t45 acm

NAVAL AIR TRAINING COMMAND

NAS CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS CNATRA P-1289 (REV. 2-07) PAT

AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING

FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTIONT-45TS, ADV, and IUT

2007

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T-45 FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTIONCHANGE SUMMARY PAGE

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ACM Flight Training Instruction List of Effective Pages

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FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTIONLIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES

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ACMFP-FTI

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ACM Flight Training Instruction List of Effective Pages

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FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION

FOR

AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING

T-45

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Air Combat Maneuvering Table of Contents

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................ vii

FIGURES ................................................................................................................................................... xi

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1

BASIC AERODYNAMIC REVIEW .............................................................................................................. 3

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................................................................... 5

ENERGY MANEUVERABILITY .................................................................................................................. 7

TURN PERFORMANCE NUMBERS ......................................................................................................... 11

T-45 GOUGE NUMBERS ......................................................................................................................... 12

APPLIED EM CONCEPTS ....................................................................................................................... 13QUICKEST 180-DEGREE TURN .......................................................................................................... 13SMALLEST 180-DEGREE TURN.......................................................................................................... 13

MANEUVERING OUR AIRCRAFT ........................................................................................................... 13VERTICAL MANEUVERING ................................................................................................................. 13TACTICAL VERTICAL FIGHT ............................................................................................................... 14VERTICAL EXTENSION ....................................................................................................................... 14REVERSAL TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................................... 14LONGITUDINAL PULL .......................................................................................................................... 18UNLOADED PUSHOVER ..................................................................................................................... 18

1 V 1 ACM ................................................................................................................................................ 19ACM PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................. 19ACM CUES ........................................................................................................................................... 19ACM TOOLS ......................................................................................................................................... 19ACM TRAINING RULES ....................................................................................................................... 20

GENERAL .......................................................................................................................................... 20WEATHER ......................................................................................................................................... 22

1 V 1 ACM EXECUTION .......................................................................................................................... 22OFFENSIVE ACM ................................................................................................................................. 22

OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................................................... 22EXECUTION ...................................................................................................................................... 23

OUTSIDE THE BUBBLE................................................................................................................. 24BUBBLE ENTRY............................................................................................................................. 25THE ATTACK WINDOW ................................................................................................................. 28PULL TO CONTROL ZONE ............................................................................................................ 28MISALIGNED TURN CIRCLES ...................................................................................................... 30RATE WAR (OFFENSIVE) ............................................................................................................. 31REDEFINING THE RATE WAR ...................................................................................................... 31STARTING FROM INSIDE THE DEFENDER�S BUBBLE ............................................................... 32DEFENDER REDEFINES ............................................................................................................... 33OFFENSIVE DECK TRANSITIONS................................................................................................ 33FLAT SCISSORS ............................................................................................................................ 34

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ROLLING SCISSORS..................................................................................................................... 36BUG RECOGNITION/COUNTER ................................................................................................... 39

TACADMIN ........................................................................................................................................ 40SNAP SHOT DRILL (SSD) ............................................................................................................. 42FLAT SCISSORS ............................................................................................................................ 46ROLLING SCISSORS..................................................................................................................... 486,000-FT PERCH SET .................................................................................................................... 49BREAK TURN EXERCISE .............................................................................................................. 50

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... 52DEFENSIVE ACM ................................................................................................................................. 53

OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................................................... 53EXECUTION ...................................................................................................................................... 53

ATTACKER OUTSIDE THE BUBBLE ............................................................................................. 55ATTACKER PURSUIT CURVES ..................................................................................................... 56ASSESS ATTACKER�S OFFENSIVE BREAK TURN ...................................................................... 57MISALIGNED TURN CIRCLES ...................................................................................................... 57RATE WAR (DEFENSIVE) ............................................................................................................. 58REDEFINE/REVERSE.................................................................................................................... 59DEFENSIVE DECK TRANSITIONS ................................................................................................ 61DECK REVERSAL CRITERIA ........................................................................................................ 62FLAT SCISSORS MANEUVERING (DEFENSIVE) ......................................................................... 63ROLLING SCISSORS MANEUVERING (DEFENSIVE) .................................................................. 65SEPARATION/BUG ........................................................................................................................ 66ATTACKER INSIDE BUBBLE ......................................................................................................... 67GUNS DEFENSE ........................................................................................................................... 68LOST SIGHT GAMEPLAN .............................................................................................................. 69

TACADMIN ........................................................................................................................................ 70SSD ................................................................................................................................................ 70FLAT SCISSORS ............................................................................................................................ 72ROLLING SCISSORS..................................................................................................................... 736,000-FT PERCH ............................................................................................................................ 74BREAK TURN EXERCISE .............................................................................................................. 75

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... 77HIGH ASPECT ACM ............................................................................................................................. 79

OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................................................... 79HIGH ASPECT CONCEPTS .............................................................................................................. 80

FLOW ............................................................................................................................................. 80CONTROLLING MERGES ............................................................................................................. 81VERTICAL MERGES ...................................................................................................................... 82ENGAGEMENT MINDSET ............................................................................................................. 83GAME PLAN DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................................... 84

EXECUTION ...................................................................................................................................... 87FIGHTER NOSE HIGH ................................................................................................................... 87FIGHTER NOSE LOW ................................................................................................................... 88FIGHTER TURNS LEVEL ............................................................................................................... 89DECK TRANSITIONS ..................................................................................................................... 89HIGH ASPECT BUG CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................... 90

TACADMIN ........................................................................................................................................ 91SSD ................................................................................................................................................ 91NEUTRAL SETS ............................................................................................................................. 91BVR ............................................................................................................................................... 92

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... 93

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THREE-PLANE ACM ............................................................................................................................ 94OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................................................... 94STRATEGIES/TACTICS .................................................................................................................... 94EXECUTION ...................................................................................................................................... 96

FORM ............................................................................................................................................. 96FLOW ............................................................................................................................................. 97ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES .................................................................................................. 98COMM ............................................................................................................................................ 98

TACADMIN ........................................................................................................................................ 99EN ROUTE EXERCISE ................................................................................................................ 101REAR-QUARTER ATTACKS ........................................................................................................ 103NO-SWITCH SCENARIO ............................................................................................................. 103SINGLE-SWITCH SCENARIO ..................................................................................................... 103MULTI-SWITCH SCENARIO ........................................................................................................ 105COUNTERFLOW .......................................................................................................................... 113ABEAM VISUAL IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE (ABEAM VID) ...................................................... 119BEYOND VISUAL RANGE (BVR) ................................................................................................. 123KNOCK IT OFF AND RETURN TO BASE .................................................................................... 129

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 129

SAFETY/EMERGENCY CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................... 131RELATIVE MOTION/EXCESSIVE CLOSURE .................................................................................... 131SITUATIONAL/SPATIAL AWARENESS .............................................................................................. 131GOOD START ..................................................................................................................................... 131LOST SIGHT/LOOKOUT .................................................................................................................... 132OUT-OF-CONTROL DEPARTURES ................................................................................................... 132AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................................... 132

SELF-TEST ............................................................................................................................................ 133

APPENDIX A .......................................................................................................................................... 137

APPENDIX B .......................................................................................................................................... 141

GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................ 147

INDEX .................................................................................................................................................... 155

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Air Combat Maneuvering

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FIGURES

Figure 1: AERODYNAMICS FORCES ACTING UPON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT ........................... 3Figure 2: ANGLE OF ATTACK VS CL ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4Figure 3: TURN RATE ADVANTAGE COMPARISON ........................................................................ 6Figure 4: GENERIC E/M DIAGRAM.................................................................................................... 8Figure 5: TURN PERFORMANCE - 10,000 FEET ............................................................................ 11Figure 6: VERTICAL MANEUVERING - THE EGG........................................................................... 13Figure 7: FLIGHT PATH OVERSHOOT............................................................................................ 15Figure 8: 3/9 LINE ............................................................................................................................. 16Figure 9: PURSUIT CURVES ........................................................................................................... 24Figure 10: CONTROL ZONE ENTRY ................................................................................................. 26Figure 11: BUBBLE ENTRY ................................................................................................................ 27Figure 12: ATTACK WINDOW ENTRY .............................................................................................. 29Figure 13: MISALIGNED TURN CIRCLES ......................................................................................... 30Figure 14: OFFENSIVE BREAK TURN EVALUATION ....................................................................... 32Figure 15: FLAT SCISSORS............................................................................................................... 34Figure 16: ROLLING SCISSORS ........................................................................................................ 37Figure 17: ROLLING SCISSORS POSITIONS ................................................................................... 38Figure 18: SNAP SHOT DRILL ........................................................................................................... 43Figure 19: FLAT SCISSORS............................................................................................................... 46Figure 20: ROLLING SCISSORS ........................................................................................................ 48Figure 21: STARTING INSIDE THE BUBBLE ..................................................................................... 49Figure 22: BREAK TURN EXERCISE ................................................................................................. 51Figure 23: ANGLE OFF-TAIL RECOGNITION.................................................................................... 55Figure 24: ATTACKER BUBBLE ENTRY............................................................................................ 56Figure 25: MISALIGNED TURN CIRCLES ......................................................................................... 58Figure 26: FLIGHT PATH OVERSHOOT............................................................................................ 60Figure 27: FLAT SCISSORS............................................................................................................... 63Figure 28: ROLLING SCISSORS ........................................................................................................ 65Figure 29: SNAP GUNS EXERCISE ................................................................................................... 71Figure 30: FLAT SCISSORS............................................................................................................... 72Figure 31: ROLLING SCISSORS ........................................................................................................ 73Figure 32: STARTING INSIDE THE BUBBLE ..................................................................................... 74Figure 33: BREAK TURN EXERCISE ................................................................................................. 76Figure 34: ONE-CIRCLE FLOW ......................................................................................................... 80Figure 35: TWO-CIRCLE FLOW ........................................................................................................ 81Figure 36: VERTICAL MERGES ......................................................................................................... 82Figure 37: ACM ENVIRONMENT ....................................................................................................... 83Figure 38: FIGHTER NOSE HIGH VS. OPPONENT HI/LEVEL/LO .................................................... 87Figure 39: FIGHTER NOSE LOW VS. OPPONENT HI/LEVEL/LO ..................................................... 88Figure 40: FIGHTER LEVEL VS. OPPONENT HI/LEVEL/LO ............................................................. 89Figure 41: BUTTERFLY SET .............................................................................................................. 92Figure 42: ONE-CIRCLE (MULTI) SWITCH SCENARIO .................................................................. 105Figure 42A: MULTI SWITCH SCENARIO ........................................................................................... 107Figure 42B: MULTI SWITCH SCENARIO ........................................................................................... 108Figure 42C: MULTI SWITCH SCENARIO ........................................................................................... 109Figure 43: DISENGAGEMENT BUGOUT (HAWK) ........................................................................... 112

Figures


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Figures

Figure 44: COUNTERFLOW EXERCISE.......................................................................................... 113Figure 45: COUNTERFLOW FREE FIGHTER 90-DEGREE CHECKPOINT .................................... 114Figure 46: COUNTERFLOW ............................................................................................................ 114Figure 47: VFQ - SETUP (SKULL) .................................................................................................... 117Figure 48: VFQ - BANDIT FLOW...................................................................................................... 119Figure 49: VFQ - KNOCK IT OFF FLOW (TIGER) ........................................................................... 120Figure 50: VFQ - OVERALL FLOW TO FOX-2 ................................................................................. 122Figure 51: BVR - BANDIT ABEAM THE SECTION (HAWK)............................................................. 125Figure 52: BVR - BANDIT IN-PLANE/IN-PHASE TWO-CIRCLE FLOW ........................................... 125Figure 53: CLASSIC TWO-CIRCLE FLOW ...................................................................................... 125Figure 54: FREE/ENGAGED FIGHTER INITIAL MOVE (HAWK) ..................................................... 126Figure 55: BVR - ONE-CIRCLE FLOW (HAWK)............................................................................... 126Figure 56: BVR - FIGHTERS USE �THREAT� INFORMATION (HAWK) .......................................... 127Figure 57: BVR - LATE FIGHTER MANEUVER ................................................................................. 127Figure 58: BVR - LATE FIGHTER MANEUVER - UNKNOWN BANDIT TARGET ............................ 128Figure 59: BVR - BANDIT SWITCH POST-MERGE (HAWK) ........................................................... 128Figure 60: BVR - BANDIT UNSEEN ENTRY (HAWK) ...................................................................... 128Figure 61: BVR - COUNTERFLOW DEFENSIVE ............................................................................. 128Figure 62: SYMBOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 154

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How to use this FTI

HOW TO USE THIS FTI

This Flight Training Instruction (FTI) is your textbook for the Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) stageof your Jet Pilot Training and is the source document for all procedures related to ACM. In addition,it includes suggested techniques for performing each maneuver and making corrections.

Use your FTI to prepare for and afterward to review lessons and flights. This information will helpyou effectively prepare for lessons: know all the procedures in the assigned section(s), review theglossary, and be prepared to ask your instructor about anything that remains unclear. Then you candevote your attention to flying the T-45A. After a flight, review the FTI materials to reinforce yourunderstanding and to clarify any difficult maneuvers or procedures.

Note that this FTI also contains information on emergencies related to this stage. This section of theFTI amplifies but does not supplant the emergency procedures information contained in the T-45ANATOPS manual.

Reading requirements for flight procedures lessons (lectures) are listed in Appendix A, �LessonPreparation,� along with the course learning objectives. The end-of-stage exam will be based onthese objectives. Complete the required reading prior to each lesson (lecture).


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How to use this FTI

NOTES


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Introduction

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INTRODUCTION

This Flight Training Instruction (FTI) is your textbook for the Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) stage ofyour Jet Pilot Training and is the source document for all procedures related to ACM. In addition, itincludes suggested techniques for performing each maneuver and making corrections.

Use your FTI to prepare for lessons and flights and afterward to review. In order to effectively prepare forlessons you should: know all the procedures in the assigned sections, review the glossary, and beprepared to ask your instructor about anything that remains unclear. You can then devote your attentionto flying the T-45. After a flight, review the FTI materials to reinforce your understanding and to clarifyany difficult maneuvers or procedures.

Note that this FTI also contains information on emergencies related to this stage. This section of the FTIamplifies but does not supplant the emergency procedures information contained in the T-45 NATOPSmanual.

Undeniably, 1 v 1 Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) training is fun, but there are a number of otherreasons why it is important that strike-fighter aircrew continue to study and train in 1 v 1 air combat.

� Combat Lessons Learned � Despite operating in an era of all-aspect, beyond visual rangemissiles, history has continuously proven that the majority of air battles are fought and won inthe visual arena. Even in the largest furball or multi-plane engagements, for that brief momentwhen the decision is made to engage an opponent, we are involved in a 1 v 1 engagement.Strike-fighter aircrew MUST be proficient at 1 v 1 ACM to minimize time-to-kill and ensure theyleave merges unscathed.

� Develops Fundamental Tactical Skills � Through ACM we are allowed to practice briefing,debriefing; stick, rudder and throttle mechanics and tactical decision-making. The develop-ment of these core tactical skills and the confidence we gain in maneuvering our aircraftthroughout its flight envelope improves our ability to perform and maintain situational aware-ness in other strike-fighter missions.

The fundamental tactics and maneuvers of air combat have changed little in the last 70 years. In thisstage, we will introduce the classic fighter versus fighter maneuvers and discuss how to employ them instaged and dynamic situations. It is incumbent upon all strike-fighter aircrew to have a sound under-standing of 1 v 1. The 1 v 1 ACM discussion will use a building block approach, progressing from basicaerodynamic review, to a look at the capabilities of our aircraft and to a 1 v 1 game plan development andexecution.


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Introduction

Baron Manfred von Richthofen, the infamous Red Baron of World War I, once described the basic scopeof air combat maneuvering (ACM) as fighter pilots roving in an area allotted to them, spotting an enemy,attacking, and shooting him down. The mission statement is grossly over-simplified when you take intoaccount all the principles of today�s section engaged maneuvering, along with modern technology andsophisticated weapon systems. The statement does, however, point out two key concepts in ACM:1) the basics of ACM have not changed since the early days of aviation, and 2) a fighter pilot mustmaintain constant aggressiveness for success.

As you move through ACM, you will expand on the basic tactical maneuvers learned in TacForm. Youwill first review the basic performance of low/high yo-yos and displacement rolls, and then be introducedto additional basic ACM maneuvers. Unlike previous blocks, your success will be gauged not on howwell you perform particular maneuvers, but on how well you integrate them with tactics and strategies towin one-versus-one against an enemy. Finally, you will be introduced to coordinating your flying with awingman and practicing section engaged maneuvering against a single bandit. What you learn here willgo with you throughout your career in tactical aviation.

By the time you complete ACM, you will not be an expert. That happens only in time through constantcoaching, practice, and experience. Next to CQ, ACM probably will be your most demanding phase offlight training, requiring immense concentration and attention to your instructors. You must go beyondjust mastering the procedures and concepts presented in the classroom or simply applying them in theair. ACM is in many ways an art form�the ultimate art form of aviation. How well you assimilate thoseprinciples, maneuvers, tactics, and strategies will depend upon an open mind and your willingness tonever give up.


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Background

BASIC AERODYNAMIC REVIEW

The forces acting on an aircraft in flight are thrust, weight, lift and drag (Figure 1). The interactions andchanges between these forces define the motion of an aircraft through the air.

During ACM, because thrust is usually at the maximum (MRT or Full Afterburner) and weight change isnegligible at any given moment, thrust and weight will be considered constant during the aerodynamicsreview. This leaves the aerodynamic forces of lift and drag as the primary variables to consider whenanalyzing an aircraft�s maneuvering performance.

FIGURE 1: AERODYNAMIC FORCES ACTING UPON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT


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Background

We will introduce some definitions for our discussion.

� LIFT � Lift is created by the resulting pressure differential as air flows over a wing.

� Coefficient of Lift (CL) � A non-dimensional constant that is based on the shape of the wing. It isa function of angle of attack (AOA), which is the angle between the airfoil chord line and therelative wind. Figure 2 depicts the relationship between CL and AOA.

As AOA is increased, lift is also increased up to CLMAX. The steep drop in CL at high AOA�s indicates thepoint at which a portion of the wing stalls. CLMAX occurs at 21 units AOA. At the lift limit the aircraft will bein heavy buffet. Lift and performance quickly diminish when pulling beyond CLMAX.

FIGURE 2: ANGLE OF ATTACK


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Background

BACKGROUND

� Lift versus Drag (L/D) � The ratio between CL and CD is the lifting efficiency of the wing and isdependent on AOA. This ratio is maximized at L/DMAX, which in jet aircraft corresponds tomaximum endurance AOA. L/DMAX for the T-45 is 14 units. A more efficient wing (greater L/Dratio) at all AOA�s results in better performance throughout the flight envelope.

� Total Drag � The forces of drag acting on an aircraft are a combination of induced, parasitic andMach Drag and act parallel to the relative wind.

� Induced Drag (DI) � A direct by-product of lift and is associated with wingtip vortices. In general,induced drag is the predominant drag contributor at lower airspeeds. At higher airspeeds, whenpulling high g, the DI curve flattens and DI may actually become the predominate form of drag.

� Parasitic Drag (Dp) � Drag created by skin friction and frontal area. Parasitic drag increases withexternal stores loading (higher drag count) and is more pronounced at higher airspeeds.

♦ Mach Drag (Dm) � Since air accelerates over an airfoil to produce lift, the local velocity willbecome supersonic at some free airstream Mach number less than 1.0 IMN. This airspeed isdefined as critical Mach (Mcr). At Mcr, drag sharply increases due to local shock wave formationacross the airfoil.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Aerodynamic theory is an important tool and you need to have a working understanding of your aircraft�sperformance characteristics. Applying a basic knowledge of aerodynamics, the pilot must be able toidentify and compare the factors that will have the greatest influence on tactics. These include:

� Wing loading

� Instantaneous g

� Thrust-to-Weight

� Sustained g

� Acceleration

� Turn Rate

� Turn Radius

Knowing where these factors are optimized for the aircraft and that of the adversary�s should have adirect impact on how to fight.

Turn Rate � The rate at which an aircraft changes direction in its plane-of-motion (POM). Higher gavailable, especially at lower airspeeds, will increase the turn rate of an aircraft. Turn rate differences aslow as 1 degree per second are tactically significant.


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Background

Fighter A Fighter B Advantage Advantage

Rate deg/sec Rate deg/sec After 180 of Turn After 360 of Turn

15 16 12 24

13 16 42 84

FIGURE 3: TURN RATE ADVANTAGE COMPARISON

Figure 3 shows three comparisons between two aircraft turning at different rates. In this example, whenfighter B�s turn rate is 1 degree per second greater, the positional advantage after 360 degrees of turn is24 degrees. Furthermore, with 3 and 6-degree turn rate advantages; the positional advantage is 84 and216 degrees after 360 degrees of turn respectively. Over time, just a few degrees per second advantagecan result in a huge positional advantage.

Turn Radius � Turn radius is the distance that an aircraft displaces in a turn. An aircraft that can pull highg at low airspeeds will have a small turn radius. Moving towards the right side of the Turn Performancediagram (increased airspeeds), the turn radius rapidly increases. To minimize separation betweenaircraft and keep a fight collapsed, attempt to remain towards the left side of the diagram.

Acceleration � To maximize acceleration, we need to minimize drag and maximize thrust. Our practicalapplication of this is achieved by selecting MRT and unloading at 0 g. If 0 g is good, is -1 g better? Theanswer is no because -1 g actually creates lift is the opposite direction thus developing induced drag.

Total Energy - The total energy of an aircraft is a combination of potential energy (altitude) and kineticenergy (airspeed). Due to different weights and configurations of various aircraft, it is more useful toapply derivations of Total Energy � Specific Energy and Specific Excess Power � for accurate maneuverperformance comparison.

Specific Energy (Es) � ES is defined as total energy divided by aircraft weight expressed in units of feet.

Specific Excess Power (PS) � By deriving the change in ES over time, aircraft performance can be relatedto energy. In other words, the energy gained or lost can be determined for the performance. PS dependson the relationship between thrust and drag. If thrust is greater than drag, then PS is positive and energyis added. If thrust is less than drag, then PS is negative and energy is bled. PS also allows the pilot tomeasure an aircraft�s ability to pull g�s and transfer energy into turn performance. Comparing aircraft atvarious performance parameters (turn rate and radius as a function of airspeed and g) and the corre-sponding PS values give an indication of how an engagement might evolve.


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Background

ENERGY MANEUVERABILITY

Energy maneuverability (EM) is a comparison technique initially developed by Major John R. Boyd, USAFand Mr. T. P. Christie in 1966 to explain what had been observed in Southeast Asia between the F-4Cand MIG-21C and to provide a game plan for F-4 aircrew. EM must be used in conjunction with othercomparison techniques to fully develop a winning game plan. An EM diagram charts the specificmaneuverability of an aircraft based on its energy state. From the EM diagram we can derive manyuseful ACM parameters.

� Corner Speed

� Minimum Instantaneous Turn Radius

� Maximum Energy Addition Rates

� Turn Rate Capability: Instantaneous and Sustained

� Turn Radius Capability: Instantaneous and Sustained

� Load Limit

� Lift Limit


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Background

The EM diagram (Figure 4) is only accurate for a specific altitude, configuration and power setting.However, in the T-45 that is typically around 10,000 ft, clean at MRT. Your fleet airplane will take intoconsideration the use of high lift devices (maneuvering slats and flaps) as well as combat weapons loads.

FIGURE 4: GENERIC E/M DIAGRAM


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Background

The lift limit line is indicative of slow speed handling, and effective wing loading. Wing loading may notbe as simple to derive as it used to be because of the modern fighter�s tendency to possess high liftdevices, machines, strakes, and other aerodynamic improvements. The T-45, however, is prettystraightforward. Corner velocity is the lowest airspeed at which maximum �G� is available and as suchequates to the instantaneous best turn the aircraft is capable of performing. This is not to say that youcan be doping along at corner velocity, put the stick in your lap for a break turn and expect to get 7.33�G�s� from the jet. Note the high Ps value on the generic diagram. This equates to a large airspeedbleed-off. The T-45 does not necessarily have this problem. It sustains energy very well, but thisequates to a fairly large turn radius. We will see this when we examine the T-45 Turn Performancediagram. The large turn radius of the T-45 would be a definite detraction in some cases, but in theTraining Command you will only fight other T-45s, so the disadvantage is negated.

Take a look at the Ps=0 line. Ps=0 is really only significant on the deck where you can�t trade altitude forairspeed. The peaks of the various lines of constant Ps indicate our best speed for energy addition.

Lift Limit Line � As discussed earlier, for a given Mach number, lift can only be increased by increasingAOA to CLMAX before the wing stalls. This lift limit capability is represented on the maneuvering diagramas the left hand boundary to the maneuvering envelope. At the lift limit, the aircraft performance and loadfactor capability are aerodynamically limited.

Limit Load Factor � The available load factor is limited by the structural (maximum g) capability of anaircraft. This structural limit determines the upper boundary of an aircraft�s performance envelope.

Q-limit � Total dynamic air pressure, or maximum Q, defines the right hand boundary of the maneuver-ing envelope.

PS = 0 Line � One of the most important and overlooked comparison tools on the Em diagram. The topindicates an aircraft�s maximum sustained turn rate. The intersection along the horizontal axis is themaximum turning and level airspeed the aircraft can sustain.

Corner Airspeed - Corner airspeed is the lowest airspeed at which maximum �G� is available. Forcomparison, four parameters should be noted at the aircraft corner velocity:

� Turn Rate

� Turn Radius

� KCAS/KIAS

� Bleed Rate

While the maximum instantaneous turn rates at corner airspeed may appear impressive, realize that theEM diagram depicts a snapshot in time. In a level, maximum performance turn, airspeed will quicklydecrease.


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Background

Best 1-G Acceleration � The best energy addition rate for an aircraft occurs beneath the highest valuepositive PS contour depicted on the graph and is normally associated with an airspeed or Mach number.This corresponds to the velocity where drag is minimized.

Altitude Effects on Maneuverability - For our discussions, we will use a 10,000 ft as a basis for all ourEM discussions. Realize that sustained and instantaneous turn rates will increase approximately 2-3degrees/second for every 5,000 ft of altitude loss.


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Background

TURN PERFORMANCE NUMBERS

Before considering how to effectively perform our aircraft in the 1 v 1 arena, be absolutely familiar withthe performance of your own machine throughout the flight envelope. Because it would be impractical toreference an EM diagram throughout the flight envelope, commit some gouge performance numbers tomemory. These numbers are required information. Don�t show up to fight without them.

FIGURE 5: TURN PERFORMANCE - 10,000 FEET


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Background

T-45 GOUGE NUMBERS

Target AOA�s

� Break Turn - 19-21 units

� Hard Turn - 17 units

� Sustained -Turn 14 units (PS = 0)

� Unload - 5-10 units

Airspeeds

� Corner Airspeed - 410 KIAS

� Max Instantaneous Turn Rate - 410 KIAS at max g

� Sustained Turn Rate Band - 300-330 KIAS

� Maximum Sustained Turn Rate at 10,000 ft - 230 KIAS

� Minimum Radius Airspeed Band - 130-150 KIAS

� Minimum Vertical Airspeed - 300 KIAS

� Best Acceleration - 0 g


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Flight Procedures

APPLIED EM CONCEPTS

QUICKEST 180-DEGREE TURN

To consider our quickest turn, focus on getting our nose turned around as quickly as possible (TurnRate). If our best instantaneous turn rate occurs at 410 KIAS and maximum g, we will start there. Whenwe pull, we want to use whatever altitude we have above the hard deck to keep our speed up, thus givingus more energy available to obtain a faster turn rate. This means we will overbank and descendthroughout the turn. From 15,000 ft we can overbank initially to 135 degrees while pulling Max. g. As weslow and descend we will adjust our Lift Vector (LV) and nose to avoid hitting the deck while keeping ourknots up. We should pull nibble of buffet until we run out of altitude and hit our best-Sustained Turn rateairspeed band (230 KIAS/300-330 KIAS) at 10,000 ft.

SMALLEST 180-DEGREE TURN

On the deck, we can see that our smallest radius of turn occurs just below 0.3 Mach, which is around145 kts. We start there and select MRT. Pull hard enough to fly 145 kts level. This will give you max liftand keep our airspeed in the min. radius band.

MANEUVERING OUR AIRCRAFT

VERTICAL MANEUVERING

The following diagram (Figure 6)represents another theoretical loop inthe vertical plane at constant TAS andconstant indicated g. Unlike a purelyhorizontal turn, your turn performance ina purely vertical turn is affecteddifferently depending upon where youare in the turn.

When the aircraft lift vector is above thehorizon (at the bottom of the egg), radialg decreases because gravity opposesthe load factor of the aircraft, resulting ina larger turn radius and a lower turnrate. When the lift vector is below thehorizon (at the top of the egg when thefighter is inverted), radial g increasesbecause gravity assists the load factorand lift, resulting in a smaller turn radiusand faster turn rate. When the aircraft ispure vertical (side of the egg) the loadfactor is parallel to the horizon and,therefore, equals radial g, indicating anintermediate turn performance. Sowhen your lift vector (load factor) fallsbelow the horizon, gravity assists yourturn performance.

FIGURE 6: VERTICAL MANEUVERING - THE EGG


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Flight Procedures

TACTICAL VERTICAL FIGHT

No longer do we need excessive airspeed to perform a simple loop. While some techniques vary, theT-45 can generally go over the top with any speed 300 KIAS or greater. As we come over the top, weneed to keep an eye on our airspeed. As it approaches 100 KIAS, it�s prudent to think about engineconservation and select idle. If we start some vertical move at airspeeds less than 300, we shouldprobably consider some attitude less than pure vertical. REMEMBER, IF WE SLOW BELOW 85 KIAS,WE ARE NO LONGER FLYING AND ARE THUS A TARGET TO GET KILLED.

You should have seen some techniques to execute vertical maneuvering on your OCF syllabus. Ingeneral, smooth maneuvering will help us to preserve our energy and still allow us to reorient our LV tokeep the pressure on the bandit.

VERTICAL EXTENSION

Especially versus aircraft where the thrust-to-weight ratio is less than 1:1, a vertical extension can giveyou a significant advantage when used properly. In the T-45, in a vertical fight, typically the first aircraftto go nose down will lose. Thus, extending in the vertical can give you an offensive advantage and theopportunity to get some rear quarter shots. However, we need to remember that if we extend vertically,we may be showing tail aspect to the bandit. The vertical extension should only be used if the bandit�snose is not a threat.

Another concern for the vertical extension is our 85 kts KIO number. We can only extend long enoughto avoid being nose high less than 85 KIAS. Therefore, we need to nudge the nose out prior to seeing85 KIAS or the fight is over.

REVERSAL TECHNIQUES

Before we discuss reversal techniques we need to understand the circumstances leading up to thereversal.


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A flight path overshoot (Figure 7) occurs anytime the offensive aircraft flies through the defensiveaircraft�s flight path at or aft of the defensive aircraft�s 3/9 line. A 3/9-line overshoot occurs anytime theattacker flies from aft of the defender�s 3/9 line to in front of the defender�s 3/9 line (a.k.a. flying out infront).

FIGURE 7: FLIGHT PATH OVERSHOOT


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In close (at or very close to the defender�s 3/9 line) flight path overshoots are extremely significant in thatan instantaneous reversal by the defender may also cause a 3/9-line overshoot, possibly resulting in arole reversal. A flight path overshoot that occurs well aft of the defender is often insignificant becausethe defender cannot perform a role reversal (Figure 8).

If the overshoot occurs at the defender�s control point (1 turn radius of the defender�s turn aft of thedefender) the attacker will be able to maintain his nose-to-tail separation by continuing his original turn tothe defender�s reversal point. By reversing at a control point overshoot the defender actually helps theattacker solve some of his degrees-to-go problem.

FIGURE 8: 3/9 LINE


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In order for the fighter to take advantage of the Bandits overshoot, three criteria must be satisfied:

1. The Bandit must have a High-Track Crossing Rate (>100 kts Vc).

2. The Bandit must have an In-Close Overshoot (<2,000 ft).

3. The Bandit must overshoot the fighter�s extended 6 (>60 degrees AOT) not just the aft visual limit.

You should know these criteria like boldface.

Figure 7 depicts a flight path overshoot.

Figure 8 depicts an aircraft�s 3-9 line.

3/9 Line Overshoot � If we are defensive and we see somewhere, somehow we have induced anovershoot in which the attacker moves ahead of our wingline (forward of abeam), then we reverse. Theattacker has been neutralized or the roles have reversed and we can look to shoot and bug.

In Close, Flight Path Overshoot � How close is �In Close�? If the overshoot occurs inside the forwardlimit of the Control Zone, we will consider it �In Close.� We also need high Angles Off Tail (>60-degreeAOT). If the defender does an immediate, aggressive reversal after the overshoot, he may be able toinduce a 3/9 Line Overshoot from this Flight Path Overshoot.

Flight Path Overshoot � As the defender, if we observe a Flight Path Overshoot where the attacker is inthe control zone or aft and we attempt to reverse, we merely help his lag problem and aid in our owndemise.

Techniques � If we decide to reverse, we must do so with speed and precision. We need to get off ourpull (unload) then reverse to reorient our lift vector on/aft of the bandit. Once there, we need to pull to getour nose up and work into an airspeed band more appropriate for our redefined fight. We are pulling intoa one-circle fight, so 300 kts is probably not the place to be. If we execute a break turn (21 units) we willbleed while getting our nose position established. If we are already slow, a nibble of buffet pull might helpus preserve some energy for the follow on merge. LV placement is crucial. If we merely pull up after thedecision to reverse, we give turning room for the bandit to capitalize on. Try to neutralize the bandit�spositional advantage, and then we can set up our bug.


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LONGITUDINAL PULL

We will discuss a lot of AOA regimes throughout this FTI. The most effective AOA will change withairspeed. In FAM�s we used a 17-unit pull during the MRT. At 300 kts this 17-unit pull makes theairplane start to vibrate. We called this the �nibble of buffet.� At 150 kts this nibble is felt more around22 units. The important thing to realize is that the jet is performing reasonably well in this regime. Wedescribe the break turn as a 19-21-unit pull. This is generally for a high speed (250 kt +) break. Thiswould feel like heavy or �rumble of� buffet. The airplane is rumbling and shaking, but not in pitch buck.There may be some wing rock associated with this regime. In this regime, the aircraft is rapidly bleedingairspeed. The aircraft performs well here, but it is costly. There are other AOA�s that will give us otherperformances. For instance, what happened to 18 units? The wings begin to rumble here and we arebleeding, but not performing as well as a break turn. In general, if you don�t know what to do, nibble ofbuffet is a good place to start to maneuver your airplane well.

UNLOADED PUSHOVER

When we discuss unloading, it can mean various things. If, while turning, we decrease our AOA from17 to 14 units, we are easing our pull and probably accelerating because the wing has less loading.

If we want to execute a true unload, the aircraft will feel quite different than what we have been doing.In general, in the T-45, a good unload will occur at zero g, in almost any attitude. We are removing theinduced drag caused by the wing producing lift. If we feel zero g, then we are said to be on a ballisticprofile so we are basically letting gravity drive the profile of the airplane. Thus the wing is not producingany lift, thereby not producing much drag, so we are maximizing thrust. We may use this maneuver togain knots or maneuver to lag. The AOA tends to move in the 7-unit regime, well in the heart of the 5-10units that is usually considered for the unload.


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1 V 1 ACM

ACM PROBLEMS

Range � We need separation to employ our weapons. In the Training Command, no weapons can beemployed inside 1,000 ft (for training rules).

Angles � Fuselage alignment will help us maintain an offensive advantage.

Closure � The rate at which range is changing.

ACM CUES

Constantly assess how the ACM problems are changing. Focus on these visual cues when briefing andflying.

Eyeball Call � Unless we have yardstick up constantly, the eyeball is our only available tool for determiningrange in the 1 v 1 arena.

Aspect � The angular position of the adversary�s aircraft.

Canopy Position � It is good if the adversary is forward or moving forward on your canopy. Looking aft or anaft moving adversary is bad.

ACM TOOLS

By recognizing how the problems are progressing, ACM tools can be applied.

Velocity (V) � The ability to manage the kinetic energy of our aircraft will dictate our ability to manageclosure and range between aircraft.

G � The relationship between �G� and �V� defines an aircraft�s performance. How much g is available andhow much is actually used will determine how quickly the aircraft changes its position relative to theopponent.

Pursuit Curve � Affects range, angles and closure.


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ACM TRAINING RULES

The following ACM training rules apply to all ACM training and shall be strictly observed. These rulesinclude those found in OPNAVINST 3710.7. Because you will hear these rules before each flight, theirmeaning may become just �words.� For the most part, they will be the same rules you hear in the fleet. Itis important to note that these rules were developed over a long period and each is based not only oncommon sense but also on situations where pilots were guilty of making serious and even tragicmistakes.

GENERAL

1. BRIEF OUT-OF-CONTROL/SPIN, ENGINE STALL PROCEDURES, AND CURRENCY - As thestudent you are responsible for OCF and Engine Stall for the brief. For Currency, consult theMCG.

2. FACE-TO-FACE BRIEF OF ALL MANEUVERS FOR ALL PARTICIPANTS - ACM is learned wellonly through constant practice and experience. Because each experience in ACM is unique, allaspects of the flights need to be briefed and debriefed thoroughly.

3. ALL AIRCRAFT MUST HAVE OPERABLE UHF AND ICS (MULTI-CREW) AND MONITORGUARD - If you are lost comm, proceed with your lost comm procedures.

�G� AWARENESS MANEUVER REQUIRED PRIOR TO ACM �CONFIGURATION CHANGES OTHERTHAN SPEED BRAKES ARE NOT AUTHORIZED � You may not drop your flaps or gear.

ALWAYS ASSUME THE OTHER AIRCRAFT DOES NOT SEE YOU � You are personally responsible forcollision avoidance AT ALL TIMES.

IF LOST SIGHT, TRANSMIT �LOST SIGHT� AND REMAIN PREDICTABLE. OTHER AIRCRAFT SHALLACKNOWLEDGE WITH �CONTINUE� OR �KNOCK-IT-OFF� AS APPROPRIATE, PROVIDING DIREC-TIVE COMM AS NECESSARY FOR SAFETY OF FLIGHT. ONCE SIGHT IS REGAINED, TRANSMIT�TALLY.� Be sure to differentiate between �Lost sight� and �No joy.� �Lost sight� means, �I cannot seeanyone, anywhere.� It is a call made strictly to maintain safety. �No joy� responds to your wingman�s callthat he has sighted a bandit that you cannot see.

UP-SUN AIRCRAFT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR SAFE SEPARATION. IF DOWN-SUN AIRCRAFT LOSESSIGHT, BREAK OFF THE ATTACK, LAG THE UP-SUN AIRCRAFT AND BROADCAST �BLIND SUN.�If you are in the sun, you are using a tremendously powerful tactic because it blinds the bandit. Butbecause he is blind, it is your responsibility to maintain the safe separation. Also, if the weather is hazy,the sun creates a halo when you are looking down with the sun at your back. If the bandit is in the haloarea, he cannot see you.

500-ft BUBBLE AROUND ALL AIRCRAFT. This safety rule applies for training, both in the TrainingCommand and in the fleet. In the real world, though, you must consider your adversary. For instance, ifyou maintain 500 ft on a head-on pass with a bandit who has forward-quarter weapons, you may beputting yourself directly into his weapons envelope. In the real world, know who you will be going upagainst as much as possible. DO NOT MAKE BLIND LEAD TURNS - A blind lead turn is when yournose is out in front of the bandit�s flight path, and you can�t see the bandit.


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MAINTAIN THE ESTABLISHED TREND ON HEAD-TO-HEAD PASSES. WHERE NO TREND EXISTS,EACH AIRCRAFT SHALL GIVE WAY TO THE RIGHT FOR A LEFT-TO-LEFT PASS. TRANSMITYOUR OWN INTENTIONS. This is simply a rule of the road. You may have to change this rule in asituation where you do not have enough maneuverability to pass left-to-left without crossing the bandit�snose, which would put you in a possible head-on midair. Maintain enough situational awareness to callyour intentions long before a possible midair situation develops. Once the pass is called and acknowl-edged by both fighters, the direction will not be changed.

LOW AIRCRAFT IN A HORIZONTAL SCISSORS IS RESPONSIBLE FOR SAFE SEPARATION. NOSEHIGH GOES HIGH, NOSE LOW GOES LOW. TRANSMIT YOUR OWN INTENTIONS. This will ensuresafe separation. Nose low must make way if the high aircraft departs or somehow can�t stay high. Do notdelay this call.

MINIMUM RANGE FOR GUNS IS 1,000 ft, NO HEAD ON GUNS (Forward of 3-9 line). CNATRAWEAPONS ENVELOPES APPLY. See the CNATRA Weapons Envelope in the TacForm FTI.

IN A DESCENDING FIGHT, THE OFFENSIVE (HIGH) AIRCRAFT SHALL MONITOR THE DEFENSIVE(LOW) AIRCRAFT�S ALTITUDE AND ATTITUDE AND BREAK OFF THE ATTACK PRIOR TO EITHERAIRCRAFT BREAKING THE DECK. Typically a �Watch the Deck� call is sufficient to warn the otheraircraft. This is for safety and to continue the fight.

ANYONE CAN CALL A �KNOCK-IT-OFF.� AIRCRAFT SHALL MANEUVER TO SAFELY TERMINATETHE ENGAGEMENT AND ACKNOWLEDGE WITH THEIR OWN �KNOCK-IT-OFF.�

KNOCK-IT-OFF FOR ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING:

a. Dangerous situation/loss of situational awareness. May be due to a/c malfunction/nuisance light,FOD in cockpit, any other distracter.

b. Radio failure/loss of ICS. An aircraft rocking wings is an automatic �knock-it-off.�

c. G-LOC experienced or suspected. (Aircrew RTB).

d. Airspeed less than 85 kts (nose high and decelerating)/departure/out-of-control. Eighty-five(85) kts nose low and accelerating requires �85 kts, continue� call. NATOPS calls for throttle toidle below 85 kts above 15,000 ft.

BINGO FUEL STATE IS REACHED. Applies in the Training Command as well as out in the Fleet. Youmust keep your scan moving.

INTERLOPER (UNBRIEFED A/C) ENTERS THE ENGAGEMENT AREA.

ENGAGED AIRCRAFT CROSSES THE BORDER OF TRAINING AREA.

ANY TRAINING RULE IS VIOLATED.

TRAINING OBJECTIVES HAVE BEEN MET. This is usually determined by the trunk IP.

ACM WILL BE CONDUCTED IN AN AUTHORIZED AREA ONLY, WITH A 10,000-FT AGL HARD DECK.


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WEATHERAs stated earlier, you will not consider weather conditions as part of your tactical repertoire until you facea real bandit. But it warrants remembering that you can effectively use clouds, haze, or other weatherphenomena to gain or regain the advantage.

ACM WX mins:

� 5 miles visibility with a defined horizon

� 15,000 ft between broken/overcast layers

� 1 nm horizontally and 2,000 ft vertically from all clouds

ACM may be conducted above broken/overcast layer provided the highest layer is below 7,000 ft AGL forsolo events and 8,000 ft AGL for dual events. The flight lead will then establish the hard deck 5,000 ftabove that layer and all A/C will acknowledge the new hard deck.

1 V 1 ACM EXECUTION

We will take a building block approach and break the ACM discussion into the following parts:

� Offensive ACM

� Defensive ACM

� High Aspect ACM

� Three-Plane ACM

OFFENSIVE ACM

OBJECTIVESThe ultimate goal of Offensive ACM, as in all ACM, is to kill the adversary as quickly as possible. If thisprimary goal is not achieved, ensure a positional advantage is maintained for follow-on weaponsemployment. Finally, if time to kill is up or you are losing the advantage, separate prior to becomingneutralized. Simply put, the goals of Offensive ACM are, in order:

Kill the adversary

Maintain an Offensive Position

Separate prior to being neutralized


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EXECUTIONOnce a positional advantage has been established and we can say we are offensively maneuvering ouraircraft, then the problem is to efficiently maneuver our aircraft to an effective firing solution in the minimumamount of time. In classic ACM terms (NOT in the missile age) that position is the extended 6 o�clock ofyour opponent at about ½ nm with fuselage alignment, i.e., in the heart of the control zone.In order to reach that position from our original position of advantage an offensive aircraft needs to:

� Increase/control the nose-to-tail separation (N-T) (Range)

� Reduce the angle off the tail (AOT) (Angles)

� Reduce/control the closure (Vc) (Closure)

It should be obvious that an offensive aircraft will achieve these goals by using lag pursuit techniques andout-of-plane maneuvering. The only exceptions to this will be when he is ready to employ weapons, atwhich time he will usually maneuver with lead pursuit (missile launch or gun shot).

When we discuss the specifics of offensive maneuvers, remember what you are trying to accomplish andhow you need to do it. That should enable you to answer any �why?� questions that may arise. What allthis means is that as the offensive aircraft you should:

1. Employ lead pursuit only for gunshots or when it is necessary to close nose to tail distance.Be ready to follow a lead pursuit maneuver with a lag pursuit maneuver to reduce Vc and theAOT developed while flying lead pursuit.

2. Utilize pure pursuit (i.e., have your opponent in the HUD field of view) when you are ready toemploy a weapon or possibly, (aspect/range dependent) attempting to enter the opponent�sbubble.

3. Mainly utilize maneuvers consisting of lag pursuit/out-of-plane techniques in order to correctback to the control zone or increase range.


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OUTSIDE THE BUBBLE

Pursuit curves- When maneuvering offensively, the nose of your aircraft (at high airspeed) or your liftvector (at slower airspeed) is either pointed at, behind, or in front of your opponent. Depending on whereyour nose is pointed, you will fly a distinctive pursuit curve in relation to your opponent. We will discussthese pursuit curves in terms of their effect on angle off tail (AOT) of your opponent, closure rate (Vc),and nose-to-tail separation (N-T), the key factors to being able to get to and maintain your position in thecontrol zone.

If your nose/lift vector is pointed out in front of your opponent, you are flying a lead pursuit curve. Leadpursuit is generally flown during maneuvers designed to decrease N-T or during gun attacks. Assumingco-speed and inside your opponent�s turn circle, lead pursuit will:

� Decrease N-T (Range)

� Increase AOT (Angles)

� Increase Vc (Closure)

FIGURE 9: PURSUIT CURVES


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If your nose/lift vector is pointed at your opponent, you are flying a pure pursuit curve. Pure pursuit isgenerally used only when necessary for employing a weapon (bore sight Fox-2, in the Training Com-mand). Again, assuming co-speed inside your opponent�s turn circle, pure pursuit will (to a lesser degreethan lead pursuit):

� Decrease N-T

� Increase AOT

� Increase Vc

If your nose/lift vector is pointed behind your opponent, you are flying a lag pursuit curve. Again,assuming co-speed inside your opponent�s turn circle, lag pursuit will:

� Increase/maintain N-T

� Decrease/maintain AOT

� Decrease/maintain Vc

How do we determine where and when to employ the proper pursuit curve? The next sections will helpdescribe the cues to look for in order to properly enter the bubble.


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BUBBLE ENTRY

With the information already provided, we will begin to discuss maneuvering in terms of the turn circle.The turn circle is the basis of ACM, and a thorough understanding of the factors affecting key turn circleparameters is required. Looking at the diagram below, we see the turn circle of the aircraft and theradius depicted. Any change in the radius directly affects the size of the turn circle and the location of thecenter point of the circle. If an aircraft is performing to its maximum turn radius capability, or developingits minimum radius turn, it is unable to turn any tighter. This seems obvious, but it illustrates an importantpoint: An aircraft cannot turn inside its own bubble. This means that if you are inside anotheraircraft�s bubble you are, at least momentarily, immune from attack from that aircraft. This is important tonote both offensively and defensively.

If we put an attacker on the defender�s turn circle one turn radius behind it, we could demonstrate thepoint we just made. If an aircraft is incapable of turning inside its own bubble, it is equally incapable ofturning to engage an aircraft 1 turn radius behind it if that aircraft is on his turn circle or bubble if he ismax performing. (Figure 10)

If an attacking aircraft can arrive at this point and maintain it, he can control the fight, at least momen-tarily. Thus the point 1 turn radius behind an aircraft is referred to as the �control point.� It is important tonote that if the attacking aircraft wishes to arrive at this point, he must consider the effects of his own turncircle in putting himself there.

FIGURE 10: CONTROL ZONE ENTRY


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As an attacker approaches another aircraft, it becomes essential that he recognize where he is in relationto the other aircraft�s bubble. We can begin with an aircraft outside the bubble. Since the defendercannot prosecute an attack on an aircraft inside its bubble that is the first place the attacking aircraft willwant to go. So, the attacker�s first move will be to arrive as quickly as possible inside the other aircraft�sturn, employing a weapon as he does so (if able). The fastest method to bubble entry, provided you arestill low aspect, is to fly pure pursuit. We will notice initially that the defending aircraft has a relativelyslow Track Crossing Rate, that is, the defending aircraft�s relative motion is not drifting very much in ourwindscreen. We will also notice that AOT, or aspect change, will be increasing rapidly.

As we approach the defender�s bubble, the attacker will notice that the Track Crossing Rate starts toincrease and the aspect change slows (the defending aircraft will also notice an increased TrackCrossing Rate as he watches the attacker. Upon bubble entry (Figure 11), the attacker must make a lagcorrection, if required, to remain behind the Post. This may be driving straight ahead for 2-4 seconds ormay require a momentary turn away from the defender. To avoid pulling in front of the post, the attackermust avoid the temptation of keeping the bandit in his front windscreen. Once the line of sight rateincreases, the attacker should extend wings-level, aiming for a point just inside of where the defenderstarted his break turn. If the attacker extends until the bandit is at his 2 or 10 o�clock, he will definitelyturn around the post. Note that the defending aircraft will also see this and use it as information as well.We will continue this lag pursuit until we have entered the attack window.

FIGURE 11: BUBBLE ENTRY


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THE ATTACK WINDOW

Attack Window � A three-dimensional window located aft of the defender�s post inside his turn circle. Anattacker, who executes a properly timed max performance offensive break turn from inside this window,will arrive in the defender�s control zone with angles, airspeed and closure under control. The attackwindow is a position in space and a moment in time. We have discussed how to get inside the bubble,but what cues tell us when we are in the attack window? We are typically around 3,000 ft from the banditand that equates to one turn radius away. We can see a rapid line of sight change from the bandit, tellingus that we are there. To utilize the positioning of the attack window, we need to arrive with enoughairspeed to pull 21 units and bleed some excess airspeed to gain an instantaneous turn rate advantage.We need to max perform the airplane for this rate war. We continue to pull at or below the bandit, usingaltitude available, while keeping on our best rate numbers.

PULL TO CONTROL ZONE

When the bandit has been sufficiently lagged, the attacker should execute a max performance turn inplane to pull toward the bandit�s control zone. After the turn is commenced, the attacker will notice thebandit�s aircraft stabilize relative to his. This is the point where the two aircraft have essentially the samerate of turn. The N-T distance will be stabilized as well as the AOT.

Most importantly, the attacker is in an offensive position in the aft portion of the bandit�s control zone andthe bandit�s only move is to continue his turn in the same direction. If the bandit reverses at this time, hewill only help the attacker close the N-T distance and decrease the degrees-to-go. A smart bandit willstay in the same direction of turn. At this time, the attacker needs to close the N-T distance in order toemploy weapons. The way to close N-T distance is to maneuver out-of-plane in order to employ leadpursuit. During this �lead pursuit maneuver� or Low Yo-Yo, the amount of out-of-plane maneuvering islargely dependent on how much altitude above the hard deck is available.


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The attacker should use all available altitude in order to employ lead pursuit. Remember that maneuver-ing out-of-plane effectively reduces radius of turn with respect to the vertical. After establishing leadpursuit, the attacker will come nose on the bandit and will be closing nose to tail distance. If the distanceis still too great for the gun envelope, the attacker may elect to employ a missile. He will be nose on withless than 40 degrees angle off. The Launch Acceptability Region (LAR) for the training command IRmissile should be recognized; however, the saying goes, �There�s no kill like a guns kill.� Simply put, themissile envelope should be recognized and valid shots should be taken at will (they may �buy� a reactionfrom the defender in the form of a break turn), but the idea is to maneuver to a gun envelope. The gun isthe hardest weapon to employ because the envelope is very restrictive and a pilot must execute goodBFM principals to achieve a guns kill. This is why we will perform our maneuvers to arrive at a firingposition within 1,500 ft aft of the opponent in the tracking gun envelope.

FIGURE 12: ATTACK WINDOW ENTRY


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MISALIGNED TURN CIRCLES

If we are late or weak on our pull to the control zone we may see that we have a flight path overshoot withlow angles off tail. If we panic and attempt to pull inside the bandit�s circle, we will bleed airspeed andhurt our turn rate. So what do we do when we find ourselves nose off, in lag in a rate fight? We need tobe patient and understand how misaligned turn circles (MATC) will help us (Figure 13). Because we areoffensive, turning about our own post (not the bandit�s) we will come nose on to bandit as our turnsprogress. When the opportunity arises, we need to reorient our lift vector to take advantage of the MATCand shoot or saddle into the control zone.

FIGURE 13: MISALIGNED TURN CIRCLES


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RATE WAR (OFFENSIVE)

During the rate war, we are concerned with degrees per second, how fast we can track our nose aroundthe circle. Unfortunately, the T-45 doesn�t exhibit very good rate numbers, however, we need tounderstand the Turn Performance diagram to maximize our rate performance. Offensively, we will havesome options during the fight and be able to utilize any airspeed excursions to suit our attack. Accordingto the diagram we see that our best instantaneous turn rate is achieved at 410 KIAS while pulling the liftlimit (it�s near 7.3 g�s). Our best tactical turn rate is an airspeed band 300-330 KIAS. This isn�t to saythat we can�t pull from 330 to 250 and get some good instantaneous turn rate, but once settled at 250,we are stuck with few options to maneuver in the vertical and poor acceleration.

Once established in the rate war, maneuver the jet to get on our rate numbers. These change underdifferent situations. Here are some examples:

1. Overshoot/Lag � We are stuck in lag; our nose is not threatening the bandit. We needto increase our rate and let MATC do their magic. We can pull some lead and increaseour rate by using gravity to help us keep our airspeed while we increase our AOA.Essentially this appears like a low yo-yo.

2. High Aspect/Lead � If we maneuver too aggressively, we need to maintain our offensiveadvantage. Our nose is a threat, but an overshoot is pending. If we try to slow ourclosure with power/airspeed, we can save the overshoot, but follow-on ACM will bedifficult. If we use lag pursuit, we can keep our rate numbers up while remainingoffensive. This can be accomplished in a few different ways.

� Tight Range/ Low AOT � A simple unload will increase our radius such that we will not pull insidethe bandit. This can also help to increase our airspeed if necessary, usually used when in-close/time critical situations.

� In Control Zone � Reorienting our lift vector outside the bandit�s turn will result in reducing ourclosure; unfortunately it will also increase AOT so we will need to pull some lead soon after toreorient our nose into a weapons envelope.

� Outside Control Zone � A full wings-level lag maneuver is sometimes warranted. This isessentially another control zone entry requiring an offensive break turn to align fuselages.

REDEFINING THE RATE WAR

Unfortunately, the T-45 is not a good platform to redefine the rate war in the vertical. It lacks theperformance to either rate the nose quick enough or climb sufficiently to avoid being shot. Therefore,redefining the rate war may mean inducing your own overshoot or simply disengaging.

If the defender chooses to redefine our two-circle fight to something else, we need to recognize thechange and maintain our offensive advantage while fighting our best fight. For example, if the banditreverses in a two-circle fight, we may get a quick shot while transitioning to a one-circle fight. It�sprobably useful to get the nose up to exchange our rate energy for potential energy in our one circle fight.Then we need to fight our best flats.


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STARTING FROM INSIDE THE DEFENDER�S BUBBLE

When you have entered the turn circle (or �bubble�), you will notice the defender�s aircraft begin to movelaterally relative to you. This is called a Line of Sight rate increase. It signifies that you have entered thedefender�s bubble. Now you can begin to manage AOT and N-T distance.

When entering the defender�s turn circle, the attacker must execute some type of lag maneuver in orderto decrease his AOT and degrees to go. Ideally, he will recognize the indicators of entering the defend-ers bubble and will respond appropriately.

Refer to the turn circle diagram earlier in this instruction (Figure 9). If you are able to recognize enteringthe opponent�s bubble (by noticing an increase in Line of Sight rate), you should proceed to a point thatcauses you to turn around the �post� of his turn circle. Turning in front of the post is a huge ACM error.You will know if you have turned in front of the post if the bandit is easy to keep in your windscreen andthe Angle off is increasing. You will be thinking that you could employ a gun snap shot, but the next thingyou will see is an in-close flight path overshoot, and maybe even a 3/9 overshoot. To avoid pulling infront of the post, the attacker must avoid the temptation of keeping the bandit in his front windscreen.Once the Line of sight rate increases, the attacker should extend wings-level, aiming for a point justinside of where the defender started his break turn. If the attacker extends until the bandit is at his 2 or

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FIGURE 14: OFFENSIVE BREAK TURN EVALUATION


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10 o�clock, he will definitely turn around the post. When the bandit has been sufficiently lagged, theattacker should execute a max g turn in plane to pull toward the bandit�s control zone.

DEFENDER REDEFINES

If we induce our own overshoot, or the bandit merely tries to redefine the fight, his only option willprobably be a one-circle/flat scissors fight. If he chooses to go aggressively nose low with the altitudeavailable, you should be able to counter by going nose low and keeping the fight a two circle fight. If thebandit goes nose high you have some options. With sufficient turning room, you may achieve a shot asthe reversing bandit pulls through your HUD. However, if we are tight or very fast, this may increase ourclosure and neutralize our advantage. In a tighter fight, we need to start thinking one circle early after thereversal and start working a radius fight quickly. This usually means getting the nose up and maneuver-ing our lift vector to keep us behind the bandit. A nibble/break turn to get the nose up, then a smoothreorienting of the lift vector towards the bandits control zone should be sufficient. Be mindful of ROEwhile pulling aft, as a closure problem may have occurred. Safety is paramount.

OFFENSIVE DECK TRANSITIONS

As we head downhill in most of these engagements, it�s prudent to consider the fight we are in andpredict how we will arrive on the deck. We need to think ahead so we can get to the deck in the bestparameters to kill the bandit. In general, our one-circle engagements will not be near the deck, however,we need to consider some altitudes with respect to our flats. If a bandit decides to exit a one-circle fight,the deck will be a consideration as we chase him down. We have a minimum Split S altitude that weneed to be aware of, which may hinder our LV placement on the bandit. If we transition to a two-circlefight from the flats, we have limited altitude to accelerate and get into our rate numbers.

Similarly, if we are chasing a bandit around in a two-circle fight, we can look ahead to determine how wewould like to arrive at the deck. If we are slow, we may need to ease our pressure to get into our rateband on the deck to ensure that we are max performing the airplane. This may mean giving up a fewangles to get our airspeed up, but we will reap the benefits as the fight progresses. This is called anEnergy-Rate Deck Transition and it allows us to use the altitude between our aircraft and the deck toconvert altitude into turn rate and airspeed. Use the 10 degree rule (3,000 ft/30 degrees, 2,000 ft/20degrees, 1,000 ft/10 degrees) to maximize turn rate and keep energy package while transitioning to thedeck. Basically, use 10 degrees nose low for every 1,000 ft above the deck.

If we have the available altitude and airspeed we can use it above the deck to arrive low with a greatpositional advantage. This is called a Positional Deck Transition. For instance, if we have the altitude toget one real nice, aggressive nose low (yo-yo) just above the deck to arrive nose on the bandit at10,000 ft, we can do that to really pressure him, possibly driving him into the deck. We are basicallyusing the altitude between our aircraft and the deck to take away angles for ourselves.

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FLAT SCISSORS

The flat scissors (Figure 15) results from an in-close horizontal overshoot. Because you would neveroffensively enter a horizontal scissors on purpose, several situations force you to enter one:

1. A delayed or poorly performed lag maneuver

2. Following a Snap or Raking guns attempt

3. Follow-on from a rolling scissors

The horizontal scissors is a slow-speed, high-AOA radius fight (one circle) where both fighters are tryingto minimize their respective turn radii. Both the fighter and the bandit will be trying to minimize their turnradius to gain a positional advantage.

Remember positional advantage based on the 3/9 line? The aircraft behind will be winning.

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FIGURE 15: FLAT SCISSORS


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Both aircraft will also be attempting to decrease their downrange travel by performing a series of S turns.This effect of weaving in and out, or �scissoring� gives this fight its name. If both aircraft are flying at thesame speed, one flying in a straight line and the other turning, the turning aircraft will eventually end upbehind the other. The attacker should attempt to get in-phase with the defender on the defender�s6 o�clock. He should do this by a series of early/lead turns, eventually aligning fuselages.

Kinetic energy is transferred to potential energy by using the vertical to help control your airspeed anddownrange travel. Because the T-45 does not bleed airspeed very well, the initial reversal back into youropponent will be very nose high and will require an overbank in order to avoid parking the nose too high.A modified rolling scissors could possibly be entered, but in these ACM hops the idea is to learn to fly aflat scissors. After the overbank, both fighters will be oriented in a nose high, climbing (one-circle fight).Each will turn into each other attempting to flush the other out as stated in the above paragraph. The twoaircraft will cross flight paths at some point. It is imperative that the student initiates the ROE for eachflight path crossing (high/low).

The bandit will attempt to force you into his forward quarter by aggressively establishing himself nosehigh and repositioning lift vector behind you. You have the advantage of initiating your one-circle entryearlier than the bandit and gaining whatever lateral turning room that existed between you when youbegan your nose-high maneuver. Get your wings under you and get the nose tracking up, while bankingto reposition lift vector behind the bandit. As you pull to get your nose up, kick in full rudder in thedirection of the bandit to get your LV oriented. Adjust your attitude as your airspeed reaches 140-150 KIAS. As we fly slower, the angle of bank we can use diminishes. As our airspeed slows, theamount that we can pull behind the bandit decreases, thus the radius increases again. Review the TurnPerformance Diagram to confirm this. A good rule of thumb is the airspeed over 100 kts is the maxusable AOB (e.g., 150 kts ~ 50 degrees). This is not to say that we can�t exceed this AOB, but our nosewill slice and we will accelerate. As our airspeed increases, so does our radius.

Once you are behind the bandit�s wingline, reverse and attempt to align fuselages while maintainingnibble of buffet, around 22-24 units AOA (this is called an early turn). As a general rule when you are onor aft of the bandit�s 3/9 line and your nose is on him, you should start your reversal. A reversal forwardof the 3/9 line (in front of the post) may allow you a snap shot; however, in reversing early you willdecrease the nose-to-tail separation and potentially be less than 1,000 ft (min Gun range). If no nose-to-tail exists, reverse as you cross the bandit�s flight path. This will allow you to continue to pull aft of thebandit for a longer period of time and keep your turn radius tight.

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At this point you should be established in a flat scissors with your aircraft at slow speeds and High AOA.During your reversals and subsequent maneuvering, utilize rudder and back stick to maintain optimumperformance while monitoring your aircraft�s attitude, airspeed, and AOA. You may find yourself wantingto overbank the aircraft to gain a quick advantage. By doing this, you will find it harder to keep the noseabove the horizon, which means you will have to execute reversals with more rudder. Additionally, withyour nose below the horizon, airspeed will increase leading to the tendency to use excessive back stick.Increased backstick pressure beyond the optimum performance level will bleed off energy. Thecombination of these errors will increase your radius to a point where you not only lose some advantage,but you may even end up defensive. During these attempts, do not compromise your offensive advan-tage. Sustained Flat Scissors: 10-15 degrees nose up, 30-45 degree AOB and 130-150 kts.

ROLLING SCISSORS

The rolling scissors (Figure 16) results from an in-close vertical overshoot and is usually a product of asuccessful counter to a Barrel Roll Attack (BRA). The scissors develops into a series of horizontal andvertical overshoots.

Offensively, if you find yourself in a �roller,� you have made a mistake, which means you must strive toremain offensive or disengage at the earliest opportunity. A rolling scissors is not a desirable maneuverfor an attacker because it limits opportunities for weapons employment.

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FIGURE 16: ROLLING SCISSORS


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To practice this maneuver, set up by executing a BRA from a medium-angle perch. As you start yourconversion over the top of the barrel roll, the bandit hard turns into you to create a horizontal overshoot.Before you can adjust for the horizontal overshoot, the bandit will pull up to create a vertical overshoot ashe performs a BRA against you. Continue your barrel roll and place your lift vector on the bandit orslightly aft. To do this, we must pirouette at the right time and use the correct mechanics. Pull acrossthe top until the bandit is either beneath you or he is coming up. This will ensure proper nose attitudeafter our pirouette. Next, pull the power to idle and use coordinated stick and rudder to place the LV onor slightly aft of the bandit. Then, get the power back up to MRT and begin a 21 unit pull. Selection ofidle during the pirouette will slow your airspeed increase and give you a smaller turn radius at the bottom.Continue to roll and pull with the LV on the bandit until the nose reaches 30-35 degrees. Once we haveachieved our nose high attitude, we can roll to put the LV in front of the bandit while continuing our 21 unitpull. This will effectively cut the top of your egg off and allow you to get fuselage alignment. Finally, wewill execute the pirouette as before and continue the fight. It is important to not let the nose drop until thepirouette. This will preserve altitude and turning room.

Your goal is to execute the scissors perfectly and capitalize on any mistake the bandit makes. To stayoffensive in a rolling scissors, use the three-dimensional environment to control your energy effectivelyby:

1. Proper LV placement

2. Properly controlling your AOA

3. Trading airspeed for altitude to reduce your forward vector

4. Coordinate LV changes with nose attitude to use the vertical to your advantage

In all this, you are trying to stay behind the bandit. A key determinant in winning the roller is to strive toget your nose up when you are at the bottom before the bandit can get his nose down when he is at thetop, and vice versa. If you can continually do this without sacrificing your position, you are then gainingthe advantage you need to win in a rolling scissors. You must understand that it is the steepness of yourclimbs and dives that will determine your horizontal movement more than your absolute speed differen-tial. Control your acceleration based on the bandit�s position relative to you. To maintain your advantage,control your airspeed gain in the pullout. Keep your lift vector on, or aft of, the bandit throughout themaneuver except when you are trying to align fuselages or when you want to reduce your forward vector.To align fuselages, use lead pursuit and a smooth nibble/rumble of buffet over the top.

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Radial g (Figure 17) affects your �picture� of being offensive, neutral, or defensive at various points in themaneuver. You will experience several optical illusions. At the top, your slower airspeed and radial ggive you a smaller turn radius, while your greater airspeed at the bottom causes a larger turn radius. Asa result, relative position of the aircraft alone does not determine actual advantage.

If you are neutral with respect to the bandit, at the bottom you are ahead the bandit, while at the top youare behind of him. In Figure 17, compare the bottom aircraft with the top middle aircraft.

Because a rolling scissors is a slow-speed fight with predictable flight paths and poor shot opportunities,you or the bandit will look for an opportunity to disengage. The only appropriate time to disengage isfrom the top of the roller. It helps to be aware of this to time your disengagement or to anticipate whenthe bandit may decide to disengage. Should the bandit attempt to disengage from the top of the roller,roll off your vertical climb early to reduce airspeed loss and minimize nose-to-tail separation. Pull for ashot and remain in-phase using a combination of Lead and Lag. Put the LV below the bandit and usealtitude to gain energy and turn rate.

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FIGURE 17: ROLLING SCISSORS POSITIONS


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Ideal airspeed at the bottom of the roller is 250-275 kts (basically something less than vertical airspeedfor the average student). If both the fighters are countering each other correctly, they will be required tokeep their airspeed slow to avoid becoming defensive. In a full engagement, a fighter with tacticalvertical airspeed should take it vertical as this will further minimize his turn radius with respect to the�God�s eye view.� As with the flat scissors, the goal for an offensive fighter is to kill the opponent(hopefully quickly).

For most aircraft with less than a one-to-one thrust-to-weight ratio, the rolling scissors is a descendingseries of barrel rolls because of the heavy use of the vertical. To successfully roll through the bottom andcontinue in the rolling scissors, you will need approximately 2,500 ft above the hard deck with proper LVplacement. Students should use about 4,000 ft as the minimum altitude to continue in the roller. As youapproach the deck, one or both of you must either flatten the roller, convert the maneuver to a flatscissors, disengage, or be scraped off the deck.

Converting a roller to a flattened scissors reduces the vertical separation. This conversion usually occurswhen you run out of altitude to continue your offensive pursuit. Flattening the scissors will work to youradvantage only if your energy state has not deteriorated below that of the bandit�s. If his energy isgreater than yours, he can generate sufficient vertical displacement for subsequent rolls instead offlattening his scissors, thus forcing you out in front.

Assuming your energy packages are at least equal, flatten the scissors after reaching the top bycontinuing to roll through more rapidly or reverse at the top after the horizontal overshoot occurs. Putyour lift vector slightly in front of the bandit to both shallow your slice turn and miss the deck. If the banditrolls through without being aware of an altitude problem, he will hit the deck. However, if he is aware ofthe altitude and your tactic, he will be forced to put his lift vector out in front, resulting in reordering therelative geometry.

A roller can be converted to a flat scissors anytime, but it must be converted when altitude becomes afactor. Typically, flattening a roller results in a horizontal scissors if the bandit follows through on yourtactic. If you decide to convert a normal rolling scissors to a flat scissors, remain nose-high at the top ofthe roller and continue to pull back toward the bandit to generate an overshoot. Instead of rolling throughthe vertical, reverse nose-high and pull back toward the bandit�s six forcing him out in front of yourposition, resulting in a flat scissors.

Should you decide to enter the flat scissors during a normal roller, you will be bleeding off a tremendousamount of energy. If the bandit is smart, he will convert his kinetic energy to potential energy by goingvertical and, more than likely will get an offensive advantage on you.

BUG RECOGNITION/COUNTER

It�s critical to recognize the bandit�s bug as soon as possible, for many reasons. The most important isbecause you want to kill the bandit, not let him run away. Early recognition allows you to keep moreairspeed up and reorient your LV to cut him off. Generally, the bug will go opposite of where the fight wasgoing. If your flats were progressing south, the bug will go northerly. It will also go out our tail, which willmake keeping sight an issue. It�s imperative that we not lose sight; since we may give away all of ouroffensive advantage and get ourselves killed. We need to take whatever altitude we have and convert itto airspeed, typically with a nibble of buffet pull. LV placement should be leading the bandit�s nose,especially if he is in a turn where we can use radius to close the range effectively.

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In the roller, the bandit will try to bug from the top, so we need to get our nose in his direction as we comeacross the bottom and try to keep our kts up as we pull to get nose on. It�s imperative to stop climbingand use the altitude for airspeed without hitting the deck.In general:

A) MRT, Unload

B) Get nose low

C) Nibble of buffet pull

D) LV in front

TACADMINTo establish proper habit patterns and to expedite the ACM sorties, the following procedures will beutilized. The admin portion of the flight (i.e., departure and RTB) will be conducted just as your flightswere in the TacForm stage. The SNA will join-up, be put into cruise, and then put into combat spreadduring the climb once established in the a climb. Once you have been put into cruise, you may performthe initial steps of the combat checklist. Once established in combat spread your lead will initiate the g-warm. The lead initiates the comm. Following the g-warm, climb or descend to 14,000 ft, capture 300 ktsand maintain assigned heading. The combat checklist should be completed, (Master Arm �on,� Tape inAUTO/ON,) and Wing will initiate a �fenced in� call, i.e., �Hawk 2 fenced in, (g�s) and (fuel).� Leadresponds, �Hawk 1, fenced in, (g�s) and (fuel).�

The section will use combat spread maneuvering to position itself in the operating area when the checksare complete. It is imperative that you are ready to �fight� the moment you call that you are �fenced in.�Often times the Snapshot Drill will be conducted en route to your particular working area. Once estab-lished in a clear area with required weather minima, the section can begin 1 v 1 ACM.

Upon the conclusion of each set, the IP in your jet (on dual hops) or the Bandit (on solos) will call a�Knock It Off.� The bandit lead will echo the call and add a heading, i.e., �Hawk 1, knock it off 270.�You will echo the Bandit lead�s call with your call sign and the heading, i.e., �Hawk 2, knock it off 270.�The priorities, in order, for you as the fighter following the knock it off are:

1. Maintain sight

2. Hard turn to the knock it off heading, deconflict as required

3. Capture 300 kts and bearing line

4. Climb to appropriate altitude

5. G�s and fuel with general SA and on hdg/brg line in 300 kts climb.

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The Wing will initiate all g�s and fuel calls. You do not have to wait until you are established on the PADSfor the next set, however, do not sacrifice a sound lookout doctrine for expediency. Typically, onceestablished on the KIO heading with overall SA and climbing at 300 kts, we can check our gas and g�s.The Bandit lead will set up the geometry for the follow on sets. Your job is simple; maintain whateverheading the Bandit has assigned you while getting into position, airspeed as appropriate and be at theproper altitude. Often times the Bandit will need to check the flight to a new heading (for geometry, areamanagement, etc.) Echo the new heading, utilize a hard energy sustaining turn and get there. If the setstarts at 250 kts you will maintain 300 kts until you are told to slow by the lead. Then do what ever ittakes to stay in position as the A/C slow down.

We will accept slight deviations from the PADS not to exceed the following:

� Position: ±10 degrees of bearing line

� Altitude: ± 200 ft

� Distance: ± .1 nm

� Speed: ± 10 kts

When we are within these parameters, we can call �Speed and Angels.� The Lead will initiate the callwhen he feels the wingman is in a good position.

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SNAP SHOT DRILL (SSD)

� P - Abeam

� A - 14,000 ft

� D - .8 - 1.0 nm

� S - 300 kts

The snapshot drill is a cooperative maneuver designed to teach employment of the gun at high anglesoff. The snap shot is used when attacking at medium to high angles off in an attempt to achieve a quickkill, thereby precluding subsequent maneuvering.

The aerial gun was the first weapon employed in dog fighting and still remains the most difficult weaponto use in the ACM arena. In a tracking shot, the attacker has aligned fuselages and can put the maxi-mum amount of ordnance on the defender with angles, airspeed and closure under control. The snapshot is a quick opportunity shot. It is employed with high angles off, high track crossing rate and highclosure. Obviously, because of the more difficult nature of this type of shot, the attacker must abide by afew rules in order to set this up.

In order to simplify this, as the shooter in the guns weave, you must accomplish three basic things.

1. PLANE OF MOTION

2. RANGE

3. LEAD

Plane of Motion is the most important parameter to solve for and it is also the easiest parameter for thebandit to break and deny the shot.

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The SSD will be set up at 300 kts and 14,000 ft. The two aircraft will be in combat spread, level, and1.0 nm, with the shooter being aft of the target�s beam by 10 degrees. Once the g-warm is completed,the wingman will initiate the fenced in call with g�s and fuel. The Lead will initiate the �Speed and Angels�call when he feels wing is in a good position. The lead will initiate the �In� call for each engagement,regardless if he is offensive or defensive. The comm will be �Hawk 1, in target,� �Hawk 2, in shooter.�The student will be the shooter on his offensive ACM hops, and the target on his defensive ACM hops.

The two aircraft will turn in towards each other. This is a cooperative maneuver, so whoever is the targetwill pull/float to place the shooter at his 10 or 2 o�clock and hold him there. When the shooter calls�Trigger down, snap,� the target should evaluate what the nose position of the shooter is, and thenreverse his turn to complete a shackle turn. The �trigger down� call should be made at the same time asthe trigger squeeze. The �snap� call is made when the target is going through the pipper. This isimmediately followed by an evaluation of the shot. You can call many things: �Fuselage,� �Canopy,� or�Missed Hi/Lo.� The more specific, the better for a debriefing tool.

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FIGURE 18: SNAP SHOT DRILL


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Generally, eight snapshots are accomplished, but there can be more. On the last four snapshots, theinstructor will call, �Hawk 1, in target/shooter, maneuvering.� During these, the target jet will attempt tomaneuver out of the bullet stream and avoid getting shot. To do this, the target will put his wingtip on theattacker and maneuver out-of-plane. Even though the target is defending, he also must be able tocomplete the turn and keep the geometry tight.

The shooter can execute one of two types of snap shot attacks. The timing and the comm are the samein both attacks. The first type (and the more difficult type) is the reversal. During the reversal type, theattacker rolls into the target then reverses his turn to get slightly in-phase with the target. This is usuallydone to close excessive nose to tail distance. The AOT will naturally be less than 90 degrees. There areproblems with this method including: the belly-up turn, the timing and pipper settling. The shooter shouldreverse when he sees the Line of Sight rate increase. The trigger should be down for about 1 secondprior to the target passing through the pipper for a 1,000-ft solution. This equates to squeezing thetrigger 1 pipper width prior to the bandit passing through the pipper.

The second type of attack is the �pull-through.� During this, the attacker initially rolls towards the otheraircraft and stays in the same direction of turn, dragging the pipper through the target. The shootershould squeeze the trigger when the target passes the canopy bow. This will allow the bullets to be at1,000 ft by the time that the aircraft crosses the gun bore line. The shooter can execute either type ofattack, though the pull-through method is a better choice for high Angle-off, minimum range shots like theSnapshot drill sets up. Plane of Motion is solved by noting how far above the horizon or reference thebandit�s aircraft is. Next, we need to maneuver to put our pipper the same distance above the horizon orreference and then smoothly continue our pull. Make large corrections for POM early by overbanking/underbanking to get the pipper in the bandit�s POM and then continue pulling in. To do all this, you needto quickly scan the bandit and then look back at your symbology. Keep your scan moving and makesmaller corrections as range decreases.

To solve Range, we need to vary our pull towards the bandit, as necessary, to have the bandit fillingabout ¾ of the pipper as he passes through it. This is difficult because you will be scanning back andforth between the bandit and pipper to determine how you should pull/float. We will not use the banditfilling the pipper because the bandit is not showing us pure planform; if we made this range happen, wewould be inside 1,000 ft. Some good gouge is that the bandit�s wingspan should fill about half of thepipper when he is at your canopy bow. If you see that this is not going to happen, you should ease/tighten your pull to compensate.

Lead is the last parameter we need to solve for. This is done by understanding that we need to accountfor about 1 second: 1/3 second for bullet time of flight, 1/3 second for gun spool up time and 1/3 secondfor pilot reaction time. A good rule of thumb for Lead is to pull the trigger when the bandit crosses thecanopy bow and hold it down until he passes through/above/below the pipper.

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When turning in, the shooter should comply with the steps listed above. In short, the shooter needs toget on the same plane of motion, and squeeze the trigger early enough to have bullets hitting thedefender when he crosses the shooter�s nose. The shooter should pull inside the target�s turn and in-plane with the target. The comm for the shooter is, �Trigger down . . . snap.� While the trigger is down,the bullets are spraying in front of the target. The call �snap� should be made when the target fliesthrough the pipper. If the target does not fly through the pipper, then the appropriate �missed hi� or�missed low� call should be made.

If it appears as though the shooter will be violating the �no forward quarter gun shots forward of the 3/9line� or �1,000-ft min gun shots� training rule, then either aircraft can call �Skip it� with ROE if appropriateand the shooter aircraft will maneuver to effect a safe pass and the drill will continue following thereversal. Also, if the shooter cannot take the shot due to excess angles or minimum range, he can call�No shot, angles� or �No shot range� as appropriate. Standard knock it off procedures apply.

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FLAT SCISSORS

� P - Abeam

� A - 14,000 ft

� D - 0.8-1.0 nm

� S - 250 kts

We begin the flat scissors (Figure 19) right after the snapshot drill because the two are entered the sameway. The lead will call, �Hawk 1, in target/shooter flats.� On the student offensive ACM hops, the studentwill pull inside and attempt a snapshot. The defender should deny the snapshot by putting his nearwingtip on the attacker and pulling out-of-plane. The defender recognizes the attacker�s high AOT andimpending overshoot, as well as track crossing rate, and reverses his turn into the attacker. This createsone-circle flow and therefore the aircraft with the smallest turn radius will have the advantage.

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The comm for the Rules of Engagement (ROE) will simply be, �Hawk 2, high/low.� The lead will call hisintentions and the two aircraft will cross no closer than 500 ft. It is imperative that the student calls hisintentions before his nose starts to point in towards the lead�s aircraft. On your initial ACM sorties thebandit will not be flying textbook airspeeds during the flats. He will more than likely be flying faster thanoptimal. Use this knowledge to your advantage by flying as close to a textbook flats as you can so thatthe airspeed advantage is in your favor.

Each subsequent cross will be called out as in the first one. Eventually the fight will come to a logicalconclusion. Ideally the fighter gets a good snapshot/gunshot, or the defender executes a successful bugout. The student should remember his game plan depending on which role he started with. For theoffensive hops, the student should stick in the fight, striving for a valid gun or missile. When a bug isattempted, the chasing fighter will maneuver to a weapons solution using LV placement and altitude forturn rate. The offensive fighter will call �Fox-2� when achieving a valid shot. The defender can do one oftwo things. If the bug attempt looks poor, he can break back into the offensive aircraft and create twocircle flow. This should be done prior to the shot (>40 degrees AOT), if able, to prevent a valid shot. Ifthe defender assess his bug to be valid, he can allow the �Fox-2� call. The defender will then call out hisairspeed followed by the offensive aircraft calling out his airspeed. Both fighters will then write down thecalled airspeeds and an assessment of shot range. This information will then be used in the debrief forbug/shot assessment.

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ROLLING SCISSORS

� P - Offensive Fighter medium angle perch

� A - 16,000 ft

� D - .4 - .5 nm

� S - 250 kts

The offensive fighter will begin by executing a Barrel Roll Attack on the defensive (lower) fighter.Offensively, the student will need to maneuver first to start the maneuver. The bandit will clear you tobegin maneuvering. The wingman will respond with �2� and begin maneuvering nose high and rollingtowards lead. At the same time, the defensive fighter will counter the Barrel Roll Attack by pulling levelacross the horizon, then pulling up when the high fighter overshoots the flight path. This will create avertical overshoot. The �roller� will continue from there to a logical conclusion (Figure 20).

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6,000-FT PERCH SET

� P - Right/Left Perch (45 degrees AOT)

� A - 15,000 ft def/16,000 ft off

� D - .8 - 1.1 nm

� S - 300 kts

This will look very much like the beginning of the gunsight tracking in the TacForm phase. Perch setsteach bubble entry for an offensive fighter and the counters to an attack for a defensive fighter.The Lead will check the flight to put you on the 45-degree perch. Use an MRT 17 unit pull to the calledheading. Each aircraft will call Speed and Angels on (Figure 21). For example, �Hawk 1, Speed andAngels� �Hawk 2, Speed and Angels.� The bandit will then call �You�re cleared in� to indicate that youcan start the engagement. The attacking fighter should roll in, execute a hard turn with the Lift Vector onthe bandit, point his nose at the defender, and call �Fox-2.� Whenever we call a missile shot, we will pullthe trigger. The bandit will then break and call �Chaff, Flares, Continue.� Remain wings level for 2-4seconds, driving towards the bandit�s point of departure. This should correspond to the LOS racing off,which is also the visual cue for Attack Window entry.

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FIGURE 21: STARTING INSIDE THE BUBBLE


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Then roll to put lift vector on/below the Bandit and pull to �heavy buffet,� this is an offensive break turn,use lead and lag to control nose to tail. Generally, the power remains at MRT. The bandit will recognizethe threat and execute a nose low break turn in the direction of the attacker due to the airspeed beingsignificantly less than corner speed. The primary goal of the attacker is to achieve guns tracking on thebandit, not a continuous set of high/low yo-yo�s. Follow-on missile shots may also be taken secondarily.Another logical goal of the attacker is to stay offensive by managing angles off, nose-to-tail, and closureto stay in the vicinity of the �control point� or �control zone.� If the attacker makes a big enough mistake,i.e., flight path and 3/9 line overshoot at a high track-crossing rate, the bandit will be able to eitherneutralize or become offensive on the attacker.

The set will go to a logical conclusion and a knock-it-off will be called after the training objectives havebeen satisfied.

BREAK TURN EXERCISE

� P - Abeam

� A - 15,000 ft def/16,000 ft off

� D - .8 - 1.0 nm

� S - 300 kts

The Break Turn Exercise is performed last during the offensive and defensive hops because generally,once the initial comm and roles of the set are established, any previously practiced maneuvering can beseen. In other words, the bandit can execute a defensive pitch back in the vertical or the horizontal and aflat or rolling scissors fight could follow this if the offensive fighter makes a mistake and overshoots.The BTX is begun somewhat like the Loose Deuce Exercise in TacForm. The idea is to be able to talkand fly at the same time. In TacForm, the lead waited to start the maneuver until the student spoke onthe radio. Now, the lead will begin maneuvering regardless of whether the student is ready. The studentwho cannot move the aircraft while speaking will be �left behind� and at a significant disadvantage fromthe very beginning.

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After the �speed and angels� call, the lead will call, �Start the comm.� The comm (Figure 22) will be asfollows:

Offensive fighter: �Hawk 1, break left/right, missile in the air.�

Bandit: �Hawk 2.�

Offensive fighter: �Ease your turn, missile defeated.�

Bandit: �Hawk 2.�

Offensive fighter: �Bandit�s coming out your right/left 3/9 high.�

Bandit: �Hawk 1, Tally.�

Offensive fighter: �Fox-2.�

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FIGURE 22: BREAK TURN EXERCISE


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The offensive fighter for the hop will begin the comm by calling his wingman to break into the flight.While executing the comm, at this time the offensive fighter becomes the �bandit� which explains theneed to call the defender�s eyes onto the offensive fighter. The offensive fighter will continue to dig noselow while pulling nibble of buffet and accelerating to between 350-400 kts and will take a Fox-2 when heachieves nose-on. If he delays pointing at the bandit, he may be out of range (> 2 nm). If you are blind,standard training rules apply. If you are outside of 2 nm, call �Fight�s on� to begin the engagement.Once the Fox-2 is taken, the bandit will execute a break turn to defeat the missile. Now the attacker willneed to enter the bandit�s bubble.

The difference between the two sets is that here the attacker and defender will be at or near corneringspeed and the attacker will also be 3,000 ft outside of the defender�s bubble. After the shot or �Fight�son� call, continue to fly/unload towards the bandit�s point of departure for about 5-7 seconds. This willcorrespond with the LOS rate racing off which is the visual cue for Attack Window entry. The attackerwill need to get 6.5 - 7.0 g�s depending on his airspeed to maximize his turn rate. A smooth applicationof back stick, rather than a quick snap pull, will avoid overstressing in most cases. The bandit is actuallyexecuting what is known as a �pitch back.� If he has enough distance he will attempt to have a nose-to-nose merge with the attacker. As long as the attacker does not delay setting his nose on the point ofdeparture, he will be able to enter the bandit�s bubble. All the visual cues that were present in the perchset will be evident. The attacker will have to enter the bandit�s bubble ensuring he flies behind the �post,�attempting to stay offensive, and hopefully closing to a gun envelope.

The bandit may also elect to break into the vertical to attempt to keep you in lag. If you see this, flytowards the bandit�s point of departure for approximately 2-4 seconds to get your turn circle underneaththe bandit�s and fly aft of his post. Due to the T-45�s inability to reverse into the vertical, we are notconcerned with a vertical overshoot. That being said, we should pull as required to take a snap shot onthe bandit as we are entering the vertical two circle fight. After the shot, keep the 17 unit pull on, butdisplace your turn circle 10 degrees outside of the bandit�s to ensure flight path deconfliction. Follow thebandit over the top and look to gain energy on the back side to reenter the bandit�s bubble for anothersnap shot. The point is to threaten the bandit while maintaining energy for the two circle vertical fight.From there, the bandit will most likely redfine into the horizontal plane and look to setup a bug once youapproach a firing solution.

The BTX will normally transition between two-circle and one-circle flow. Offensively, we would like tomaintain two-circle flow since that forces the bandit into a predictable flight path and should providemultiple gun solutions. By not managing our closure, we give the bandit ample opportunity to transitionthe fight into one-circle flow increasing his chances of escape. The BTX will continue to a logicalconclusion and be terminated with the standard �knock-it-off� call once training objectives are achieved.Remember the concept of misaligned turn circles and be patient.

CONCLUSIONOffensive ACM will be one of the most fun things you ever get to do. These flights can be made infinitelymore enjoyable when you have a good understanding of ACM concepts and techniques. This is your firstchance to employ the T-45 as an air-to-air weapon versus a hostile bandit. Keep in mind that your firstpriority is to KILL the bandit. It is highly recommended that you pursue as many personal solutions to theACM problems you will be presented with so you can build your own kit of tools to use in the jet.

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DEFENSIVE ACM

OBJECTIVESAs you might imagine, priorities change somewhat when you�re on the defensive end of an engagement.Above all else, you need to survive. This will require you to defeat any weapon that has already beenfired and deny the bandit the option of employing others. Your capacity to perform this important task isseriously diminished the longer that you remain engaged. For this reason, you must look for opportuni-ties to disengage, or bug out. They will rarely simply appear. You will, more than likely, have to createthem through intelligent defensive ACM.

Lastly, should the opportunity to gain the offensive advantage present itself, take it only if it will result in aquick kill. It would take a fairly egregious ACM error for this to happen but it�s possible. It is a whole loteasier to disengage from a dead bandit.

Those of you who are especially aggressive may be wondering why disengagement would be a higherpriority than a role reversal. There may be times that your mission dictates remaining engaged at allcosts. Without a mission imperative, however, look to bug out first. Your odds of achieving a successfulone are a whole lot better.

Like Offensive ACM we have solid objectives as the defender.

1. Deny/Defeat follow on shots

2. Survive

3. Neutralize/become offensive � Kill the bandit.

4. Bug � We need to separate from this fight. Even if we get a temporary role reversal, it�s time torun. We will minimize our time in the fight, but look to set up the best bug possible.

EXECUTIONLet�s discuss defensive maneuvering. Defensive maneuvering is hard work, but well worth the time andeffort because the alternatives are so unpleasant. While reading the following, you must remember thatyou cannot fight what you cannot see. In order to accomplish the your goals defensively,

YOU MUST KEEP SIGHT!

This concept cannot be overemphasized. If you lose sight of the attacker, you will be dead within30 seconds. These flights will be, at least, twice as tiring as your offensive hops. Be prepared to exertyourself.

As the defensive aircraft, your ultimate goal is to create the greatest possible in-close flight path over-shoot. A 180-degree out pass (nose to nose) is the best possible result, because at that time the twoaircraft are essentially neutral. You have increased your opponent�s AOT to 180 degrees. You will forcethis maximum overshoot by:

� Decreasing the opponent�s N-T (Range)

� Increasing the opponent�s AOT (Angles)

� Increasing the opponent�s Vc (Closure)

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The defensive aircraft will accomplish this by maneuvering in plane and out-of-phase (turn direction) withhis opponent. The one large exception to this is any gun defense maneuver. For this the defensiveaircraft needs to maneuver out-of-plane in order to defeat an impending/existing gun attack. Remember;execute out-of-plane guns defenses only as long as there is an immediate gun attack threat. Once theattacker�s nose comes off, the defensive aircraft must immediately start maneuvering in plane and out-of-phase. If the defensive aircraft stays in an out-of-plane maneuver he is giving the offensive aircraftturning room, thereby doing his out-of-plane maneuvering for him.To execute our defensive ACM objectives we need to do some things as pilots.

1. KEEP SIGHT/REGAIN SIGHT � You cannot fight what you cannot see. You will lose sight, butknow where to look when you should see the bandit.

2. Max. Perform our Aircraft � We need to be cognizant of our LV placement and AOA andairspeed to not only deny shots, but to attempt to separate from the fight.

3. Avoid the Deck.

As we discuss specific defensive maneuvers, these concepts will make more sense. The point toremember is that the offensive and defensive aircraft each have different objectives, and are trying toinfluence the relative planes of motion differently. Hence, the pilot that most effectively controls the planeof motion will be able to best achieve his goals.

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ATTACKER OUTSIDE THE BUBBLE

If we find ourselves in the unenviable position of being �jumped� or defensive for some other reason, wecan begin to get some ground back by understanding the geometry of the bubble and the visual cues thatdescribe it.

Before an attacking aircraft enters our bubble, we can retrieve angles that the attacker will be unable tocounter. If we begin a break turn and the bandit appears to drift forward on our canopy, then we knowthat he is outside of our bubble. We would like to keep our energy up, so when breaking into the bandit,try to get moving downhill to preserve speed and maximize turn rate. The moment the movement stopsadvancing forward, he has entered our bubble. At this point, continuing a break turn will keep the closureup if the bandit flies a pure pursuit profile. However, more than likely, the break turn will merely aid inbleeding more airspeed away.

If you are defensive and want to gain angles back, it helps to try to get the bandit outside the bubble.

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FIGURE 23: ANGLE OFF-TAIL RECOGNITION


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ATTACKER PURSUIT CURVESWhile assessing the bandit�s position, you see that he chooses to fly a pure pursuit profile. This wouldappear to the defender as a constant sight picture of the nose aspect of his aircraft. If the attacker fliespure pursuit after he has entered your bubble, continuing to break into him will increase his closure thusinducing an overshoot. (Remember to execute a guns �D� when appropriate).

If the bandit flies a lead pursuit profile, you will see the belly of his airplane as he induces his ownovershoot. He will fly in front of your post and show you a huge flight path overshoot. In this case,reverse; get a quick gunshot and bug.

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FIGURE 24: ATTACKER BUBBLE ENTRY


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If the bandit understands ACM, he may elect to fly pure pursuit until he enters your bubble, then reorientto a lag pursuit curve. You will see this visually because not only will he drift aft, but his nose will be nothreat, he may even ease his angle of bank. He is attempting to maneuver around the post to the attackwindow.

Nose attitude assessment will be crucial in determining how we want to fight our airplane. When thebandit�s nose is not a threat, we have more options and can get back into parameters for the existingfight.

ASSESS ATTACKER�S OFFENSIVE BREAK TURN

When the attacker hits the attack window, he should execute a max performance offensive break turn.There are some visual cues to help you assess the execution of this break turn. You should see hisaircraft bank into you and you will see his nose stabilize or start to come on to you. If the bandit quicklymoves from lag to nose-on or lead, he has done a good pull. If he also gets his nose down while doingthis, he was able to preserve some energy during the pull and he may be set up for a sustained rate war.If his break turn was weak or late, he will be stuck in lag, giving you the opportunity to get airspeed backand set up your separation. While you are observing this whole evolution take place, watch the bandit,WATCH THE DECK and fly your aircraft.

MISALIGNED TURN CIRCLES

Where this concept helped us as the attacker, it can hurt us as the defender (Figure 25). If we aredefensive, two circle, and the attacker is patient, but nose off, in lag, our time to live could be short. Weknow that eventually the attacker will be able to come nose on just based on geometry, but we can makehis shot more difficult if we adjust our pull at the appropriate times. The range between attacker anddefender will vary during the MATC fight. If we attempt to minimize our separation, we may get some-where close to a 180-degree pass and be able to extend or bug. If we are able to get behind theattacker�s wing line, we may be able to use MATC to our advantage, but the attacker will have to makesome large BFM errors in order for this to happen.

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RATE WAR (DEFENSIVE)

The rate war from the defensive standpoint will involve many variations of AOA and airspeed. We knowwe have Best Instantaneous Rate airspeed and Best Sustained Rate, which are where we would like tobe if at all possible. If we are flying our best rate while defensive and the attacker is not, then ourdefensive posture will not remain long (this is good).

This basically comes down to a nose assessment exercise. Let�s start at lag pursuit.

The bandit has put himself in lag to maintain an offensive advantage. At this point, he is not shooting us,so we can get some knots back. How do we do that? Either descend while continuing a nibble of buffetpull, or if on the deck, ease the pull to no less than 14 units (JUST EASE, DON�T UNLOAD) to acceler-ate. We will continue to fly our best rate fight evaluating the bandit the entire time. When we see thebandit�s nose coming to bear, begin the break turn.

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FIGURE 25: MISALIGNED TURN CIRCLES


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If we break into the bandit before his nose comes to bear, we are increasing his closure problem that hewill exacerbate by pulling lead for a gunshot. WE WILL EXECUTE A GUNS D FOR EVERY PENDINGSHOT. When his nose comes on, we D. As soon as his nose is off we will either continue breaking intohim until he overshoots, or if in the control zone or aft, we get back onto rate numbers. Our break turnsshould put our LV on the bandit or slightly below whenever possible. We will be flying various AOA�sthroughout the fight, so keep your scan moving and be deliberate.

Remember the T-45 will feel like it�s flying through smooth air if we are on our Best Sustained Ratenumbers on the deck. Therefore, a good inside/outside scan to check the Bandit�s position, our altitude,airspeed and AOA will be critical. Our break turns should be the nibble of buffet AT A MINIMUM, morelike heavy buffet.

REDEFINE/REVERSE

The question of when to reverse, or redefine the fight, has been difficult to answer since the advent ofstudent pilots.

We will start with the easy decisions and move to the harder ones later.

3/9 Line overshoot � If we are defensive and we see somewhere, somehow we have induced anovershoot where the attacker moves ahead of our wing line (forward of abeam), then we reverse. Theattacker has been neutralized or the roles have reversed and we can look to shoot and bug.

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In Close, High Angles Off, Flight Path Overshoot � How close is �In Close�? If the overshoot occursinside the forward limit of the Control Zone (<2,000 ft), we will consider it �In Close.� We also need highAngles Off Tail (>60 degrees AOT). If the defender does an immediate, aggressive reversal after theovershoot, he may be able to induce a 3/9-line overshoot from this Flight Path Overshoot.

Flight Path Overshoot � As the defender, if we observe a flight path overshoot where the attacker is inor aft of the control zone and we attempt to reverse, we merely help his lag problem and aid in our owndemise (Figure 26).

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FIGURE 26: FLIGHT PATH OVERSHOOT


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If we decide to reverse, we must do so with speed and precision. We need to get off our pull (unload)then reverse to reorient our lift vector on/aft of the bandit. Once there, we need to pull to get our nose upand work into an airspeed band more appropriate for our redefined fight. We are pulling into a one-circlefight, so 300 kts is probably not the place to be. If we execute a break turn (21 units) we will bleed whilegetting our nose position established. If we are already slow, a nibble of buffet pull might help uspreserve some energy for the follow on merge. Lift Vector placement is crucial here. If we merely pull upafter the decision to reverse, we give turning room for the bandit to capitalize on. We must constantlyreposition our LV to give the bandit as little turning room as possible. The use of speed brakes is atechnique that is often introduced here. The recommendation is to get many different techniques and tryto come up with one that suits you.

DEFENSIVE DECK TRANSITIONS

We will discuss how we would like to end up on the deck, ASSUMING WE ARE NOT BEING SHOT ORHEAVILY PRESSURED BY THE BANDIT.

Prior to arriving on the deck, we need to assess the fight and come up with a game plan. The importantthing to remember is that energy addition on the deck is very difficult and comes with a heavy price inturn performance. Therefore, prior to arriving on the deck, we need to obtain the energy package that wedesire, making the bandit�s job more difficult and our survival more likely.

One-Circle � Fortunately, in the T-45, we can fight a one-circle fight and gain altitude without sacrificingmuch in performance. The important thing to keep in mind is that the T-45 has marginal nose authority,especially when slow, so if we are close to the deck and slow, allowing the nose to break the horizon maymean we cannot recover without busting the. If we are fighting a fully developed flat scissors, MRT andsmooth control inputs will give us a positive VSI and give us more flexibility. If we execute a gunsdefense aggressively nose low, we need to be aware of the deck. We need a few thousand feet tosalvage a big nose slice. Also, attempting to bug from the flats is hard enough, if we are near the deck,we have less altitude to use to gain airspeed impeding our acceleration.

Two-Circle � This is where deck awareness and a good game plan can save your life. When we aredefensive, two circle approaching the deck, we may need to take whatever altitude remains, before thebandit takes it away, to arrive at 10,000 ft with a good rate package. This type of deck transition is calledan Energy-Rate Deck Transition and can be used when the bandit is not threatening you to arrive onthe deck with a good rate energy package. For example, if we are at 12,000 ft with 280 KIAS, we need tokeep a nibble of buffet pull and descend using the 10 degree rule to accelerate to our Sustained TurnRate band of 300-330 kts. Thus if the Bandit doesn�t arrive on the deck with a similar airspeed band, hewill have to ease his turn to accelerate which will hurt his rate (good for us). If the bandit is arriving at aweapons solution, we need to use a Positional Deck Transition and max perform to take angles awayand create an angular and closure problem. This will take away angles from the attacker, but it is done atan energy penalty.

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Roller- The important thing to recall here is our smallest Split S altitude. On average, 5,200 ft above thehard deck is a good number to remember. If we lack the altitude required to optimize our LV placementduring the roller, it may be time to transition to a one-circle fight, or separate. This may mean that we willgive away a lot of turning room for the bandit initially, but the following roll, he will have to transition aswell, which will help you get some angles back.

DECK REVERSAL CRITERIA

In most cases, reversing on the deck will usually help the attacker�s gun solution. We would only reverseon the deck with a significant flight path overshoot that will allow us to neutralize the attacker or if we arebeing shot and simply need to redefine to remain unpredictable.

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FLAT SCISSORS MANEUVERING (DEFENSIVE)

The horizontal scissors (Figure 27) is a slow-speed, high-AOA radius fight (one circle) where bothfighters are trying to minimize their respective turn radii. Both the fighter and the bandit will be trying tominimize their turn radius to gain a positional advantage.

Defensively, we will be flying our airplane in a similar manner, as before, however, we will be looking toachieve different goals. We will still be attempting to achieve our smallest radius of turn, in this case, toneutralize the attacker so we can bug.

The reversal techniques were discussed earlier, but remember to stay out of phase by reversing as thebandit crosses your 6. Follow these and enter our one-circle fight. Our goals here are different thanwhen we wanted to kill the other airplane. We are looking to get out-of-phase, to set up our bug. In orderto do this, we need to generate lateral separation after the first merge. The lateral separation created willbe translated into angles off tail at the merge. We create lateral separation post merge by first assessingthe bandit�s Lift Vector position. If the bandit does not have his Lift Vector oriented towards us, we shouldcontinue to generate lateral separation. Once the bandit places his Lift Vector on us, we must honor thisby placing our LV on the bandit. If the bandit were to keep his wings level, and we did the same, wewould essentially accomplish a 150-kt bug as the separation increases.

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After the reversal, both aircraft will be situated in a nose high, climbing, nose-to-nose fight (one-circle).Each will turn into each other attempting to flush the other out by minimizing their respective turn radii.The two aircraft will cross flight paths at some point. It is imperative that the student calls out hisintentions, as stated in training rules, as to whether he will cross high or low.

Remember our priorities and look to set up a good bug. Keep sight of the bandit while max. performingyour aircraft. (Read the Separation/Bug chapter at the end of High Aspect ACM.) If a bug out does notappear successful the student should recognize this and perform a pitch-back maneuver to deny amissile shot and attempt another close-aboard, 180-degree out pass. The definition of a successfulbugout is 1.5 nm with > 100 kts opening. We will evaluate this by the attacker calling �Fox-2� when he isin a suspected weapons envelope. The defender will broadcast his airspeed, and then the attacker willcall out his airspeed. The attacker and defender will then make an assessment of shot range and noteboth airspeeds to determine whether or not the missile would have been defeated. The goal for thedefensive fighter is to survive as long as possible and attempt to disengage from or neutralize the fight.Make energy excursions to get out of phase and create high aspect merges. When you decide to bug,minimize vertical separation by holding the nose up as you turn towards the bandit. Remember that youcan call �low� from a high position.

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ROLLING SCISSORS MANEUVERING (DEFENSIVE)

The rolling scissors (Figure 28) will generally occur after a flight path and 3/9 overshoots where thedefender has sufficient energy to somewhat use the vertical to stop down-range travel during his reversal.The comment regarding stopping down-range travel is significant. Note also that although we set up therolling scissors with an overshoot in the vertical plane; remember that this maneuver could be enteredafter a high-speed overshoot in the horizontal.

As the bandit executes a barrel roll attack on us, we will counter the barrel roll attack by pulling levelacross the horizon, when the bandit is over us and aft, pull into the vertical. This will create a verticalovershoot. Defensively, this is good; the bandit�s nose is not an immediate threat so you have someoptions about setting up a good bug. Although we don�t have the airspeed to go pure vertical, we want todrive the fight as �loopy� as possible. This will afford us two advantages as the defensive aircraft. First, itwill generate merges that are more neutral. These merges will be more vertical, which will give us oursecond advantage, which will be large attitude discrepancies, and large airspeed splits from the bandit.

We will achieve this loopy fight through the use of good LV placement and AOA control. We willmaneuver similar to the offensive roller. We will fly lag when appropriate (typically through the bottom ofthe roll, when our airspeed is high) and lead to collapse the fight over the top. If we combine theaggressive use of lead over the top with the selection of idle, we can reduce the distance between theaircraft, thus solving one of the parameters for the good bug.

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The goal for the defensive fighter is to survive as long as possible and attempt to disengage from orneutralize the fight. Because a rolling scissors is a slow-speed fight with predictable flight paths and poorshot opportunities, you should look for an opportunity to disengage. Typically, the appropriate time todisengage is from the top of the roller. It helps to be aware of this to time your disengagement or toanticipate when the bandit may decide to disengage.

We need to make sure we time the bug correctly. For bug mechanics, see the Separation/Bug sectionfollowing this one. The roller will be heading downrange and the bug will end up going about 135 degreesfrom that heading, out the bandit�s tail. Here, we want to make sure that the bandit is getting his nose upprior to our attempt to run. Going over the top, we will check to see that the bandit�s nose has broken thehorizon, then attempt to run out his extended six, unloading to the deck. It�s imperative that we KEEPSIGHT of the bandit to be able to evaluate the bug. We will probably need to check turn to put the banditas close to our six as possible while keeping sight. In the real world, the bandit will not broadcast whenhe shoots, so only your eyeball will tell if you have been successful.

SEPARATION/BUG

We would like to set up the best bug possible. There are some parameters to attempt to achieve.

� 180-degree pass � We want to bug out the bandit�s 6 o�clock position. This will give him thehighest angles to traverse to come nose on.

� 500-ft pass � Any turning room we give outside of this is less he has to turn to come nose onand could mean an unsuccessful disengagement.

� Airspeed/Nose attitude Split � Ideally we would be nose down/accelerating while the bandit isnose up/decelerating.

We will rarely achieve all of these goals explicitly. However, if we are close, it can mean a successfulbug and the ability to kill that bandit tomorrow. How far can we deviate from these parameters and stilllive? That will change in different situations. For instance, to bug from the flats, we need to get veryclose to all three bullets to run. To bug from the roller, we have more leeway due to the angular differ-ence between fighter and bandit. You will have the opportunity to see many bugs and should be able tocome up with a good sight picture for a good bug window.

There�s no such thing as a bad bug . . . provided you recognize early that you�re not going to make itand alter your game plan. Therefore don�t wait for the perfect setup to bug. Go for it and if it doesn�twork, pitch back in and just call it an extension. The separation you gained will be cumulative in the nextovershoot to the flats, increasing your odds of a good bug next time.

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In most instances, our bug will not occur at 10,000 ft. Thus our Bug mechanics can stay fairly consistent.

Left Hand � Even before the merge, we should be at MRT, spooling up the motor or accelerating.

Right Hand � We need to pull to the bandit�s extended 6 o�clock position. Then, since our best accelera-tion occurs at zero g, we should unload until we get there. The good thing about this is that we don�tneed to look inside the cockpit to do this.

Head � We need to keep sight of the bandit. We will try to get him as close to our 6 o�clock as we canwithout losing sight. This is referred to as the �Aft Visibility Limit.� It�s different for every person in everyjet.

As we extend, we will need to come inside and check the altimeter for the deck and check turn tosweeten up our bug. We check turn away from the bandit�s nose in order to maintain sight of the bandit,and/or to give him more degrees to turn. Only check turn a maximum of two times. We use this rule inorder to maximize our separation from the bandit. If we continuously turn, we will arc, thus not maximiz-ing our airspeed and lateral separation. We bug all the way to the deck. We need to be at 50 ft ifpossible to maximize our airspeed. The weapons envelopes tell us if we have accomplished a success-ful bugout. A good rule of thumb is the rule of 2�s; 1 nm with 100 kts opening. In training, we can useA/A TACAN to determine if we have sufficient range and to get an eyeball call. If there is any doubt, thenthere is no doubt. We need to pitchback prior to the bandit�s nose becoming a threat using max perfor-mance and evaluate the bandit.

ATTACKER INSIDE BUBBLE

We need to start thinking about the nose assessment exercise that develops after this (See Rate War(defensive)). Assess the bandit�s pursuit curve to determine our course of action. If the bandit flies pureor lead pursuit he will overshoot in some form. We need to try to maximize this by continuing our breakturn until it�s time to execute the guns D. If we bleed here, it�s OK, because if we execute the turncorrectly, he will overshoot and we will be properly set up for the one-circle fight.

If the bandit flies a lag pursuit profile, get on your rate numbers and use the altitude available to keepthem up. This is a nibble of buffet/rumble pull until we can�t do it any longer. Get your LV below thebandit and get your airplane coming downhill.

The thing to remember here is that a hard pull will not get us any angles back from the bandit, sotemper your break turns with some intelligence about the geometry of the follow-on fight.

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GUNS DEFENSE

This is fairly easy to explain, but hard to recognize while fighting. In the T-45, the lead required for agunshot, as seen in the SSD, appears as a T-45 with a Nose-On aspect. Thus whenever we see theBandit nose on, inside 3,000 ft we should be thinking about a Guns Defense. The most important thing toremember about guns is how difficult a good gunshot is. We practice many snapshots versus coopera-tive bandits during the SSD and still miss. Even if you are on the deck with minimal airspeed, we need tomaneuver our airplane whenever we see a pending gunshot. We have two main objectives whileexecuting the Guns D.

� Minimize our target area

� Defeat the plane of motion solution

Endeavor to make your airplane as small as possible, this usually means wingtip on the attacker. Thisalso helps to put our lift vector in a position to alter our plane-of-motion. We need to move our airplaneout of its current path, therefore a weak pull will get us shot, however, a 24-unit rumbling pull will succeedonly in bleeding our airspeed while not moving the aircraft effectively. A smooth 17-21-unit pull will movethe airplane in the quickest fashion. If we find ourselves slow on the deck, put wingtip on the bandit andpull up. If we are able to execute the Guns D low, that will help us keep our energy up. As soon as thebandits nose is no longer a threat, put the lift vector back on the bandit and evaluate the bandit�s potentialovershoot and get back on your defensive game plan If the bandit continues to pull lead for shots,continue to defend against the shots and keep moving the jet!

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LOST SIGHT GAMEPLAN

Ideally, we would never, ever lose sight. In the unfortunate circumstance that we lose sight, what do wedo? This would be pretty serious in the �real world.� In training, we need to think safety first, so we call�Lost Sight.� If we hear another �Lost Sight� or �Blind� from the bandit, we need to get a KIO andseparate via altitude for safety and then execute a rejoin.

If we hear a �Continue� call out of the bandit, then what do we do? Well, the bandit has assumed safetyof flight so we need to continue pulling. If you recall back to offensive ACM you may remember howdifficult it was to execute a good bubble entry on the 6,000-ft perch. It doesn�t really matter which way wepull, we need to start maneuvering the jet aggressively.

You may have an idea of where the bandit was; maneuver the jet at the nibble to the rumble of buffet inthat direction. As we do this, it will make a more difficult weapons solution for the bandit as well asmoving the bandit further forward on your canopy. After a few seconds, if we have not regained sight, weneed to reorient the lift vector to remain unpredictable and to defeat the POM of the impending gunshot, ifwe�re lucky. We should move out-of-plane approximately every 3-5 seconds. The whole time we need toattempt to regain sight by looking at our 5-7 o�clock position from high to level.

If lost sight while on the bug, you must check turn at least one clock code, or 30 degrees, in order to flushthe bandit out from your 6 o�clock. If still no-joy, pitch back, and again, direction isn�t as important as youmoving the jet right now. Your general mindset is to deny your control zone to the bandit.


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TACADMIN

The transit on the defensive hops will be the same as the offensive. You are always the wingman andalways responsible for good TACFORM and good positioning for the sets.

SSD

� P - Abeam

� A - 14,000 ft

� D - .8 - 1.0 nm

� S - 300 kts

The snapshot drill is a cooperative maneuver designed to teach employment of the gun at high anglesoff. The snap shot is used when attacking at medium to high angles off in an attempt to achieve a quickkill, thereby precluding subsequent maneuvering.

The SSD will be set up at 300 kts and 14,000 ft. The two aircraft will be in combat spread, level, and1.0 nm with the shooter 10 degrees aft of the target�s beam. Once the g-warm is completed and bothaircraft are fenced in, the lead will call that he is setting up for the snapshot drill. As with all ACM set ups,the drill will begin with �Speed and Angels� calls from both aircraft. The lead will initiate all the comm,regardless if he is offensive or defensive. The comm will be �Hawk 1, in Shooter,� �Hawk 2, in target.�The student will be the target on the defensive hops.

The two aircraft will turn in towards each other. This is a cooperative maneuver, so as the target you willnormally pull to place the shooter at 10 or 2o�clock and hold him there, typically about a 12-14-unit pull.As the Target, you will set the angles and the Shooter will set the range. We may need to adjust our pullbased on the bandit�s range and aspect. It�s important to be a good target and fly 0 VSI. When theshooter calls �Trigger down, snap,� you should evaluate what the nose position of the shooter is, and thenreverse your turn, pulling as required to get back to abeam as we reach our maximum separation.Remember, you are the wingman and you must regain 1 nm of separation. Generally, 8 snapshots areaccomplished, but there can be more. On the last 4 snapshots, the instructor will call, �Hawk 1 inshooter, maneuvering.� During these, you will attempt to maneuver out of the bullet stream and avoidgetting shot. To do this, you will put your wingtip on the attacker and maneuver out-of-plane. Eventhough you are defending, you also must be able to keep the geometry flowing. The goal for thedefensive aircraft is to get a good look at what the T-45 looks like when it is in a gun envelope.

Remember the shooter in the guns weave must accomplish three basic things:

I. Plane of Motion

II. LEAD

III. RANGE (1,000-1,500 ft out to 3,000 ft)

Evaluate the size and attitude of the attacking aircraft and get a good Eyeball Call for what the shot lookslike and when things are happening. You will be attempting to defeat the plane of motion solution that theattacker is presenting. It�s better to be early than late, but if you are too early, the bandit may follow youthrough your maneuvers.

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As the defender during the maneuvering portion of the snapshot drill, your priority is to create the largestmiss margin for the shooter. To do this, you must maneuver early enough to cause plane of motionproblems for the shooter, but not so early that you give the shooter enough time to correct for it. Theeasiest way to do this is by defeating the attacker�s plane of motion. To defeat the snapshot, put awingtip on the shooter (this gives the shooter the smallest possible target and gets your lift vector to itsmaximum out-of-plane) and execute a nibble of buffet pull (17-21 units) for no more than 1-2 seconds.Remember if you go nose low, you will need to start your defense a little earlier as you have to overbankto get wingtip on. You should roll towards the bandit if you put opposite wingtip on, as this will decreasetime to get wingtip on and allow you to keep sight. As soon as you hear the bandit�s assessment, getyour wings under you and attempt to regain 14,000 ft. As you turn in, it�s okay to level off somewherebesides 14,000 ft, just keep 0 VSI as you turn inbound.

If it appears as though the shooter will be violating the �no forward quarter gun shots forward of the 3/9line� or �1,000 ft min gun shots� training rule, then either aircraft can call �Skip it� and the shooter aircraftwill maneuver to effect a safe pass and the drill will continue following the reversal. Standard knock it offprocedures apply (Figure 29).

Flight Procedures

FIGURE 29: SNAP GUNS EXERCISE


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FLAT SCISSORS

P - Abeam

A - 14,000 ft

D - 0.8-1.2 nm

S - 250 kts

When we are defensive, we will execute the setup just like the SSD (Figure 30). We will be a cooperativetarget until the bandit�s nose approaches (i.e., becomes a factor). We should defeat the snapshot byputting our near wingtip on the attacker and pulling out-of-plane. This is the reason for the �flats� call atthe initial set-up. As soon as we have defeated the POM of the bullets, we need to resume our fight withthe bandit by repositioning our lift vector back onto him and pulling to maximize the overshoot. We willsee the high crossing rate and in-close overshoot and only then will we reverse. If the shot is rangy, wecan pull back into the bandit to deny turning room and ensure the horizontal overshoot.

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ROLLING SCISSORS

P - Offensive aircraft medium angle perch

A - 15-16,000 ft

D - .4 - .5 nm

S - 250 kts

After the speed and angels call, the bandit will call himself in. For the cooperative start, roll 90 degreesAOB and pull level across the horizon until both aircraft are stacked up vertically, then reverse your turnto begin the roller (Figure 31). If you lose your spatial awareness, after the pass just go LV on the bandit.

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6,000-FT PERCH

� P - Right/Left Perch (45-degree AOT)

� A - 15,000 ft def/16,000 ft off

� D - .8 - 1.0 nm

� S - 300 kts

This is your chance to attemptto counter the two-circle attack.Generally speaking, the longerthe range and the more theAOT, the more difficult thegeometry is for the bandit. Atlonger ranges you will be ableto turn more degrees before thebandit enters your bubble.Unfortunately, the 6,000-ft setputs the bandit right on thebubble.

After a �Speed and Angels� callfrom both fighters, the lead willcome in off the perch. Prior tothe bandit�s nose coming tobear, break into him to eitherkeep his missile on the rails ordefeat any shot he fires. Thedefensive break turn isexecuted by rolling to put yourLV 45 degrees (135 degreesAOB) below the horizon andthen smoothly pulling to 19-21units. This will allow you to usealtitude to keep your turn rateup while looking for the banditto assess his nose. You shouldstrive to get about 45-50degrees nose low and thenexecute a deck transitionappropriate to the bandit�sattack. The bandit will most likely arrive in your control zone and attempt a shot. You need to execute aguns D to defeat the shot and then get right back into your two-circle fight or redefine. The primary goalof the bandit is to achieve guns tracking on you. You will attempt to force an in-close overshoot toneutralize the attacker (Figure 32). If the bandit makes a big enough mistake, i.e., flight path and 3/9 lineovershoot at a high track-crossing rate, you will be able to either neutralize or become offensive.

The set will go to a logical conclusion and a Knock-it-off will be called after the training objectives havebeen satisfied.

Flight Procedures

FIGURE 32: STARTING INSIDE THE BUBBLE


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BREAK TURN EXERCISE

� P - Abeam

� A - 15,000 ft def/16,000 ft off

� D - .8 - 1.0 nm

� S - 300 kts

Defensively, this is a great opportunity for us to fine-tune our bug techniques.

When directed to �break right/left,� execute an overbanking hard turn with your LV 45 degrees (135 de-grees AOB) below the horizon. Your lead will direct you to ease the pull, simulating the missile�s defeat.Ease your pull to the nibble of buffet while continuing to dig nose low; this will increase your airspeed.The bandit will call his position to you and your response of �Tally� has reset the roles of fighter andbandit. Your priority now is to put the bandit at your aft visibility limit to maximize the extension withoutlosing sight! A good rule of thumb is to keep turning nose low until you reach a heading 180 degreespast your start heading. Then get your head out and find him. As soon as you have the bandit at 5:30 or6:30, aggressively unload for kts/extension. If you must check turn to keep sight, do it at 13 or 14 unitsand get right back on your unload. Do not arc!

To review, the comm should sound like this:

Lead: �Hawk 2, break left/right, missile in the air.�

Student: �HAWK 2.�

Lead: �Ease your turn, missile defeated.�

Student: �HAWK 2.�

Lead/Bandit: �Bandit�s coming out your right/left 3/9 high.�

Student: �HAWK 2, Tally.�

Bandit: �Fox-2� or �Fight�s On.�

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Before the bandit�s nose comes onbreak back into him (Figure 33). This, combined with use of expend-ables (a timely �chaff/flares� call for you), will defeat his shot, if you didn�t prevent the bandit from taking italtogether.

Your reengagement can take one of two forms. Either a maximum instantaneous break turn (using allavailable g consistent with NATOPS), or a maximum performance pull into the vertical. Keep in mindthat max performance can mean one of two things; either the lift limit if you are below corner or max G ifyou are above corner. Base your choice on bandit range and nose position. If range is sufficient to keepthe bandit from getting around your post, come back in nose level to slightly low in the direction of thebandit. If he�s at dead six, it doesn�t matter which direction you choose, but then you won�t be able to seehim, will you?

Flight Procedures

FIGURE 33: BREAK TURN EXERCISE


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Flight Procedures

You are trying to force as neutral a pass as you can possibly get. That means maximum angles off thetail, minimum lateral separation. If you can achieve this merge with sufficient airpeed (you should haveno lower than 300 KIAS), disengagement will likely be successful. Care must be taken not to unload intothe deck during execution of this bugout�you�ll be very close to it.

If the merge is such that a bugout is not possible, your options vary according to the degree of defensive-ness. If the merge is close, a reversal may be a good option. Betting on a delayed reaction from thebandit, you may be able to force either a climbing one-circle fight or potentially a roller (depending on thedegree of the vertical overshoot and how long it takes him to get his nose up). Either of these couldafford a better bug opportunity than the continuation of a two-circle fight.

If the bandit is able to make it around your post, you are very defensive and will be forced to continueyour turn. Energy management is paramount! Don�t bleed below your best sustained turn rate airspeedunless required to keep his nose off! It�s possible that the bandit �sold the farm� (in terms of energy) toarrive at this point, and the zealous conservation of your knot package could yield angles for you. Angleslead to overshoots. Overshoots lead to bugouts.

If the bandit has buried his nose on the entry and you are unsure of your ability to generate the extensionrequired for a 180 out pass, you have the option to pitch back vertical. Execution and timing are criticalhere. You need to go early to avoid being shot over the top. You need to execute a break turn pull andcontrol your lift vector. The lift vector will either be on the bandit or in front of him if he gives you turningroom. The vertical pitchback is difficult to master and the consequences can be dire.The BTX will go to a logical conclusion and be terminated with the standard �knock-it-off� call oncetraining objectives are achieved.

CONCLUSIONDefensive BFM is extremely difficult. There is no clearer way to describe the position of straining yourneck to see yourself getting shot. However, a solid understanding of our aircraft and BFM should giveyou the tools you need to survive should you ever find yourself defensive in Hostile Territory. This sectionhas described many techniques to try to capitalize on the mistakes the attacker may make. We need tokeep one thing in mind whenever we are defensive . . . NEVER GIVE UP. Hopefully you will disengageand live to fight another day.


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NOTES


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HIGH ASPECT ACM

Up until now, the fights have started with one aircraft in a positional advantage over another. In a highaspect engagement, BFM concepts take on a new light since no aircraft begins with a positional advan-tage and the flow is much less predictable. As both aircraft vie for an advantage, engagements willnormally transition from neutral to defined roles. When this occurs, use the concepts previously dis-cussed in Offensive and Defensive ACM.

There are several different considerations when approaching high-aspect BFM. First of all, what sort ofmerge are you likely to encounter? Here in the Training Command, your neutral sets will occur fromclose range (typically inside of 1-1/2 mile) with both fighter and bandit having a tally of the other. Assum-ing that neither jet is willing to give away any position advantage at the merge, you will pass with 500 ft(minimum for training rules) and 180 degrees off the tail. From here, you will employ all the ACMknowledge that you have acquired to accomplish your goals. Since your objectives can change givenyour degree of offensiveness or defensiveness, it is important to be flexible in your game-plan execution.Among other things, you must keep sight in this dynamic environment. The bandit will pass the mergeand go very close to your 6 o�clock (your aft visibility limit). You need to regain sight or the end will bequick. Take note of the environmentals. The quality of visibility and any detractors like the sun or cloudswill directly affect the amount of time and energy you must devote to maintaining sight.

OBJECTIVESA fighter pilot must know how to employ his aircraft 1 v 1 before he moves on to more complex sce-narios. 1 v 1 maneuvering, though not as complex as multi-plane scenarios, is more complex than anyfacet of your training to date. With the myriad of forms the 1 v 1 may take, it can be broken down into twosimple choices, and with each, some basic rules. The only two options are:

(1) To extend through the bandit for a subsequent reengagement or total separation, or

(2) To turn with the bandit to achieve the kill.

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Safety/Emergency Situations

Once we have determined that we will engage our bandit, we need to accomplish a few goals.

� Determine Flow (see Concepts and Definitions for a Flow discussion)

� Evaluate the Bandit (How well is the bandit executing his fight?)

� Define Roles (Soon Offensive and Defensive roles will appear and we need to execute ourtraining for those roles)

In order to execute these objectives, we need to do some basics:

� Max perform the aircraft

� Keep sight of the bandit

� Avoid hitting the deck

HIGH ASPECT CONCEPTS

FLOW

As you have already seen from your reading, every engagement can be broken down in terms of the flowthat it is generating. One of the keys to gaining an advantage in high-aspect ACM is driving the fight intoflow, which will allow you to exploit your aircraft�s performance characteristics. With similar performingaircraft, recognizing flow first, and then flying your jet accordingly will achieve the advantage.

� One-circle flow (Figure 34)occurs when one aircraftreverses at the merge, creatinga fight defined by turn radius.In a one-circle fight, the jet,which can turn the tightestcircle, will achieve positionaladvantage. When engaged inone-circle flow, you need tocollapse your turn radius astightly as possible in order tocreate turning room betweenyou and the bandit. Thismeans transitioning to anairspeed that is both slowerthan his and controllable interms of g available. 110 KIASmay well be slower than hisairspeed, but it affords noability to turn your jet and willsoon result in the loss of anyposition advantage gained.

FIGURE 34: ONE-CIRCLE FLOW


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� Two-circle flow (Figure 35)occurs when both aircraftturn across each other�s tail,forming a fight defined byrate. When engaged in two-circle flow, the jet with thegreatest turn rate will bringthe nose to bear first while atthe same time, achievingweapons separation. Withyour understanding of T-45performance characteristics,you know that your greatestturn rate will be achieved atthe g limit at approximately410 KIAS. But you�re notgoing to be able to maintainthis pull for long. Unlesstime to kill is exceptionallyshort, the aircraft with thegreatest sustained turn ratewill win two-circle fights.When you recognize that theflow is two-circle, attempt tocapture your Tactical TurnRate airspeed band andmake energy excursions as required to gain angular advantage.

CONTROLLING MERGES

One of the quickest ways to gain positional advantage in a high-aspect engagement is through theuncountered use of out-of-plane maneuvering. For instance, by flying your jet through a plane of motionabove the bandit�s, you collapse your turning circle relative to his. Out-of-plane maneuvering must becoupled with proper LV placement at the correct time to achieve an advantage.

By maneuvering out-of-plane below the bandit, you decrease the angles required to travel (increasingeffective turn rate), while collapsing the radius of your turn circle relative to your opponent�s. Of course, ifyou pull your jet level across the horizon while trying to figure out just what exactly that 60-degree nose-high bandit is doing, the lesson may be accentuated as you go defensive. Keep in mind, out-of-planemaneuvering will often be limited by your aircraft�s performance. Asking too much from your jet will resultin a loss of control and a quick conclusion to the fight. As you maneuver out-of-plane, you will need toassess your game plan after the next merge.

Safety/Emergency Situations

FIGURE 35: TWO-CIRCLE FLOW


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VERTICAL MERGES

We will discuss the nuances of the neutral merge in game plan development. However, understandingthe effects of the vertical in determining performance is critical. In general, excessively nose-lowattitudes can be aggressively countered through a hefty amount of lead pursuit, particularly when thenose-low bandit has high airspeed (Figure 36). Recognizing his predictability in this situation gives youthe freedom to early turn with aggressive lead pursuit, while assuring two-circle flow. This is simplebecause the option to reverse (into one-circle flow based on radius) does not exist for the jet that burieshis nose. If it is you who is approaching a very vertical merge excessively nose low, you must dodamage control. If recognized early enough, you may be able to maneuver for a shallower merge. Ifthat�s not possible, perhaps the bandit will get too aggressive with the lead, allowing you to flush him outin front with a wings-level pull to the horizon. If he correctly judges his use of lead, however, you must rolllift vector on and attempt to spiral the fight to the deck.

If you find yourself approaching a merge while climbing and the bandit has a nose down attitude, you canearly turn the bandit prior to the merge and gain angles that are very hard for him to counter. If theseparation is small (~ 500 ft) you can roll 90 degrees off and start your pull to get your nose on earlywithout busting the 500-ft bubble. This will require a large amount of lead timing to account for your poorturn rate nose high. Every situation will be different, but you will begin this early turn well prior to 3-9 linecrossing.

Remember, every time you go nose high, eventually you will end up nose low and you need to look aheadto try to manage the follow on merges generated from aggressive out-of-plane maneuvering.

FIGURE 36: VERTICAL MERGES


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ENGAGEMENT MINDSET

Approach each merge with a game plan in mind. At first, it will be difficult to drive the fight the way youwant, with experience, you will be able to drive the fight and spend more time offensive.In general, we want to hit each merge with minimum lateral separation (500 ft) and take an initial cutacross the bandit�s tail to take out any turning room that may be used against us. More merge mechanicswill be discussed later.

If you are going to fight an aggressive position fight (i.e., one-circle/radius fight), attempt to influence themerge so as to arrive already established nose high. Reverse at the pass if necessary to create one-circle flow. Aggressively use out-of-plane maneuvering to collapse your circle relative to the bandit�s.

An uncooperative bandit my not allow you oncecircle flow by reversing his own direction of turnfollowing your initial reversal. You may be able toreverse your own turn once more, but by this time,the range between the jets is sufficient to negatethe effects of turn radius (Figure 37). In otherwords, two circle conditions exist despite theappearance of one-circle flow. If you cannot workyour game plan now, react to the bandit byestablishing a competitive turn rate, and look foran opportunity to redefine later.

If instead, you approach the merge with an energy-management mind-set, (i.e., Two circle/rate fight)work either two-circle flow or extension tech-niques. Hit the merge with the maximum ktspossible and influence flow by initially turningacross the bandit�s tail. A nose-low attitude will berequired to capitalize on all that airspeed and gavailable. Pick up best-sustained turn ratesomewhere in your Tactical Turn Rate airspeedband (300-330 KIAS) and attempt to outrate thebandit.

With similar aircraft, the fighter who makes thefirst error will typically be the loser. In two-circleflow, you keep a higher airspeed and since these fights normally take longer to develop, they tend to bemore forgiving. However, energy management is key. If you arbitrarily give away airspeed withoutgaining something in return (whether that be a shot, position advantage or survival), you will probably findyourself defensive. One-circle flow is much less forgiving of any mistakes. If you err in an aggressiveposition fight, you probably won�t see a gradual degradation of the fight. You will more likely go from aneutral or offensive position to a guns defense within the blink of an eye.

Finally, don�t ever underestimate the importance of sight. A BFM error that gets the other guy to lose histally is not an error. You can be the most inept fighter pilot on earth, but if the bandit doesn�t have sight,you�ll eventually kill him.

FIGURE 37: ACM ENVIRONMENT


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GAME PLAN DEVELOPMENT

In ACM, the head-on pass will be the result of the two combatants turning toward each other from abeampositions. You must work to make a 500-ft pass happen at the first merge and at all subsequent merges.Any distance over 500 ft present at the merge is called turning room, which will most likely be taken bythe bandit. If so, as the actual pass happens, the bandit will have less than 180 degrees to turn in orderget his nose on the fighter. He will start the engagement with an advantage.

When both aircraft work to make a 500-ft pass at the merge, you will notice that the heading of both A/Cas the merge happens will be about 90 degrees off of the turn in heading. Make sure you are alwaysworking to deny the bandit any advantage at the merge and utilize any turning room the bandit allows, butdo not pass inside of 500 ft at any time.

The aggressiveness of the maneuvering just prior to the pass is critical because it will most oftendetermine the form the engagement will take. To begin with, never accept a neutral pass. Always try toachieve an advantage in angles at the pass, that is, attempt an early turn in order to cut down on theamount of AOT you will have to work off. To achieve this �bite� on the bandit use a hard turn and plan topass the bandit at the control point with as many angles as you can get (making sure to be no closer than500 ft based on ROE). This is called a check turn and is used to not only take out turning room at themerge, but to see what the bandit is doing. Since you are fighting against the same type of aircraft, youcan engage in either a rate or radius fight.

There are several basic first moves that can be made. Remember from earlier in this instruction thatyour success in a two-circle fight is dependent on achieving the best rate of turn (degrees per second); itis also a nose-to-tail fight. Winning the one-circle fight is achieved by minimizing your radius of turn,(which occurs at slower airspeeds.) The radius fight is a nose-to-nose fight.

The best instantaneous turn rate of any fighter is generally achieved at its maneuvering speed. This isalso called �corner speed.� The T-45 corner speed is somewhere around 410 kts at 10,000 ft. This is thespeed that maximum g can be achieved without over-stressing the aircraft. If 410 kts is maintained, theT-45 will sustain around 14 degrees per second. The main problem that exists with corner speed is thatmost aircraft do not have the thrust to weight ratio to maintain the airspeed without losing altitude. Oncethe aircraft is at the hard deck, it cannot maintain the same maximum turn rate without bleeding airspeed.This loss of energy (in either altitude or airspeed) is a fact of maneuvering a low thrust-to-weight aircraftat corner speed. But any time corner speed can be maintained (at maximum g); turn rate will bemaximized. Once the T-45 is on the deck, it is unable to lose altitude in exchange for airspeed, so nowthe best rate of turn it can maintain is its best-sustained turn rate. This is around 300-330 kts for bestsustained Turn Rate band. It gives an acceptable turn rate (10-11 deg/sec) and the aircraft will be able tosustain airspeed while on the deck (i.e., not losing energy). One thing about the T-45�s sustained turnrate speed is that it allows the use of the tactical vertical. We can pull straight up after being on the deckat 300 kts and make it over the top. You need to be sure not to bleed much below this airspeed if you arein a nose-to-tail fight or else your turn rate will suffer and you may not have vertical airspeed at a criticaltime. The best time to bleed airspeed from 330 kts would be in order to pull into a gun or missileenvelope and employ a weapon. The 330 kts sustained turn gives the T-45 about 3.5 g�s and is not in a�buffet zone.� The jet can be pulled to the �edge of buffet,� which bleeds airspeed in exchange for a turnrate increase (i.e., the nose will track across the horizon faster), but only to a point. This is called�instantaneous� turn rate. A T-45 pulling at the nibble of buffet will have a turn rate advantage overanother T-45 sustaining 330 kts but the advantage only exists until the airspeed is bled down to around230 kts. So, in a two-circle fight, if the nose is not on the by the time the jet is bleeding through 230 kts,you need to get some energy back. Pulling the jet on the buffet zone and bleeding airspeed to get this

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turn rate advantage could also be called an �energy excursion maneuver,� even though pulling from330 kts to 230 kts takes 5-7 seconds (which is considered slow). Regardless, this energy excursionmaneuver can allow an attacking fighter to increase his turn rate (instantaneously) at the expense ofairspeed to arrive nose-on a bandit. All of this information is displayed on the E-M diagram. As previ-ously stated, 230 kts does not afford you any energy for excursions, defense or use of the vertical. Youshould only bleed to this airspeed if in a two-circle neutral fight (�Lufberry�) and you are trying to make thebandit make a mistake, or gain angles for a shot.

If a nose-to-nose fight ensues, one fighter will have to reverse his turn at the merge. Generally, the turnradius will decrease with a decrease of airspeed, but only to a point. The good thing about the T-45 inthis case is that the best radius the aircraft can turn for any airspeed is easily identified. It is basically atthe edge of buffet. �Pitch buck� should be avoided, but the buffet encountered at a slightly decreasedAOA is the optimum radius turn the aircraft can perform. When the airspeed gets slower than 200 KIAS,the buffet threshold will be around 21 units AOA.

The instructor may brief which way he will turn at the merge and ask what you will do in each case. Oneof the most important things to remember in any ACM engagement is to have a �game plan.� The pilotwho goes into a merge without one will end up reacting to the bandit instead of forcing his will upon thebandit. Good ACM knowledge and execution skill is imperative to surviving in multi-plane scenarios.

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NOTES


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EXECUTION

1. FTR NOSE HI

a. VS. ADVERSARY UP

b. VS. ADVERSARY LEVEL

c. VS. ADVERSARY DOWN

2. FTR NOSE LOW

a. VS. ADVERSARY DOWN

b. VS. ADVERSARY LEVEL

c. VS. ADVERSARY UP

3. FTR TURNS LEVEL

a. VS. ADVERSARY LEVEL

b. VS. ADVERSARY UP

c. VS. ADVERSARY DOWN

FIGHTER NOSE HIGH

In general, when we go nose high, we will be collapsing the fight as our airspeed decreases. (Figure 38).

Vs. Nose High - the bandithas chosen to go up with us inone circle fight. In this case,think like you have entered aflat scissors and fight a tightradius fight. Lift Vectorplacement and AOA/airspeedcontrol will be critical here.

Vs. Nose Level - the bandit isnot using altitude to assist hisfight. Use it against him byfighting the one circle fightaggressively in the vertical,thus collapsing your turn radiuswith respect to his andmanaging your airspeed by

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FIGURE 38: FIGHTER NOSE HIGHVS OPPONENT HI/LEVEL/LO


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climbing. Recognize that you�re outside his turn circle, get back in, then work behind the post, but don�tget buried nose low in your pursuit of two-circle glory. With sufficient turning room, you may be able toturn behind the bandit�s post and transition to a two-circle fight while accelerating in a descent. If notbehind the bandit�s post, use good one circle mechanics: Early turn to get in phase, maintain weaponsseparation and control your airspeed and nose attitude.

Vs.- Nose Low - If you can reverse and make this a one-circle fight, you will be highly offensive; if thiscontinues two circles you will be on the losing side of the rate war. It is crucial that you make this onecircle fight early. Then transition as stated above. If you don�t reverse, you will be setting yourself up fora vertical merge, a bad vertical merge.

FIGHTER NOSE LOW

In general, when we go nose low, we are set up to keep our speed up which is usually best in the ratewar. (Figure 39)

Vs.- Nose Low - The bandit isworking in a rate fight along withyou. Your job is Max perform youraircraft so you are fighting the bestrate fight you can. That means,using the available altitude to keepyour kts in the best-sustained rateband as long as possible with thehighest AOA possible. Evaluatethe bandit at the follow on merge tosee how he did, then adjust yourgame plane as necessary.Generally, if he is below you, hemay be out rating you.

Vs.- Nose Level- If we canmaintain the rate fight, we can gaina good advantage on the bandit byusing the altitude that he is givingus. The follow on merge might lookstrange if he stays up there, butevaluate his rate fight and continue if he lets you. Delay coming up to meet him until you have to in orderto create a more vertical component at the second merge. Meet him halfway up and see if he will takethe turning room. If he doesn�t, by the third merge you will have a big bite and maybe a shot opportunity.

Vs.- Nose Up - If you can continue in the rate fight you will be highly offensive and facing a merge withyou going nose up (good) versus a bandit going nose down (bad). If the bandit reverses nose high andyou find yourself in a one-circle fight, you need damage control. Get the nose up aggressively. You mayneed to bug from this one.

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FIGURE 39: FIGHTER NOSE LOWVS. OPPONENT HI/LEVEL/LO


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FIGHTER TURNS LEVEL

In general, going level across the horizon is not a good game plan because you are not maximizing yourjet for any particular fight. It is never a good idea for the fighter to do a level turn across the horizonunless the deck is a factor. (Figure 40)

Vs.- Nose Level - Neither aircraftis doing well here. The bandit,whether it�s one circle or two, isgiving you the opportunity toredefine the fight to somethingmore beneficial for us. Recognizethe flow and use the nose to getbetter performance out of your jet:One Circle - go nose high, TwoCircle - go nose low.

Vs.- Nose Up - If we are onecircle we are arcing, thus yourradius is too large and you willfind yourself defensive quickly.The only saving grace is thefollow-on merge, which may giveyou the possibility to early turn thebandit if he buries his nose. If weare two circle, we are probably alittle faster than the bandit, but wearen�t max performing our aircraft.

Vs.- Nose Low - If we are in a one-circle fight, we aren�t doing too poorly, but we can do better. If we aretwo circle, we are giving away vertical turning room to the bandit and he will have a chance to fight abetter rate fight, we need to start to work downhill and work our rate numbers. Come down to meet himand make the merge happen.

DECK TRANSITIONS

It�s imperative to identify flow and then fight it as hard as possible. When we are engaged and the rolesare not clearly defined, we must identify the flow and adjust our deck transition appropriately.If we are working a two-circle fight down to the deck, remember your best-sustained rate numbers andget to the deck with them. That may mean giving up some angles to achieve this, but it will pay off. Thisis called an Energy Rate Deck transition. Use the 10-degree rule to arrive on the deck with a good ratepackage. We are essentially using altitude to gain energy.

Self-Test

FIGURE 40: FIGHTER LEVELVS. OPPONENT HI/LEVEL/LO


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Once on the deck, we will have more options available to us because our best rate numbers provide uswith the energy required to go pure vertical.

If we feel that we can use a max performance pull to get a shot on the bandit or gain significant angularadvantage, we will use the altitude coupled with aggressive LV placement to transition to the deck. Thisis called a Positional Deck Transition; essentially using altitude to gain angles. This is often risky due tothe nature of max performing close to the deck. If used properly, you will arrive on the deck with angularadvantage, but it comes at an energy penalty.

HIGH ASPECT BUG CONSIDERATIONS

Most pilots are aggressive in the BFM environment. We feel the need to pressure the bandit and stayengaged until we get shot or shoot the bandit. However, we work as a team, and we need to return ouraircraft to the team for further employment. This means we will someday have to run away, or separatefrom a fight before having killed the bandit--maybe we got jumped, or were outnumbered. We will bug atvarious times:

� Whenever we are defensive

� At Joker fuel

� If we were offensive and are now Neutral

Don�t continue to engage in a fight that is degrading for you. Also, it has been proven that the longer youstay engaged in a fight, the more likely you are to get shot. There are other times when we will bug, butin the training command, these are the most obvious times.

Self-Test


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TACADMIN

SSD

The Snapshot Drill will be set up the same as your previous flights, but you will see both roles. You willget the opportunity to be the shooter for a few iterations, then the target. It�s imperative to remember afew basics. First, you are the wingman and it�s your job to maintain proper separation during the drill.Second, this is a cooperative drill, so we will help out our wingman whenever we can.

NEUTRAL SETS

BUTTERFLY

· P - Abeam

· A - 16,000 ft for both aircraft

· D - 1.0 nm

· S - 300 kts

ABEAM

· P - Abeam

· A - 16,000 ft for both aircraft

· D - 1.5 nm

· S - 300 kts

Neutral maneuvering is the final stage of Air Combat Maneuvering. After mastering the offensive attackand the defensive maneuvers necessary to defeat the bandit behind your wingline, the logical progres-sion is to apply these maneuvers to a more realistic situation. Neutral maneuvering will be conductedagainst a single bandit in a permissive environment.

The neutrals will start with the SSD like before but you will see both the offensive side and the defensiveside. You will be the shooter and target. Then you will get to warm up with some set engagements,typically one offensive and one defensive, but your instructor will work out the best solution for that day.

Self-Test


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Then you will move on to the neutral engagements. There are two types of neutral sets: the Butterflyset and the Abeam set. The butterfly set (Figure 41) is begun with both fighters co-altitude and co-airspeed. Following the speed and angels call, the bandit will call �Take a cut away� and both aircraft willturn 30 degrees away from each other. When enough separation has developed, the Bandit will call�turning in� and both aircraft will begin a hard turn in to affect a neutral merge. As the pass develops, thestudent will call either �right-to-right� or �left-to-left� and the Bandit will echo the call. This call should bemade before rolling wings level. At the merge, the bandit will call �Fights On.� On the abeam set, afterthe speed and angels, the bandit will simply count down �3�2�1, Fight�s On� and both aircraft will beginto maneuver.

BVR

On your final 1 v 1 neutral flight, you may be introduced to a Beyond Visual Range set. This will exposeyou for the first time to what is the most probable scenario for engaging a real-world bandit. There arecountless reasons why you might be forced to a merge, requiring the fighter to employ ACM for a kill.Follow-on prosecution of bandits who have survived BVR weapons, late situational awareness of a threataircraft, or the very likely requirement to positively identify a bandit by visual means (VID) prior to killinghim are all situations which might lead a fighter to the merge. The degree of offensiveness or defensive-ness in a BFM engagement, which results from a BVR set, is very often determined by who achieves the

Appendix A

FIGURE 41: BUTTERFLY SET


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first �tally.� With eyeballs on, a fighter can maneuver his aircraft as necessary to achieve either animmediate kill or a highly offensive position on the bandit.

The ability to gain sight is heavily influenced by environmentals (sun angle, haze, cloud decks, etc.),bandit aircraft size and/or aspect, the volume of the threat sector and aircrew fatigue. Getting that early�tally� also becomes easier the more you are exposed to this type of set. Consider all of these as youbegin fine-tuning your lookout technique.

If you are able to achieve sight first, you need to take advantage of it. If an immediate shot opportunitypresents itself, take it. If not, move your jet as necessary to either capitalize on the turning room thatexists or create the separation you need. If the bandit is blind, it should be a quick fight. If he gets sight,evaluate your degree of offensiveness and maneuver accordingly.

If you find yourself unable to achieve a tally at the merge, keep your airspeed up and start looking aft.You can�t have too much airspeed in this situation. If you pick up the bandit converting on you, evaluatehis range and either counter him defensively or keep on going.

To initiate the engagement, your bandit will direct you to call a CAP (combat air patrol) station. The CAPstations will be separated by DME along a TACAN radial or through the use of waypoints. Block altitudeswill be defined as those altitudes ending in 0 through 4 and those ending in 5 through 9. Between 4 and 5there will be a safe zone. You may not enter the safe zone altitudes until you have the other fighter insight. As the fighter, you will always be in the 5 through 9�s; the bandit will own 0 through 4�s. You willboth fly out to your respective CAPS and call when you are set. The bandit will then call �turning in� and�fight�s on.� Flow towards the bandit�s CAP while managing your airspeed and listening to the bandit�scalls. The bandit will make simulated Air Intercept Control (AIC) calls to enhance your SA. This may ormay not include altitude. You will be required to scan the threat sector and visually acquire the bandit.Be in established in your block by 10 nm from the Bandit and make a �10 miles in Block� call. Anynumber of things can happen in this engagement, but reference the Three-plane ACM section to reviewgame plans. If you and the bandit do not visually acquire each other, you will both make a 180-degreeturn towards the same side of the radial/course line and continue back towards each other.

CONCLUSIONIn conclusion, the training command ACM phase taught here is just the tip of the iceberg, but the basicsyou learn will apply to any ACM in your future careers. You will not be a �fighter pilot� at the end of thisphase. You will, however, develop an awareness and familiarity with the concepts introduced in thisinstruction. You will be a better pilot. And most importantly, you will learn the basics to the tools you willuse in the fleet.

Appendix A


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THREE-PLANE ACM

OBJECTIVESSection Engaged Maneuvering doctrine is a system by which two aircraft can safely separate fromcombat spread, allowing for coordinated, sequential attacks as either a free or an Y, optimizing mutualsupport in both offensive and defensive situations. Its major advantages come from the fact that thetactical capability of two aircraft more than doubles when a section works effectively together. Employingmutual support throughout an engagement enables a section to maneuver to engage the bandit, achievea quick-kill, and then regain section integrity.

Combat spread is a major component of section engaged maneuvering. As you learned in TACFORM,combat spread increases the visual limits, maneuverability, and weapons employment of a tacticalsection. To make combat spread effective, the section must employ good lookout doctrine through acoordinated search pattern. This way, combat spread provides the opportunity for early detection of theenemy and makes it more difficult for the enemy to either detect the section or split it up during the initialphase of an engagement. Once the section is detected, combat spread forces a single bandit to committo one fighter or the other.

The learning objectives that will be emphasized are:

� Maintaining mutual support through solid tactical formation

� Flying effective Air Combat Maneuvering

� Maintaining good tactical communication.

You are developing the skills to fly good tactical formation. As wingmen it is imperative to always strive tobe in combat spread. We will teach you the comm so that by your three plane solos, you and yourwingman will be potently lethal.

The training command 2 v 1 syllabus is designed as a very basic introduction to the multi-plane ACMenvironment. Some of the strategies and tactics are not necessarily considered sound tactical judgment,such as staying on a level plane of motion. Also, the rear-quarter missile envelope requires a certainamount of timing in order to achieve a quick kill in both the two-circle and one-circle fights. You will beable to expand your abilities in multi-plane ACM later on in the FRS and the fleet, but the basics learnedhere will most likely be seen again in some shape or form.

STRATEGIES/TACTICSBefore entering an ACM arena, you must evaluate all of the tactical considerations. One is force mix�the number and type of friendly vs. opponent aircraft. For training purposes, a 2 v 1 environment is theeasiest force mix to learn and use as a building block for future, more difficult, force mixes in the fleet.What kind of strategies can you use to make a 2 v 1 situation successful? Consider these:

1. Use a common set of guidelines and tactics to conduct the engagement.

2. Force the bandit to commit early.

3. Above all, attempt to achieve a quick-kill.

Appendix A


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A quick-kill seizes the initial offensive posture before the enemy implements his game plan. It also allowsless time for the enemy to gain an offensive position. To achieve a quick-kill, simply press for the mostimmediate shot in your first maneuver.

Maneuvering so that your section is out-of-plane and out-of-phase with the enemy will improve yourtactical posture. When you were maneuvering from high cover vs. low cover in TACFORM, you weremaneuvering out-of-plane. A cross turn is an example of out-of-phase maneuvering.

Another strategic consideration is to force the bandit to split the section whenever attacked from outsidethe section. Refer to the following sections for graphic depictions of these concepts.

It is generally accepted that the outcome of an air-to-air engagement will be greatly influenced within thefirst few critical seconds, after visual contact is established.

Although there is no one answer for a given tactical situation, there are certain ingredients that greatlyinfluence the successful outcome of first move scenarios. The most important ingredient to any tacticalscenario is to have a plan. During the �intercept� phase, the section should have specific objectives thatwill aid in developing a sound plan to handle attacks from any quarter. The section�s objectives duringthe intercept phase are to:

- deny the enemy a shot

- neutralize any advantage the bandit may have

- separate the section in phase and plane to prevent being attacked as one unit

- strive to establish tally by both fighters

- attempt to bracket the bandit in both azimuth and elevationWith this accomplished, we will force thebandit to commit to one fighter or be able to commit one fighter on the bandit. Either way we havenow defined the roles and can execute a game plan. We will present you with various scenarios thatwill require you to �intercept� the bandit, and execute a plan in order to achieve a kill.

Appendix A


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With this accomplished, we will force the bandit to commit to one fighter or be able to commit one fighteron the bandit. Either way we have now defined the roles and can execute a game plan. We will presentyou with various scenarios that will require you to �intercept� the bandit, and execute a plan in order toachieve a kill.

The 1 v 1 ACM skills you have learned in the two-plane stage will come in handy in three-plane. How-ever, now you will have to talk while thinking about game plan and strategy in order to effectively neu-tralize and control the bandit, eventually getting a kill or bug. Good comm, executing tactics correctly,and maneuvering the T-45 to its maximum performance (i.e., flying your best 1 v 1) will ensure successin the 2 v 1 stage. The engagements in this syllabus are not really three aircraft fighting 1 v 1. Think of itas a 1 v 1 plus 1. One fighter will be engaged with the bandit and the other will be free and maneuveringfor a missile shot.

EXECUTION

FORM

These are very busy hops. The quicker we get back into position for the next setup, the better chance wecan complete all the setups. There are four priorities we should follow after a KIO (knock-it-off).

Nibble-of-buffet to the KIO heading - with this in mind, if you took the shot and called the KIO heading,don�t blindly go to the KIO heading, but drive back towards a good combat spread position.

Mutual support - in other words, let�s find each other so we don�t have a mid-air, and let�s get back intocombat spread. Two situations: 1.) As wingman, after the KIO is done (l lead, wing, bandit), and we�re allflowing to the new heading, you should always tell lead your clock position (right 4, left 7, etc.). Whenlead hears this clock code, and unless it�s 3 or 9 o�clock, he should automatically check the flight to a newheading to help combat spread. 2.) If lead took the shot, the only time he should tell his wingman hisposition is when it is 3 or 9 o�clock. In other words don�t bother saying �lead�s at your right 5.� Insteadsay �check it further right to 300, I�ll be coming out your right 3.�

Area - Lead checks how we�re doing in the area. Generally speaking, even if you�ve got some room fromthe edge of the area, a turn during the climb only costs a little in climb rate. It�s much better to point backto the center in the climb than get all leveled off and ready to go only to realize you don�t have any arealeft.

G�s and Fuel - Student Lead should initiate this after we�ve had a chance to do the above items. It�simportant to get this out following each engagement, but it�s not super time critical. In other words, don�thave a near mid-air or bust out of the area while getting your g�s and fuel call done immediately after theKIO.

Be in position before you start the next engagement. We don�t have time to waste, so you should bethere before the bandit starts the comm and not have to waste gas saying �standby� as you fix yourTACFORM. Poor position is compounded in most of these scenarios and we�ll discuss more under eachengagement�s section. Sun angle is obviously a factor too. General rule of thumb: don�t have the sun offthe nose for any �Switch� scenarios. For the Multi-switch, put the sun behind the section or on the banditside, with the latter being the best. KIO headings are also important in getting us back into position.You�ll read about good headings in each individual section, but get something out there ASAP and wecan update it later. We need to at least get the jets headed in the same direction.


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Following the shot and KIO call with heading, the Lead will initiate the KIO (knock it off) cadence, whichwill be echoed by wing and bandit in order. Everyone will keep track of the other aircraft for collisionavoidance. Comm cadence is important for flow and results in 4 KIOs being recited. (i.e., � F-2, KIO,270.� �Hawk 1 KIO, 270.� �Hawk 2 KIO, 270.� �Bandit KIO, 270.�) The heading is a reference; it doesnot mean to turn belly-up two nm away from other members of the flight to get to the heading. Thesection must work as a team to arrive in combat spread after a KIO. Suggestions for check turns todress the formation may come from the bandit or an IP in the backseat, but the actual maneuver must becalled by the Student lead. As in two-plane, climb at MRT and 300 kts, keeping other members in sight.

FLOW

There are two types of fights in 2 v 1 that you will encounter and need a plan to defeat. They are the one-circle radius fight and the two-circle rate fight. You are familiar with both of these types of engagements.These will be discussed in detail later. For either type of fight, the free fighter will attempt to get outsideof the engagement and proceed in either the same direction (same flow) or opposite direction (counter-flow). These �flows� will both be utilized in the upcoming engagements.

During a two-circle fight, the engaged fighter is in a nose-to-tail fight with the bandit. In a two-circle fightthe engagement remains above the same piece of earth. The engaged fighter can be either offensive ordefensive and the fight may be in either left or right turns. The free fighter will extend away from the fightand in an opposite direction of turn as the fight, in order to come around and be able to point and shoot atthe bandit. This is known as �counterflow,� or �setting counterflow� because the free fighter is in anopposite direction of turn (or flow); i.e., out of phase. The engaged fighter must therefore communicatethe direction of turn in a two-circle fight.

In the one-circle fight, the engaged fighter is in a nose-to-nose fight with the bandit. A one-circle fight is adirectional fight. If the one-circle fight is heading north, it will continue north. This is a radius fight. Theengaged fighter must fly his best 1 v 1 and maneuver out-of-plane, minimizing his turn radius in order togain a positional advantage on the bandit. A one-circle fight can be entered at a merge by reversing nosehigh and back into the bandit to force him to pull up as well and get slow. Once in the one-circle fight, theengaged fighter must communicate that he is in a one-circle fight, (or he can say he is in a flats or roller)and he also must say the direction of the fight since they generally go downrange.

The main goal of both engaged and free fighters is to kill the bandit. To do this the bandit must be madepredictable. The easiest way to keep the bandit in a T-45 predictable is to slow him down and bleed hisenergy. Therefore a one-circle fight is the goal of the fighters in most cases. As stated before, they canbe entered into by merging and reversing nose high. Recognizing an in-close overshoot and reversingnose high into him is another way to enter one-circle flow. In both cases, it will be up to the fighters to tryto influence the flow because the bandit has an energy game plan (i.e., he doesn�t want to get slow). Thebandit will probably not reverse at the merge. He will cross the fighter�s tail, attempting to maintainenergy in a rate fight. So the fighters need to think about their game plan and, once executing a one-circle game plan, they must fly their best 1 v 1 in order to achieve a positional advantage on the bandit.Once the bandit is defensive, the fighters control the bandit and can kill him with ease. All of the setsdepend on the fighters executing good 1 v 1 ACM. It cannot be emphasized enough.


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ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

When a section visually detects a bandit in a high-threat environment, the roles of lead and wingman giveway to the designation of �free� and �engaged� fighter. The more rapidly these roles are designated, themore effective the section can employ its full combat potential. The fighter with the initial visual contact,which usually means the one with the best situational awareness, directs the other fighter and assumesthe �tactical lead� role until the section is engaged.

The priority for which fighter is engaged is:

1. Most defensive fighter

2. Most offensive fighter

3. Fighter in the best position to engage (lead by exception).

Once engaged, the engaged fighter is that member of the section with the best capability either offen-sively or defensively to force the bandit into a predictable flight path. It is easier to see how the engagedfighter with an offensive advantage will force the bandit into a predictable flight path; however, even afighter who is maneuvering defensively can force the bandit into an early commitment and lure him into apredictable flight path, allowing the free fighter to maneuver for a quick-kill. In either case, this fighterwould automatically designate himself as the �engaged fighter.� As an engaged or free fighter, yournumber one objective is to kill the bandit and when possible achieve a quick-kill. As an engaged fighter,in addition to forcing the bandit predictable, you are responsible for maneuvering to bleed the bandit�senergy, while denying him a shot opportunity. Force him to fight your fight, and maintain as high anenergy level as possible, appropriate to the fight you are in.

The free fighter is that member of the section not pressing the bandit but maneuvering for an offensiveposition to engage. As the free fighter, your prime responsibility is to kill the bandit. Additionally, youmust keep track of the engaged fighter and the bandit, making sure that you clear the engaged fighter�sand your own six. You must get quickly out-of-plane and out-of-phase, maneuvering to the bandit�s blindarea while maintaining a high-energy level. Because you will have better situational awareness, you willmost likely be directing the fight. You must set a plan and provide simple statements of your intentions toallow the section to work as a team toward the common goal of killing the enemy.

To employ missiles, the free fighter must obtain proper separation and ensure that the engaged fighter isout of his HUD for obvious reasons.

COMM

Good COMM will always be pursued in tactical aviation because fighters cannot be maneuveredeffectively as a unit without it. It is imperative to be able to communicate in three-plane ACM! Yourwingman needs to know what you are doing, or planning and you need to hear about what he is execut-ing. A breakdown of comm will most likely result in the bandit having his way with the fighters. There aremany ways to execute good comm between fighters and since this is your first foray into multi-planeACM, we have outlined some of the basics to start with. Most of the comm in the training commandthree-plane syllabus is standardized in order to start the sets smoothly, but comm must also flowthroughout the engagement in a logical, informative, and hopefully concise manner.

Breaking it down to basics, there are two main types of comm in this environment: directive anddescriptive.


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Directive comm is meant to get your wingman to look or maneuver his aircraft immediately. Someexamples are �Break left� or �Buster.�

Descriptive comm is all of the amplifiers that will build situational awareness. �Bandit right, 3 o�clock� isan example. Once the immediacy of maneuvering our aircraft has passed the comm in the 2 v 1 stagecan be broken down into four parts: Roles, Tallies, Description of Fight, and Amplifying Remarks.

Basically, you should try to �build a picture� for your partner with comm. First and foremost, roles mustbe established. Initially these are established through standardized comm, but as the engagementcontinues it will be important to call out any change of roles or to reiterate the roles. After roles areestablished, tallies must be communicated. This is the beginning of �picture building.� A �tally, visual�says a lot to a fighter who�s engaged defensively. If the free fighter calls, �tally one,� it will be up to theengaged fighter to talk the free fighter�s eyes onto both aircraft. Remember to describe your ownposition. An example is, �Hawk 1 is on the right (or to the east) in a left turn.� A �blind� call will requirethe engaged fighter to describe where he is and what type of fight (one-circle or two-circle), includingaltitudes, etc. This leads to the next requirement: description of the fight. The engaged fighter mustdescribe the fight, further building the picture. Generally, start by identifying nose-to-nose, or nose-to-tailfights. Then describe whether you are offensive or defensive; this will be done using �Engaged� toconvey that you are offensive and �Defensive� is obvious. In the case of a two-circle fight, the engagedfighter must call out the direction of turn the engagement is in. In the case of the one-circle fight, theengaged fighter must describe the direction of the fight. This means North, South, East, West or aheading, since the one-circle fights transgress downrange. After all this information is conveyed,amplifying remarks such as game plan and strategies can be added, i.e., �I�m taking him one-circle,� or�Let�s work the bug.�

TACADMINDo not show up to your first three-plane without knowing the comm. You must put in the time even if itmeans walking around the parking lot looking foolish. If you can spout it out pretty well in a quiet room, itwill be more difficult in the brief, and nearly impossible during the flight. You are still held to a standardwhether you are boat complete or not. You need to compartmentalize on busy flights like these.Concentrate on the task at hand. Don�t be thinking about that last engagement when you�re supposed tobe flying formation. Don�t be thinking of that poor rendezvous when it�s time to be flying the ball. Andyes, you are still expected to fly a solid pass even if you are CQ complete.

The bandit will brief the students with the IP�s coming in for conduct approximately 15 minutes prior towalk. The first three-plane briefing should be two hours prior. The bandit will lead the flight of 3 like astandard multi-plane flight.

Standard ground procedures apply. Dash 2 will line up on the centerline of the runway while the lead anddash 3 split their respective sides. The formation should bow so the lead can see all the participants.Once airborne, dash 2 and dash 3 will join as briefed. Headed toward the area, the lead will establish theflight at 300 kts on a given heading. He will then pass the Tac lead to dash 2, assume the role of thebandit, and pull up and away from the section. This can be done en route to the area or once establishedin the working area. The Bandit will generally have the flight in echelon cruise and then detach once theLead has been passed and acknowledged over the radio. �Hawk 1� is now the lead and uses his owntactical call sign to maneuver the flight. His wingman, �Hawk 2� now becomes the new dash 2, andbandit is just �Bandit.� All calls outside the flight to ATC and other aircraft will continue to use the bandit�sfiled callsign.


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The Tac lead will immediately push his wingman into combat spread and start a climb at 98 percentpower. Wing will stay in combat spread and continue climbing to 16,000 ft. The flight will execute ag-warm away from the bandit, fence in, and then the bandit will start the flight�s set-ups. The student leadwill initiate the g-warm and execution or each turn will happen when the bandit says �Bandit.� After theg-warm, the student lead will then initiate fencing in with G�s and fuel, followed by wing and then bandit.It is still Tac lead�s responsibility to maneuver the flight for area or to get into better combat spread byusing Tac turns or Check turns respectively.

In order to begin each set correctly, the bandit will initiate the set identifying which side of the section he ison, and what engagement will occur. It is important that all sets start with this exact comm cadence. Theorder will be Bandit, Lead, Wing. If one of the fighters does not have tally/visual (or is not otherwiseready) he should say �standby.� An example of this comm cadence would be as follows: �Bandit, Speedand Angels, on the right for the multi switch.� �Hawk 1, speed and angels� �Hawk 2, Speed and Angels��Bandit�s In.� For all setups, the bandit does not become the bandit until he begins his pull into the fighter.This is when the comm and maneuvering should start. After each engagement, the student Lead willinitiate G�s and fuel followed by Wing and then Bandit.

You must talk and fly at the same time. Pretend the mic switch doesn�t work without aileron input. Inother words you should already be moving the jet as you�re keying the mic to talk.


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EN ROUTE EXERCISE

The �CALL THE BANDIT� exercise is performed en route to the operating area or in the area, giving youpractice with directive/ descriptive commentary before actually committing your aircraft in an engage-ment.

During this exercise the fighters remain in combat spread and will not maneuver. While you are flyingstraight and level, the bandit aircraft will maneuver simulating a �no-switch� engagement where heengages one aircraft and stays with it. A �single-switch� simulation will follow the first simulation wherethe bandit engages one aircraft and then switches to engage the other and end in one circle flow.

The fighters fly straight and level in defensive combat spread. The bandit will set up on the outside of thesection approximately 1/2 nm, with 1,000-ft step-up and 45 degrees down the wingline. Even though thefollowing script is a fairly predictable example, the goal of this exercise is to respond appropriatelyaccording to how the bandit is maneuvering against the section.

Script for a no-switch engagement: (This example assumes �Hawk 1� is the lead�He will call �Speedand Angels� and �knock it off� prior to �Hawk 2� for the set-up and knock-it-off.)

Initial setup

Bandit: �Bandit setting up on Hawk 1, call the bandit, no switch.�

Lead: �Hawk 1, Speed and Angels.�

Wing: �Hawk 2, Speed and Angels.�

Bandit: �Bandit�s in.�

Bandit pulls in

Wing: �Hawk 1, break right, bandit right 5.�

Lead: �Tally, Hawk 1, defensive.�

Wing: �Hawk 2 free, pulling for the shot�Fox-2, bandit in trail.�

Bandit: �Bandit, knock it off.�

Lead: �Hawk 1, knock it off.�

Wing: �Hawk 2, knock it off.�

Lead: �KIO Heading�


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Script for a single-switch engagement:

Bandit: �Bandit setting up on Hawk 1, call the bandit, single switch.�

Lead: �Hawk 1, Speed and Angels.�

Wing: �Hawk 2, Speed and Angels.�

Bandit: �Bandit�s in.�

Bandit pulls in

Wing: �Hawk 1, break right, bandit right 5.�

Lead: �Tally, Hawk 1, defensive.�

Wing: �Hawk 2 free, pulling for the shot.�

Bandit switches

Wing: �Switch switch, bandit�s coming to me; right to right.�

Bandit: �Right to right.�

Wing: �Hawk 2 will engage flats 180 (or heading).�

Lead: �Hawk 1 free, extending.�

Wing: �Hawk 2 confirms flats 180 (or heading).�

Lead: �Hawk 1 turning in, tally, visual, Fox-2, bandit on the right.�


Lead: �Hawk 1, knock it off.�

Wing: �Hawk 2, knock it off.�

Lead: (who took Fox-2) �KIO Heading.�

Wing: �KIO Heading.�

At this point, the bandit will be on the other side of the section. He will set up again on a high perch andreinitiate the exercise, but in the opposite direction. This gives both fighters a chance to practice allaspects of the appropriate communications.

You will have a tendency to not maintain combat spread during this exercise. Do not get so caught up inthe comm that you forget to monitor your airspeed and altitude and make corrections appropriately. Youwill also find yourself making inappropriate calls because you are not watching the bandit carefully.

Common errors:

� Not maintaining combat spread. Not maintaining heading and airspeed are the major culprits.� Calling the ROE wrong. For the head-to-head passes, it�s always the other side for this drill.

This will make more sense when you execute the Multi-Switch Exercise.

� Weak comm- Lots of pauses, or just slow and deliberate. Having to think about everythingbefore saying it.


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REAR-QUARTER ATTACKS

In a rear-quarter attack, the bandit attacks from behind and between or outside of the section. When thebandit attacks from the rear, the section has to be aware that one of three things can happen. First,when the bandit engages one of the fighters, he may stay with that fighter throughout the entire engage-ment. This is a no-switch attack, and once the engaged fighter is identified, no roles change for eitherfighter. Second, after the bandit engages a fighter at some point during the engagement, he disengagesfrom the first fighter and engages the other. This is a single-switch scenario and forces the fighters torecognize the situation and change roles once during an engagement. Third, the bandit may switchseveral times, continuously disengaging from one fighter and engaging the other when the bandit feels itis to his advantage to do so. This is a multi-switch scenario, causing any number of role changesbetween the fighters. Even though the procedures for each of these scenarios are canned, theyrepresent what can happen in a real 2 v 1 engagement.

NO-SWITCH SCENARIO

An attacker may have the advantage of �jumping� the section of fighters and have an offensive advan-tage. The bandit may then choose to engage only one fighter, thus freeing the other fighter to maneuverto achieve a quick kill. If the bandit attacks from outside the section and doesn�t attempt to switch fromone fighter, the free fighter can usually kill the bandit after only 90 degrees of turn.

A classic strategy to defeat a bandit attacking from the rear-quarter between the section is to employ the�Counterflow,� where the engaged fighter forces the bandit into a predictable flight path, while the freefighter maneuvers out-of-phase, going counter to the direction of the fight for a kill. We will discuss thedetails of this engagement later, since the maneuver is fundamentally simply, but difficult to execute.

SINGLE-SWITCH SCENARIO

During a 2 v 1 engagement the bandit may engage one fighter, then disengage from that fighter toengage the other anytime he feels it may be tactically advantageous. Both fighters must remain awarethat this could happen anytime. If he does switch once, the bandit, in effect, forces a single role changebetween engaged and free fighters.

When this scenario is set up, the bandit will attack from the rear quarter, outside the section, and engagethe near fighter. The section will maneuver into the bandit. As the engagement develops, the banditspots the free fighter pulling in and pitches off and into the free fighter. At this point, the roles will switch.If you were the free fighter, you are now the engaged fighter, and vice versa. The new engaged fightermust tie up the bandit as the new free fighter extends for the shot.

After the switch, the engaged fighter will call the direction of the fight and maneuver to gain/deny anoffensive advantage. He will attempt to force the bandit in a direction away from the free fighter. Thefree fighter will then extend. He must keep SA to the fight following the switch and begin a nose-low,energy-gaining turn to achieve proper separation and cornering speed. The free fighter must also gainenough energy to allow him to reengage the bandit, if necessary, at a high-energy state. Once the freefighter attains proper separation, he will call tally, visual, or, if he is unable to distinguish between aircraft,he will call the number in sight. The engaged fighter need not respond unless the free fighter cannotdistinguish between aircraft. If the free fighter does not have a tally visual, the engaged fighter mustassist him by calling direction, altitude, location, and, if need be, the next crossing. Should the freefighter be totally blind, the engaged fighter may even have to locate and redirect him into the fight. Oncethe free fighter has reestablished situational awareness, he will maneuver as necessary to kill the bandit.


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Following is an example of the voice comm that would accompany the single-switch scenario.

Free fighter: �Tiger 2, break left, bandit left 7.�

Engaged fighter: �Tiger 2, Tally, Defensive.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 1 free pulling for the shot.� (After seeing the bandit switch) - �Switch,switch, Bandit�s coming to me, left to left.� (Bandit acknowledges) � �Tiger 1,will engage flats 360.�

New free fighter: �Tiger 2 free extending.�

New Engaged fighter: �Tiger 1 confirms flats 360.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 2 turning in, tally visual.�

Free fighter: �Fox-2, bandit on the left.�

The next example of voice comm would occur if the free fighter has only one aircraft in sight following theextension.

Free fighter: �Tiger 2, Turning in, Tally one.�

Engaged fighter: �Tiger 1 confirms flats (heading) (altitude).�

Engaged fighter: �Tiger 1 on the left,� or �Standby for the merge, Tiger 1 on the right.�

The engaged fighter must pass close with the bandit to ensure visual sighting by the free fighter.

NOTE: We will only talk through the Single-Switch during the CTB, but it is a stepping stone for the Multi-Switch Exercises.

Keys To SuccessThe initial free fighter should execute a lift vector on, nose low, nibble of buffet pull (17 units) towards thebandit. We do this to build lateral separation on the bandit so we�re in a good position to shoot him if able,or to deny turning room from the bandit when he switches off from our lead. If we�ve got that lateralseparation and we�re making our right-to-right pass happen, we need to use that lateral separation. Justprior to the merge we should begin our entry into the flats (a.k.a. Early Turn). Don�t wait until you pass thebandit to start your entry or that lateral separation buys you nothing. The 500-ft bubble should happenwith you already started nose up and somewhere near the bandit�s 45 to 60-degree bearing line. Liftvector high and aft on the bandit. Most of the time, the bandit will be the one with the turning room, usingit against you. Take out as much turning room as possible, ensuring no less than 500 ft, and capitalize onthe in close overshoot. Get your nose up while placing your lift vector towards the bandit�s control zone;think Defensive ACM flats entry.

Meanwhile the engaged fighter started moving his jet as soon as he saw the bandit pulling at him. Thisshould happen simultaneously with the break left call. He should be doing the standard nose low breakturn he learned in two-plane. As soon as you see the bandit switch, which should mirror the switch call,ease the pull to your best nose low, two-circle turn rate, nibble of buffet pull. By the way, you should belooking over your shoulder during the break turn and switch. We call this the extension, however we don�treally need to extend. The flats are traveling away from us and providing us with our weapons separation,so all we really need to do is turn a circle as fast as we can. Keep your nose below the horizon for your


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best turn rate until you see the fight 45 to 60 degrees off your shoulder. Now put the lift vector on the fightand pull for the shot.

The engaged fighter needs to be listening up to the free fighter turning in for the shot. Most likely he willnot be tally visual. Always describe yourself, not the bandit. Usually left and right is better unless thealtitude split is significant. If we hear �tally two� and you�re close to the merge, state �standby for themerge�. At the merge say �merge, merge, Tiger 1 on the right.�

If tally one, call your side amplified with a �high� or �low� if it applies. If Tiger 1 says he�s on the left andTiger 2 sees a jet in a right hand turn, he has Tiger 1 in sight (or Tiger 1 is fighting a very poor flatscissors and going the wrong way).

KIO headings: 90 degrees off the shooter�s nose. To make it simple and help the bandit, call the headingto the same side of the nose as the bandit. �Fox 2 bandit on the left,� come 90 left of theshooter�s nose. Then drive yourself to combat spread.

This is the flow for a textbook set-up. With good maneuvering, you can expect to have this type ofoffensive posture in the flats.

MULTI-SWITCH SCENARIO

In defending himself, an experienced bandit will attempt to gain an advantage or to negate your advan-tage by switching from one fighter to the other anytime he sees the opportunity or is in a position where hehas no other choice. The engagement begins the same way as a no-switch or single-switch engagement.The bandit will continually force role changes. A multi-switch engagement calls for a greater amount ofsituational awareness (SA) and aggressiveness on the part of the fighters in order to defeat this tactic.(Figure 42)

FIGURE 42: MULTI-SWITCH SCENARIO


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When this scenario is set up, the bandit will attack from the rear quarter, outside the section. After onefighter is engaged, the bandit will press the engaged fighter until he spots the free fighter pulling for ashot. At that point, he pitches off and into the free fighter just as he would in the single-switch scenario.Roles immediately switch. Just as in the single-switch situation, the new engaged fighter must tie up thebandit as the new free fighter extends for a shot. At a point where he thinks it tactically advantageous,the bandit disengages from the engaged fighter and switches to the free fighter. Again the roles switch.The new engaged fighter must tie up the bandit as the new free fighter extends for a shot. The newengagement will be a one circle fight where the fighter gives up lateral separation at the high aspectmerge by turning away from the bandit and getting the nose up. Hopefully, this will begin with an earlyturn into the vertical by the fighter, but this will effectively bait the bandit into a predictable flight path.

We run into trouble when either the bandit or free fighter is �blind� during the switch. In reality, the banditwould not do this as he is leaving a fight to engage a fighter he cannot see, but during training we mightsee this. Also, as the fighter, we might be pitching in on the called heading for the flats and be �Blind, NoJoy.� This could occur due to environmentals or due to an inaccurate heading called out by the wingman.No matter what the reason is, we need to use the proper procedures to deconflict and keep the fightgoing. If either a fighter or the bandit is blind, the aircraft that has sight will maneuver the �blind� jet usingcomm to make the merge happen. This comm will be unique to each engagement, but will be similar to�keep your turn in,� pause, �keep your turn in,� pause, �wings level,� pause, �I�m at your left 10 high.� If allthat doesn�t work, you can call �merge, merge� as it occurs. If both the fighter and bandit call �blind,� thenwe need to KIO, as per the cadence, and deconflict with altitude. The bandit will level off and not comedown and the fighter will level off and not come up. This same scenario could happen on a BVR wheresomeone calls a merge and the other aircraft is �blind.� It is imperative that the aircraft that has sightcontrol the fight and ensure deconfliction.

The free fighter extension responsibilities were described above during the single switch scenarioinvolving tactics against a one-circle fight.

Tiger 2 is shown in the flats when he sees the bandit head nose low for the switch. He wants to initiallyfollow the bandit out and then put him off his 3-9 line. Padlock the bandit, because he will bring your eyesto your wingman. While maintaining sight, we are extending to gain sight. We�re looking for two thingsbefore we can turn in for the shot: 1) the merge has happened with Tiger 1 and the bandit, 2) we arepast the merge axis of the fight. Once this has happened, we can pitch into the fight.

While we�re waiting for this to happen, we begin an extension. This is for two reasons: 1) we�re slow,and about to require a good turn rate, so more airspeed is better, and 2) It gets us to the fight�s mergeaxis just a little bit quicker.

Tiger 1 sees the bandit nose low and hears the call from Tiger 2. He needs to have a 500-ft pass withthe bandit. Tiger 1 will entice the bandit to head east in this scenario by breaking away from the bandit,thus �baiting� him. He is already giving the bandit 500 ft; therefore, it�s imperative not to have any extralateral separation. Just prior to the merge, start pulling up so we have a nice bite nose high at the merge.We have to give the bandit 500 ft to drag him into the flats, but at least we can try to negate that with anose high bite at the merge. We�re merging 180 degrees out with more airspeed than we are accus-tomed to for a flat scissors. We need that nose high bite at the merge and good 1 v 1 skills just to stayneutral with the bandit.

From here, we go through another iteration of the bandit switching out of the flats and merging with thefree fighter. This time, however, the free fighter takes a Fox-2, if able, and then calls for a bug. Call the


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shot if you have it, but the bandit may call �Invalid.� Regardless, he will break back into the threat andsetup the high aspect pass. Again, deconfliction is paramount.

If the call is �Switch, switch, Bandit�s coming to you from the left,� then you and the bandit should be in aleft turn (you initially), the pass will be a left-to-left, and the fighters can bug roughly 40-120 degrees leftof the merge with the bandit.

From the diagram, Tiger 1 is in the flats when he sees the bandit heading nose low. He makes theappropriate call, and starts to initially follow the bandit out of the flats. Padlock the bandit, because he willbring your eyes to your wingman. You�ll follow the bandit initially, and then put him off your 3-9 line.Keep him off your shoulder, check turning as needed, and unloading for airspeed and separationotherwise. Eventually you�ll see your partner magically appear. Call your position to him and gain mutualsupport. Check the flight further left if needed for combat spread and to make the bandit turn further fornose on. Do not check the flight the other direction because it allows the bandit to come nose on quicker.

Meanwhile, Tiger 2 is turning in tally two when he sees the bandit switching. If he�s coming to you fromthe left, the bandit will be the jet furthest to the left on your windscreen. Aim for a 500-ft pass with thebandit laterally, and take out half the altitude vertically. Ideally we�d like no altitude separation, but wedon�t want to bleed off all our airspeed and be nose high at the merge when we�re trying to bug. Thebandit will use any lateral separation, so don�t give it to him. At the merge, nose slice across the bandit�stail towards the bug heading, then unload. You should either be in a check turn, or unloading until downto the deck. Be looking for your wingman to regain mutual support.

FIGURE 42A: MULTI-SWITCH SCENARIO


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FIGURE 42B: MULTI-SWITCH SCENARIO


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FIGURE 42C: MULTI-SWITCH SCENARIO


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Multi-Switch Scenario

Free fighter: �Tiger 1, break left, bandit left 7.�

Engaged fighter: �Tally, Tiger 1, Defensive.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 2, free pulling for the shot.� (After seeing bandit switch) - �Switch

switch, Bandit�s coming to me, Left to Left.� (Bandit acknowledges) ��Tiger 2, will engage flats 360.�

New free fighter: �Tiger 1 free extending.�

Engaged fighter: �Tiger 2 confirms flats 360.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 1 turning in, tally two.�

Engaged fighter: �Switch switch, Bandit coming to you from the left.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 1, Tally, left-to-left, (Bandit acknowledges) �� Tiger 1, will engageflats East.�

New free fighter: �Tiger 2 free, extending.�

Engaged fighter: �Tiger 1 confirms flats 090, Joker.�

Free fighter: �Copy Joker, let�s work the bug.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 2 turning in, tally two.�

New engaged fighter �Switch, Switch, Bandit coming to you from the left.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 2, Tally, Left to Left, (Bandit acknowledges) �� Bug 040.�

Tiger 1: �Tiger 1, 040; � �Out of the turn, Tiger 1 is at your right 2 o�clock;� �Bandit�s 1mile in trail, 90 to go, looks like a good bug.�

Bandit: �Bandit concurs.�

Bandit: �Bandit, Knock it off.�

Tiger 1: �Tiger 2, Knock if off.�

Tiger 2: �Tiger 2, Knock if off.�

Tiger 1: �Knock it off, 040.�

Tiger 1: �Tiger 1, Knock if off, 040.�

Tiger 2: �Tiger 2, Knock it off, 040.�

Bandit: �Bandit, knock it off, 040.�

Tiger 1: �Cross turn, Cross turn, Tiger 1 High.�

Tiger 2: �Tiger 2 Low.�


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After the fighters have assessed that the bug is successful, the bandit will initiate a KIO. Following theKIO cadence, the fighters cross-turn, purely to help the bandit get back with the flight. Although thefighters call high and low in the turn, both fighters initially go nose high to trade airspeed for altitude andthen intercept 300 KIAS for the climb Wingman is responsible for no less than 500 ft at the pass. If asituation arises in which one fighter is blind, the fighter with the most SA with initiate the cross turn.


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Disengagement/Bugout considerations

In addition to all that you have learned about disengaging and bugging out previously, you now have awingman to consider. To disengage, or to bug out at the most opportune time, keep these guidelines inmind: 1) establish and maintain visual and tally, and 2) achieve and 3) regain section integrity as soonas possible after the engagement because maneuvering back to combat spread will make it possible toengage another bandit, press to a target, or RTB/bug out. (Figure 43)

To regain section integrity, the free fighter must make his initial call an appropriate magnetic heading thatwill ensure separating out the bandit�s extended six. Once both fighters have attained the appropriateseparation from the bandit, the fighter with the best SA will call appropriate check turns, if necessary, toget the section back into combat spread, but no more than one. After initially separating, if the banditcontinues to threaten, the fighter with the best SA must maneuver the section to deny the bandit a shot,typically through the execution of a cross turn.

FIGURE 43: DISENGAGEMENT BUGOUT (HAWK)


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COUNTERFLOW

In the Counterflow exercise, the bandit will attack from behind and between the section (Figure 44). Thetactical lead, whether lead or wingman, calls for the threatened section member to break. The tacticallead becomes the free fighter and maneuvers in the opposite direction using an offensive hard turn toachieve Counterflow with a vertical split. One of the goals of this turn is to get out of phase with theengaged fighter and also take the bandit close aboard to neutralize him. The engaged fighter calls hisrole, gets the tally, and fights the best possible 1 v 1 defensively. If the engaged fighter can generatehigh AOT, the fight may develop into Lufbery, which would serve to prevent the bandit from maneuveringfor a shot while forcing him into a predictable flight path.

FIGURE 44: COUNTERFLOW


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Meanwhile the free fighter calls his role and maintains sight, while he begins an extension maneuver togain weapons separation, ensuring that he keeps the fight at his 7 or 5 o�clock position (Figure 45).During his extension, he will ensure that his nose is below the horizon to quickly achieve maximumacceleration. He thenturns back into the fightwhen the bandit is 90degrees off the freefighter�s heading;generally 2-3 secondsafter the merge. Hethen adjusts his turn toarrive nose on thebandit�s belly afterapproximately 180degrees of turn,achieving a 90-degreecold-side shot. If theIR missile-shotopportunity is missed,the free fightermaintains Counterflowand extends tomaneuver for anothershot opportunity whilecalling �Eagle 1, no shot�. The free fighter needs to be aware that if the bandit gains a tally on him, hemay switch off to neutralize the threat and create a high aspect merge. This will then turn into a onecircle fight and theswitch must be calledto inform theengaged fighter ofwhat the bandit isdoing. The roles willswap and theformerly engagedfighter will need tocontinue, or reversehis turn depending ongeometry, to turnback in and shoot thebandit in the flats.

After the Fox-2 call,the fight is knockedoff, via the KIOcadence.

FIGURE 46: COUNTERFLOW FREE FIGHTER90-DEGREE CHECKPOINT

FIGURE 45: COUNTERFLOW EXERCISE


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The first scenario provides an example of the voice comm that would occur as the section employs theCounterflow tactic during a rear-quarter engagement:

Tactical lead: �Eagle 2, break left, bandit left 7.�

Engaged fighter: �Tally, Eagle 2, Defensive.�

Free fighter: �Eagle 1 free extending.�

Engaged fighter: �Eagle 2 Defensive, two-circle, left,�

Free fighter: �Eagle 1 turning in. Tally, visual, Fox-2, bandit in-trail.�


Free fighter: �Eagle 1 knock it off.�

Engaged fighter: �Eagle 2 knock it off,�

Free Fighter: �Heading.�

Engaged fighter: �Heading.�

Keys to Success

The bandit will set-up between the section. On your first flight, he�ll tell you which fighter he�s jumping,but after that you need to react to the bandit. As the high wingman you need a good nose low break turnto vacate the altitude and allow Lead to pass over you for his extension. The engaged fighter does hisbest defensive break turn, race to the deck with a good deck transition, and guns �D� when needed.Unlike the switch scenarios, we need to extend to get weapon separation. Once the fight starts, it�sanchored around the engaged fighter�s post.

Eagle 1 needs to start his turn when he talks, while ensuring he has adequate lateral separation fromboth jets (min. 500 ft). Ideally we pass right over the fight after 90 degrees of turn, with our nose alreadyslightly below the horizon. Now roll wings level and unload/extend. Fly and talk at the same time, don�twait until you finish the comm. to start your extension. Eagle 1 most likely will not be able to keep sight ofthe fight during the extension. To maintain sight, the free fighter would have to arc. Arcing means youpulled past 90, or you are keeping a slight turn in trying to keep sight. Either is bad for extension. First,you don�t get a pure extension away from the fight, and second, you get an early sight picture. When youarc around the circle you will get plan form on the bandit earlier, which mean less time in your extensionand less weapons separation.

While we�re extending we need to get sight of the fight. We can do this one of two ways: Either use wingdown/top rudder or take quick peeks at the fight by momentarily overbanking. At plan form, we need asmooth pull to the g limit. The timing is predicated on the bandit and us max performing our jets. Don�tforget to �hook.� Looking over your shoulder under heavy g at two little specks in the sky is difficult.Focus on the area because as they come nose on they will tend to disappear. Only one should be noseon at a time, so keep sight of the other jet until they both come through nose on.

Use the 90-degree checkpoint. After turning approximately 90 degrees, the fight should be off theshoulder and the bandit should just be nose on. If the bandit hasn�t come nose on yet, ease the pull ever


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so slightly at the 90-degree checkpoint until he is nose on and then best turn rate until the shot. Bychecking progress before going past 90 degrees, we can preserve weapons separation and adjusttiming. If the bandit is past nose on, we�re late. So as long as you have a good extension, erring a littleearly vice late on the turn in leaves options.

If we realize we have minimal weapons separation, we can ease the pull slightly at the 90-degree checkand let the bandit go a little past nose on. We�re accepting that we won�t get the good belly shot, but stillhoping to get a valid shot and help out our wingman. By letting the bandit go slightly past nose on, he�s isnow helping us build a little more weapons separation. We cannot afford to wait very long after banditnose on or we won�t be in the shot window. Now we need our best turn rate to get the shot. Stand thethrottle up on the final 90 degrees of turn if separation is a problem. It won�t appreciably affect turn rate,but will help slow down closure. Be wary of your wingman in the HUD field of view on a hot shot. Do nottake an invalid shot. If you realize it�s past 40 degrees hot, call �no shot� and then use the KIO cadence.

If you lose sight of the fight on the turn in, you can keep pulling until the 90 checkpoint. If you haveregained sight you can continue. If you do not regain sight, you need to reset the counter. Essentiallyjust maintain your current heading (assuming you stopped 90 off) until the fight marches around the circleagain and the bandit is once again nose on. This is assuming that you had proper weapons separation.If you did not, you will need to turn away from the fight and drive out until weapons separation isachieved. Now it�s just like the final 90 degrees of a normal Counterflow.

KIO heading needs to come out immediately following the shot and the KIO call. For a good belly shot, aKIO heading 10 to 30 off the shooter�s nose and inside the circle works well. If it�s a hot shot or even tailshot, pick a heading 45 degrees or more off the shooter�s nose and outside the fight and have the banditand engaged fighter reverse their turns. (Examples to follow.) At least get some heading out there andthen fine-tune it when you can reevaluate.

If you have to reset because you do not have sight or are too tight, you might not see the bandit switchingto you. The bandit will supplement your SA as needed. You need to react appropriately and break intohim for two circle defensive flow or make the merge happen and turn away from him to create One-circleflow.

The reset can be level or a slightly nose high OOP maneuver to get vertical separation while denying thebandit a tally. This will also give you some relative angle for look down so you can get sight of the fight.Arc around the fight with adequate weapons separation so that you can pitch back in when the banditcomes nose on. This should make sense because we have 90 degrees to go to get the belly shot andthe bandit has 90 degrees to go to show it to us.

In all cases throughout section tactics, the free fighter must gain the proper separation during hisextension to ensure the quickest kill. If the situation arises where the free fighter pulls for a shot withoutsufficient lateral separation, the free fighter ends up missing the shot and is forced into an in-phaseengagement with the wingman and the bandit. This is a situation commonly referred to as a �DaisyChain,� where both fighters are engaged�one offensively and one defensively. This violates theEngaged Section Maneuvering doctrine of one engaged fighter and one free fighter. If the offensivefighter is unable to get an immediate shot, he must disengage and maneuver for separation to reestablishan out-of-phase condition. During his separation he must keep the fight constantly in sight to avoidexposing his six to the bandit and to maintain situational awareness for making appropriate tacticaldecisions.


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An abeam attack occurs when the bandit attacks the section from the 2-5 or the 7-10 o�clock position(Figure 47).

We will start with enough separation so the fighter with initial visual contact initiates a hard turn into thebandit. The inside fighter (eyeball) gets tally and maneuvers for a close aboard pass attempting tobracket the bandit by forcing him between the section. This bracketing technique will force the bandit tosplit his concentration between the fighters, while allowing the fighters to gain the initial offensiveadvantage. Employing bracketing is the most basic strategy a section can employ. Failure to bracket thebandit gives the bandit a better opportunity to maintain sight and overall situational awareness.

FIGURE 47: VFQ SETUP (SKULL)


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The wingman (shooter) early turns for a shot. After the close aboard pass, the eyeball (now the freefighter) will extend to set up a Counterflow tactic. The shooter (now the engaged fighter) will force thebandit into a predictable flight path by maintaining the offensive advantage and taking shots of opportu-nity. After separation is accomplished, the free fighter (eyeball) turns back into the fight and eventuallyshoots the bandit on the cold side. Once the free fighter is in position for a shot, it will be necessary tocall for the current engaged fighter to pitch off in a direction that will safely clear him from interfering withthe missile shot and to avoid a midair collision. This situation is especially dangerous if the new freefighter delays his Counterflow turn and aligns for a rear-quarter shot without calling the engaged fighteroff. Failing to do that immediately sets up the potential for a midair. The following is an example of voicecomm appropriate in an abeam attack where the fighters can bracket the bandit. However, in thisexample, the roles are not immediately defined.


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ABEAM VISUAL IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE (ABEAM VID)

A number of situations could develop during a visual forward-quarter intercept depending on the initialmove of the bandit. At the pass, the bandit can maneuver in one of three directions: straight ahead,across the eyeball�s tail, or reverse toward the shooter. If the bandit was properly bracketed, anymaneuver other than reversing toward the shooter should result in an immediate kill (Figure 48).

FIGURE 48: VFQ - BANDIT FLOW


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Following is an example of voice comm that would occur during the first scenario of a visual forward-quarter attack (Figure 49):

Engaged fighter: �Tiger 2, engaged right two-circle, defensive.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 1, free, extending.�

Free fighter: �Tiger 1, Turning in, tally visual/blind.�

Engaged fighter: �Tiger 2, Visual.�

Free fighter: �You�re clear.�

Free fighter: �Fox-2, bandit in right hand turn.�

FIGURE 49: KNOCK IT OFF FLOW (TIGER)


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Keys to success

The VFQ is a scenario in which we need to identify and classify the �bogey� as a �bandit� before we canshoot him. Following the initial setup and after we�re in the heat of the fight, it becomes quite similar tothe Counterflow. We have an engaged fighter in a two-circle flow and a free fighter trying to get weaponsseparation. The major difference is that the fighters are offensive vice defensive. This is an importantfactor when it comes time for the shot. In the Counterflow we shot the bandit in the trail position. Nowwe are shooting the bandit out in front of the engaged fighter. Since it�s not wise to have two fighters gobelly up to each other fighting the same bandit, we need to call off the engaged fighter and swap roles.

The outside fighter begins his hard turn the second the bandit calls, �Start the Comm.� He does a noseslice, nibble-of-buffet (17 unit) pull for 120 degrees. We use 120 degrees to build some weaponsseparation. From a good combat spread and a normal bogey set, we say �turn� and start our turn as wecross our the inside fighter�s flight path. Now we pull pure pursuit (maintain nose on) on the bogey untilthe merge and the �shoot� call. We�re looking for a shot just outside of min range so we can take a validFox-2, yet be nice and offensive in the engagement. When you make the �turn� call, split your scanbetween the bogey and fighter.

The inside fighter moves the jet and starts the comm again as soon as the outside fighter says, �Turn.�He wants to bracket the bandit, so the pass should be the same as direction of turn (left turn, left to leftpass). We will work on a nice 500-ft pass. Following the merge with the bandit, lead checks across thebandit�s tail about 30 degrees while orienting the LV below the horizon, then starts an unload andextension.

The engaged fighter�s job is to get in-plane and in-phase with the bandit to get a gun solution on him. It�simportant to maintain your offensive advantage here to make the bandit continue his two-circle engage-ment and bleed him down.

The free fighter now starts the turn in with the same initial mentality as the counter flow. We look forplanform on the bandit and attempt to pull for a cold side shot. We adjust as necessary after 90 degrees,keeping in mind that the bandit is out in front. Once the free fighter has the bandit committed belly up inthe turn, he calls the engaged fighter to �come off left.� For a memory aid, call him off in the samedirection you are turning at that time.

These rules must be followed. When the free fighter calls �Tiger 1, turning in, tally/visual,� he sees thefight and takes responsibility for de-confliction. When the free fighter calls the engaged fighter off, theengaged fighter immediately comes off and then has two responses: 1) �Visual,� in which de-conflictionnow transfers to the engaged fighter because he has sight, or 2) �Blind,� in which case the free fighterstill owns de-confliction responsibility and either responds with �You�re clear,� provided there is sufficientseparation for lead to continue pulling for the shot, or �KIO, heading� and simultaneously rolling wingslevel. With good timing and cold side shots, de-confliction happens laterally and is rarely a problem. Thetrouble comes when the free fighter is late turning in and the engaged fighter is already belly up before hecan be called off. Now we�ve got jets in the same piece of sky and need rapid and appropriate re-sponses to the comm.

Remember; don�t stick your nose into a fight when you don�t have sight. You can reset this at the 90-degree checkpoint if you lose sight or you are too late turning in to get a valid shot. You�re wingman isoffensive so he�s not getting shot.


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On the KIO, the heading must come out ASAP. Everyone is heading a different direction and will soon bemiles apart. When the engaged fighter is called off, if he called �visual� (or the IP has sight), for adminpurposes resume you�re turn back towards the fight. This makes it easier to stick together for the KIO.The free fighter takes the shot, and therefore owns the initial KIO heading. Initially call a heading90 degrees outside the turn circle (i.e., 90 degrees more) to put you and the bandit into combat spread(Figure 50).

FIGURE 50: VFQ - OVERALL FLOW TO FOX-2


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BEYOND VISUAL RANGE (BVR)

In the real world, fighters are equipped with on-board radar and communicate with ground controlintercept (GCI) radar units for vectors to intercept a bandit long before he could be visually sighted.During an intercept, the fighters will employ tactics similar to those that you have learned in the visualforward-quarter exercises, especially ensuring that a single bandit is always bracketed. Your BVRexercises will be as close as you can get to the real world. Consider them a graduation exercise, in thateverything you have learned up to this point is likely to occur in these engagements.

The BVR exercise is set up using briefed TACAN radials/DME or waypoints to designate combat airpatrol stations (CAPS�areas of responsibility when on patrol). For safe separation during no visualcontact, you will also use block altitudes. Note the examples below. The goal is for fighters to choosetheir block to capitalize on environmentals.

Low Block = 0-4�s

High Block = 5-9�s

The ROE is that the Bandit must have both fighters in sight to enter the opposing block. The Fightersmust be �Visual� and only one of them needs to be �Tally.� The idea being that the fighter who has �Tally�will lead the �No Joy� fighter to the Bandit.

To execute the exercise, the bandit and the fighters proceed to their respective CAPS. All aircraft orbit attheir CAPS until called in by the bandit. When bandit calls �Fight�s on,� all aircraft fly an in-boundheading/course. When any aircraft gains sight, the engagement begins utilizing all the strategies youhave learned in ACM. Other tactics exist that could handle this situation, but they are beyond the scopeof this FTI and will be introduced to you in the fleet.

Keys to success

You should see a demo and do prior to your check ride. BVR�s can be painful or loads of fun. Safety isparamount when two solo students are flying around with knives in their teeth. Stay in your block untiltally requirements are met, make timely ROE calls and abide by them, and do not try to enter a fightwithout a tally and good situational awareness.

BVR�s are set up along a radial or courseline between two CAPS. The CAPS are usually set 15-20 milesapart. Whoever gets to the CAP first holds there until the other jet is 15-20 miles away. You must beestablished in your block prior to 10 miles. Bandit needs tally of both fighters to enter the fighter�s block,one fighter needs to have a tally, and the other fighter have a visual to enter the bandit�s block. You canstill fight in your own block without a tally. The bandit comes directly up the radial or courseline and callsoff DME or range, utilizing a BRA call from a simulated AIC. The lead fighter should be on the radial/courseline with the wingman offsetting. The fighters don�t need to call off their DME or range. Thefighters will usually proceed to whichever CAP is closer or utilize atmospheric conditions to decide whichCAP will be more beneficial. Ideally you�d like to pick the CAP that the bandit has to squint into the sun tosee you. The wingman should always be offset to the outside of the section with respect to the threat, sohe can look through his lead and towards the threat, provided Lead has an offset in.


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It�s best to CAP in what is called fighter wing, or TAC wing. Generally speaking this is like a loose cruiseabout 500 to 1,500 ft away on a 60-degree bearing line around lead�s aircraft. Stay there until lead rollsout on the final heading, and then push out into spread. As long as one fighter sees the other on the KIO(we should if someone took a shot), call the visual and start getting the section headed to the CAP.

There is a difference between Admin lead and Tac lead. Hawk 1 has the Admin lead this entire flight.Whoever has the best SA at any give time has the Tac lead. For example, Hawk 1 is �no joy� and Hawk2 has a �tally.� Hawk 2 directs the flight as needed until Hawk 1 gains a �tally.� Don�t drill aroundaimlessly in the area or in a fight just because you�re the wingman waiting for the Admin lead to dosomething.

Some things to consider:

Mutual Support - don�t leave CAP until you have some semblance of combat spread. We�re in a goodposition with a visual of each other and somewhere near the briefed radial/courseline.

Two fighters tally one - (we can accept one fighter tally and the other with a visual). We need to seethe enemy to effectively fight it. Good lookout doctrine and leaving CAP with good mutual support helps.

Establish Roles - They may change several times, but we always need to have an engaged fighter and afree fighter.

1 v 1 - You need to fight your best jet no matter how many guys are on your side. Don�t forget the skillsyou�ve learned.

Comm - You�ve learned a basic script to give you an idea of what to say in our canned sets. When onefighter begins to describe what is occurring, a comm flow will usually develop. When defensive, it�s easyto describe your role and what type of fight. If all else fails, use plain language. The important thing is tohave a cadence back and forth, and listen to what your wingman or lead is telling you.


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BVR Scenarios

We cannot possibly discuss every contingency, but these are a few worth mentioning.

The ScenariosIn this situation the fighters have a tally, but the banditsaves himself with a late tally and maneuver. This canwind up in a few different scenarios. If Hawk 1overshoots enough that the bandit reverses, we have aquick flats and then a Fox 2 from Hawk 2 (Figure 51).

If Hawk 1 is offensive enough and Hawk 2 is stillneutral, Hawk 1 is the engaged fighter, and Hawk 2needs be the free, extending fighter. Since he can�treally afford to reverse out-of-phase with the bandit�snose in this position, he should start climbing to get

out-of-plane. Altitude is also weapon�s separation.Even though Hawk 2 doesn�t get out-of-phase, hestill has weapon�s separation in the vertical. Thebandit will eventually march around the circlebecause of his better turn rate and Hawk 2 caneasily keep sight because he�s outside the bandit�sturn looking down (Figure 52). This makes it easyto see the bandit start coming nose up for theswitch. The timing for the shot will not need to beour normal plan form plus 2. When you�re slowabove the fight it only takes a couple seconds topoint the nose down. Make sure you can get theshot, call Hawk 1 off and de-conflict, and then idleboards to control closure. In this scenario, justbecause the bandit may try a switch, doesn�t meanthe fighters need to switch. Hawk 1 is Offensive,and will be even more so if the bandit eases his pullto try switch to Hawk 2. Hawk 2 needs to honor thebandit�s nose, but can just merge and blow through,leaving Hawk 1 engaged even more offensive.

The fight will rapidly degrade to this scenariobecause the bandit fights good 1 v 1, and thefighters tend to fight poorly while they�re talking(Figure 53). Now we are in what is called a �daisychain.� We�re all going around the circle togetherand most likely the bandit will continue to gainground if something isn�t done. Now that Hawk 2 isdefensive, he needs to be the engaged fighter. He

FIGURE 51: BVR - BANDIT ABEAMTHE SECTION (HAWK)

FIGURE 52: BVR - BANDITIN-PLANE / IN-PHASETWO-CIRCLE FLOW

FIGURE 53: CLASSICTWO-CIRCLE FLOW


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does not have the ability to extend from the fight. The only situation this wouldn�t apply is if Hawk 1 is justabout to get his pipper on and Hawk 2 is still holding the bandit off.

Hawk 1 needs to get out-of-plane and out-of-phase on his extension. Always assess the bandit�s nosebefore reversing. Time to kill is everything, so recognize the daisy chain right away, and get the freefighter extending for the quick Fox 2.

Here is the same initial set (Figure 54). The bandit willflow to the second fighter he comes to because hedoesn�t like to turn in front of a fighter. In the solid linescenario, Hawk 2 puts a better pull on, so the bandit willactually merge with him first and then flow through toHawk 1. This happens even though Hawk 1 was initiallycloser to the bandit at the initial set.

In the dashed line scenario, Hawk 1 puts the manly pullon so he merges first. The bandit then flows through toHawk 2.

This is why it is important to have the �survive first�mentality until we can assess whom the bandit is tryingto engage.

In this scenario, everyone gets a late tally and pulls totake out angles (Figure 55). This gives a lead-trailmerge. The bandit blows through to Hawk 2 andcrosses his tail. Hawk 2 aggressively reverses to dragthe bandit into the flats. Hawk 2 can give Hawk 1 aheads up that he�s in trail, even before the mergehappens. Hawk 2 needs to work hard to regain sightof the bandit so he can confirm the flats.

Hawk 1 merges and crosses the bandit�s tail toattempt to keep sight. Since it isn�t a canned set wewould start maneuvering out-of-plane until we hearthose wonderful words from Hawk 2, �engaged flats.�Now it�s time for a nose low slice turn to pull aroundfor the shot utilizing our best turn rate. If for somereason the bandit reversed to the right at the mergeand didn�t go into the flats with Hawk 2, Hawk 1 is stillin a position to engage because he crossed thebandit�s tail and should be able to pick him up.

FIGURE 54: FREE/ENGAGEDFIGHTER INITIAL MOVE (HAWK)

FIGURE 55: BVR ONE-CIRCLEFLOW (HAWK)


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1. Bandit is tally and begins maneuveringwhile giving a �threat left 9� call.

2. The fighters maneuver the jet first, basedon the threat call, and then start lookingand talking. We end up with thescenario just alluded to previously. Thisis good utilization of bandit information.(Figure 56)

This scenario began the same as the previous one,however Hawk 2 doesn�t aggressively maneuver his jetupon hearing the threat call. Now the bandit rolls in witha nice offensive bite. If Hawk 2 doesn�t start fighting anaggressive, defensive, two-circle fight, he will pay for itby staying defensive or soaking up a shot. (Figure 57)

FIGURE 56: BVR - FIGHTERS USE�THREAT� INFORMATION (HAWK)

FIGURE 57: BVR - LATE FIGHTERMANEUVER (HAWK)


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In this scenario, both fighters are slow to react to thethreat call (Figure 58). It may look like the bandit willflow to Hawk 2, but it always depends on the angleswhen the merges happen. Hawk 2 has more initialseparation from the bandit, so he may still be able toget enough of a pull going that he is able to take outmore angles.

Now the bandit actually has a better bite on Hawk 1,even though he initially merged with Hawk 1, and flowedthrough to Hawk 2. Once again, survival mentality is keyuntil we can assess the bandit�s intentions. (Figure 59)

Now for the worst case, and most common scenario.The bandit gives a �threat low to high (or high to low)dead 6� call. This is a classic Counterflow set-up(Figure 60). The big difference is we don�t know whomthe bandit is going to engage. Fighters need to do animmediate double break-turn towards each other,keeping safety of flight in mind. Usually one fighter hasa weaker break turn, so the bandit flows to him. Oncethe fighters safely pass each other, they need to workhard to gain a tally and see who the bandit is engaging.

By the time we can establish that Hawk 2 isengaged two-circle defensive, a normalCounterflow extension is impossible (Figure 61).Hawk 1 should start getting out-of-plane as soonas he�s established as the free fighter. Remem-ber, weapons separation can be achieved in thevertical. This makes it easy to eventually get out-of-phase if needed and makes it very clear whenthe bandit switches. It also makes it difficult for thebandit to get a tally on the free fighter.

FIGURE 61: BVR - COUNTERFLOWDEFENSIVE

FIGURE 60: BVR - BANDIT UNSEENENTRY (HAWK)

FIGURE 58: BVR - LATE FIGHTERMANEUVER - UNKNOWN BANDIT TARGET

FIGURE 59: BVR - BANDIT SWITCHPOST-MERGE (HAWK)


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Glossary

We cannot begin to discuss all the possible scenarios, but hopefully this will at least give you a base lineto fall back on. The two things that fall apart rapidly when fighters become confused are 1 v 1 maneuver-ing and comms.

In general, we want to accomplish a few simple things to execute a good section maneuvering gameplan:Establish roles.

Utilize directive and descriptive comm.

Fight your best ACM at all times.

Get Out-of-phase and Out-of-plane.

KNOCK IT OFF AND RETURN TO BASE

The Knock it Off Procedures at the end of the flight will be the same as for the conclusion of eachengagement. Any member in the flight can call Knock it Off (usually being the IP once training objectiveshave been met) but the bandit will always initiate the knock it off cadence. From there, Lead will call�Knock it Off,� followed by wingman �Knock it Off.� The aircraft with the most SA (usually the shooter) willcall the �Knock it Off, heading.� Once the initial heading is called, all aircraft will begin to turn as requiredto that heading and gain tally/visual. If you know an aircraft is blind on you (you are at his six or low/high)call out your position relative to him and get eyes on. From there, you can work as a flight to get all flightmembers in sight and identified. Hawk 1 will initiate the fenced out and Hawk 2 will echo it followed bythe bandit. The bandit will then take the lead back over the radio and then call, �With a cold nose you�recleared to join.� Both fighters will join on him. This will be done by Hawk 1 picking a side and communi-cating it and then Hawk 2 will verbally confirm that he is taking the other side. Both fighters will maneuveras required to stay on their respective sides and execute a running rendezvous (or as briefed) on theBandit. If executing a runner, you do not have the option of underrunning because the other fighter is onthe other side. Standard runner FTI procedures apply. Join up in parade and then wait to be put intocruise after a fuel check from the bandit. Maintain this position until inside the initial. Crossunder asrequired to be in echelon right parade. A standard 4-second break will follow.

CONCLUSIONThree-Plane ACM is your first real introduction to the kinds of engagements and multi-plane consider-ations that you will encounter after you leave the Training Command. These flights should be fairlychallenging, but really fun. Safety is one of the biggest concerns throughout these flights. The 500-ftbubble, keeping sight, good comm; these will all make or break your flights and either add to the fun oradd to the pain. Apply the basic tenets of 1 v 1, while keeping up your situational awareness to makethese the best flights of your (as yet) brief flying career.


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Glossary

NOTES


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SAFETY/EMERGENCY CONSIDERATIONS

As in any tactical flying, safety is paramount because of the ever-present potential for an incident. Butjust as you learned in TacForm, flying only with safety on your mind prevents you from achieving the levelof proficiency necessary to be a competent tactical aviator. Safety is the natural and number one by-product of operational proficiency. Complete knowledge coupled with thorough preparation andcontinuous practice provides the cornerstones to achieving operational proficiency safely.The following specific areas will go a long way in making you a safe and effective tactical jet pilot:

RELATIVE MOTION/EXCESSIVE CLOSURE

All midair collisions are a result of pilots failing to recognize constant bearing and decreasing range untilit is too late to take evasive action. Understand the mechanics of dynamic maneuvering and realize that,under g, your lift vector tells you where you are going so be sure to lag the other aircraft if the need todeconflict arises. Until now, all your flying in close proximity to other aircraft has been static, and rates ofchange have always been tightly controlled. This will not be the case in the rest of your tactical flying,especially during the snap guns exercise as you are maneuvering very close to the 500-ft bubble andduring the horizontal scissors as you cross the bandit�s flight path.

SITUATIONAL/SPATIAL AWARENESS

Spatial awareness is the ability to project the flight paths of your aircraft and other aircraft in relation toeach other. Your ability to develop spatial awareness combined with a complete understanding of youaircraft�s capabilities will prevent a midair collision. Situational awareness goes beyond spatial aware-ness and allows you to anticipate situations that may lend themselves to midair collisions. You need toexercise both situational and spatial awareness anytime you maneuver for a head-on pass, whether it isduring 1 v 1 neutral starts or during an engagement. If you fail to call the pass, the instructor may haveto call it for you.

During 2 v 1 maneuvering, you need to be especially aware of the possibility for a midair during rear-quarter attacks when you are a solo free fighter and you end up turning back too early directly into thefight. Another situation similar to 1 v 1 is after the bandit has switched from the engaged fighter to youas a free fighter and you fail to call the head-on pass. In the case of a visual forward-quarter attack, ifyou are a free fighter and you are aligning for a rear-quarter shot but you delayed your Counterflow turn,the potential exists for a midair with your wingman.

GOOD START

Just as you learned in CQ, if you aren�t in a good position at the abeam, the chances are by the time youget to the ramp you are not in a good position to land. This holds true in any tactical flying. Near missesare often caused by the wingman being out of position at the start of the maneuver. Strive to be inposition at all times. This also increases your learning curve, as you will see the exercise from the samesetup each time.


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LOST SIGHT/LOOKOUT

In order to minimize the potential for a midair collision (especially in the air-to-air phase), you must keepyour head on a swivel. Learn to take quick glances into the cockpit to get the information you want thenlook back outside immediately. Any aircraft that loses sight for more than an instant in a close fight musttransmit, �Lost sight.� The other aircraft will provide descriptive/directive commentary to help the lost-sight aircraft reacquire sight. If this is unsuccessful, the instructor will call, �Knock it Off.�

OUT-OF-CONTROL DEPARTURES

Because you are constantly pushing the envelope in maneuvering during ACM, you will reach criticalpoints where a departure might occur. Be especially aware of two situations. First, when you are in adefensive situation and the bandit executes a BRA, you may become disoriented and lose control as youcounter during your vertical pull-up. Second, if you are executing a High-g roll, you could depart theaircraft because of cross controlling. However the situation develops, don�t hesitate to bring the throttleback to idle and go through your OCF procedures.

AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

All aircraft have specific structural/aerodynamic limitations. If you do not heed these limitations, youcould damage the aircraft and endanger yourself. It is mandatory that you know all the aircraft limitationsand emergency procedures.


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SELF-TEST

1 V 1 ACM

1. Describe the T-45 Gouge numbers for break turn AOA, corner airspeed, sustained turn rate band,minimum radius airspeed band and minimum vertical airspeed.

2. Who initiates the �Speed and Angels� call before the start of a maneuver?

3. Where should the throttle be when airspeed is at 85 kts?

4. True/False: POM is the last priority for a gun solution.

5. True/False: A KIO is called if unable to take a shot in the snap shot drill.

6. Describe the G-warm maneuver.

7. What type of fight is the flat scissor? (one-circle or two-circle)

8. True/False: Rudder is not important when flying the flat scissors maneuver.

9. When is the correct time to perform the pirouette in the rolling scissors and what are the mechan-ics?

10. When is the best time to bug in a rolling scissors?

11. True/False: The 6,000 ft perch set starts with attacking aircraft 3,000 ft outside the defender�sbubble.

12. What are the visual cues for bubble entry and attack window entry?

13. Describe the concept of misaligned turn circles and how it is useful in two-circle flow.


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14. If you are stuck in lag, on your rate numbers and you have altitude between you and the hard deck,what is the best maneuver to perform to close separation on the bandit and maneuver for a shot?

15. Describe the entry and comm for the BTX.

16. Describe an energy rate and a positional deck transition.

17. Nominally, how for is the attacker outside of the defender�s bubble at the F-2 for the BTX?

18. As the defender on the BTX, when should you break back into the bandit?

19. Describe the defensive break turn.

20. Who should you tell first if you hit RTB fuel on a dualed up ACM flight?

2 V 1 ACM

21. True/False: The call the bandit exercise gives the fighters a chance to mildly maneuver whileworking comm.

22. Who initiates �Fenced� and �G�s and Fuel� calls?

23. How many degrees should it take for the free fighter on a no-switch to achieve a F-2 on the bandit?

24. What type of fight is the engaged fighter in during a counterflow exercise?

25. What is the comm for a switch in the multi-switch exercise?

26. Who calls the bug heading during the multi-switch exercise?

27. Who should be the tac lead on the bug after the merge with the bandit on the multi-switch exercise?


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28. Who�s position do you describe as a response to a �Tally 2� call from your wingman?

29. On the abeam VID exercise, describe the comm when you are the free fighter pitching into the two-circle fight.

30. What are the blocks for BVR�s?

31. What is the ROE for the fighters to come out of their block on a BVR?

32. Which is more important regarding comm priority in the engaged arena, directive or descriptivecomm?

33. Describe the extension after the switch from the flats during a multi-switch engagement.

34. How do we deconflict if either the Fighter or Bandit is blind on a switch during the multi-switchexercise?

35. Who is responsible for area management on 2 v 1 ACM hops?


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NOTES


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APPENDIX A

Study Resources for ACMFP:[A] T-45A NATOPS Flight Manual, A1-T45AB-NFM-000[B] Air Combat Maneuvering Flight Training Instruction (FTI)

ACMFP-01: �Introduction to ACM,� 0.8 hr, ClassroomLesson Preparation:* [B] Read �Introduction� and �Background� sections with special attention to symbology and terminol-

ogyLesson Objectives:* Relate environmental components to ACM performance* Relate fixed aircraft factors to ACM performance* Relate variable aircraft factors to ACM performance* Identify energy management components for the T-45A* Recall procedure for the performance characteristics exercise* Recall basic ACM considerations* Recall the actions which lead to a one-circle fight* Recall the advantages/disadvantages of a one-circle fight* Recall the actions which lead to a two-circle fight* Recall the advantages/disadvantages of a two-circle fight* Recall out-of-plane (OOP) maneuvering tactical considerations* Recall procedures for maintaining sight/lookout doctrine* Recall ACM terminology and descriptions* Recall ACM symbology* Recall training rules for ACM exercises* Recall procedure for lost comm situation in ACM* Recall procedure for lost sight situations in ACM* Recall procedures for conducting G-LOC turns

ACMFP-02: �ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering,� 1.0 hr, ClassroomLesson Preparation:* [B] Read �Offensive Flight Procedures� sectionLesson Objectives:* Recall the concepts and tactics applicable to offensive ACM* Recall the purpose and application of the snap guns exercise in ACM (offensive)* Recall the procedure for performing the snap guns exercise (offensive)* Recall the purpose and application of the high yo-yo in ACM* Recall the purpose and application of the low yo-yo in ACM* Recall the purpose and application of the horizontal scissors (offensive)* Recall procedure for performing horizontal scissors (offensive)* Recall the purpose and application of the rolling scissors (offensive)* Recall procedure for performing rolling scissors (offensive)* Recall the purpose and application of the offensive counter to the defensive pitchback* Recall procedures for performing low-angle hard counter (offensive)* Recall procedure for the �break turn� exercise (offensive)* Recall the offensive considerations for disengagement* Recall the procedures for execution of offensive disengagement


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ACMFP-03: �ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering,� 1.0 hr, ClassroomLesson Preparation:* [B] Read �Defensive Maneuvering Flight Procedures� sectionLesson Objectives:* Recall the concepts and tactics applicable to defensive ACM* Recall factors/techniques for defensive disengagement* Recall disengagement follow-on options* Recall the purpose and application of the snap guns exercise in ACM (defensive)* Recall the procedure for performing the snap guns exercise (defensive)* Recall the purpose and application of the horizontal scissors (defensive)* Recall procedure for performing horizontal scissors (defensive)* Recall the purpose and application of the rolling scissors (defensive)* Recall procedure for performing rolling scissors (defensive)* Recall purpose and application of defensive low-angle to hard counter* Recall procedures for performing a defensive low-angle to hard counter* Recall the purpose and application for breakturn exercise (defensive)* Recall procedure for the �break turn� exercise (defensive)* Recall the purpose and application of the lufbery* Recall the purpose and application of the diving spiral* Recall procedure for performing a diving spiral* Recall the purpose and application of the high �g� roll* Recall the procedure for performing a high �g� roll* Recall the purpose and application of jink-out maneuvers* Recall procedures for performing jink-out maneuvers

ACMFP-04: �ACM 1 v 1 Neutral Starts,� 0.8 hr, ClassroomLesson Preparation:* [B] Read �1 v 1 Engagement Concepts and Tactics� sectionLesson Objectives:* Recall the concepts and tactics applicable to basic fighter maneuvers (BFM)* Recall the parameters which constitute a neutral start* Recall the actions which lead to a one-circle fight* Recall the advantages/disadvantages of a one-circle fight* Recall the actions which lead to a two-circle fight* Recall the advantages/disadvantages of a two-circle fight* Recall out-of-plane (OOP) maneuvering tactical considerations* Recall the actions which lead to a vertical fight/merges* Assess the neutral 1 v 1 tactical situation

ACMFP-06: �Three-Plane Air Combat Maneuvering,� 2.7 hr, ClassroomLesson Preparation:* [B] Read �2 v 1 Mission Procedures/Maneuvers� sectionLesson Objectives:* Recall procedures/guidelines provided by ACM briefing* Recall rules of engagement (ROE) for conducting ACM training* Recall parameters of the weapons envelope used by CNATRA* Recall ACM working areas and enroute/RTB procedures* Recall weather minimums/requirements for ACM* Recall ACM tactical communications plan/usage


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ACMFP-06 Lesson Objectives (Cont.):* Identify energy management components for the T-45A* Recall tactical considerations and ACM brief board information* Recall procedures for conducting G-LOC turns* Recall engaged/free fighter tactical doctrine applicable to ACM* Recall 2 v 1 mutual support tactical and procedural considerations* Recall the 2 v 1 considerations for disengagement* Recall procedures for 2 v 1 disengagement* Describe the correct position and purpose of the combat spread formation* Recall other tactical formations used in ACM* Recall tactical communications requirements for ACM* Recall additional tactical considerations for ACM* Assess 2 v 1 tactical situation (used for all engagements)* Recall the concepts and tactics applicable to 2 v 1 ACM* Recall responsibilities of each aircraft in the �call the bandit� exercise* Describe actions of engaged/free fighter response to counterflow rear quarter attack* Describe actions of engaged/free fighter in response to abeam attack* Recall methods for regaining section integrity* Describe actions of engaged/free fighter response to no-switch rear quarter attack* Describe actions of engaged/free fighter to single-switch exercise* Describe action of engaged/free fighter in response to multi-switch exercise* Describe actions of engaged/free fighter in VFQ attack* Recall the procedures for beyond visual range engagements


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NOTES


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APPENDIX B

2V1 ACM COMM SCRIPT

CALL THE BANDIT

NO SWITCH

Bandit �Bandit setting up on the left on ______ for the call the bandit no switch fighters call when

ready.�

Lead �_____ Speed & Angels.�

Wing �_____ Speed & Angels.�

B �Bandit�s in.�

W �_____ break left bandit left seven.�

L �Tally, ______ engaged.�

W �_____ free pulling for the shot�FOX-2 bandit in trail.�

B �Bandit knock it off.�

L �_____ knock it off.�

W �_____ knock it off (heading).�

SINGLE SWITCH

Bandit �Bandit setting up on the left on ______ for the call the bandit single switch fighters call whenready.�






W �_____ free pulling for the shot�switch switch bandit�s coming to me�right to right.�

B �Right to right.�


(2-07) Original

W �_____ will engage in flats (heading).�

L �_____ free extending.�

W �_____ confirms flats (heading).�

L �_____ turning in tally visual�.FOX-2 bandit on (side you�re on, in this case left).�



W �_____ knock it off.�

L �(heading).�

MULTI-SWITCH BUG

Bandit �Bandit setting up on the left on _____ for the multi switch bug bug bug fighters call whenready.�










W �_____ confirms flats (heading) JOKER.�

L �Copy joker let�s work the bug.�

L �_____ turning in tally visual.�

W �Heads up bandit�s nose is low�switch switch bandit�s coming to you from the (direction ofbandit�s and you�re turn as bandit is exiting the flats) [example] left.�

L �Tally, (call the pass side the same direction as the bandit coming from) example left to left.�

B �Left to left.�

L �Let�s bug (heading across bandit�s tail).�

W �Copy (heading)�I�m at your position.�


(2-07) Original

L �Visual.�

W �Bandit�s in a left turn 1 mile with 90 to go, looks like a good bug.�

B �Bandit concurs.�



W �_____ knock it off.�

L �Cross turn ______ low.�

W �______ high.�

MULTI-SWITCH KILL

Bandit �Bandit setting up on the left on ______ for the multi switch kill fighters call when ready.�




w �_____ break left bandit left seven.�






W �_____ confirms flats (heading).�

L �_____ turning in tally visual.�

W �Heads up bandit�s nose is low�switch switch bandit�s coming to you from the (direction ofbandit�s and you�re turn as bandit is exiting the flats) [example] left.�

L �Tally, (call the pass side the same direction as the bandit coming from) example left to left.�


L �______ will engage flats (heading not to cross bandit�s tail).�

W �______ free extending.�

L �Confirms flats (heading). �

W �______ turning in tally two.�


(2-07) Original

L �______ on the (side you�re on).�

W �______ tally visual�.FOX-2 bandit on the (side opposite your lead).�


L �_____ knock it off�

W �_____ knock it off (heading).�

COUNTERFLOW

Bandit �Bandit setting up between the section on _____ for the counter flow fighters call when ready.�




W �_____ break right bandit right five.�


W �Looks like bandit�s sticking with you _______ free extending.�

L �______ engaged two circle right defensive.�

W �______ turning in tally visual.�

W �FOX-2 bandit in trail.�


L �Knock it off.�

W �Knock it off (heading).�

VISUAL FORWARD QUARTER

Bandit �Bandit setting up on the left on _____ for the VFQ fighters call when ready.�



B �Start the Comm.�

L �(wingman�s callsign) hard left BOGEY left nine long I�m padlocked call my turn.�

W �TWO.�

W �Turn.�

L �Out of the turn bogey on my nose 1 mile�I�m the eyeball�left to left.�


W �_____ tally visual�shooter.�


(2-07) Original

L �Shoot shoot MIG.�

W �FOX-2.�

B �Chaff flares, continue.�

W �______ engaged two circle right offensive.�

L �______ free extending.�

L �______ turning in tally visual.�

L �(wingman) come off high/low (in direction of lead�s turn in) example left.�

W �Blind/Visual.�

L �You�re clear�.FOX-2 bandit in a right turn.�


L �Knock it off.�

W �Knock it off.�

L �(heading)�


(2-07) Original

NOTES


(2-07) Original

GLOSSARY

A

Admin Lead: The flight lead.

Anchored: Orbiting or engaged at an assigned point.

Angels: Altitude of aircraft in thousands of feet.

Angle Off: Angle off the tail (AOT) between the defender�s longitudinal axis and attacker�s line-of-sight.Simply the attacker�s position off the defender�s tail (see also �Track Crossing Angle�).

AOB: Angle of bank

Arcing Turn (Arc): A turn executed at less than the optimum rate of turn, or an extension maneuverexecuted other than in a straight line.

Aspect: Angular description of an aircraft.

Attack Window: A piece of sky located aft of the defender�s post where if an attacking aircraft maxperforms at the right time, he will arrive in the defensive aircraft�s control zone with angles and closureunder control.

Atoll: A Soviet IR missile�the missile call used by the bandit.

B

Bandit: Aircraft identified as an enemy.

Barrel Roll Attack: An offensive maneuver similar to the displacement roll, but used in high AOToutside 4,000-ft range.

BFM: Basic Fighter Maneuvering. Synonymous with Air Combat Maneuvering for our purposes.

Belly Check: Overbanking the aircraft to check areas masked from view by your own aircraft.

Beyond Visual Range (BVR): Situation where an intercept through radar or GCI identifies a group thatis beyond the visual ACM arena.

Blind: Call from fighter meaning, �I do not see my lead/wingman/friendly.�

Bogey: Unidentified air contact.

Bracketing: Forcing the bandit to pass head-on between the section during a forward quarter or abeamattack.

Break Turn: 19-21 unit AOA turn executed to defeat an employed weapon or to deny/gain positionaladvantage.


(2-07) Original

Break Turn Exercise: Essentially a 9,000 ft perch set where the offensive fighter begins his attack9,000 ft away from the defensive aircraft.

Bubble: A representation of an aircraft�s turn circle in all 3 dimensions if he max performs at his currentenergy state.

Bug Out (verb): To disengage from ACM in order to exit safely from the fight; also, Bugout (adj; noun).

Buster: Expedite with 0G/MRT as required.

C

Check Left/Right (Degrees): To alter heading any number of degrees to the left or right.

Combat Air Patrol Station (CAP): The area of responsibility when a section is on patrol in the fleet.

Contact: Initial and subsequent detections of an object by any detecting device including eyeballs.

Control Point: 1 radius of turn aft of the defender on his flight path.

Control Zone: A cone-like area, 2,000 ft to 4,000 ft behind a maneuvering aircraft, 20 degrees wide atthe front to 40 degrees wide on the back side centered on the aircraft�s flight path where if an attackingaircraft arrives with angles and closure under control, the defensive aircraft will be able to do nothing todeny him positional advantage.

Corner(ing) Airspeed: The slowest airspeed where the g limit is available (410 KIAS @10,000 ft).

Counterflow: A tactic in section engagements where the engaged fighter forces the bandit into apredictable flight path, while the free fighter maneuvers out-of-phase, going counter to the direction of thefight for a kill.

D

Daisy Chain: An unfavorable situation where the three or more aircraft are turning in phase in the sameplane.

Degrees to Go: The number of degrees of turn that an offensive aircraft has to turn in order to enter asuitable weapons envelope.

Displacement Roll: An offensive maneuver used to reduce excessive closure while displacing theaircraft to a different plane of maneuvering. Used in low to medium AOT and medium range situation.

E

(The) Egg: A three-dimensional ovoid showing the effects of gravity on an aircraft maneuvering in allthree planes.

Energy Package: The combination of the aircraft�s altitude (potential energy) and airspeed (kineticenergy) making up the aircraft�s total energy.

Engaged Fighter: In multi-plane engagements, the aircraft that is fighting an aggressive 1 v 1 againstthe bandit.


(2-07) Original

Engaging Turn: An efficient combination of turn rate and radius that maintains energy.

Engaging Turns: The type of turns used by a section to engage an enemy contact, i.e., Tac turns (bothinto and away), in-place turns, and crossturns.

Extension: A maneuver performed to achieve either range and/or angular separation to employweapons or exit an engagement.

Eyeball: Identifies the fighter who has a tally/radar contact and will take bandit close aboard to obtainvisual identification (VID) in section forward-quarter tactics.

F

Feet Dry/Wet: Flying over land or water.

Flat Scissors: Defensive maneuver used to take advantage of an attacker�s horizontal overshoot. Alsoresults from the flattening of the rolling scissors.

Flight Path: The imaginary arc that an aircraft scribes in the sky. The aircraft�s velocity, g, and LVplacement determine the geometry of the flight path. An aircraft that is straight and level has a straightflight path while one in a hard break turn has a very dynamic flight path. The smoke from an aircraft�sengine is an excellent indication of an aircraft�s flight path.

Flow: When two aircraft meet head-on, one of two types of flow is established in a turning fight after themerge occurs. If after the merge both aircraft turn across each other�s tail, the flow is said to �two-circle�because each aircraft is still on it�s own distinct turn circle. Both aircraft will be turning the same direction,i.e., both in a left hand turn. Note that in two-circle flow, the two aircraft are fighting nose-to-tail. If at themerge one aircraft turns in the same direction as the other aircraft, the flow is now said to be �one circle�because both aircraft are now on the same turn circle but in opposite directions, i.e., one left hand turns,the other in right hand turns. This is described as a nose-to-nose fight.

Force Mix: The number and type of friendly vs. opponent aircraft to be taken into account whenconsidering ACM strategies and tactics.

FOX-1: Fox-1 indicates the release of a semi-active radar guided missile. The call is made by theaircraft releasing the missile.

FOX-2: Indicates the release of an IR (heat seeking) guided missile. The call is made by the aircraftreleasing the missile.

Free Fighter: In multi-plane engagements, the aircraft that is able to maneuver to achieve a shot whilenot having to aggressively counter the attacker.

G

Gate: To employ maximum thrust using full afterburner.

Ground Control Intercept (GCI): Communication from a remote ground station that transmits vectorsand altitude information to the fighters to intercept a group long before it could be visually sighted.


(2-07) Original

Group: An airborne contact may be composed of one or more aircraft.

Guns: Rear-quarter steady state or snap guns firing solution.

H

Hard Turn: Compromise between a maximum rate turn and energy conserving turn (17 units AOA).Typically, the nibble of buffet.

Heads Up: Call indicating that an �enemy got through� or �I am not in position to engage target.�

High Yo-Yo: Offensive maneuver designed to hold or increase range by decreasing closure rate andopening nose to tail in low-to-medium angle off situations.

J

Joker: Fuel state above bingo fuel, which would allow a successful bugout. Call normally transmitted tonotify lead/wingman.

K

Knock It Off: Call made to stop the fight or current maneuvers.

L

Lateral Pitchback: A Defensive maneuver used after a bug or separation maneuver to reengage.Usually started at high airspeeds; the fighter will roll to place the LV on or slightly above the horizon andthen execute a 19-21 unit pull to bleed down to tactical turn rate airspeed while taking away as manyangles as possible while the attacker is outside the bubble.

Lateral Separation: Lateral distance between two aircraft.

Lift Vector: The vector created through the production of lift, perpendicular to the wingplane.

Line of Sight (LOS): Relative bearing to the bandit from the fighter�s aircraft, with zero degrees beingthe fighter�s nose.

Loose Deuce: Navy tactical doctrine for employment of a section of aircraft against a single banditaircraft now referred to as Section Engaged Maneuvering.

Low Yo-Yo: An offensive maneuver designed to decrease range and angles by increasing closure rate,typically through the use of out-of-plane maneuvering.

Lufbery: Horizontal or slightly oblique stalemate-type engagement where both aircraft are across thecircle from each other, turning in the same direction at a low-energy state.


(2-07) Original

M

Merge Plot: Radar tracks involved in an engagement have come together and cannot be distinguishedfrom each other; occurs in the transition from BVR to the visual arena.

N

No Joy: Call made meaning �I do not see the bandit/bogey.�

Nose-To-Tail: Reference to the distance between the nose of an attacker and the tail of the defender. Itis used synonymously with range.

O

One Circle Flow: An engagement between two aircraft that are turning nose-to-nose, through oppositeAOB. This fight is referred to as a �Radius Fight� since the aircraft with the smallest turn radius is likely toachieve the advantage.

Overshoots: Flight path-Occurs anytime the offensive aircraft flies through the defensive aircraft�sflight path at or aft of the defensive aircraft�s 3/9 line.

3/9 Line-Occurs anytime the attacker flies from aft of the defender�s 3/9 line to in front ofthe defender�s 3/9 line (i.e., flushing out in front).

Out-of-plane Maneuvering (OOP): Anytime your aircraft is maneuvering out of the plane of motion withrespect to your opponent�s plane of motion (> 45 degrees).

P

Padlocked: Call meaning that �I have a tally and cannot take my eyes off the bandit or I will lose contactdue to visibility/range, etc.�

Parrot: The IFF/SIF equipment. �Strangle your Parrot� means turn off your IFF.

Pigeons: Magnetic bearing and distance of home base (or unit indicated).

Plane of Motion (Plane of Turn): The flat plane of the turning circle. An aircraft�s plane of motion isgenerally determined by assessing nose attitude and lift vector placement or more simply put, the two-dimensional plane the aircraft is currently scribing.

Popeye: Call made to indicate that an aircraft is �in the clouds or area of reduced visibility.�

Positional advantage: A combination of angular advantage (i.e., less than 180-degrees of turn) to youropponent�s flight path on the same heading with 3/9 line advantage and/or lateral turning room.

Post: The center of an aircraft�s turn circle. The post is often useful in determining the pursuit curve.


(2-07) Original

Pursuit Curves: Pursuit curves are based on the nose position when in the adversary�s POM and theLV placement when not in the adversary�s POM.

Lead � pointing in front of the adversary

Pure � pointing at the adversary

Lag � pointing behind the adversary

R

Radius Fight: See One-circle flow.

Range: Linear distance between two aircraft stated in nm or feet.

Rate Fight: See Two-circle flow.

ROE: Rules of Engagement. This term is used to ensure we have deconflicted flight paths when twoaircraft are converging. e.g., �Hawk 1, High/Low/Left/Right.�

Rolling Scissors: Maneuver used to counter a barrel roll attack or when a fighter does not have theairspeed or altitude to go pure vertical.

S

State: Fuel remaining.

Shackle: Turn made to redress the section by crossing one member to other side, thus reassumingproper combat spread position.

Shooter: As applied to section forward-quarter tactics, the fighter pulling for a shot as his wingman(eyeball) passes close aboard and visually identifies (VIDs) the bandit.

Situational Awareness (SA): Cognizance of all factors in a tactical arena that affect mission success.

Skip It: Call made to indicate, �Do not attack� or the �Cease attack/intercept.�

Slice Turn: A hard turn with minimal energy/speed bleedoff performed by rolling to place the lift vectorbelow the horizon at some oblique angle and applying g.

Snap Shot Drill: Exercise designed to develop the skill of maneuvering into a snap guns solution andfiring on a bandit.

Snap Guns: A non-tracking guns solution with 60-90 degrees AOT and a range of 1,000 ft to ½ mile.

Snap Lock: A GCI call indicating a bearing, range and altitude to a target at short range.


(2-07) Original

Speed and Angels: A call made prior to a ACM engagement to signify that the aircraft is in parametersto start the maneuver and that all aircraft are in sight. This call will be made only when the aircraft iswithin the following parameters for the engagement:

+/- 200 ft altitude

+/- .1 miles

+/- 10 kts

+/- half a clock code

Steady: Call meaning �I am on prescribed heading.�

Steer: Call meaning to �Fly heading indicated.�

T

TAC (Tactical) Lead: Member of the flight having the best SA and is directing the section�s maneuvers.However, not always the Admin lead.

Tally: Call meaning �A bandit/bogey visually sighted.�

Three/Nine Line (3/9 Line): A line drawn through the aircraft, perpendicular to the longitudinal axisthrough the Aerodynamic Center which determines whether an opponent is in front of, or behind thataircraft.

Track Crossing Angle (TCA): Angular difference in velocity vectors at any instant. (See also �AngleOff� for distinction.)

Track Crossing Rate: The speed at which the opposing aircraft appears to move across the fighter�scanopy.

Turn Circle: The circle scribed by an aircraft�s turn as it moves through the sky. The radius of this turncircle is constantly changing depending upon the �G� and velocity of the aircraft. We will generallydiscuss at turn circle based on a generalized maximum performance turn as having a 3,000-ft radius or6,000-ft diameter.

Turning Room: Any separation that exists between two aircraft.

Two-Circle Flow: An engagement between two aircraft that are turning nose-to-tail through the samedirection of turn. This is referred to as a Rate Fight because the aircraft with the faster rateof turn is likely to achieve the advantage.

V

Vector (DEG): Call meaning �Alter heading to magnetic heading indicated.�

Visual: Call meaning �Wingman is in sight.�


(2-07) Original

FIGURE 62: SYMBOLOGY

SYMBOLOGY

You will see and use the following symbols in diagramming an ACM engagement.


(2-07) Original

AACM strategies ........................................ 149Admin Lead ..................................... 124, 147Anchored ......................................... 115, 147Angels ...................... 41, 44, 49, 51, 70, 73

74, 92, 100-101, 153Angle Off ...................... 23, 24, 29, 32, 147AOB ..................................... 35, 73, 74, 147Arcing Turn (Arc) ..................................... 147Aspect .......................... 19, 23, 27, 93, 147Atoll .......................................................... 147Attack Window ............. 27, 49, 52, 57, 147

BBandit .................... 2, 14, 17, 20-22, 27-28

30, 31, 33-35, 37-41, 4448, 52-55, 57, 61, 63-66 75, 79-80, 82-87, 90-95

97-106, 113, 115, 117121, 123, 125, 127-129

131, 147Barrel Roll Attack: BRA ...... 36, 48, 65, 147Belly Check .............................................. 147Beyond Visual Range (BVR) ........ 1, 92, 123

147Blind ....................... 20, 52, 69, 93, 99, 103

106, 121, 129, 147Bogey .............................................. 121, 147Bracketing ....................................... 117, 147Break Turn ....................... 9, 17, 18, 29, 50

57, 75-76, 147Bubble .......................... 20, 24, 26, 49, 148Bug Out: Bugout ........ 47, 53, 64, 112, 148Buster ................................................ 99, 148

CCheck Left/Right (Degrees) .................... 148Combat Air Patrol Station (CAP) ............. 148Contact .............................................. 95, 148Control Point ................ 16, 26, 50, 84, 148Control Zone ................... 17, 23, 28, 50, 60

69, 104, 148Corner(ing) Airspeed 148Counterflow ............. 97, 103, 113, 115, 118

121, 128, 131, 148

DDaisy Chain ........................... 116, 125, 148Degrees to Go .................................. 32, 148Disengagement ......................... 38, 53, 112Displacement Roll .............................. 2, 148

EEgg ............................................. 13, 37, 148Energy Management .......................... 77, 83Energy Package ........................ 33, 61, 148Engaged Fighter ......... 97-99, 103-104, 115

118, 121, 148Engaging Turn ......................................... 149Engaging Turns ....................................... 149Extension .......... 14, 66, 77, 104, 128, 149Eyeball .................. 19, 66-67, 70, 117, 149

FFeet Dry ................................................... 149Feet Wet .................................................. 149Flat Scissors ...........33-36, 39, 46, 63, 149Flight Path ........... 15, 20, 35, 98, 106, 149Flow ............................ 46-47, 79, 80, 82-83

97, 105, 149Force Mix .......................................... 94, 149FOX-1 ....................................................... 149FOX-2 ................................................ 25, 149Free Fighter ........................ 97-99, 103, 104

106, 118, 149

GGate ......................................................... 149Ground Control Intercept (GCI) ..... 123, 149Group ....................................................... 150Guns ................................ 21, 29, 42, 54, 68

70, 131, 150

HHard Turn ............ 12, 40, 49, 75, 113, 150Heads Up ........................................ 126, 150High Yo-Yo .......................................... 2, 150Horizontal Scissors ............ 21, 34, 39, 131

JJoker ........................................ 90, 110, 150

INDEX


(2-07) Original

KKnock It Off ................ 40, 45, 97, 129, 150Knock it Off .............................................. 129

LLateral Pitchback ..................................... 150Lateral Separation ..... 63, 67, 83, 107, 150Lift Vector ....................... 13, 17, 49, 61, 63

68, 77, 150Line of Sight (LOS) .................................. 150Loose Deuce ..................................... 50, 150Low Yo-Yo .................................. 28, 50, 150Lufbery ...................................... 85, 113, 150

MMerge Plot ............................................... 151Multi-switch ..................... 96, 103, 105, 110

NNo Joy ............................. 20, 106, 123, 151

OOne Circle Flow ....... 46, 52, 101, 116, 151One-Circle Fight ............ 17, 31, 35, 80, 97Out-of-plane Maneuvering (OOP) .......... 151Overshoots ......................... 16, 36, 77, 151

PPadlocked ................................................ 151Parrot ....................................................... 151Performance Characteristics ............... 5, 80Pigeons .................................................... 151Plane of Motion (Plane of Turn) .............. 151Popeye ..................................................... 151Position advantage ............................. 79, 83Positional advantage ..... 6, 17, 33, 34, 151Post .............................. 27, 30, 32, 52, 151Pursuit Curves ........................... 24, 56, 152

RRadius Fight ............................ 33, 34, 83-84

87, 97, 152Range ........................ 19, 21, 23, 39, 44-45

47, 57, 152Rate Fight ........................... 30, 58, 97, 152ROE .................... 33, 35, 45, 47, 123, 152Rolling Scissors ...................... 35-37, 48, 50....................................................... 65, 73, 152

SShackle ............................................. 43, 152Shooter ........ 42, 44-45, 91, 118, 129, 152Single-Switch ........................... 101-103, 104Situational Awareness (SA) ... 1, 21, 92, 98

105, 117, 131, 152Skip It ......................................... 45, 71, 152Slice Turn ................................. 39, 126, 152Snap Lock ................................................ 152Snap Shot Drill .................................. 42, 152Speed and Angels ........ 41, 43, 70, 92, 153State .................................................. 21, 152Steady ...................................................... 153Symbology ......................................... 44, 154

TTAC (Tactical) Lead ................................. 153Tally ............................. 20, 79, 93, 100, 116

123, 126, 129, 153Three/Nine Line (or 3/9 Line) ............. 15, 16, 17, 34, 153Total Energy ................................................. 6Track Crossing Angle (TCA) ........... 153�154Track Crossing Rate ... 17, 27, 42, 46, 153Turn Circle ................... 24, 26, 28, 32, 153Turning Room ................ 17, 33, 37, 54, 62

72, 80, 84, 153Two-Circle Fight ................... 31, 33, 74, 84

89, 97, 99Two-Circle Flow ........... 52, 81-83, 121, 153

VVertical Maneuvering ................................. 13Visual ......................... 19, 49, 92, 100, 119

122-124, 129, 153

t45 acm

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