tablea.1. chemical symbols for the elements - springer978-0-387-21604-1/1.pdf · appendix tablea.1....
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Appendix
Table A.1. Chemical Symbols for the Elements
Ac Actinium Es Einsteinium N Nitrogen Sc ScandiumAg Silver Eu Europium Na Sodium Se SeleniumAl Aluminum F Fluorine Nb Niobium Si SiliconAm Americium Fe Iron Nd Neodymium Sm SamariumAr Argon Fm Fermium Ne Neon Sn TinAs Arsenic Fr Francium Ni Nickel Sr StrontiumAt Astatine Ga Gallium No Nobelium Ta TantalumAu Gold Gd Gadolinium Np Neptunium Tb TerbiumB Boron Ge Germanium O Oxygen Tc TechnetiumBa Barium H Hydrogen Os Osmium Te TelluriumBe Beryllium He Helium P Phosphorous Th ThoriumBi Bismuth Hf Hafnium Pa Protactinium Ti TitaniumBk Berkelium Hg Mercury Pb Lead Tl ThalliumBr Bromine Ho Holmium Pd Palladium Tm ThuliumC Carbon I Iodine Pm Promethium U UraniumCa Calcium In Indium Po Polonium V VanadiumCd Cadmium Ir Iridium Pr Praseodymium W TungstenCe Cerium K Potassium Pt Platinum Xe XenonCf Californium Kr Krypton Pu Plutonium Y YttriumCl Chlorine La Lanthanum Ra Radium Yb YtterbiumCm Curium Li Lithium Rb Rubidium Zn ZincCo Cobalt Lr Lawrencium Re Rhenium Zr ZirconiumCr Chromium Lu Lutetium Rh RhodiumCs Cesium Md Mendelevium Rn RadonCu Copper Mg Magnesium Ru RutheniumDy Dysprosium Mn Manganese S SulfurEr Erbium Mo Molybdenum Sb Antimony
558 Appendix
Table A.2. SI Multiples
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1018 exa E 10−1 deci d1015 peta P 10−2 centi c1012 tera T 10−3 milli m109 giga G 10−6 micro µ106 mega M 10−9 nano n103 kilo k 10−12 pico p102 hecto h 10−15 femto f101 deka da 10−18 atto a
Table A.3. Derivative SI Units
Expression in TermsQuantity Name of Unit of Basic Units
Area Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3
Frequency Hertz (Hz) s−1
Density (concentration) Kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Velocity Meter per second m/sAngular velocity Radian per second rad/sAcceleration Meter per second squared m/s2
Angular acceleration Radian per second squared rad/s2
Volumetric flow rate Cubic meter per second m3/sForce Newton (N) kg m/s2
Pressure Newton per square meter (N/m2) kg/m s2
or pascal (Pa)Work energy heat torque Joule (J), newton-meter (N m) kg m2/s2
or watt-second (W s)Power heat flux Watt (W), Joule per second (J/s) kg m2/s3
Heat flux density Watt per square meter (W/m2) kg/s3
Specific heat Joule per kilogram degree (J/kg deg) m2/s2 degThermal conductivity Watt per meter degree (W/m deg) kg m/s3 deg
or (J m/s m2 deg)Mass flow rate (mass flux) Kilogram per second kg/sMass flux density Kilogram per square meter-second kg/m2 sElectric charge Coulomb (C) A sElectromotive force Volt (V) or W/A kg m2/A s3
Electric resistance Ohm (�) or V/A kg m2/A2 s3
Electric conductivity Ampere per volt-meter (A/V m) A2 s3/kg m3
Electric capacitance Farad (F) or A s/V A3 s4/kg m2
Magnetic flux Weber (Wb) or V s kg m2/A s2
Inductance Henry (H) or V s/A kg m2/A2 s2
Magnetic permeability Henry per meter (H/m) kg m/A2 s2
Magnetic flux density Tesla (T) or weber per square meter (Wb/m2) kg/A s2
Magnetic field strength Ampere per meter A/mMagnetomotive force Ampere ALuminous flux lumen (lm) cd srLuminance Candela per square meter cd/m2
Illumination lux (lx) or lumen per square meter (lm/m2) cd sr/m2
Appendix 559Ta
ble
A.4
.SI
Con
vers
ion
Mul
tiple
s
Acc
eler
atio
n(m
/s2)
ft/s
20.
3048
gal
0.01
Free
fall
(g)
9.80
665
in/s
20.
0254
Ang
le[r
adia
n(r
ad)]
Deg
ree
0.01
7453
29Se
cond
4.84
8137
×10
−6M
inut
e2.
9088
82×
10−4
Gra
de1.
5707
96×
10−2
Are
a:(m
2)
Acr
e40
46.8
73H
ecta
re1
×10
4
Are
100.
00m
i2(U
.S.s
tatu
te)
2.58
9998
×10
6
ft2
9.29
0304
×10
−2yd
20.
8361
274
Ben
ding
Mom
ento
rTo
rque
:(N
m)
Dyn
ecm
1×
10−7
lbf
in0.
1129
848
kgf
m9.
8066
50lb
fft
1.35
5818
ozf
in7.
0615
52×
10−3 E
lect
rici
tyan
dM
agne
tism
a
Am
pere
hour
3600
coul
omb
(C)
EM
Uof
indu
ctan
ce8.
987
×10
11he
nry
(H)
EM
Uof
capa
cita
nce
109
fara
d(F
)E
MU
ofre
sist
ance
8.98
7×
1011
(�)
EM
Uof
curr
ent
10am
pere
(A)
Fara
day
9.65
×10
19co
ulom
b(C
)E
MU
ofel
ec.p
oten
tial
10−8
volt
(V)
Gam
ma
10−9
tesl
a(T
)E
MU
ofin
duct
ance
10−9
henr
y(H
)G
auss
10−4
tesl
a(T
)E
MU
ofre
sist
ance
10−9
ohm
(�)
Gilb
ert
0.79
57am
pere
(A)
ESU
ofca
paci
tanc
e1.
112
×10
−12
fara
d(F
)M
axw
ell
10−8
web
er(W
b)E
SUof
curr
ent
3.33
6×
10−1
0am
pere
(A)
mho
1.0
siem
ens
(S)
EM
Uof
elec
.pot
entia
l29
9.79
volt
(V)
ohm
cent
imet
er0.
01oh
mm
eter
(�m
)
560 AppendixTa
ble
A.4
Con
tinu
ed
Ene
rgy
(Wor
k):[
joul
e(J
)]B
ritis
hth
erm
alun
it(B
tu)
1055
Kilo
calo
rie
4187
Cal
orie
4.18
kWh
3.6
×10
6
Cal
orie
(kilo
gram
)41
84To
n(n
ucle
areq
uiv.
TN
T)
4.18
4×
109
Ele
ctro
nvol
t1.
6021
9×
10−1
9th
erm
1.05
5×
108
erg
10−7
Wh
3600
ftlb
f1.
3558
18W
s1.
0ft
poun
dal
0.04
214
Forc
e[n
ewto
n(N
)]D
yne
10−5
Oun
ce-f
orce
0.27
8K
ilogr
am-f
orce
9.80
6Po
und-
forc
e(l
bf)
4.44
8K
ilopo
nd(k
p)9.
806
Poun
dal
0.13
82ki
p(1
000
lbf)
4448
Ton-
forc
e(2
000
lbf)
8896
Hea
tB
tuft
/(h
ft2
◦ F)
1.73
07W
/(m
K)
cal/c
m2
4.18
×10
4J/
m2
(the
rmal
cond
uctiv
ity)
Btu
/lb23
24J/
kgca
l/(cm
2m
in)
697.
3W
/m2
Btu
/(lb
◦ F)=
cal/(
g◦ C
)41
86J/
(kg
K)
cal/s
4.18
4W
(hea
tcap
acity
)B
tu/f
t33.
725
×10
4J/
m3
◦ Fh
ft2/B
tu0.
176
Km
2/W
(the
rmal
resi
stan
ce)
cal/(
cms
◦ C)
418.
4W
/(m
K)
ft2/h
(the
rmal
diff
usiv
ity)
2.58
×10
−5m
2/s
Len
gth
[met
er(m
)]A
ngst
rom
10−1
0M
icro
inch
2.54
×10
−8A
stro
nom
ical
unit
1.49
5979
×10
11M
icro
met
er(m
icro
n)10
−6C
hain
20.1
1M
il2.
54×
10−5
Ferm
i(fe
mto
met
re)
10−1
5M
ile(n
autic
al)
1852
.000
Foot
0.30
48M
ile(i
nter
natio
nal)
1609
.344
Inch
0.02
54Pi
ca(p
rint
er’s
)4.
217
×10
−3L
ight
year
9.46
055
×10
15Y
ard
0.91
44
Appendix 561Ta
ble
A.4
Con
tinu
ed
Lig
htcd
/in.2
1550
cd/m
2la
mbe
rt3.
183
×10
3cd
/m2
Foot
cand
le10
.76
lx(l
ux)
lm/f
t210
.76
lm/m
2
Foot
lam
bert
3.42
6cd
/m2
Mas
s[k
ilogr
am(k
g)]
Car
at(m
etri
c)2
×10
−4O
unce
(tro
yor
apot
heca
ry)
3.11
0348
×10
−2G
rain
6.47
9891
×10
−5Pe
nnyw
eigh
t1.
555
×10
−3G
ram
0.00
1Po
und
(lb
avoi
rdup
ois)
0.45
3592
4H
undr
edw
eigh
t(lo
ng)
50.8
02Po
und
(tro
yor
apot
heca
ry)
0.37
32H
undr
edw
eigh
t(sh
ort)
45.3
59Sl
ug14
.593
9kg
fs2
/m9.
8066
50To
n(l
ong,
2120
lbs)
907.
184
Oun
ce(a
voir
dupo
is)
2.83
4952
×10
−2To
n(m
etri
c)10
00
Mas
spe
rU
nitT
ime
(Inc
lude
sFl
ow)
perm
(0◦ C
)5.
721
×10
−11
kg/(
Pas
m2)
lbs/
(hp
h)SP
C(s
peci
ficfu
el1.
6896
59×
10−7
kg/J
cons
umpt
ion)
lbs/
h1.
2599
×10
−4kg
/sTo
n(s
hort
)/h
0.25
199
kg/s
lbs/
s0.
4535
912
kg/s
Mas
spe
rU
nitV
olum
e(I
nclu
des
Den
sity
and
Cap
acity
)(k
g/m
3)oz
(avo
irdu
pois
)/ga
l6.
236
oz(a
voir
dupo
is)/
gal
7.48
9(U
.K.l
iqui
d)(U
.S.l
iqui
d)oz
(avo
irdu
pois
)/in
.317
29.9
9Sl
ug/f
t351
5.37
88lb
s/ga
l(U
.S.l
iqui
d)11
.982
6kg
/m3
Ton
(lon
g)/y
d313
28.9
39
Pow
er:w
att(
W)
Btu
(Int
erna
tiona
l)/s
1055
.056
Hor
sepo
wer
(ele
ctri
c)74
6ca
l/s4.
184
Hor
sepo
wer
(met
ric)
735.
499
erg/
s10
−7H
orse
pow
er(U
.K.)
745.
7H
orse
pow
er(5
50ft
lbf/
s)74
5.69
99To
nof
refr
iger
atio
n35
17(1
2,00
0B
tu/h
)
562 AppendixTa
ble
A.4
Con
tinu
ed
Pres
sure
orSt
ress
[pas
cal(
Pa)]
Atm
osph
ere,
stan
dard
1.01
325
×10
5D
yne/
cm2
0.1
Atm
osph
ere,
tech
nica
l9.
8066
5×
104
Foot
ofw
ater
(39.
2◦F)
2988
.98
Bar
105
Poun
dal/f
t21.
4881
64C
entim
eter
ofm
ercu
ry(0
◦ C)
1333
.22
psi(
lbf/
in.2
)68
94.7
57C
entim
eter
ofw
ater
(4◦ C
)98
.063
8To
rr(m
mH
g,0◦
C)
133.
322
Rad
iatio
nU
nits
Cur
ie3.
7×
1010
becq
uere
l(B
q)R
em0.
01si
ever
t(Sv
)ra
d0.
01gr
ay(G
y)R
oent
gen
2.58
×10
−4C
/kg
Tem
pera
ture
◦ Cel
sius
T(K
)=
t(◦ C
)+
273.
15K
◦ Fah
renh
eit
T◦ (
C)=
[t(◦ F
)−
32]/1
.8◦ C
◦ Fah
renh
eit
T(K
)=
[t◦F+
459.
67]/1
.8K
◦ Ran
kine
T(K
)=
T(◦
R)/
1.8
Vel
ocity
(Inc
lude
sSp
eed)
(m/s
)ft
/s0.
3048
mi/h
(int
erna
tiona
l)0.
4470
4in
./s2.
54×
10−2
rpm
(rev
olut
ions
/min
)0.
1047
rad/
sK
not(
inte
rnat
iona
l)0.
5144
4
Vis
cosi
ty:(
Pas)
Cen
tipos
e10
−3lb
fs/
in.2
6894
.757
(dyn
amic
visc
osity
)C
entis
toke
s10
−6rh
e10
1/(P
as)
(kin
emat
icvi
scos
ity)
pois
e0.
1Sl
ug/(
fts)
47.8
8026
Poun
dals
/ft2
1.48
8164
Stok
es10
−4m
2/s
lbs/
(fts
)1.
4881
64
Vol
ume
(Inc
lude
sC
apac
ity)
(m3)
Acr
e-fo
ot12
33.4
89G
ill(U
.S.)
1.18
2941
×10
−4B
arre
l(oi
l,42
gal)
0.15
8987
3in
.31.
6387
06×
10−5
Bus
hel(
U.S
.)3.
5239
×10
−2L
iter
10−3
Appendix 563Ta
ble
A.4
Con
tinu
ed
Cup
2.36
588
×10
−4O
unce
(U.S
.flui
d)2.
9573
53×
10−5
Oun
ce(U
.S.fl
uid)
2.95
735
×10
−5Pi
nt(U
.S.d
ry)
5.50
6105
×10
−4ft
32.
8316
8×
10−2
Pint
(U.S
.liq
uid)
4.73
1765
×10
−4G
allo
n4.
5460
9×
10−3
Tabl
espo
on1.
478
×10
−5(C
anad
ian,
U.K
.liq
uid)
Gal
lon
(U.S
.liq
uid)
3.78
54×
10−3
Ton
(reg
iste
r)2.
8316
58G
allo
n(U
.S.d
ry)
4.40
488
×10
−3yd
30.
7645
5
a ESU
mea
nsel
ectr
osta
ticcg
sun
it;E
MU
mea
nsel
ectr
omag
netic
cgs
unit.
564 Appendix
Table A.5. Dielectric Constants of Some Materials at Room Temperature (25◦C)
Material κ Frequency Material κ Frequency(Hz) (Hz)
Air 1.00054 0 Paraffin 2.0–2.5 106
Alumina ceramic 8–10 104 Plexiglas 3.12 103
Acrylics 2.5–2.9 104 Polyether sulfone 3.5 104
ABS/polysulfone 3.1 104 Polyesters 3.22–4.3 103
Asphalt 2.68 106 Polyethylene 2.26 103–108
Beeswax 2.9 106 Polypropylenes 2–3.2 104
Benzene 2.28 0 Polyvinyl chloride 4.55 103
Carbon tetrachloride 2.23 0 Porcelain 6.5 0Cellulose nitrate 8.4 103 Pyrex glass (7070) 4.0 106
Ceramic 14–110 106 Pyrex glass (7760) 4.5 0(titanium dioxide)
Cordierite 4–6.23 104 Rubber (neoprene) 6.6 103
Compound for 300–5000 0 Rubber (silicone) 3.2 103
thick-film capacitorsDiamond 5.5 108 Rutile ⊥ optic axis 86 108
Epoxy resins 2.8–5.2 104 Rutile || optic axis 170 108
Ferrous oxide 14.2 108 Silicone resins 3.4–4.3 104
Flesh (skin, blood, 97 40 × 106 Tallium chloride 46.9 108
muscles)Flesh (fat, bones) 15 40 × 106 Teflon 2.04 103–108
Lead nitrate 37.7 6 × 107 Transformer oil 4.5 0Methanol 32.63 0 Vacuum 1 —Nylon 3.5–5.4 103 Water 78.5 0Paper 3.5 0
Table A.6. Properties of Magnetic Materials
Residual Coercive TemperatureMEP Induction Force Coefficient
Material [G Oe × 106] [G × 103] (Oe × 103) (%/◦C) Cost
R.E. Cobalt 16 8.1 7.9 −0.05 HighestAlnico 1, 2, 3, 4 1.3–1.7 5.5–7.5 0.42–0.72 −0.02 to −0.03 MediumAlnico 5, 6, 7 4.0–7.5 10.5–13.5 0.64–0.78 −0.02 to −0.03 Medium/highAlnico 8 5.0–6.0 7–9.2 1.5–1.9 −0.01 to 0.01 Medium/highAlnico 9 10 10.5 1.6 −0.02 HighCeramic 1 1.0 2.2 1.8 −0.2 LowCeramic 2, 3, 4, 6 1.8–2.6 2.9–3.3 2.3–2.8 −0.2 Low/mediumCeramic 5, 7, 8 2.8–3.5 3.5–3.8 2.5–3.3 −0.2 MediumCunife 1.4 5.5 0.53 — MediumFe–Cr 5.25 13.5 0.6 — Medium/highPlastic 0.2–1.2 1.4 0.45–1.4 −0.2 LowestRubber 0.35–1.1 1.3–2.3 1–1.8 −0.2 Lowest
Source: Adapted from Sprague, CN-207 Hall Effect IC applications, 1986.
Appendix 565
Table A.7. Some Materials at Room Temperature
Material ρ TCR (α) Material ρ TCR (α)
(×10−8� m) (×10−3/1) (×10−8� m) (×10−3/1)
Aluminaa > 1020 Palladium 10.54 3.7Aluminum (99.99%) 2.65 3.9 Platinum 10.42 3.7Beryllium 4.0 0.025 Platinum 18.2
+ 10% rhodiumBismuth 106 Polycrystalline glassa 6.3 × 1014
Brass (70Cu, 30Zn) 7.2 2.0 Rare earth metals 28–300Carbon 3500 −0.5 Silicon (3.4–
(very sensitive to 15)× 106
purity)Chromium plating 14–66 Silicon bronze 21.0
(96Cu, 3Si, 1Zn)Constantan 52.5 0.01 Silicon nitride 1019
(60Cu, 40Ni)Copper 1.678 3.9 Silver 1.6 6.1Evanohm (75Ni, 20Cr, 134 Sodium 4.75
2.5Al, 2.5Cu)Germanium 46 × 106 Stainless steel (cast) 70–122
(polycrystalline)Gold 2.12 3.4 Tantalum 12.45 3.8Iridium 5.3 Tantalum carbide 20Iron (99.99%) 9.71 6.5 Tin 11.0 4.7Lead 22 3.36 Titanium 42Manganese 185 Titanium 48–199
and its alloysManganin 44 0.01 Titanium carbides 105Manganin 48 Tungsten 5.6 4.5
(84Cu, 12Mn, 4Ni)Mercury 96 0.89 Zinc 5.9 4.2Mullitea 1021 Zircona > 1020
Nichrome 100 0.4 Zirconium and its 40–74alloys
Nickel 6.8 6.9
aVolume resistivity.
Table A.8. Properties of Piezoelectric Materials at 20◦C
PVDF BaTiO3 PZT Quartz TGS
Density (×103 kg/m3) 1.78 5.7 7.5 2.65 1.69Dielectric constant, εr 12 1700 1200 4.5 45Elastic modulus (1010 N/m) 0.3 11 8.3 7.7 3
d31 = 20Piezoelectric constant (pC/N) d32 = 2 78 110 2.3 25
d33 = −30Pyroelectric constant (10−4 C/m2 K) 4 20 27 — 30Electromechanical coupling constant (%) 11 21 30 10 —Acoustic impedance (106 kg/m2 s) 2.3 25 25 14.3 —
566 Appendix
Table A.9. Physical Properties of Pyroelectric Materials
Curie Thermal Relative Pyroelectric PyroelectricMaterial Temperature Conductivity Permitivity Charge Voltage Coupling,
Coeff. Coeff. k2p (%)
(◦C) (W/mK) (εr ) (C/m2 K) (V/mK)
Single CrystalsTGS 49 0.4 30 3.5 × 10−4 1.3 × 106 7.5LiTa03 618 4.2 45 2.0 × 10−4 0.5 × 106 1.0
CeramicsBaTiO3 120 3.0 1000 4.0 × 10−4 0.05 × 106 0.2PZT 340 1.2 1600 4.2 × 10−4 0.03 × 106 0.14
PolymersPVDF 205 0.13 12 0.4 × 10−4 0.40 × 106 0.2
Polycrystalline LayersPbTiO3 470 2 200 2.3 × 10−4 0.13 × 106 0.39
(monocrystal)Note: The above figures may vary depending on manufacturing technologies.Source: From Meixner, H., Mader, G., and Kleinschmidt, P. Infrared sensors based on the pyroelectricpolymer polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Siemens Forsch. Entwicl. Ber. Bd. 15(3), 105–114, 1986.
Table A.10. Characteristics of Thermocouple Types
SensitivityJunction Materials (at 25◦C) Temperature Applications Designation
(µV/◦C) Range (◦C)
Copper/constantan 40.9 −270 to 600 Oxidation, reducing, inert, Tvacuum; preferred below0◦C; moisture resistant
Iron/constantan 51.7 −270 to 1000 Reducing and inert Jatmosphere; avoidoxidation and moisture
Chromel/alumel 40.6 −270 to 1300 Oxidation and inert Katmospheres
Chromel/constantan 60.9 −200 to 1000 EPt (10%)/Rh–Pt 6.0 0 to 1550 Oxidation and inert S
atmospheres; avoidreducing atmosphere andmetallic vapors
Pt (13%)/Rh–Pt 6.0 0 to 1600 Oxidation and inert Ratmospheres; avoidreducing atmosphere andmetallic vapors
Slver–Paladium 10.0 200 to 600Constantan–tungsten 42.1 0 to 800Silicon–aluminum 446 −40 to 150 Used in thermopiles and
micromachined sensors
Appendix 567
Table A.11. Thermoelectric Coefficients and Volume Resistivities of Selected Elements
Element α(µV K−1) ρ (µ� m)
p-Si 100–1000 10–500p-Poly-Si 100–500 10–1000Antimony (Sb) 32 18.5Iron (Fe) 13.4 0.086Gold (Au) 0.1 0.023Copper (Cu) 0 0.0172Silver (Ag) −0.2 0.016Aluminum (Al) −3.2 0.028Ptinum (Pt) −5.9 0.0981Cobalt (Co) −20.1 0.0557Nickel (Ni) −20.4 0.0614Bismuth (Bi) −72.8 1.1n-Si −100 to −1000 10–500n-Poly-Si −100 to −500 10–1000
Source: Adapted from Schieferdecker, J., et al. Infrared ther-mopile sensors with high sensitivity and very low tempera-ture coefficient. Sensors Actuators A 46–47, 422–427, 1995.
Table A.11a. Thermocouples for Very Low and Very High Temperatures
Materials Useful range Approx. sensitivity(◦C) (µV/◦C)
Iron–constantan Down to −272 −32Copper–constantan Down to −273 −22.9Cromel–alumel Down to −272 −23.8Tantalum–tungsten Up to 3000 6.1Tangsten– Up to 2900 2.8
tangsten(50)molybdenumTangsten–tangsten(20)rhenium Up to 2900 12.7
Table A.12. Densities (kg/m3) of Some Materials at 1 atm Pressure and 0◦C
Best Laboratory Vacuum 10−17 Silica 1,938–2,657
Hydrogen 0.0899 Graphite recrystallized 1,938Helium 0.1785 Borosilicate glass (TEMPAX®)a 2,200Methane 0.7168 Asbestos fibers 2,400–3,300Carbon monoxide 1.250 Silicon 2,333Air 1.2928 Polycrystalline glass 2,518–2,600Oxygen 1.4290 Aluminum 2,700Carbon dioxide 1.9768 Mullite 2,989–3,293Plastic foams 10–600 Silicon nitride 3,183Benzene 680–740 Alumina ceramic 3,322–3,875Alcohol 789.5 Zinc alloys 5,200–7,170Turpentine 860 Vanadium 6,117Mineral oil 900–930 Chromium 7,169Natural rubber 913 Tin and its alloys 7,252–8,000Polyethylene, low density 913 Stainless steel 8,138Ice 920 Bronzes 8,885Polyethylene, high density 950 Copper 8,941Carbon and graphite fibers 996–2,000 Cobalt and its alloys 9,217Water 1,000 Nickel and its alloys 9,125Nylon 6 1,100 Bismuth 9,799Hydrochloric acid (20%) 1,100 Silver 10,491Acrylics 1,163–1,190 Lead and its alloys 11,349Epoxies 1,135–2,187 Palladium 12,013Coal tar 1,200 Mercury 13,596Phenolic 1,126–2,989 Molybdenum 13,729Glycerin 1,260 Tantalum and its alloys 16,968PVC 1,350 Gold 19,320Saran fibers 1,700 Tungsten and its alloys 19,653Sulfuric acid (20%) 1,700 Platinum 21,452Polyester 1,800 Iridium 22,504Beryllium and its alloys 1,855–2,076 Osmium 22,697
aTEMPAX® is a registered trademark of Schott Glasswerke, Mainz, Germany.
Table A.13. Mechanical Properties of Some Solid Materials
Material Modulus Poisson’s ratio (ν) Density (kg/m3)of elasticity (GPa)
Aluminum 71 0.334 2,700Beryllium copper 112 0.285 8,220Brass 106 0.312 8,530Copper 119 0.326 8,900Glass 46.2 0.125 2,590Lead 36.5 0.425 11,380Molybdenum 331 0.307 10,200Phosphor bronze 11 0.349 8,180Steel (carbon) 207 0.292 7,800Steel (stainless) 190 0.305 7,750
Appendix 569
Table A.14. Mechanical Properties of Some Crystalline Materials
Yield Knoop Young’s Density Thermal ThermalStrength Hardness Modulus Conductivity Expansion(×1010 (kg/mm2) (×1012 (g/cm3) (W/cm ◦C) (×10−6/◦C)
Material dyn/cm2) dyn/cm2)
Diamonda 53 7000 10.35 3.5 20.0 1.0SiCa 21 1280 7.0 3.2 3.5 3.3TiCa 20 1270 4.97 4.9 3.3 6.4Al2O3
a 15.4 2100 5.3 4.0 0.5 5.4Si3N4
a 14 3486 3.85 3.1 0.19 0.8Irona 12.6 400 1.96 7.8 0.803 12.0SiO2 (fibers) 8.4 820 0.73 2.5 0.014 0.55Sia 7.0 850 1.9 2.3 1.57 2.33Steel (max. strength) 4.2 1500 2.1 7.9 0.97 12.0W 4.0 485 4.1 19.3 1.78 4.5Stainless steel 2.1 660 2.0 7.9 0.329 17.3Mo 2.1 275 3.43 10.3 1.38 5.0Al 0.17 130 0.70 2.7 2.36 25.0aSingle crystal.
Source: From Petersen, K. E. Silicon as a mechanical material. Proc. IEEE 70(5), 420–457, 1982.
Table A.15. Speed of Sound Waves
Medium Speed (m/s) Medium Speed (m/s)
Air (dry at 20◦C) 331 Copper 3,810Steam (134◦C) 494 Aluminum 6,320Hydrogen (20◦C) 1,330 Pyrex® glass 5,170Water (fresh) 1,486 Steel 5,200Water (sea) 1,519 Beryllium 12,900Lead 1,190
Note: Gases at 1 atm pressure, solids in long thin rods
Table A.16. Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion of Some Materials (per ◦C×10−6)
Material α Material α
Alnico I (permanent magnet) 12.6 Nylon 90Alumina (polycrystalline) 8.0 Phosphor–bronze 9.3Aluminum 25.0 Platinum 9.0Brass 20.0 Plexiglas (Lucite) 72Cadmium 30.0 Polycarbonate (ABS) 70Chromium 6.0 Polyethylene (high density) 216Comol (permanent magnet) 9.3 Silicon 2.6Copper 16.6 Silver 19.0Fused quartz 0.27 Solder 50-50 23.6Glass (Pyrex®) 3.2 Steel (SAE 1020) 12.0Glass (regular) 9.0 Steel (stainless: type 304) 17.2Gold 14.2 Teflon 99Indium 18.0 Tin 13.0Invar 0.7 Titanium 6.5Iron 12.0 Tungsten 4.5Lead 29.0 Zinc 35.0Nickel 11.8
570 Appendix
Table A.17. Specific Heat and Thermal Conductivity of Some Materials (at 25◦C)
Specific Heat Thermal conductivity Density
Material (J/kg ◦C) (W/m ◦C) (kg/m3)
Air (1 atm) 995.8 0.012 1.2Alumina 795 6 4,000Aluminum 481 88–160 2,700Bakelite 1,598 0.23 1,300Brass 381 26–234 8,500Chromium 460 91Constantan 397 22 8,800Copper 385 401 8,900Diamond 99–232Fiberglass 795 0.002–0.4 60Germanium 60Glass (Pyrex) 780 0.1 2,200Glass (regular) 1.9–3.4Gold 130 296 19,300Graphite 112–160Iron 452 79 7,800Lead 130 35 11,400Manganin 410 21 8,500Mercury 138 8.4 13,500Nickel and its alloys 443 6–50 8,900Nylon 1,700 0.12 1,100Platinum 134 73 21,400Polyester 1,172 0.57–0.73 1,300Polyurethane foam 0.012 40Silicon 668 83.7 2,333Silicone oil 1,674 0.1 900Silver 238 419 10,500Stainless steel 460 14–36 8,020Styrofoam 1,300 0.003–0.03 50Teflon TFE 998 0.4 2,100Tin 226 64 7,300Tungsten 139 96.6 19,000Water 4,184 0.6 1,000Zinc 389 115–125 7,100
Appendix 571
Table A.18. Typical Emissivities of Different Materials (from 0◦C to 100◦C)
Material Emissivity Material Emissivity
Blackbody (ideal) 1.00 Green leaves 0.88Cavity Radiator 0.99–1.00 Ice 0.96Aluminum (anodized) 0.70 Iron or steel (rusted) 0.70Aluminum (oxidized) 0.11 Nickel (oxidized) 0.40Aluminum (polished) 0.05 Nickel (unoxidized) 0.04Aluminum (rough surface) 0.06–0.07 Nichrome (80Ni–20Cr) (oxidized) 0.97Asbestos 0.96 Nichrome (80Ni–20Cr) (polished) 0.87Brass (dull tarnished) 0.61 Oil 0.80Brass (polished) 0.05 Silicon 0.64Brick 0.90 Silicone rubber 0.94Bronze (polished) 0.10 Silver (polished) 0.02Carbon-filled latex paint 0.96 Skin (human) 0.93–0.96Carbon lamp black 0.96 Snow 0.85Chromium (polished) 0.10 Soil 0.90Copper (oxidized) 0.6–0.7 Stainless steel (buffed) 0.20Copper (polished) 0.02 Steel (flat rough surface) 0.95–0.98Cotton cloth 0.80 Steel (ground) 0.56Epoxy Resin 0.95 Tin plate 0.10Glass 0.95 Water 0.96Gold 0.02 White paper 0.92Gold black 0.98–0.99 Wood 0.93Graphite 0.7–0.8 Zinc (polished) 0.04
572 Appendix
Table A.19. Refractive Indices (n) of Some Materials
Material n Wavelength (µm) Note
Vacuum 1Air 1.00029Acrylic 1.5 0.41AMTIR-1 2.6 1 Amorphous glassa
(Ge33As12Se55) 2.5 10AMTIR-3 2.6 10 Amorphous glassa
(Ge28Sb12Se60)As2S3 2.4 8.0 Amorphous glassa
CdTe 2.67 10.6Crown glass 1.52Diamond 2.42 0.54 Excellent thermal conductivityFused silica (SiO2) 1.46 3.5Borosilicate glass 1.47 0.7 TEMPAXb
Transparent: 0.3–2.7µmGaAs 3.13 10.6 Laser windowsGermanium 4.00 12.0Heaviest flint glass 1.89Heavy flint glass 1.65Irtran 2 (ZnS) 2.25 4.3 Windows in IR sensorsKBr 1.46 25.1 HygroscopicKCl 1.36 23.0 HygroscopicKRS-5 2.21 40.0 ToxicKRS-6 2.1 12 ToxicNaCl 1.89 0.185 Hygroscopic, corrosivePolyethylene 1.54 8.0 Low-cost IR windows/lensesPolystyrene 1.55Pyrex 7740 1.47 0.589 Good thermal and optical propertiesQuartz 1.54Sapphire (Al2O3) 1.59 5.58 Chemically resistantSilicon 3.42 5.0 Windows in IR sensorsSilver bromide (AgBr) 2.0 10.6 CorrosiveSilver chloride (AgCl) 1.9 20.5 CorrosiveWater (20◦C) 1.33ZnSe 2.4 10.6 IR windows, brittle
aAvailable from Amorphous Materials, Inc., Garland, TX.bTEMPAX® is a registered trademark of Schott Glasswerke, Mainz, Germany.
Appendix 573
Table A.20. Characteristics of C–Zn and Alkaline Cells
Battery W h/L W h/kg Drain Rate Shelf Life
Carbon–zinc 150 85 Low–medium 2 yearsAlkaline 250 105 Medium–high 5 years
Source: From Powers, R.A. Batteries for low power electronics.Proc. IEEE, 83(4), 687–693, 1995.
Table A.21. Lithium–Manganese Dioxide Primary Cells
Construction Voltage Capacity Rated dc Pulse Energy(mA h) Current Current Density
(mA) (mA) (W h/L)
Coin 3 30–1,000 0.5–7 5–20 500Cyl. wound 3 160–1,300 20–1,200 80–5,000 500Cyl. bobbin 3 650–500 4–10 60–200 620Cyl. “D” cell 3 10,000 2,500 575Prismatic 3 1,150 18 490Flat 3/6 150–1,400 20–125 290
Source: From Powers, R.A. Batteries for low power electronics. Proc. IEEE, 83(4),687–693, 1995.
Table A.22. Typical Characteristics of “AA”-Size Secondary Cells
System Volts Capacity Ratea W h/L W h/kg Cycles Loss/month(mA h) (C) (%)
NiCad 1.2 1000 10 150 60 1000 15Ni–MH 1.2 1200 2 175 65 500 20Pb acid 2 400 1 80 40 200 2Li ion (CoO2) 3.6 500 1 225 90 1200 8Li/MnO2 3 800 0.5 280 130 200 1
aNote: Discharge rate unit, C (in mA), is equal numerically to the nominal capacity (in mA h).
574 AppendixTa
ble
A.2
3.M
inia
ture
Seco
ndar
yC
ells
and
Bat
teri
es
Man
ufac
ture
rPa
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576 Appendix
Table A.24. Electronic Ceramics (Between 25◦C and 100◦C)
96% Beryllia Boron Aluminum Silicon SiliconAlumina (BeO) Nitrade Nitrade Carbide (Si)
(Al2O3) (BN) (AlN) (SiC)
Hardness, Knopp 2000 1000 280 1200 2800 —(kg/mm2)
Flexural strength 3.0 1.7–2.4 0.8 4.9 4.4 —(105 N/m2)
Thermal conductivity 21 250 60 170–200 70 150(W/(m K)
Thermal expansion 7.1 8.8 0.0 4.1 3.8 3.8(10−6/K)
Dielectric strength 8.3 19.7 37.4 14.0 15.4 —(kV/mm)
Dielectric loss 3–5 4–7 4 5–10 500 —(10−4 tan delta at1 MHz)
Dielectric 10 7.0 4.0 8.8 40 —constant, κ(at 10 MHz)
Appendix 577Ta
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458
Index
α-particles, 443
A/D, 175, 177, 183aberrations, 136ablation sensor, 293, 294ABS, 539absolute sensor, 7, 461absolute temperature, 507absolute zero, 96absorber, 107absorption, 127, 145, 514absorption coefficient, 129absorptivity, 133acceleration, 217, 218, 301, 312accelerometer, 29, 113, 116, 304accuracy, 17, 219, 305, 398acoustic, 73, 146, 331acoustic measurements, 383acoustic noise, 228acoustic pressure, 93acoustic sensors, 381, 388acoustics, 69, 381acousto-optic, 147acrylic, 539active bridge, 200active sensor, 7, 164actuator, 75additive noise, 208AFIR, 426, 477aging, 29air bubble, 257airflow, 375aluminum, 400, 430, 550aluminum coatings, 541
aluminum nitride, 75aluminum oxide, 400AM, 290Ampere’s law, 54amperometric devices, 503amplifier, 155, 186, 416AMTIR, 543angular displacement, 316angular encoding, 270antenna, 173, 290aperture, 142appliances, 227arsenic trisulfate, 543ASIC, 156attenuation coefficient, 129auxiliary electrode, 505avalanche, 449, 450, 455avalanche photodiodes, 414
band gap, 408band-gap references, 171bandwidth, 27, 205barometer, 342battery, 222bead-type thermistors, 473beams, 318Becquerel, 89becquerel, 444Beer’s law, 108Beer–Lambert law, 515Bell, 93bellows, 342Bernoulli, 339, 361beryllium, 541
580 Index
bias current, 154, 156bias resistor, 251bimetal, 97binary codes, 176biological sensors, 388, 519bismuth, 451blackbody, 106, 109, 130bolometer, 434, 435Boltzmann constant, 205, 413bonding, 554boron, 552Boyle, 339brass, 144breakwire, 294breeze sensor, 374bridge circuit, 401brightness, 130British unit of heat, 95broadband detectors, 426
cable, 213cadmium telluride, 454calibration, 18, 25, 466calibration error, 19calibration temperature, 98, 470Callendar–van Dusen, 463candela, 130cantilever, 372cantilever beam, 330capacitance, 44, 69, 187, 211, 233, 259, 387,
399, 415, 508capacitive accelerometer, 306capacitive bridge, 261capacitive coupling, 234capacitive sensor, 48, 161, 162, 350, 396capacitor, 44, 67, 76, 78, 155, 162, 167, 172,
178, 187, 212, 234, 238, 261, 306catalytic devices, 510cavity, 19, 278, 311, 373, 426cavity effect, 109CdS, 421Celsius, 96, 491ceramic, 309, 542characteristic temperature, 64, 467charge, 188charge amplifier, 161charge detector, 234charge-balance, 179charge-to-voltage converter, 188
chemFET, 504chemical poisoning, 501chemical reaction, 512, 513chemical sensor, 3, 142, 499chemical species, 505chemiluminescence, 514chemometrics, 521, 523chip thermistor, 473chromatogram, 521circuit protection, 480cladding, 140, 142, 516Clark electrode, 508clock, 183CMOS, 310, 374, 436CMRR, 156, 160, 210CO, 506CO2, 108, 506, 514, 515coating, 135coaxial cables, 174cobalt, 55, 63coefficient of reflection, 126coil, 57, 255, 266, 302, 319cold junction, 89collector, 418comparator, 171, 181complex devices, 502complex sensor, 4, 512concentrator, 144condenser microphones, 382conductance, 504conduction, 99conduction band, 408conductive plastics, 540conductivity, 61, 409, 503conductivity sensor, 507conductometric devices, 503constantan, 481contact resistance, 101contact sensor, 457contamination, 500convection, 99, 102converter, 177, 431copolymer, 75copper, 38, 60, 111, 135, 385, 540, 541Coriolis, 376Coriolis acceleration, 314Coriolis force, 316Coriolis tube, 376cost, 161
Index 581
Coulomb’s law, 40cross-talk, 215crystal, 76, 147, 335, 389, 409, 421, 538, 550crystalline materials, 42, 408Curie point, 77Curie temperature, 32, 70, 80, 266, 320, 477current, 511current generator, 162, 165current mirror, 165current pump, 165current sink, 165current source, 165, 199, 203cutoff frequency, 26CVD, 76, 372, 546
D/A, 176DAC, 189damping, 28damping factor, 28damping medium, 304Darlington connection, 419data acquisition, 151dead band, 23decibel, 93deflection, 13dew point, 393, 402Dewar, 296Dewar cooling, 423diaphragm, 253, 331, 342, 349, 382, 386dielectric, 46, 386dielectric absorption, 215dielectric constant, 46, 297, 398differential equation, 26, 116differential sensor, 210diffusion, 552digital format, 177diode, 488diode sensor, 489dipole, 46dipole moment, 42, 78direct conversion, 38direct devices, 502direct sensor, 3, 4disbalanced bridge, 193displacement, 253, 271, 274, 301displacement sensor, 285dissipation constant, 478dissipation factor, 475distance sensor, 270
distortion mask, 241divider, 190door openers, 231Doppler, 230Doppler effect, 229, 287, 367drag element, 377drag force sensor, 377driven shield, 235dual-ramp, 175dual-slope, 181dynamic error, 25dynamic range, 15, 320, 367dynodes, 445
eddy currents, 264, 292Einstein, 407elasticity, 92, 387electret, 386electret microphone, 387electric charge, 38, 39, 59, 331electric current, 83, 451electric dipole, 42electric field, 39, 40, 59, 418, 446electric potential, 43electrical conduction, 60electrochemical cell, 506, 508electrochemical sensor, 505, 526electrode, 236, 237, 260, 296, 508electrolyte, 500, 506, 509electromagnetic flowmeter, 370electromagnetic radiation, 238, 407electromagnetic sensor, 302electrometer, 507electromotive force, 56electron, 51, 82, 408electron multiplication, 447electron–hole pairs, 451electronic nose, 499, 526electrostatic, 212electrostatic gyro, 314electrostatic shield, 213emissivity, 105, 106, 146, 245, 430emitter, 107, 248, 418encoding disk, 282energy bonds, 537e-nose, 524, 525enzyme, 513enzyme sensors, 520epoxy, 29, 308, 540
582 Index
error, 33, 186etch mask, 550, 553etching, 549Euler, 323excimer laser, 547excitation, 25, 493excitation signal, 7excitation voltage, 204
Fabry–Perot, 149, 278, 353, 427Fahrenheit, 95failure, 31farad, 45Faraday, 52, 56, 370Faraday cage, 41Faraday’s Law, 52, 302Faradic current, 511far-infrared, 107, 111, 132, 135, 425far-infrared (AFIR), 437feedback, 4, 161, 167, 205, 335Ferdinand II, 95Fermi, 89ferroelectric, 66, 477ferromagnetic, 52, 263FET, 500fiber, 140, 383fiber-optic, 147, 275, 436, 515fiber-optic sensor, 142, 278field lines, 39, 45filament, 479film, 399, 435film transducers, 75filter, 181, 279filtering, 124first-order response, 114flame, 439flow, 369flow measurement, 361flow rate, 360flow resistance, 361flowmeter, 348, 366fluid, 329, 339, 383fluoroplastics, 539fluoroptic method, 493flux, 40, 109, 126, 130, 144, 250focus, 136focusing lens, 420foil, 487follower, 155
force, 39, 323, 327, 333, 334, 377forced convection, 102format, 37Fourier, 91Fourier transforms, 522FP interferometer, 353FPA, 435Fraden Model, 468Franklin, 38frequency, 517frequency range, 27frequency response, 26, 153Fresnel, 138Fresnel lens, 138, 247frost point, 402FSR, 332FTIR, 522full scale, 15
gain–bandwidth product, 157Galileo, 339γ -radiation, 443γ -rays, 103gas, 4, 108, 309, 333, 341, 354, 363, 374,
376, 439, 449, 499, 514, 537gas analyzer, 425gas chromatographs, 520gas sensor, 503, 510, 524gauge, 65gauge sensor, 348Gauss’ law, 40, 41Gaussian System, 9Geiger–Müller counter, 450geometrical optics, 123geometry factor, 47germanium, 39, 436, 454Gilbert, 50glass, 140, 509, 543, 554glucose, 509Golay cells, 426gold, 135, 144, 542gold black, 146GPS, 301grating, 281gravimetric detector, 517gravitational sensor, 256gravity, 305Gunn oscillator, 229gyroscope, 313
Index 583
H2O, 108Hall, 82Hall coefficient, 83Hall effect, 82, 267, 346, 534Hall effect sensor, 85, 268harmonic, 230, 334heat, 457heat absorption, 475heat capacity, 98heat loss, 364heat pump, 402heat sink, 81, 309heat transfer, 99heated probe, 520heat-flow detector, 77Henry, 56, 370Hooke, 95hot junction, 89Howland, 167humidity, 29, 35, 75, 393, 526humidity sensor, 49, 401hybrid, 159hydrocarbon fuel, 512hydrocarbon sensor, 500hydrogel, 505hydrophone, 381hygristors, 66hygrometer, 402hygrometric sensor, 399hysteresis, 20, 253, 332
identification, 499illumination, 130image, 242immobilization, 519inclination detectors, 256index of refraction, 125, 141inductance, 57inertia, 26, 115inertial mass, 308, 311infrared, 105, 238, 434, 492, 514infrared detectors, 425infrared flux, 3infrared sensor, 543infrasonic, 388inherent noise, 204input, 151input impedance, 151, 152, 158input resistance, 154
input stage, 152instrumentation amplifier, 159insulation, 486integrator, 179intensity sensor, 143interface circuit, 152interferometer, 280, 383intrusion, 173intrusive sensors, 294ion, 448ionization, 447ionizing chamber, 448ionizing radiation, 29, 164, 450IR, 128IR detector, 107IR spectrometers, 520iridium, 542ISA, 481ITS-90, 463
JFET, 154, 219, 375, 388, 431, 432Johnson noise, 205, 206Joule, 89, 355, 364Joule heat, 479junction, 427, 482junction capacitance, 411
Kawai, 72Kelvin, 7, 96, 248, 490, 496keyboard, 324kinetic energy, 60, 104Kirchhoff, 61, 105, 145, 458Kirchhoff’s laws, 61, 118KOH etch, 550Korotkoff sounds, 385krypton, 451KTY, 464
Laplace transforms, 303laser, 112, 384laser gyro, 318law of reflection, 125LC, 171LCD, 113lead, 541leakage current, 154, 414least squares, 22LeChatelier, 89LED, 37, 195, 239, 258, 280, 283, 494, 515
584 Index
lens, 240, 242, 249, 277, 420Leslie, 393level detectors, 278, 291life test, 32LIGA, 547light, 111, 123, 136, 146, 243, 276, 411, 445,
494, 511linearity, 21liquid, 278, 296, 363lithium, 66, 147, 222, 453load cells, 324logarithmic scale, 15logic circuits, 171long-term stability, 29loudspeaker, 3lumen, 130luminescence, 441LVDT, 263, 302, 325
magnesium, 541magnet, 55, 268, 274magnetic field, 50, 53, 82, 103, 215, 268,
314, 317, 371, 447magnetic flux, 267, 351magnetic noise, 216magnetic pole, 50magnetic reluctance sensor, 275magnetic sensor, 262, 540magnetic shielding, 216, 540magnetism, 50magnetite, 50magnetization, 52magnetoresistive sensor, 271magnetostrictive detector, 274manganese, 63mass, 305, 324, 359, 378, 516mass spectrometers, 520material characteristic, 468matrix, 487Maxwell, 371MCT, 423measurand, 2membrane, 427, 525MEMFET, 505MEMS, 269, 427, 430, 439, 534, 547MEMSIC, 310MEOMS, 547mercury switch, 257metal, 223, 272, 408, 504, 540
metal carbides, 542metal films, 145, 549metal oxide, 69, 473, 503metallic electrode, 452metallization, 473Michelson, 383microbalance method, 525microbalance sensors, 516microcalorimetry, 513microcontroller, 185microgravimetric technique, 517micromachining, 547, 549microphone, 381microsensor, 510microwave, 288, 477microwave devices, 434mid-infrared, 111, 425, 426military standard, 32MIR, 289mirror, 134, 242modulation, 171, 290moisture, 66, 393, 396molybdenum, 542monolithic sensors, 491MOS, 188motion detector, 136, 227, 237MTBF, 31multiplexing, 183multiplicative noise, 209multivibrator, 178mutual inductance, 58
natural frequency, 27, 344near-infrared, 111, 420Nernst equation, 507, 511neural network, 527neuron, 528Newton, 95, 115, 126Newton’s law, 313nichrome, 326, 430, 487nickel, 63, 224, 541noise, 178, 204, 219, 238, 275, 312, 351,
417, 423, 522nonlinearity, 20, 21NTC, 465, 503nuclear radiation, 443n-wells, 85nylon, 539Nyquist, 371
Index 585
occupancy sensors, 227odor classification, 528odor sensor, 524Oersted, 51offset, 186offset voltage, 153, 156Ohm’s law, 100, 162, 165, 432olfactory cells, 525one-shot, 179OPAM, 156, 172, 188open-loop, 157open-loop gain, 188operational amplifier, 156, 201optical cavity, 353optical contrast, 240optical detection, 412optical modulation, 514optical paths, 516optical power, 412optical sensor, 494, 514, 520optocoupler, 403organic, 29oscillating hygrometer, 403oscillating response, 28oscillating sensor, 516oscillator, 172, 178, 187, 235, 263, 390, 396output capacitance, 154output current, 167output impedance, 24output resistance, 165output signal format, 2oxygen, 67, 499, 508, 509
p-n junction, 18, 284, 353, 408, 411, 488palladium, 542parallel-plate capacitor, 45parametric methods, 523Pascal, 339passive sensor, 7Pellister, 514Peltier, 90, 403Peltier effect, 90, 423, 438pH, 515phase, 1, 305phase lag, 153phase shift, 27phenolic, 540phosphor, 492photocatalytic sensors, 511
photocathode, 446photocurrent, 421photodetector, 131, 276, 410, 419, 445photodiodes, 410, 411photoeffect, 37, 284, 407photoelectron, 445photomultiplier, 407, 422, 444photon, 13, 112, 407, 445, 450photoresist, 148, 548photoresistor, 195, 243, 410, 420photosensor, 419phototransistors, 410, 418photovoltaic mode, 414, 415piecewise approximation, 14piezoelectric, 245, 288, 309, 319, 320, 324,
334, 368, 385, 389, 517piezoelectric crystal, 431, 496piezoelectric effect, 66, 496, 518, 534piezoelectric film, 320, 328, 543piezoelectric hygrometer, 403piezoelectric plastics, 540piezoresistive accelerometer, 307piezoresistive bridge, 308piezoresistive effect, 64, 325piezoresistive gauge, 344piezoresistive sensors, 350PIN photodiode, 413pink noise, 206pipe, 61PIR, 145, 245, 426, 427, 430, 437Pirani gauge, 354Planck, 103Planck’s constant, 407Planck’s law, 103plano-convex lens, 136plastic, 112, 140, 231, 331, 536platinum, 63, 64, 145, 461, 487, 505, 514,
542platinum film, 436Poisson ratio, 92polarization, 46, 71, 79, 112, 147, 276polarization filter, 112, 277poling, 43, 70polycarbonate, 539polyester, 539polyethylene, 107, 155, 536, 539polymer, 74, 140, 332, 396polymer films, 80, 512polymer matrix, 512, 525
586 Index
polymerization, 538polypropylene, 539polysilicon, 430, 436, 535, 550polystyrene, 399polyurethane, 539popcorn noise, 205position, 253, 270position-sensitive detector, 283potential, 511potentiometer, 255potentiometric devices, 503, 507preaging, 474predictive, 457pressure, 189, 324, 339pressure gradient, 361pressure sensor, 6, 197, 227, 280, 341, 350,
373, 381primary cells, 223prototype, 219proximity, 234proximity detector, 277proximity sensor, 253, 260PS, 536PSD, 281, 283, 427p-substrate, 85PTC thermistor, 477PVDF, 71, 72, 247, 320, 328, 385PWM, 189pyroelectric, 76, 245, 430pyroelectric coefficient, 247pyroelectric current, 433pyroelectric sensor, 30, 73, 76, 161pyroelectricity, 77pyrometry, 425PZT, 389, 434
Q-spoilers, 175quantification, 499quantum detector, 161, 407, 423quartz, 67, 403, 516, 534quenching, 450
radar, 6, 289, 297radiation, 95, 99, 111, 133, 239, 448, 451,
457radiation bandwidth, 104radiation detection, 447radiation spectrum, 103radio waves, 291
radio-frequency, 172radioactivity, 443ratiometric technique, 190RC, 171reactive ion etching, 553redox reactions, 506reference, 190, 200reference diode, 170reference electrode, 505, 510reference sensor, 484reference temperature, 62, 485reference voltage, 187reflection, 124reflective surface, 134reflectivity, 133refraction, 124refractive index, 141, 147relative humidity, 49, 394, 396relative sensors, 461reliability, 31Renaldi, 95repeatability, 23resistance, 59, 254, 284, 341, 535resistance multiplication, 164resistive bridge, 193resistive load, 165resistive sensor, 153resistivity, 60resistor, 61, 164, 179, 190, 203, 247, 344,
349, 372, 375, 465, 476resolution, 23, 181, 186, 205, 316, 374resonant, 304, 387resonant sensors, 553resonator, 317retina, 144return electrode, 505Reyleigh waves, 517RF, 229RH, 32rhodium, 542roentgen, 444root-sum-of-squares, 34rotor, 313RTD, 355, 366, 477, 481, 514RVDT, 264
Sagnac effect, 317sampling rate, 177saturation, 22
Index 587
SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 501, 517scale, 95Schmitt trigger, 267Schottky noise, 206scintillation counters, 444secondary cells, 224second-order response, 114security alarms, 231security system, 234Seebeck, 86, 484Seebeck coefficient, 87Seebeck effect, 3, 221, 534Seebeck potential, 88, 483selectivity, 500, 524self-heating, 467, 474self-heating error, 30self-heating sensor, 366self-induction, 57semiconductor, 408, 421, 484semiconductor detectors, 451semiconductor diode, 452sensitivity, 14, 25, 194, 304, 312, 387, 422,
500, 524SFB, 347shield, 235, 260shielding, 212signal conditioning, 151signal-to-noise ratio, 156signatures, 527silicate, 543silicon, 39, 85, 197, 284, 306, 317, 344, 349,
353, 398, 464, 489, 504, 517, 533silicon bonding, 549silicon diaphragms, 550silicon diode, 170, 452silicon dioxide, 549silicon micromachining, 547silicon nitride, 549silicon plate, 517silicon sensor, 464silicon wafer, 548, 550, 554silicone, 102, 494silicone oil, 304silkscreen, 327silver, 70, 542SiO2, 413skin, 112smart chemical sensors, 530Snell, 125
Snell’s law, 125, 141SnO2, 503solder, 221solenoid, 54solid-state detectors, 455sound waves, 92span errors, 199species, 499specific heat, 82, 98specific resistivity, 61, 409spectroscopy, 449spectrum, 112, 213speed, 301speed response, 26spherical mirrors, 136spin-casting, 544spinning-rotor gauge, 356sputtering, 545, 546square-wave oscillator, 171statistical methods, 523Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 105, 249, 372Stefan–Boltzmann law, 14, 105, 244, 249,
372, 429, 437Steinhart and Hart model, 470stimulus, 2, 153, 190, 202, 209storage, 29straight line, 18strain, 13, 65, 326, 342, 377strain gauge, 143, 324, 325, 332stress, 343stress detectors, 227string, 92substrate, 517successive-approximation technique, 175supervised classification, 523switched-capacitor, 187synchronous detector, 263systematic error, 524systematic inaccuracy, 17
tactile sensor, 327target species, 500TCR, 199, 479Teflon, 155, 388, 509temperature, 30, 47, 60, 75, 77, 88, 94, 129,
169, 195, 206, 219, 244, 310, 335, 355,363, 398, 425, 435, 457, 476, 525
temperature coefficient, 159, 280temperature compensation, 196
588 Index
temperature correction, 49temperature differential, 367temperature gradient, 117temperature profile, 101temperature sensitivity, 536temperature sensor, 19, 49, 312, 403, 460,
490TGS, 80thermal accelerometer, 309thermal capacitance, 26, 81, 98thermal conductivity, 100, 355, 401, 460thermal coupling, 436thermal expansion, 96thermal feedback, 481thermal flux, 106, 438thermal grease, 481thermal mass, 427thermal radiation, 14, 78, 144, 244, 426, 434thermal resistance, 81, 117, 458thermal shock, 33thermal time constant, 435thermistor, 5, 35, 62, 401, 435, 465, 513thermoanemometer, 363thermochromic solution, 494thermocouple, 7, 89, 311, 427, 481thermocouple amplifier, 485thermocouple assemblies, 486thermocouple loop, 482thermodynamics, 513thermoelectric, 438thermoelectric coefficients, 429thermoelectric coolers, 423thermoelectric law, 482thermoelectric voltage, 484thermoelectricity, 87thermometer, 109, 403, 468thermopile, 89, 311, 427, 484thermoplastic, 538thermostat, 257, 480thermowell, 486thick films, 465thick oxide, 552thickness, 293thin film, 487, 517, 554thin plate, 344thin-film material, 544Thompson, 86Thomson heating, 91threshold, 186
threshold circuits, 240threshold device, 171tilt sensor, 257time constant, 26, 81, 118, 460, 476, 492TiO2, 511titanium, 63toroid, 55torque, 43, 313Torricelli, 339total internal reflection, 141transceiver, 229transducer, 3transfer function, 13, 17, 19, 29, 210, 525transistor, 418, 488transition temperature, 478transmission, 148transmittance, 128, 133transmitted noise, 208, 211, 228triboelectric detectors, 237triboelectric effect, 38true value, 13tube, 144tube of flow, 359tungsten, 62, 542two-wire transmitter, 202two-point calibration, 19
U.S. Customary System, 9ultrasonic, 274, 367, 385ultrasonic crystal, 496ultrasonic waves, 287, 496ultraviolet (UV), 111, 439, 492, 511, 543,
548uncertainty, 18, 33unsupervised classification, 523
V/F, 176, 177vacuum, 46, 111, 135, 146, 314, 333, 354,
400vacuum chamber, 544, 545vacuum deposition, 545vacuum sensor, 356vacuum tube, 356valence band, 409, 421VCR, 433vector, 53, 82vehicle, 301velocity, 301, 359, 362, 368velocity of light, 111
Index 589
velocity sensor, 302vertex curvature, 140vibrating gyro, 314vibration, 303vibration detectors, 227, 331virtual ground, 163, 167, 432Volta, 222voltage follower, 158, 432voltage offset, 205voltage source, 202voltage-to-current converter, 202voltage-to-frequency (V/F), 175Voltaic pile, 51voltammetry, 522VRP, 351
Warburg impedance, 508warm-up time, 25warping, 97water, 386water tank, 48water-level sensor, 48waveguide, 143, 144, 148, 232, 275
wavelength, 104, 126, 410weber, 55Wheatstone bridge, 192, 195, 204, 273, 275,
341, 344, 513, 514white noise, 206Wiedemann effect, 274Wien’s law, 104window, 132window comparator, 240wiper, 254wire, 51work function, 408working electrode, 505
xenon, 451, 492X-rays, 443, 547
Young’s modulus, 73, 92
zener diode, 169zinc, 542zinc oxide, 75