldingalwaystopressurefrompeoplewhowanted togoortostayathomeaccordingastheyweredeterminedbytheirhopesortheirfears.Thenextquestionwasoneof finance.Afterinvestigatingallpossiblesourcesitseemedmostreasonabletorecovertherevenuefromthosequarters38

20

wherethecauseofthedeficitlay.Nerohadsquanderedinlavishpresentstwothousandtwohundredmillionsesterces. Galbagaveinstructionsthatthesemoniesshouldberecoveredfromtheindividualrecipients,leavingeachatitheoftheir originalgift.However,ineachcasetherewasscarcelyatenthpartleft,fortheseworthlessspendthriftshadrunthrough Nero'smoneyasfreelyastheyhadsquanderedtheirown:theyhadnorealpropertyorcapitalleft,nothingbutthe apparatusoftheirluxury.Thirtyoftheknightswereentrustedwiththedutyofrecoveringthemoney.Thiscommission,for whichtherewasnoprecedent,provedvastlyunpopularowingtothescopeofitsauthority,andthelargenumberofthe victims.Everyquarterseemedbesetwithsalesandbrokersandlawsuits.Andyetlivelysatisfactionwascausedbythe discoverythatthebeneficiariesofNero'sbountywereaspoorasthevictimsofhisgreed. Atthistimeseveralofficerswerecashiered,AntoniusTaurusandAntoniusNasooftheGuards,AemiliusPacensisofthe CityGarrison,andJuliusFrontoofthePolice. However,thisprovednoremedy.Theothersonlybegantofeelalarmed, thinkingthatGalba'scraftandtimidityhadsacrificedafew,whilehissuspicionsrestedonthemall.46

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Abouttwentythreemillionsterlingofourmoney. i.e.ofthecohortswhichformedthepoliceandfirebrigadeofthecity.Seechap.5,note10.

THERISEOFOTHOMeanwhileOthohadnothingtohopefromapeacefulsettlement:allhisplansdemandedadisturbance.Manymotives spurredhimon:hisextravagancewouldhaveruinedaprince,andhispovertyhaveperplexedaprivateperson:hewas angrywithGalbaandjealousofPiso.Healsoallegedfearsforhissafety,bywayofwhettinghisambition.'Iproveda nuisancetoNero,'hewouldsay,'andcanscarcelyexpectthecomplimentofasecondexiletoLusitania. Besides, monarchsalwayshateandsuspectthemanwhoismentionedas"nexttothethrone".Thiswaswhatdidmeharmwiththe oldemperor,anditwillweighstillmorewiththeyouthfulPiso,whoisnaturallysavageandhasbeenexasperatedbya longperiodofexile.Itwouldbeeasytokillme.ImustdoanddarewhileGalba'sauthorityisonthewaneandPiso'snot yetestablished.Thesetimesofchangesuitbigenterprisesinactionismoredeadlythandaringthereisnocallfordelay. Deathisthenaturalendforallalike,andtheonlydifferenceisbetweenfameandoblivionafterwards.Seeingthatthe sameendawaitstheinnocentandtheguilty,amanofspiritshouldatleastdeservehisfate.' Otho'scharacterwasbynomeanssoeffeminateashisperson.Hisintimatefreedmenandslaves,whowerealloweda licenceunusualinprivatehouseholds,dangledbeforehimthebaitsforwhichhewasgreedy:theluxuriesofNero'sCourt, themarriageshecouldmake,theadulterieshecouldcommit,andalltheotherimperialpleasures.Theywerehis,they pointedout,ifhewouldbestirhimselfitwasshamefultoliequietandleavethemtoothers.Hewasalsoincitedbythe40 47

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astrologers,whodeclaredthattheirstudyofthestarspointedtogreatchangesandayearofgloryforOtho.Creaturesof thisclassalwaysdeceivetheambitious,thoughthoseinpowerdistrustthem.Probablyweshallgoonforeverproscribing themandkeepingthembyus. Poppaea hadalwayshadherboudoirfulloftheseastrologers,theworstkindofoutfit foraroyalmnage.Oneofthem,calledPtolemy,hadgonewithOthotoSpain andforetoldthathewouldoutliveNero. ThiscametrueandOthobelievedinhim.HenowbasedhisvagueconjecturesonthecomputationsofGalba'sageand Otho'syouth,andpersuadedhimthathewouldascendthethrone.But,thoughthemanhadnorealskill,Othoaccepted theprophecyasifitwasthefingeroffate.Humannaturealwayslikestobelievewhatitcannotunderstand. NorwasPtolemyhimselfslowtoincitehismastertocrime,towhichitisonlyashortstepfromsuchambitions.But 2350 48 49

foraroyalmnage.Oneofthem,calledPtolemy,hadgonewithOthotoSpain andforetoldthathewouldoutliveNero. ThiscametrueandOthobelievedinhim.HenowbasedhisvagueconjecturesonthecomputationsofGalba'sageand Otho'syouth,andpersuadedhimthathewouldascendthethrone.But,thoughthemanhadnorealskill,Othoaccepted theprophecyasifitwasthefingeroffate.Humannaturealwayslikestobelievewhatitcannotunderstand. NorwasPtolemyhimselfslowtoincitehismastertocrime,towhichitisonlyashortstepfromsuchambitions.But whetherhiscriminaldesignsweredeliberateorsuddenlyconceived,itisimpossibletosay.Hehadlongbeencourtingthe goodwillofthesoldierseitherinthehopeofbeingadoptedbyGalbaortopreparethewayfortreason.Ontheroadfrom Spain,whilethemenweremarchingoronoutpostduty,hewouldaddresstheveteransbyname,remindingthemhowhe41

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andtheyhadservedtogetherunderNero,andcallingthemhiscomrades.Herenewedacquaintancewithsome,asked afterothersandhelpedthemwithmoneyorinfluence,frequentlylettingfallcomplaintsandambiguousremarksabout Galba,usingalltheartswhichworkuponuneducatedminds.Thesoldiersgrumbledbitterlyattheexertionsofthemarch, theshortageofprovisions,andthestrictdiscipline.WhattheywereusedtowasajourneytotheCampanianLakesor Greekseaportsonboardship theyfoundithardtostruggleoverthePyreneesandAlps,andmarchimmensedistances underarms. Whilethesoldierswerethusalreadyfiredwithdiscontent,MaeviusPudens,oneofTigellinus' intimates,addedfuelto theirfeelingsbyluringonallwhowerenaturallyunstableorinneedofmoney,orrashlyeagerforachange.Eventually, wheneverGalbadinedwithhim,Othowentthelengthofpresentingahundredsestercestoeachofthesoldiersonguard, onthepretextthatthiswasinsteadofentertainingthem. ThissystemofpubliclargessOthoextendedbymaking presentsinconfidencetoindividuals,andsuchspiritdidheshowinbriberythatwhenamemberoftheBodyGuard,53 52 51

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CocceiusProculus,broughtanactiontoclaimpartofhisneighbour'sfarm,Othoboughtthewholepropertyoutofhis ownpocketandgaveittohim.HewasenabledtodothisbytheinefficiencyofthePrefectLaco,whowasnolessblind tonotoriousthantosecretscandals. OthothenputOnomastus,oneofhisfreedmen,inchargeoftheprojectedcrime,andOnomastustookintohisconfidence BarbiusProculus,anaidedecamp,andasubalternnamedVeturius,bothintheBodyGuard. Havingassuredhimself bymanyinterviewsthattheywerebothboldandcunning,Othoproceededtoloadthemwithbribesandpromises, providingthemwithfundstoenablethemtotestthefeelingsoftheothers.Andsoacoupleofcommonsoldierstookit uponthemtotransfertheRomanEmpire:andtheydidit.Averyfewwereadmittedasaccomplices.These,byvarious devices,workedontheindecisionoftheothers.ThenoncommissionedofficerswhohadbeenpromotedbyNymphidius feltthemselvesundersuspiciontheprivatesoldierswereindignantandindespairattheconstantpostponementofGalba's largesssomefewwerefiredbytherecollectionofNero'srgimeandlongedforthedaysoflicenceallincommon sharedthefearofbeingdraftedoutofthePraetorianGuards.54

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Theinfectionoftreasonsoonspreadtothelegionsandauxiliaries,whoseexcitementhadbeenarousedassoonasthey heardthatthearmiesofGermanywerewaveringintheirallegiance.So,asthedisloyalwerereadyfortreasonandthe loyalshuttheireyes,theyatfirstdeterminedtoacclaimOthoashewasreturningfromdinneronthenightofthe fourteenth.However,theyhesitated:thedarknessspeltuncertainty,thetroopswerescatteredalloverthetown,and unanimitycouldscarcelybeexpectedfromdrunkenmen.Theywerenotdeterredbyanyaffectionfortheircountry's honour,whichtheyweredeliberatelypreparingtostainwithitsemperor'sblood,buttheywereafraidthat,asOthowas unknowntothemajority,someoneelsemightbymistakebeofferedtothePannonianorGermanlegionsandproclaimed emperor.Someevidenceofthebrewingplotleakedout,butitwassuppressedbytheconspirators.Rumourseven reachedGalba'sears,butLacomadelightofthem,beingtotallyignorantofsoldiers'characters,hostiletoanysuggestion, howeverwise,thatwasnothisown,andextremelyobstinatewithmenwhoknewmorethanhedid. OnJanuary15,asGalbawassacrificinginfrontofthetempleofApollo,thepriestUmbriciusdeclaredtheomens unfavourable:treasonwasimpending,andanenemywithinthewalls.Otho,whowasstandingbesideGalba,overheard andconstruedtheomenasbeingfromhisownpointofviewagoodone,favourabletohisplans.Inafewmomentshis

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freedman,Onomastus,announcedthatthearchitectandcontractorswerewaitingtoseehim.Thishadbeenagreedupon asthesignalthatthetroopswereassemblingandtheconspiracywasripe.Onbeingaskedwherehewasgoing,Otho pretendedthathewasbuyinganoldproperty,butsuspecteditsconditionandsohadtoinspectitfirst.Thus,leaningon hisfreedman'sshoulder,hepassedthroughTiberius'houseintotheVelabrumandthencetotheGoldenMilestoneatthe footoftheTempleofSaturn. TherethirtythreesoldiersoftheBodyGuardsalutedhimasemperor.Whenheshowed alarmatthesmallnessoftheirnumbertheyputhimhastilyintoalitter,and,drawingtheirswords,hurriedhimaway.About thesamenumberofsoldiersjoinedthemontheway,someaccomplices,othersmerelycurious.Somemarchedalong shoutingandflourishingswordsotherskeptsilent,intendingtotaketheircuefromsubsequentevents. JuliusMartialiswasthetribuneondutyinthecamp.Hewassoovercomebythemagnitudeofthisunexpectedcrimeand soafraidthatthetreasonwaswidespreadinthecamp,andthathemightbekilledifheofferedanyopposition,thatheled mostpeopletosupposehewasintheplot.So,too,theothertribunesandcenturionsallpreferredpresentsafetytoa riskyloyalty.Infactthegeneralattitudewasthis:fewdaredtoundertakesofoulacrime,manywishedtoseeitdone,and everybodywasreadytocondoneit. 2855

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Cp.chap.13. DecreesexcludingastrologersfromItalyhadbeenpassedin B. C.33, A. D.16,andagainin A. D.52.

riskyloyalty.Infactthegeneralattitudewasthis:fewdaredtoundertakesofoulacrime,manywishedtoseeitdone,and everybodywasreadytocondoneit.

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Cp.chap.13.

DecreesexcludingastrologersfromItalyhadbeenpassedin B. C.33, A. D.16,andagainin A. D.52. Vitelliuspassedanother.Seeii.62.49 50 51

Nero'swife.Cp.chap.13. i.e.toLusitania.Seechap.13.

Theywere'Guards'whohadescortedNeroonhissingingtoursthroughGreece.Perhapssomeofthem cametomeetGalbaonhiswayfromSpain.Otherwisetheycouldnothavesharedthetoilsofthismarch. Seechap.72.

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Thepublicdinnergiveninolderdaysbypatronstotheirclientshadlongagobeencommutedfora 'tip'(sportula).Pudens,insteadofprovidingdinnerforGalba'sguard,soughttheir favourbygivingthem about17s.apiece. TheEnglishtermsdonotofcourserepresenttheexactpositionofthesesoldiers.Theformerwasoneof theemperor'spersonalbody guard(speculatores),whoreceivedthewatchword(tessera)andpassedit round:thelatterwasonetowhomacenturionhaddelegatedsomepartofhiswork. Plutarchexplainsthis.'HepassedthroughTiberius'house,asitiscalled,andwalkeddowntotheForum, wherestandsthegoldenpillartowhichallthehigh roadsofItalylead.'The Velabrumliesbetweenthe Forum,theTiber,andtheAventine.

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THEFALLOFGALBA MeanwhileGalbaintotalignoranceandintentuponhissacrificescontinuedtoimportunethegodsofanempirethathad alreadyceasedtobehis.Firsttherecamearumourthatsomeoneorotherofthesenatorswasbeinghurriedtothecamp, thenthatitwasOtho.ImmediatelypeoplewhohadmetOthocameflockinginfromallquartersofRomesomeintheir terrorexaggeratedthetruth,someminimizedit,rememberingeventhentoflatter.Afterdiscussionitwasdecidedthatthe temperofthecohortonguardinthepalaceshouldbetested,butnotbyGalbahimself.Hisauthoritywasheldinreserve formoreheroicremedies.Thetroopsweresummoned.Piso,standingoutonthestepsofthepalace,addressedthemas follows: 'Fellowsoldiers,itisnowfivedayssinceIwasmadeaCaesar.Iknewnothingofthefuturenorwhetherthenamewas moretobedesiredorfeared.Itnowlieswithyoutodecidewhetherornomyadoptionistoproveacalamityformy houseandformycountry.Insayingthis,Idonotdreaddisasteronmyownaccount.Ihaveknownmisfortune,andIam nowdiscoveringtothefullthatprosperityisjustasdangerous.Butforthesakeofmyadoptivefather,ofthesenate,and ofthewholeempire,Ideplorethethoughtthatwemayhavetodayeithertodieorwhatforgoodmenisas wretchedtokill.IntherecentrevolutionourcomfortwasthatRomewassparedthesightofblood,andthetransferwas 29

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effectedwithoutdisturbance.Wethoughtthatmyadoptionwouldbeasafeguardagainstanoutbreakofcivilwareven afterGalba'sdeath. 'Iwillmakenoclaimstorankorrespectability.TocomparemyselfwithOtho,Ineednotrecitemyvirtues.Hisvicesare allhehastobeproudof.Theyruinedtheempire,evenwhenhewasonlyplayingthepartofanemperor'sfriend.Why shouldhedeservetobeemperor?Forhisswaggeringdemeanour?Forhiseffeminatecostume?Extravaganceimposeson somepeople.Theytakeitforliberality.Theyarewrong.Hewillknowhowtosquandermoney,butnothowtogiveit away.Hismindisfulloflecheryanddebaucheryandintrigueswithwomen.Theseareinhiseyestheprerogativesofthe throne.Andthepleasureofhisviceswouldbeallhis,theblushesofshamewouldbeours.Nomanhaseverruledwell whowonthethronebybadmeans. 'ThewholeRomanworldagreedtogiveGalbathetitleofCaesar.Galbawithyourapprovalgavethattitletome.Evenif the"country",the"senate",the"people",areemptyterms,itistoyourinterest,myfellowsoldiers,toseethatitisnotthe rascalswhocreateanemperor.Fromtimetotimeonehearsofthelegionariesbeinginmutinyagainsttheirgenerals.But yourgoodfaithandyourgoodnamehavestoodtothisdayunimpaired.ItwasnotyouwhodesertedNero:hedeserted you.Areyougoingtoallowlessthanthirtydesertersandrenegadestobestowthecrown?Why!noonewouldtolerate 30

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theirchoosingsomuchasacenturionoratribuneforthemselves.Areyougoingtoallowthisprecedent,andbyyour acquiescencemaketheircrimeyourown?Youwillsoonseethislawlessspiritspreadingtothetroopsabroad,andintime thetreasonwillrecoilonusandthewaronyou.Besides,innocencewinsyouasmuchasthemurderofyouremperor: youwillgetfromusaslargeabountyforyourloyaltyasyouwouldfromothersforyourcrime.' ThemembersoftheBodyGuarddispersed.Therestofthecohortpaidsomeheedtohisspeech.Aimlessly,ashappens inmomentsofconfusion,theyseizedtheirstandards,withoutasyetanyfixedplan,andnot,aswasafterwardsbelieved, tocloaktheirtreachery.MariusCelsushadbeendispatchedtothepickeddetachmentsoftheIllyrianarmy,whichwere quarteredintheVipsanianarcade, whileinstructionshadbeengiventotwoseniorcenturions, AmulliusSerenusand DomitiusSabinus,tosummontheGermantroopsfromtheHallofLiberty.Theydistrustedthelegionofmarines,whohad56 57

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beenalienatedbyGalba'sbutcheryoftheircomradesonhisentryintoRome. Threeofficersoftheguards,Cetrius Severus,SubriusDexter,andPompeiusLonginus,alsohurriedtothecampinthehopethatthemutinywasstillinitsearly stagesandmightbeavertedbygoodadvicebeforeitcametoahead.ThesoldiersattackedSubriusandCetriuswith

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tocloaktheirtreachery.MariusCelsushadbeendispatchedtothepickeddetachmentsoftheIllyrianarmy,whichwere quarteredintheVipsanianarcade, whileinstructionshadbeengiventotwoseniorcenturions, AmulliusSerenusand DomitiusSabinus,tosummontheGermantroopsfromtheHallofLiberty.Theydistrustedthelegionofmarines,whohad48 56 57

beenalienatedbyGalba'sbutcheryoftheircomradesonhisentryintoRome. Threeofficersoftheguards,Cetrius Severus,SubriusDexter,andPompeiusLonginus,alsohurriedtothecampinthehopethatthemutinywasstillinitsearly stagesandmightbeavertedbygoodadvicebeforeitcametoahead.ThesoldiersattackedSubriusandCetriuswith threatsandforciblyseizingLonginusdisarmedhim,becausehehadnotcomeinvirtueofhismilitaryrank,butsimplyas oneofGalba'sprivatefriendsandforhisloyaltytohismastertherebelsdislikedhimallthemore.Themarineswithout anyhesitationjoinedtheguards.TheIllyriandraft droveCelsusawayatthepointoftheirjavelins.TheGerman 59 detachments waveredforsometime.Theywerestillinpoorconditionphysically,andinclinedtobepassive.Nerohad dispatchedthemasanadvanceguardtoAlexandria thelongvoyagebackagainhaddamagedtheirhealth,andGalba hadsparednoexpenseinlookingafterthem. ThewholepopulaceofRomewasnowcrowdingintothepalacetogetherwithagoodsprinklingofslaves.With discordantshoutstheydemandedthedeathofOthoandthedoomoftheconspirators.Theymighthavebeeninthecircus orthetheatre,clamouringforentertainment.Therewasneithersensenorsincerityintheirbehaviour.Theywerequite readyonthesamedaytoclamourfortheoppositewithequalzeal.Butitisanestablishedcustomtoflatteranyemperor withunbridledcheeringandmeaninglessenthusiasm.MeanwhileGalbawastornbetweentwoopinions.TitusVinius maintainedthattheyoughttoremainwithinthepalace,employtheslavestoofferresistanceandblockupallthedoors, insteadofgoingouttofacetheangrytroops.'Thiswillgivetime,'heurged,'forthedisloyaltorepentandtheloyaltounite theirforces.Crimesdemandhaste,goodcounselsprofitbydelay.Besides,ifneedbe,weshallhavethesamechanceof leavingthepalacelater:ifweleaveandrepentofit,itwillnotbeinourpowertoreturn.' Alltheothersvotedforimmediateactionbeforetheconspiracygatheredstrengthandnumbers.'Otho,'theyargued,'will soonloseheart.Hecreptawaybystealthandwasintroducedinalittertoaparcelofstrangers,andnowbecausewe dallyandwastetimehehasleisuretorehearsehispartofemperor.WhatisthegoodofwaitinguntilOthosetshiscampin orderandapproachestheCapitol,whileGalbapeepsoutofawindow?Arethisfamousgeneralandhisgallantfriendsto shutthedoorsandnottostirafootoverthethreshold,asiftheywereanxioustoendureasiege?Muchhelpmaywe hopefromslaves,whenoncetheunwieldycrowdlosesitsunityandtheirfirstindignation,whichcountsforsomuch, beginstocool.No,cowardiceistoorisky.Orifwemustfall,letusmeetthedangerhalfway,andcoverOthowith disgrace,ourselveswithhonour.' 33 3260 59

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WhenViniusresistedthisproposal,Laco,promptedbyIcelus,assailedhimwiththreats,persistinginhisprivatequarrelto theruinofhiscountry.Galbawithoutfurtherdelaysupportedthosewhoseplanwouldlookbest.However,Pisowasfirst dispatchedtothecamp.Theyoungmanhadagreatname,hispopularitywasstillfresh,andmoreover,hedislikedTitus Vinius,or,ifhedidnot,Vinius'enemieshopedhedid:itissoeasytobelieveinhatred.ScarcelyhadPisodeparted,when therearrivedarumourthatOthohadbeenkilledinthecamp.Atfirstitwasvagueanduncertain,buteventually,asso oftenhappenswithdaringlies,peoplebegantoassertthattheyhadbeenpresentandseenthedeed.Someweregladand someindifferent,sothenewsgainedeasycredence.Many,however,thoughtthatthereporthadbeenconcoctedand disseminatedbyfriendsofOtho,whonowmingledinthecrowdandtriedtolureGalbaoutbyspreadingthisagreeable falsehood. Atthispointnotonlythepopulaceandtheinexperiencedmobbutmanyoftheknightsandsenatorsaswell brokeoutintoapplauseandunbridledenthusiasm.Withtheirfeartheyhadlosttheircaution.Breakingopenthepalace gatestheyrushedinandpresentedthemselvesbeforeGalba,complainingthattheyhadbeenforestalledinthetaskof revenge.Allthecowardswho,aseventsproved,couldshownopluckinaction,indulgedinexcessiveheroicsandlip courage.Nobodyknew,everybodytalked.Atlast,forlackofthetruth,Galbayieldedtotheconsensusoferror.When 35 34

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hehadputonhisbreastplatehewasliftedintoachair,forhewastoooldandinfirmtostandagainstthecrowdsthatkept flockingin.InthepalacehewasmetbyJuliusAtticus,oftheBodyGuard,whodisplayedadrippingswordandshouted outthathehadkilledOtho.'Comrade,'saidGalba,'whobadeyou?'Galbahadaremarkablepowerofcurbingsoldiers' presumption,forhewasnotafraidofthreatsnormovedbyflattery. MeanwhileinOtho'scamptherewasnolongeranydoubtofthesoldiers'unanimity.Suchwastheirenthusiasmthatthey werenotcontentwithcarryingOthoshoulderhighinprocessiontheyplacedhimamongthestandardsontheplatform, whereshortlybeforeagiltstatueofGalbahadstood,andmadearingroundhimwiththeircolours. Tribunesand centurionswereallowednoapproach:thecommonsoldiersevencalledout,'Bewareoftheofficers.'Thewholecamp resoundedwithconfusedshoutsofmutualencouragement.Itwasquiteunlikethewaveringandspiritlessflatteryofacivil mob.Asnewadherentsstreamedin,directlyasoldiercaughtsightofoneofthem,hegraspedhimbythehand,flunghis armsroundhim,kepthimathisside,anddictatedtheoathofallegiance.Somecommendedtheirgeneraltohissoldiers, andsomethesoldierstotheirgeneral.Otho,forhispart,wasnotslowtogreetthecrowdwithoutstretchedhandand61

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throwkissestothem.Ineverywayheplayedtheslavetogainathrone.Whenthewholelegionofthemarineshadsworn allegiance,hegainedconfidenceinhisstrength,and,consideringthatthosewhomhehadincitedindividuallyneededafew wordsofgeneralencouragement,hestoodoutontherampartandbeganasfollows:'InwhatguiseIcomeforwardto addressyou,FellowSoldiers,Icannottell.Dubbedemperorbyyou,Idarenotcallmyselfaprivatecitizen:yet"emperor" Icannotsaywithanotheronthethrone.AndwhatamItocallyou?Thattoowillremainindoubtuntilitisdecided whetheryouhavehereinyourcampanenemyoranemperorofRome.Youhearhowtheyclamouratonceformydeath andyourpunishment.Soclearisitthatwemustfallorstandtogether.DoubtlessGalbasuchishisclemencyhas alreadypromisedourdestruction.Ishenotthemanwhowithouttheleastexcusebutcheredthousandsofutterlyinnocent 37

wordsofgeneralencouragement,hestoodoutontherampartandbeganasfollows:'InwhatguiseIcomeforwardto addressyou,FellowSoldiers,Icannottell.Dubbedemperorbyyou,Idarenotcallmyselfaprivatecitizen:yet"emperor" Icannotsaywithanotheronthethrone.AndwhatamItocallyou?Thattoowillremainindoubtuntilitisdecided whetheryouhavehereinyourcampanenemyoranemperorofRome.Youhearhowtheyclamouratonceformydeath andyourpunishment.Soclearisitthatwemustfallorstandtogether.DoubtlessGalbasuchishisclemencyhas alreadypromisedourdestruction.Ishenotthemanwhowithouttheleastexcusebutcheredthousandsofutterlyinnocent soldiers? I shudderwheneverIrecallhisghastlyentryintothecity,whenbeforethefaceofRomeheorderedthe decimationofthetroopswhomattheirhumblepetitionhehadtakenunderhisprotection.ThatisGalba'sonly"victory". Theseweretheauspicesunderwhichhemadehisentryandwhatgloryhashebroughttothethroneheoccupies,save themurderofObultroniusSabinusandCorneliusMarcellusinSpain,ofBetuusCiloinGaul,ofFonteiusCapitoin53 62

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Germany,ofClodiusMacerinAfrica,ofCingoniusonhismarchtoRome,ofTurpilianusinthecity,andofNymphidiusin thecamp?Whatprovinceisthereintheempirethathasnotbeenpollutedwithmassacre?Hecallsit"salutarycorrection". Forhis"remedies"arewhatotherpeoplecallcrimes:hiscrueltyisdisguisedas"austerity",hisavariceas"economy",while by"discipline"hemeanspunishingandinsultingyou.ItisbutsevenmonthssinceNero'sdeath,andalreadyIcelusalone hasembezzledmorethanallthedepredationsofPolyclitusandVatiniusandAegialus puttogether.Why,Viniuswould havebeenlessgreedyandlawlesshadhebeenemperorhimself.Asitis,hetreatsusashisownsubjectsanddespisesus asGalba's.Hisownfortunealonecouldprovidethelargesswhichtheydailycastinyourteethbutneverpayintoyour pocket. 'NorinGalba'ssuccessoreitheristhereanyhopeforyou.Galbahasseentothat.Hehasrecalledfromexiletheman whoseavariceandsourtemperhejudgedmostlikehisown.Youwitnessed foryourselves,mycomrades,the extraordinarystormwhichsignifiedHeaven'sabhorrenceatthatillstarredadoption.TheSenateandPeopleofRomefeel thesame.Theyarecountingonyourcourage.Youalonecangivestrengthtotherightpolicy:itispowerlesswithoutyou, howevergooditbe.ItisnottowaranddangerthatIcallyou.Allthetroopsarewithus.Thatsingleplainclothes cohort isnolongeradefencetoGalba,butahindrance.Whenoncetheyhavecaughtsightofyou,whenoncethey cometotaketheirordersfromme,theonlyquarrelbetweenyouwillbewhocandomosttoputmeintheirdebt.Thereis noroomfordelayinplanswhichcannotbecommendeduntiltheyareputintoaction.' Othothengaveorderstoopenthearsenal.Thesoldiersimmediatelyseizedtheirarmsinsuchhastethatalltheordinary distinctionsoftheservicewereneglected:neitherGuardsnorLegionariescarriedtheirownarms: intheconfusionthey tookthehelmetsandshieldsoftheauxiliaries.Therewerenotribunesorcenturionstoencouragethem:eachman followedhisownlead,andtherascalsfoundtheirchiefincentiveintheconsternationoftheloyal.Astheriotincreased, Piso,alarmedbythedinoftheirshouts,whichcouldbeheardeveninthecity,hadovertakenGalba,whohadmeanwhile leftthepalaceandwasapproachingtheForum.MariusCelsushadalsobroughtbacknogoodnews.Somewerefor returningtothepalace,othersforseekingtheshelteroftheCapitol,manyforseizingtheRostra.Themajoritymerely 3965 64 63

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disagreedwithotherpeople'sproposals,and,assooftenhappensinthesedisasters,thebestcoursealwaysseemedthe oneforwhichitwasnowtoolate.ItissaidthatLaco,withoutGalba'sknowledge,proposedtheassassinationofTitus Vinius,eitherwiththeideathathisexecutionwouldbeasoptothesoldiers,orbecausehebelievedhimOtho's accomplice,or,asalastalternative,hatredmayhavebeenhismotive.However,thetimeandtheplacebothbred scrupleswhenkillingoncebeginsitisdifficulttosetalimit:besides,theirplanswereupsetbythearrivalofterrified messengers,bythecontinualdesertionoftheirsupporters,andbyageneralwaningofenthusiasmevenamongthosewho atfirsthadbeenthekeenesttodisplaytheirloyaltyandcourage. Galbawasdrivenhitherandthitherbythetideofthesurgingmob.Thetemplesandpublicbuildings werecrowdedwith spectators,whoviewedasorryscene.Noshoutscamefromthecrowd:astonishmentwasontheirfaces,andtheirears opentoeverysound.Therewasneitheruproarnorquiet,butthesilenceofstrongemotionandalarm.However,areport reachedOthothatthepopulacewasarming.Hebadehismenflyheadlongtoforestallthedanger.OffwenttheRoman soldiersasiftheyweregoingtodragVologaesusorPacorusfromtheancestralthroneoftheArsacids andnotto butchertheirownemperor,ahelplessoldman.Armedtotheteeth,theybrokeatafullgallopintotheForum,scattering thepopulaceandtramplingsenatorsunderfoot.NeitherthesightoftheCapitolnorthesanctityofthetemplestowering abovethem,northethoughtofRomanemperorspastandtocome,couldavailtodeterthemfromcommittingthatcrime whichthenextsuccessoralwaysavenges. Seeingthearmedranksnowcloseathand,thestandardbearerofthecohortonguardoverGalba traditionsayshis namewasAtiliusVergiliotoreoffthemedallionofGalba andflungittotheground.Thissignalclearlyshowedthatall thetroopswereforOtho:thepeoplefledfromthedesertedForumandswordsweredrawnagainstanywholingered. Near'LakeCurtius' Galbawasprecipitatedfromhischairbythepanicstrickenhasteofthebearersandflungtothe ground.Theaccountsofhislastwordsvaryaccordingastheyarepromptedbyhatredoradmiration.Somesaythathe whinedandaskedwhatharmhehaddeserved,beggingforafewdays'respitetopaythetroopstheirlargess.The majoritysaythatheofferedhisnecktotheblowandbadethem,'Come,strike,ifitservesthecountry'sneed.'Whatever70 69 68 67 66

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hesaidmatteredlittletohisassassins.Astotheactual murdererthereisadifferenceofopinion.Somesayitwas Terentius,areservist, othersthathisnamewasLaecanius.ThemostcommonaccountisthatasoldieroftheFifteenth legion,bynameCamurius,piercedhisthroatwithaswordthrust.Theothersfoullymangledhisarmsandlegs(hisbreast wascovered)andwithbestialsavagerycontinuedtostabtheheadlesscorpse.ThentheymadeforTitusVinius.Here, too,thereisadoubtwhetherthefearofimminentdeathstrangledhisvoice,orwhetherhecalledoutthattheyhadno mandatefromOthotokillhim.Hemayhaveinventedthisinhisterror,oritmayhavebeenaconfessionofhiscomplicity 4271

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hesaidmatteredlittletohisassassins.Astotheactual murdererthereisadifferenceofopinion.Somesayitwas Terentius,areservist, othersthathisnamewasLaecanius.ThemostcommonaccountisthatasoldieroftheFifteenth legion,bynameCamurius,piercedhisthroatwithaswordthrust.Theothersfoullymangledhisarmsandlegs(hisbreast wascovered)andwithbestialsavagerycontinuedtostabtheheadlesscorpse.ThentheymadeforTitusVinius.Here, too,thereisadoubtwhetherthefearofimminentdeathstrangledhisvoice,orwhetherhecalledoutthattheyhadno mandatefromOthotokillhim.Hemayhaveinventedthisinhisterror,oritmayhavebeenaconfessionofhiscomplicity intheplot.Hiswholelifeandreputationgivereasontosupposethathewasanaccompliceinthecrimeofwhichhewas thecause.HewasbroughttothegroundinfrontofthetempleofJuliusbyablowontheknee,andafterwardsacommon soldiernamedJuliusCarusranhimthroughwithasword. However,Romefoundoneherothatday.ThiswasSemproniusDensus,acenturionoftheGuards,whohadbeentoldoff byGalbatoprotectPiso.Drawinghisdaggerhefacedthearmedassassins,flingingtheirtreasonintheirteeth,andbyhis 43 4271

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shoutsandgesturesturnedtheirattentionuponhimself,thusenablingPisotoescapedespitehiswounds.Piso,reaching thetempleofVesta,wasmercifullyshelteredbytheverger,whohidhiminhislodging.There,noreverenceforthis sanctuarybutmerelyhisconcealmentpostponedhisimmediatedeath.Eventually,Otho,whowasburningtohavehim killed, dispatchedasspecialagents,SulpiciusFlorusoftheBritishcohorts,amanwhomGalbahadrecently enfranchised,andStatiusMurcusoftheBodyGuard.TheydraggedPisoforthandbutcheredhimonthethresholdofthe temple.72

56

Thesetroops,havingnoheadquartersinRome,wereputupinapiazzabuiltbyM.VipsaniusAgrippa, anddecoratedwithpaintingsofNeptuneandoftheArgonauts.Cp.ii. 93,wheretroopsarequarteredin collonadesortemples. Thetermprimipilarisdenotesonewhohadbeenthecenturioncommandingthefirstmaniple(pilani)of thefirstcohort ofalegion.Hewasanofficerofgreatimportance,highlypaid,andoftenadmittedtothe general'scouncil.Otho'sexpeditiontoNarboneseGaul(chap. 87)wascommandedbytwosuch'senior centurions'. Seechap.6,note11. Seechap.6. NerowasmeditatinganEthiopiancampaignwhentherevoltofVindexbrokeout.Cp.chap.6. Probablythecoloursofthedifferentmaniplesasdistinctfromthestandardsofthecohorts. Cp.chap.6.

57

58 59 60 61 62 63

FreedmenwhohadcurriedfavourwithNero.PolyclituswassenttoinquireintoSuetoniusPaulinus' administrationofBritainaftertherevoltofBoadiceain A. D.61.Vatiniuswasadeformedcobblerfrom Beneventumwhobecameasortofcourtbuffoon,andacquiredgreatwealthandbadinfluence. Thecohortonguardseemtohavebeeninmufti,withouthelmetsandshieldsortheirmilitarycloaks,but armedwithswordsandjavelins. Thelegionariesarmedthemselveswithlances(hastae),andtheauxiliarieswithjavelins(pila).

64

65 66

ThewordbasilicareferstothebuildingsroundtheForum,usedforlegal,financial,andcommercial purposes.Mostofthemhadcloisters. TheParthianroyalfamily:VologaesuswaskingofParthia,andhisbrotherPacorusviceroyofMedia Atropatene. Cp.chap.29. Attachedtothepoleofthestandard.

67

68 69 70

AnenclosedpondinthemiddleoftheForum,supposedtobethespotwhereCurtiusleaptonhorseback intothechasm,orbyothersthespotwhereaSabinechieftainwasengulfedinthedaysofRomulus. Thewordhereusedusuallymeansaveteranreenlistedinaspecialcorpsafterhistermhadexpired.It wasalsoappliedatthistimeinaspecialsensetoacorpsofyoungknights,who,withoutlosingtheirstatus, actedasGalba'sspecialbodyguardintheimperialpalace.Oneofthesemayhavebeenthemurderer.

71

OTHOONTHETHRONENoneofhismurderspleasedOthosomuchasthis.OnPiso'shead,asonnoother,theysay,hegazedwithinsatiable eyes.Thiswaspossiblythefirstmomentatwhichhefeltrelievedofallanxiety,andfreetoindulgehisgleeorperhaps,in thecaseofGalbaandofVinius,therecollectionofhistreasontotheoneandofhisformerfriendshipwiththeother troubledevenhisunfeelingheartwithgloomythoughts,whereas,Pisobeinganenemyandarival,heconsidereditapious dutytogloatoverhismurder.Theirheadswerefixedonpolesandcarriedalongwiththestandardsofthecohortssideby59

44

sidewiththeeagleofthelegion. Thosewhohaddonethedeedandthosewhohadwitnesseditviedwitheachotherin displayingtheirbloodyhands,allboastingoftheirsharesomefalsely,sometrulyasifitwereafineandmemorable exploit.Vitelliussubsequentlydiscoveredmorethan120petitionsdemandingrewardsfordistinguishedservicesrendered onthatday.Hegaveorderstosearchoutallthepetitionersandputthemtodeath.ThiswasfromnorespectforGalba: hemerelyfollowedthetraditionalcustombywhichprincessecuretheirpresentsafetyandposthumousvengeance. Thesenateandpeopleseemeddifferentmen.Therewasageneralrushforthecamp,everyoneshoulderinghisneighbour andtryingtoovertakethoseinfront.TheyheapedinsultsonGalba,praisedtheprudenceofthetroops,andcovered Otho'shandwithkisses,theirextravagancevaryinginverselywiththeirsincerity.Othorebuffednoone,andsucceededby hiswordsandlooksinmoderatingthemenaceofthesoldiers'greedforvengeance.Theyloudlydemandedtheexecution 45

73

hemerelyfollowedthetraditionalcustombywhichprincessecuretheirpresentsafetyandposthumousvengeance. Thesenateandpeopleseemeddifferentmen.Therewasageneralrushforthecamp,everyoneshoulderinghisneighbour andtryingtoovertakethoseinfront.TheyheapedinsultsonGalba,praisedtheprudenceofthetroops,andcovered Otho'shandwithkisses,theirextravagancevaryinginverselywiththeirsincerity.Othorebuffednoone,andsucceededby hiswordsandlooksinmoderatingthemenaceofthesoldiers'greedforvengeance.Theyloudlydemandedtheexecution ofMariusCelsus,theconsulelect,whohadremainedGalba'sfaithfulfriendtothelast.Theywereasmuchoffendedat hisefficiencyandhonestyasifthesehadbeencriminalqualities.Whattheywantedwasobviouslytofindafirstexcusefor plunderandmurderandthedestructionofalldecentcitizens.ButOthohadasyetnoinfluencetopreventcrimes:hecould onlyorderthem.Sohesimulatedanger,givinginstructionsforCelsus'arrest,andbypromisingthatheshouldmeetwitha worsepenalty,thusrescuedhimfromimmediatedeath.60

45

Thewillofthesoldierswasnowhenceforwardsupreme.ThePraetorianGuardschosetheirownprefects,PlotiusFirmus, amanwhohadrisenfromtherankstothepostofChiefofPolice, andjoinedOtho'ssidebeforeGalba'sfall,and 75 LiciniusProculus,anintimatefriendofOtho,andthereforesuspectedoffurtheringhisplans.TheymadeFlaviusSabinus prefectofthecity,thereinfollowingNero'schoice,underwhomSabinushadheldthatpostbesides,mostofthemhadan eyetothefactthathewasVespasian'sbrother.Anurgentdemandarosethatthecustomaryfeestocenturionsforgranting furloughshouldbeabolished,fortheyconstitutedasortofannualtaxuponthecommonsoldier.Theresulthadbeenthata quarterofeachcompanycouldgooffonleaveorloungeidlyaboutthebarracks,solongastheypaidthecenturionhis fee,norwasthereanyonetocontroleithertheamountofthisimpostorthemeansbywhichthesoldiersraisedthe money:highwayrobberyormenialservicewastheusualresortwherebytheypurchasedleisure.Then,again,asoldier whohadmoneywassavagelyburdenedwithworkuntilheshouldbuyexemption.Thushesoonbecameimpoverished andenervatedbyidleness,andreturnedtohiscompanynolongeramanofmeansandenergybutpennilessandlazy.So theprocesswenton.Oneafteranothertheybecamedeterioratedbypovertyandlaxdiscipline,rushingblindlyinto74

46

61

quarrelsandmutiny,and,asalastresource,intocivilwar.Othowasafraidofalienatingthecenturionsbyhisconcessions totherankandfile,andpromisedtopaytheannualfurloughfeesoutofhisprivatepurse.Thiswasindubitablyasound reform,whichgoodemperorshavesinceestablishedasaregularcustominthearmy.TheprefectLacohepretendedto banishtoanisland,butonhisarrivalhewasstabbedbyareservist whomOthohadpreviouslydispatchedforthat 77 purpose.MarcianusIcelus,asbeingoneofhisownfreedmen, hesentencedtopublicexecution. Thusthedaywasspentincrimes,andworstofallwasthejoytheycaused.Thesenatewassummonedbytheurban praetor. Theothermagistratesallviedinflattery.Thesenatorsarrivedposthaste.TheydecreedtoOthothepowersof thetribunate,thetitleofAugustus,andalltheimperialprerogatives.Theirunanimousobjectwastoblotoutallrecollection offormerinsultsbut,asthesehadbeenhurledequallyfromallsides,theydidnot,asfarasanyonecouldsee,stickinhis memory.Whetherhehadforgottenthemoronlypostponedpunishment,hisreignwastooshorttoshow.Hewasthen carriedthroughthestillreekingForumamongthepilesofdeadbodiestotheCapitol,andthencetothepalace.He78 76

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grantedpermissiontoburnandburythebodiesofhisvictims.Piso'swifeVeraniaandhisbrotherScribonianuslaidouthis body,andthiswasdoneforViniusbyhisdaughterCrispina.Theyhadtosearchfortheheadsandbuythembackfrom themurderers,whohadpreservedthemforsale.

72 73 74 75 76 77 78

AccordingtoPlutarch,whentheybroughtOthoGalba'shead,hesaid,'That'snothing:showmePiso's.' i.e.thelegionofmarinesPrimaAdiutrix.Cp.chap.6,&c. i.e.incommandofthecohortesvigilum.Cp.chap.5,note10. Vespasian'selderbrother.HecontinuedtoholdtheofficeunderVitellius(ii.63). Seechap.42,note71. AsalibertusCaesarishepassedintoOtho'shandswiththerestofthepalacefurniture. TheconsulsGalbaandVinius(chap.1),werebothdead.

DRAMATISPERSONAEPisowasinhisthirtyfirstyear.Hisreputationwasbetterthanhisfortune.Hisbrothershadbeenexecuted,Magnusby Claudius,CrassusbyNero. HehimselfafterbeinglonginexilewasaCaesarforfourdays.Hastilyadoptedin 80 preferencetohiselderbrother, theonlyadvantagehereapedwastobekilledfirst. TitusViniusinhisfiftysevenyearshaddisplayedstrangecontrastsofcharacter.Hisfatherbelongedtoafamilyof praetorianrankhismother'sfatherwasoneoftheproscribed. Ascandalmarkedhisfirstmilitaryserviceunderthe 82 generalCalvisiusSabinus. Thegeneral'swifesufferedfromasuspiciousdesiretoinspectthearrangementsofthecamp, whichsheenteredbynightdisguisedinsoldier'suniform.Thereshebrazenlyinterferedwiththeguardandthesoldierson duty,andeventuallyhadtheeffronterytocommitadulteryinthegeneral'sownquarters.Themanconvictedofimplication inthisscandalwasTitusVinius.HewasthereforeputinironsbyorderofCaligula. However,thefortunesofthetime soonchangedandhewassetatliberty.Aftermountingtheladderofofficewithoutcheck,hewasasanexpraetorgiven thecommandofalegion,andprovedsuccessful.Butsoonagainhesoiledhisreputation,andlaidhimselfunderthecharge ofhavingbeenmeanenoughtostealagoldcupfromClaudius'dinnertable.Claudiusgaveordersthatonthenextday Viniusaloneofallhisguestsshouldbeservedonearthenware.However,aspro consul,Vinius'governmentof83 81 79

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63

63

duty,andeventuallyhadtheeffronterytocommitadulteryinthegeneral'sownquarters.Themanconvictedofimplication inthisscandalwasTitusVinius.HewasthereforeputinironsbyorderofCaligula. However,thefortunesofthetime soonchangedandhewassetatliberty.Aftermountingtheladderofofficewithoutcheck,hewasasanexpraetorgiven thecommandofalegion,andprovedsuccessful.Butsoonagainhesoiledhisreputation,andlaidhimselfunderthecharge ofhavingbeenmeanenoughtostealagoldcupfromClaudius'dinnertable.Claudiusgaveordersthatonthenextday Viniusaloneofallhisguestsshouldbeservedonearthenware.However,aspro consul,Vinius'governmentof NarboneseGaulwasstrictandhonest.SubsequentlyhisfriendshipwithGalbabroughthimintodanger.Hewasbold, cunning,andefficient,withgreatpowerforgoodorforevil,accordingtohismood.Vinius'willwasannulledbecauseof hisgreatwealth.Pisowaspoor,sohislastwisheswererespected. Galba'sbodylaylongneglected,andundercoverofdarknesswassubjectedtovariousinsults.Eventuallyhissteward Argius,oneofhisformerslaves,gaveitahumbleburialinhisprivategarden.Hishead,whichthecampfollowersand 4983

64

servantshadmangledandcarriedonapole,wasfoundnextdayinfrontofthetombofPatrobius(oneofNero's freedmenwhomGalbahadexecuted)andburiedwiththebodywhichhadalreadybeencremated.Suchwastheendof ServiusGalba,whoforseventythreeyearshadenjoyedprosperityunderfivedifferentemperors,happierintheirreign thanhisown.Hecameofanoldandnoblefamilyandpossessedgreatwealth.Hisowncharacterwasmediocre,rather freefromvicesthanrichinvirtues.Thoughnotindifferenttofame,hedidnotcourtitbyadvertisement.Notgreedyof otherpeople'smoney,hewascarefulofhisown,andamiserwithpublicfunds.Hisattitudetowardsfriendsand freedmen,iftheywerehonest,wasoneofkindlycomplaisancewhentheywerenot,hewasculpablyblind.Buthis distinguishedoriginandthepeculiarperilsofthetimedisguisedhisapathy,whichpassedasprudence. Intheflowerof hisyouthheservedwithdistinctioninGermany.AsproconsulhegovernedAfricawisely,andinlateryearsshowedthe sameequityinNearerSpain. Whenhewasacommonerheseemedtoobigforhisstation,andhadheneverbeen emperor,noonewouldhavedoubtedhisabilitytoreign.85 84

79

Cn.PompeiusMagnuswasClaudius'soninlaw,andexecutedbyhim'onavaguecharge'.M.Licinius CrassusFrugiwas accusedoftreasontoNerobyAquiliusRegulus,aninformer,whomoneofPliny's friendscalls'thevilestofbipeds'.Regulus'brotherwasVipstanusMessala.Cp.iv.42. Scribonianus.Cp.chap.15. Underthesecondtriumvirate. HewasgovernorofPannoniaunderCaligula. Sabinusandhiswifewereprosecuted,andbothcommittedsuicide. UnderNero,saysTacitusinhisLifeofAgricola,'thewisestmanwashewhodidleast.'

80 81 82 83 84 85

HehadgovernedtheupperprovinceofGermanyunderCaligulaAfricaunderClaudiustheTarragona divisionofSpainunderNero.InGermanyhedefeatedtheChatti A. D.41.

THERISEOFVITELLIUSThecitywasinapanic.ThealarmarousedbytherecentatrociouscrimeandbyOtho'swellknownproclivitieswas65

50

furtherincreasedbythefreshnewsaboutVitellius. ThisnewshadbeensuppressedbeforeGalba'smurder,anditwas believedthatonlythearmyofUpperGermanyhadrevolted.Nowwhentheysawthatthetwomenintheworldwho weremostnotoriousforimmorality,indolence,andextravagancehadbeen,asitwere,appointedbyProvidencetoruin theempire,notonlythesenatorsandknightswhohadsomestakeandinterestinthecountry,butthemassesaswell, openlydeploredtheirfate.Theirtalkwasnolongerofthehorrorsoftherecentbloodypeace:theyrevertedtothe recordsofthecivilwars,thetakingandretakingofRomebyherowntroops,thedevastationofItaly,thepillageofthe provinces,thebattlesofPharsalia,Philippi,Perusia,andMutina, thosebywordsofnationaldisaster.'Theworldwas turnedupsidedown,'theymused,'evenwhengoodmenfoughtforthethrone:yettheRomanEmpiresurvivedthe victoriesofJuliusCaesarandofAugustus,astheRepublicwouldhavesurvivedhadPompeyandBrutusbeenvictorious. ButnowarewetogoandprayforOthoorforVitellius?Toprayforeitherwouldbeimpious.Itwouldbewickedto87

86

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offervowsforthesuccessofeitherinawarofwhichwecanonlybesurethatthewinnerwillprovetheworse.'Some cherishedhopesofVespasianandthearmiesoftheEast:hewaspreferabletoeitheroftheothersstilltheyshudderedat thethoughtofafreshwarandfreshbloodshed.Besides,Vespasian'sreputationwasdoubtful.Hewasthefirstemperor whoeverchangedforthebetter. ImustnowexplaintheoriginandcausesoftherisingofVitellius.AftertheslaughterofJuliusVindex andhiswhole force,thetroopswereinhighspiritsatthefameandbootytheyhadacquired.Withouttoilordangertheyhadwonamost profitablevictory.Sotheywereallformarchingagainsttheenemy:plunderseemedbetterthanpay.Theyhadendureda longandunprofitableservice,renderedthemoreirksomebythecountryandclimateandbythestrictdisciplineobserved. Butdiscipline,howeversternintimeofpeace,isalwaysrelaxedincivilwars,whentemptationstandsoneitherhandand treacherygoesunpunished.Men,armour,andhorsestheyhadinabundanceforuseandforshow.But,whereasbefore thewarthesoldiersonlyknewthemenoftheirowncompanyortroop,andtheprovincialfrontier separatedthearmies, now,havingoncejoinedforcesagainstVindex,theyhadgainedaknowledgeoftheirownstrengthandthestateofthe89 88

51

67

province,andwerelookingformorefightingandfreshquarrels,callingtheGaulsnolongerallies,asbefore,but'our enemies'or'thevanquished'.TheyhadalsothesupportoftheGallictribesonthebanksoftheRhine,whohadespoused90

treacherygoesunpunished.Men,armour,andhorsestheyhadinabundanceforuseandforshow.But,whereasbefore thewarthesoldiersonlyknewthemenoftheirowncompanyortroop,andtheprovincialfrontier separatedthearmies, now,havingoncejoinedforcesagainstVindex,theyhadgainedaknowledgeoftheirownstrengthandthestateofthe67 89

province,andwerelookingformorefightingandfreshquarrels,callingtheGaulsnolongerallies,asbefore,but'our enemies'or'thevanquished'.TheyhadalsothesupportoftheGallictribesonthebanksoftheRhine,whohadespoused theircauseandwerenowthemosteagertorousethemagainst'theGalbians' astheynowcalledthem,despisingthe 91 nameofVindex.So,cherishinghostilityagainsttheSequaniandAedui, andagainstalltheothercommunitiesin proportiontotheirwealth,theydrankindreamsofsackingtownsandpillagingfieldsandlootinghouses,inspiredpartly bythepeculiarfailingsofthestrong,greedandvanity,andpartlyalsobyafeelingofirritationattheinsolenceoftheGauls, whoboasted,tothechagrinofthearmy,thatGalbahadremittedaquarteroftheirtributeandgiventhefranchiseand grantsoflandtotheircommunity. Furtherfuelwasaddedbyarumour,cunninglycirculatedandrashlycredited,that therewasaprojectonfoottodecimatethelegionsanddischargeallthemostenterprisingcenturions.Fromeveryside camealarmingnewsandsinisterreportsfromthecity.ThecolonyofLugdunum wasupinarms,anditsstubborn attachmenttoNeromadeitahotbedofrumour.Butinthecampitselfthepassionsandfearsofthesoldiers,and,when oncetheyhadrealizedtheirstrength,theirfeelingofsecurity,furnishedtherichestmaterialforliesandwonthemeasy credence.93 92 90

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Intheprecedingyear, shortlyafterthebeginningofDecember,AulusVitelliushadenteredtheprovinceofLower Germanyandheldacarefulinspectionofthewinterquartersof