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Page 1: Table of Contents Exit Chapter 19 Attitudes, Culture, and Human Relations

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Chapter 19

Attitudes, Culture, and Human Relations

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Attitudes and Beliefs

Learned tendency to respond to people, objects, or institutions in a positive or negative way Summarize your evaluation of objects

Belief Component: What a person believes about the object of an attitudeEmotional Component: Feelings towards the object of an attitudeAction Component: One’s actions towards various people, objects, or institutions

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Fig. 19.1 Elements of positive and negative attitudes toward affirmative action.

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Attitude FormationDirect Contact: Personal experience with the object of the attitudeInteraction with Others: Influence of discussions with people holding a particular attitudeChild Rearing: Effects of parental values, beliefs, and practicesGroup Membership: Social influences from belonging to certain groupsMass Media: All media that reach large audiences (magazines, television)Mean Worldview: Viewing the world and other people as dangerous and threatening

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Attitude Measurement and Change

Chance Conditioning: Condition that occurs by chance or coincidenceSocial Distance Scale: Scale where the degree of a person’s willingness to have contact with a member of another group is measuredAttitude Scale: Statements on a scale expressing various possible views on an issueReference Group: Any group a person identifies with and uses as a standard for social comparison

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Persuasion

Persuasion: Deliberate attempt to change attitudes or beliefs with information and argumentsCommunicator: Person presenting

arguments or informationMessage: Content of communicator’s

argumentsAudience: Person or group to whom a

persuasive message is directed

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Consumer Psychology

Applied field that focuses on how consumers behave

Marketing Research: Public opinion polling where people are asked to give personal impressions of products, services, or advertising

Brand Image: Mental picture consumers have of a product, especially with regard to its emotional meaning

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Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)

Contradicting or clashing thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or perceptions cause discomfort We need to have consistency in our thoughts,

perceptions, and images of ourselves Underlies attempts to convince ourselves we did

the right thing

Justification: Degree to which one’s actions are explained by rewards or other circumstances

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Fig. 19.2 Summary of the Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study from the viewpoint of a person experiencing cognitive dissonance.

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Brainwashing

Brainwashing: Engineered or forced attitude change requiring a captive audience

Generally three steps to brainwash someone: Unfreezing: Loosening of former values and

convictions Change: When the brainwashed person abandons

former beliefs Refreezing: Rewarding and solidifying new

attitudes and beliefs

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Cults

Group that professes great devotion to a person or people and follows that person/people almost without question. Leader’s personality is usually more important

than the issues he/she preaches Cult members usually victimized by the leader(s) Will try to recruit potential converts at a time of

need, especially when a sense of belonging is most attractive to potential converts

Look for college students and young adults

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Examples of Cults

People’s Temple and Jim Jones; Heaven’s Gate; Branch Davidians

Where does “Scientology” fit?

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CNN – Heaven’s Gate Follow-up

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Prejudice

Negative emotional attitude held toward members of a specific social groupRacism: Racial prejudice that can be found in institutions (schools, etc.) and is enforced by existing social power structureSexism: Prejudice against men OR women, based solely on genderAgeism: Prejudice based on age; somewhat common in the USA

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Prejudice (cont.)

Discrimination: Unequal treatment of people who should have the same rights as others

Personal Prejudice: When members of another racial or ethnic group are perceived as a threat to one’s own self-interests

Group Prejudice: Occurs when a person conforms to group norms

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Fig. 19.3 Racial stereotypes are common in sports. For example, a study confirmed that many people actually do believe that “White men can’t jump.” This stereotype implies that Black basketball players are naturally superior in athletic ability. White players, in contrast, are falsely perceived as smarter and harder working than Blacks. Such stereotypes set up expectations that distort the perceptions of fans, coaches, and sportswriters. The resulting misperceptions, in turn, help perpetuate the stereotypes (Stone, Perry, & Darley, 1997).

© Vic Bider/PhotoEdit

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Prejudiced Personality

Authoritarian Personality: Marked by rigidity, inhibition, prejudice, and oversimplification

Ethnocentrism: Placing one’s group at the center, usually by rejecting all other groups

Dogmatism: Unwarranted positiveness or certainty in matters of belief or opinion Difficult for dogmatic people to change their beliefs

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Intergroup Conflict

Social Stereotypes: Oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular social group

Symbolic Prejudice: Prejudice expressed in a disguised fashionPrejudice is socially unacceptable but will

still express prejudice in disguised form

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Other Concepts Relating to Prejudice

Status Inequalities: Differences in power, prestige, or privileges of two or more people or groups

Equal-status Contact: Social interaction that occurs on equal level, without obvious differences in power or status

Superordinate Goal: Goal that exceeds or overrides all other goals, making other goals less important

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Other Concepts Relating to Prejudice (cont.)

Mutual Interdependence: When two or more people must depend on each other to meet each person’s goalsJigsaw Classroom: Each student only gets a piece of information needed to complete a problem or prepare for a test. In order to succeed and get all pieces, students must all work togetherPrejudicial stereotypes tend to be very irrational

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Aggression

Any action carried out with the intention of harming another personEthologists believe that aggression is innate in all animals, including humans Ethologist: Studies natural behavior patterns of

animals Appears to be a relationship between aggression

and hypoglycemia, allergy, and certain brain injuries and disorders

Certain brain areas can trigger or end aggressive behavior

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Aggression (cont.)

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Frustration tends to lead to aggression

Aggression Cues: Signals that are associated with aggression

Weapons Effect: Observation that weapons serve as strong cues for aggressive behavior

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Fig. 19.4 Personal discomfort caused by aversive (unpleasant) stimuli can make aggressive behavior more likely. For example, studies of crime rates show that the incidence of highly aggressive behavior, such as murder, rape, and assault, rises as the air temperature goes from warm to hot to sweltering (Anderson, 1989). The results you see here further confirm the heat-aggression link. The graph shows that there is a strong association between the temperatures at major league baseball games and the number of batters hit by a pitch during those games. When the temperature goes over 90°, watch out for that fastball (Reifman, Larrick, & Fein, 1991)!

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CNN – Videogame Doom

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Social Learning Theory (Bandura) and Television

Social Learning Theory: Combines learning principles with cognitive processes, socialization and modeling No instinctive (innate) desires for shooting guns,

knife fights and so on Aggression must be learned

Aggressive Pornography: Depictions in which violence, threats, or obvious power differences are used to force someone (usually a woman) to engage in sex

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Social Learning Theory (Bandura) and Television (cont.)

Disinhibition: Removal of inhibition; results in acting-out behavior that normally would be restrained

Television seems to be able to cause desensitization to violenceDesensitization: Reduced emotional

sensitivity

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Preventing Aggression

Prosocial Behavior: Behavior towards others that is helpful, constructive, or altruisticAnger Control: Personal strategies for reducing or curbing anger Define problem as precisely as possible Make a list of possible solutions Rank likely success of each solution Choose a solution and try it Assess how successful the solution was, and

make adjustments if necessary

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Fig. 19.5 Violent behavior among delinquent boys doesn’t appear overnight. Usually, their capacity for violence develops slowly, as they move from minor aggression to increasingly brutal acts. Overall aggression increases dramatically in early adolescence as boys gain physical strength and more access to weapons (Loeber & Hay, 1997).

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Prosocial Behavior and Bystander Apathy

Bystander Apathy: Unwillingness of bystanders to offer help during emergenciesRelated to number of people presentMore potential helpers present, less likely

people will give help

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Decision Points Reached Before Giving Help

Noticing the person in troubleDefining an Emergency: Until someone declares the situation an emergency, no one actsTaking Responsibility: Assume responsibility to help Diffusion of Responsibility: Spreading

responsibility to act among several people

Select a Course of Action

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Fig. 19.7 This decision tree summarizes the steps a person must take before making a commitment to offer help, according to Latané and Darley’s model.

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Empathy Concepts

Empathic Arousal: Emotional arousal that occurs when you feel some of the person’s pain, fear or anguish

Empathy-Helping Relationship: We are most likely to help person in need when we feel emotions such as empathy and compassion

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Multiculturalism

Gives equal status to different ethnic, racial, and cultural groupsTo Break Stereotypes:Seek individuating information

Information that helps us see a person as an individual and not as a member of a group

Don’t believe just-world beliefsBelief that people generally get what they

deserve

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More Ways to Break Stereotypes

Note self-fulfilling prophecies Expectation that prompts people to act in ways

that make expectation come true

Different does not mean inferior Avoid Social Competition: Rivalry among groups,

each of which regards itself as superior to others

Look for CommonalitiesUnderstand that race is a social constructionSet example for others

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CNN – Brazil: New Beliefs

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SociobiologyTheory that many human behaviors have roots in heredity; survival of groups also shapes social behavior War, competition, conformity, male-female differences, and

many other behaviors are innate

Biological Determinism: Belief that behavior is controlled by biological processes, such as heredity or evolution Extreme view questioned by many biologists

Some social behavior is based on genetics and evolution; however, cannot ignore social, cultural, emotional, and intellectual origins


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