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THE PARADOX OF
SUSTAINABLE FASHION
BRANDS – A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW
2020.18.01
Thesis for One-Year Master, 15 ECTS
Textile Management
Busshaus Ulrike Zillich Vanessa
I
Title: The Paradox of Sustainable Fashion Brands – A systematic literature review
Publication year: 2020
Author: Vanessa Zillich, Ulrike Busshaus
Supervisor: Vijay Kumar
Abstract _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Background: The current fashion industry is characterised by its fast-moving nature. Its
change over the past decades from two to numerous collections per year has contributed to a
take-make-dispose society. This largely contributes to environmental and social sustainability
issues as well as the use of non-renewable materials waste. Simultaneously, it is one of the
largest employers worldwide. Due to the global dispersion of supply chains actors, sustainable
fashion brands need to tackle country specific regulations and overall differences in conceptions
of e.g. sustainability. Sustainable fashion brands find themselves in numerous conflicts such as
profit and growth versus environmental and social sustainability, trendiness versus
consciousness, or linear business models versus circular business models.
Purpose: This thesis provides a systematic literature review of a selection among peer-
reviewed articles on sustainable fashion brands. The main focus is on the paradox of sustainable
fashion brands in academic research. This study aims at gaining a basis for research in the
perspective of sustainable retail brands to explore manners in which they can deal with the
paradox between being financially viable and acting sustainably.
Method: To support the objective of this study, the articles selected for data analysis were
collected by using a systematic literature review as research and analytical method. Within the
thesis, a narrative analysis was applied to examine the chosen articles.
Results: The results gathered through the systematic review show a significant influence on
sustainable fashion brands from two major stakeholders: supplier and consumer. Especially the
consumers are regarded as most influential since their demand determines whether sustainable
fashion is being adopted more widely into the market. Currently consumers lack knowledge of
environmental and social concerns related with fashion. Simultaneously, the suppliers lack
understanding of such concerns due to cultural and economic differences. Therefore, retailers
should educate both consumers and suppliers on relevant issues. This can further enhance
transparency which in turn generates more trust between all parties. Moreover, innovative
business models can help tackle consumption related sustainability issues in that they offer the
extended use of clothing.
Conclusion: Sustainable fashion brands have to handle several conflicts related to their
market position and existence. In order to create sustainable fashion offerings, they require
viable financial means. Economic growth as it is known today contradicts the sustainability of
the environment and society. Sustainable fashion brands need to find a proper balance between
the two as it is the only way to tackle this paradox. In addition, there is a significant gap in the
research on economic sustainability in relation to sustainable fashion brands.
Keywords: Sustainable fashion brand, Paradox, Sustainability, Retail perspective
II
Acknowledgement
This Master thesis has been written to fulfil the graduation requirements of the Master ‘Textile
Management’ at the Swedish School of Textiles. From April 2020 until June 2020 we were
engaged in researching and writing this thesis.
We would first and foremost like to thank our thesis supervisor Vijay Kumar of the Swedish
School of Textiles at University of Borås. Whenever we ran into a trouble spot or had a question
about our research or writing he was there to support us with constructive feedback, excellent
guidance and advice. We would also like to thank our seminar partner Tatjana Sophie Gehrold
who throughout the process of writing continuously provided us with helpful comments.
Furthermore, we would like to thank our families and friends for supporting us spiritually.
Without the effort of these people, the outcome of this thesis would not have been the same.
Vanessa Zillich & Ulrike Busshaus, Borås, 5th June 2020
III
Table of contents
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ - 1 -
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................ - 1 -
1.2 Problem statement .............................................................................................................. - 3 -
1.3 Purpose and research question ........................................................................................... - 4 -
1.4 Delimitation ....................................................................................................................... - 4 -
1.5 Thesis outline ..................................................................................................................... - 5 -
2 Frame of reference .............................................................................................................. - 6 -
2.1 The fashion industry and its characteristics ....................................................................... - 6 -
2.2 Sustainability in the fashion industry ................................................................................. - 6 -
2.2.1 General definition of Sustainability ............................................................................... - 6 -
2.2.2 Sustainability issues in terms of the fashion industry .................................................... - 7 -
2.3 Sustainable fashion brands ................................................................................................. - 9 -
2.3.1 The consumer’s behaviour in relation to fashion ......................................................... - 10 -
2.3.2 Corporate social responsibility in the fashion industry ............................................... - 11 -
2.3.3 Innovative business models to tackle sustainability issues in the fashion industry ..... - 11 -
3 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... - 13 -
3.1 Research Design ............................................................................................................... - 13 -
3.2 Research Method ............................................................................................................. - 13 -
3.3 Selection and Justification of Research............................................................................ - 14 -
3.4 Data Collection ................................................................................................................ - 14 -
3.5 Data Evaluation ................................................................................................................ - 16 -
3.6 Research Quality .............................................................................................................. - 17 -
4 Results .............................................................................................................................. - 18 -
4.1 General overview of publications .................................................................................... - 18 -
4.2 The relation between fashion brands and suppliers ......................................................... - 20 -
4.2.1 Environmental issues connected to suppliers .............................................................. - 21 -
4.2.2 The connection between CSR and supplier ................................................................. - 21 -
4.2.3 Measures for sustainable fashion brands and their suppliers regarding CSR .............. - 22 -
4.3 The consumer influence on sustainable fashion brands ................................................... - 23 -
4.3.1 Internal barriers ............................................................................................................ - 24 -
4.3.2 External barriers .......................................................................................................... - 25 -
4.3.3 Sustainability-minded consumers ................................................................................ - 25 -
4.3.4 Approaches to more consumer engagement ................................................................ - 26 -
IV
4.4 Innovative business models and their potential to lower consumption ............................ - 27 -
4.4.1 Product-service systems .............................................................................................. - 27 -
4.4.2 Challenges and drivers in the implementation of innovative business models ........... - 29 -
5 Analysis ............................................................................................................................ - 30 -
5.1 Question 1 ........................................................................................................................ - 30 -
5.2 Question 2 ........................................................................................................................ - 32 -
5.3 Main research question .................................................................................................... - 33 -
6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ - 36 -
6.1 Theoretical implications ................................................................................................... - 37 -
6.2 Practical implications ....................................................................................................... - 37 -
6.3 Limitations and potential future research ......................................................................... - 38 -
References ................................................................................................................................. - 39 -
Appendix I ................................................................................................................................. - 48 -
Appendix II ............................................................................................................................... - 49 -
V
List of Figures
Figure 1: Venn diagram of Sustainability. ............................................................................ - 7 -
Figure 2: Search Process ..................................................................................................... - 16 -
Figure 3: Overview of the research articles by country. ..................................................... - 18 -
Figure 4: Distribution of the research articles between 1998 – 2020 .................................. - 19 -
Figure 5: Overview of the research articles published by journal. ...................................... - 19 -
List of Tables
Table 1: Keyword Search. ................................................................................................... - 15 -
Table 2: Search Limitations. ............................................................................................... - 15 -
Table 3: Content Analysis Results of Topics of Research Articles. ................................... - 20 -
- 1 -
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
In modern times, the consumption of clothing has become the leisure activity of many people.
Digital media, advertising and magazines further fuel the shopping frenzy and suppress the dark
sides of the fashion industry. Additionally, the oversupply of clothing is visible in the mass of
fashion campaigns that reflect the desired life and appeal to consumers. In Germany alone,
almost 78 billion Euros were spent on clothing and shoes in 2018 (Statista 2020). Especially
fast fashion is a successful business model which for many companies has proven to be a source
for significant growth. Companies that utilise this model manage to shorten production cycles
and enable consumers to expand and rapidly change out their wardrobe (Remy et al. 2016). The
consequence of such brands, offering inexpensive apparel collections based on current trends
from the luxury segment, is clothing that loses its value and ultimately becomes disposable
(Fletcher 2010). The number of clothing items acquired per capita have increased worldwide
by 60 percent between the years 2000 and 2014 while clothing production doubled within the
same period of time (Remy et al. 2016). Jørgensen and Jensen (2012) have found that especially
young women are influenced by the fast-changing fashion and low-price strategies of
companies and at the same time are driven by the need to meet the expectations of friends and
colleagues by always being up-to-date with fashion. The increase of cheap clothes, which are
oftentimes produced in Asia, has a vast contribution to unsustainable consumption behaviours
(Niinimäki 2010). Considering almost all apparel categories, consumers nowadays only keep
their apparel items half as long as they used to 15 years back and view their most inexpensive
items as disposable, discarding them after a few wears (Remy et al. 2016).
Closely related to the growing consumption, is globalisation, which is “the increase of trade
around the world, especially by large companies producing and trading goods in many different
countries” (Cambridge University Press 2020). In particular, the textile and clothing industry is
one of the most globalised industries in the world. As a result of increasing competition,
companies are outsourcing their entire manufacturing process and become dependent on
companies and their economies around the world (Ha-Brookshire and Jung 2017). The main
reasons for strong competition are cost savings through cheap labour, and the speed with which
new goods can be delivered (Fletcher 2014; Ha-Brookshire and Jung 2017; Shelton and
Wachter 2005; Cho and Kang 2001). The consequence of the outsourcing of manufacturing
processes is higher environmental impacts through e.g. transportation (Borghesi and Vercelli
2003). The fashion industry causes a high environmental impact through its intense use of
chemicals and raw material resources throughout its production processes including dyeing,
finishing and drying (DeBrito et al. 2008). The impact of both, cotton and wool fibre
production, require significant amounts of pesticides and water (Fletcher 2014). In comparison,
the generation of the single most utilised fibre group polyester requires the extraction of non-
renewable resources. The environmental impact of clothing however does not end after the
manufacturing and transport. Most items have a much greater effect on the environment in their
use-phase through washing, drying and ironing (Black 2011), e.g. 60% of the energy use of a
cotton t-shirt is linked to post-purchase washing and drying practices (Allwood et al. 2006).
Another major contributor to environmental pollution with a total impact of 3.2 million tons
per year is the release of microplastics into the ecosystem with 34.8% derived from the laundry
of synthetic fibres. Due to their microscopic size, these cannot be prevented from entering
bodies of water by wastewater treatment plants and are already existent in the environment, in
animals, the seabed as well as food (Consortium, 2017).
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Further, while brands rely on their economic growth, they concurrently rely on the use of the
earth’s limited resources. Even though economic growth involves numerous benefits such as
expanding and profiting businesses and nations, an increase in employed people, a better
standard of living and resources, it can also have significant effects on future generations as
earth’s limits are not considered. Thus, economic growth as it is known today contradicts the
sustainability of the environment and the only way to tackle this paradox is to find a proper
balance between the two. Nevertheless, as consumers are the main driving force for economic
growth with their increasing demands and constant search for materialistic solutions, bigger
societal movements are required to deal with consequential issues (Higgins 2013).
This shows that textiles are strongly linked to environmental, social and economic concerns. In
order to promote sustainable development, some efforts have been made in the past by
companies towards social improvement in the textile industry (European Commission 2013).
The beginning of sustainable development can be traced back more than 20 years; for instance,
in the 1990s NGO campaigns were launched to draw attention to abuses in the supply chain of
well-known and popular fashion brands such as Nike and Gap. These and other actions may
have been the starting point for the introduction of codes of conduct including the requirements
of minimum levels of workers' rights. But even with these strict codes and independent policing,
a lot of the workers still do not receive the legal minimum wages (Fletcher 2014).
One of the biggest tragic misfortunes in the textile industry, the collapse of the Rana Plaza
clothing factory in Bangladesh in 2013, in which thousands of workers lost their lives,
contributed to the enormous increase in interest in sustainable and ethical fashion. Many
retailers have subsequently taken steps to ensure that the consumer-demanded initiatives, such
as the Bangladesh Fire and Building Protection Agreement1, were enforced (Reinecke and
Donaghey 2015) even so, mainly the production conditions (social aspects) were taken into
account but no environmental aspects (Lohmeyer et al. 2018). However, the catastrophe
brought the attention of customers and NGOs to the environmental impact of the fashion
industry. As a result, companies were also forced to deal with the issue of sustainability which
interconnects the economic, social and environmental aspects through the entire supply chain.
Especially since this time, many companies, stakeholders and regulatory authorities have
considered the great value of sustainability and ethics (Khan 2016). Even long-existing retail
brands are gradually becoming aware of their impact on the environment and society with cheap
clothing production and materials (Westervelt 2015). In recent years it has become apparent
that the industry confesses to these issues. The need to change from fast fashion business models
to more sustainable practices has been acknowledged by companies and all levels of governance
(national, regional, global) (United Nations Climate Change 2018). Even fashion brands that
have made sustainability part of their corporate culture from the very beginning are now
receiving more attention due to the increased awareness of consumers. Sustainable fashion
brands stand for environmentally and socially fair products and thus make a valuable
contribution to sustainable consumption. The brands place value on timeless cuts and neat
workmanship to make the clothes durable. Besides traditional craftsmanship, attention is also
paid to the latest technologies for the production of sustainable clothing (Grose and Fletcher
2012). But yet again, the driving force that companies rely on are the consumers. These want
1 “The Accord is an independent, legally binding agreement between brands and trade unions to work towards a
safe and healthy garment and textile industry in Bangladesh. The Accord covers factories producing Ready-Made
Garments (RMG) and at the option of signatory companies, home textiles and fabric & knit accessories.” (Accord
on Fire and Building Safety In Bangladesh 2018).
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to distinguish themselves from their peers and compensate this need with new looks, enabled
through clothing (Simmel 1904).
On the one hand, buying sustainable fashion is better than non-sustainable fashion produced in
poor working conditions and using low-quality materials. On the other hand, it supports further
consumption and, as previously stated, the unconscious buying behaviour of society (Black
2011). Furthermore, the rise in demand for more transparency and sustainable practices
contradicts the consumers growing demand for more clothing items (Lewittes 2019). The
problem of selling sustainable fashion but at the same time acting in a completely sustainable
way is not easy to solve, because economic, environmental and social goals should equally be
fulfilled (Black 2011).
All in all, sustainable fashion in moderation can be seen as a good practice to tackle
environmental, economic, and social issues. To have an impact it needs to be adopted more
widely which in turn contributes to the exploitation of social and environmental resources.
1.2 Problem statement
In the past years a lot of research has been conducted in the field of answering the question
whether fashion can ever be sustainable (e.g. McNeill and Moore 2015; Fletcher 2014; Bly et
al. 2015; Black 2011; Niinimäki 2010). By definition sustainable fashion equates the slow
consumption of clothing items produced and marketed taking social and environmental aspects
into consideration (Fletcher 2014). This contradicts the fast-moving fashion cycle. De Brito et
al. (2008) presented the view of stakeholders in the textile industry and emphasised that the
match between sustainability and economic growth is still a main concern. The influence of
stakeholders has an enormous contribution and is dependent on their attitude towards
sustainability practices.
Furthermore, the selected business model of the company is of concern. For instance, if a shift
of value from product to service is realised, then a leasing business model, in which products
can be rented for a limited amount of time, can lead to positive economic and environmental
impacts through an extended use phase. At the same time, one must highlight the difficulty to
equally involve all three aspects of sustainability in one business model due to the textile
industry’s complexity. But even though the companies are potentially ready to implement
sustainability in their organisations, the implementation is linked to challenges such as the
adoption of the performance paradigm by multiple supply chain actors (DeBrito 2007).
While there has been a number of researches in the shift of fast fashion to more sustainable
practices and the related sustainable supply chain challenges, the researchers’ focus is based on
the perspective of the lead-firm of the supply chain. So far, this field is rather unexplored
(Todeschini et al. 2017). Furthermore, there are several researches conducted in the area of
consumer influence and decision-making in relation to sustainable fashion (e.g. Joy et al. 2012;
Mora et al. 2014). It is obvious that the consumer plays an essential role to these companies
(McNeill and Moore 2015; Bly et al. 2015), in that they fuel the market potential through their
demands for differentiation by acquiring materialistic items driving economic growth. The
resource scarcity, pollution and the imbalance of social standards of every actor in the supply
chain need to be considered, while profitability and growth are still elementary business
objectives but should be weighted less (Higgins 2013). Companies have to face the complex
issues of corporate sustainability (Hahn et al. 2014) which is the ability of a company to balance
social, environmental and economic goals (Kok et al. 2017). But the compatibility between
sustainability and economic growth of sustainable businesses is still insufficiently explored and
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seen as one of the central concerns in the sustainability literature (Hahn et al. 2014; DeBrito et
al. 2008). Therefore, it is meaningful to understand the current scientific knowledge on
sustainable fashion brands and their handling of being sustainable while simultaneously relying
on growth and profitability.
1.3 Purpose and research question
As described above only limited research has explored the paradox of companies striving to be
sustainable while growing and making profit. This thesis aims to evaluate the current state of
literature in the actions of sustainable fashion companies and identify relevant research
direction for future improvements in this area. While analysing the selected literature the focus
is on the retailer perspective.
To reach the stated purpose the following question will be answered:
How can sustainable fashion brands deal with the paradox of acting sustainably while at the
same time taking profits and growth?
To be able to reply to the main thesis question, two sub-questions were created:
Q1: What are the root causes for the paradox present to sustainable fashion brands?
Q2: What are challenges and motivations for sustainable fashion brands?
1.4 Delimitation
This section entails the delimitation of the thesis. The study is delimited to research the conflict
of sustainable fashion brands and their pursuit to acting in a sustainable manner but yet making
profit and surviving with economic pressure. The term sustainable fashion emerged from the
slow fashion movement, which advanced over the past decades. It can be interchanged with
green-, eco- and ethical-fashion (Carey and Cervellon 2014). Further, it is connected to the use
of organic materials and those that are harmless for the environment (Johnston 2012),
traceability and certifications (Henninger 2015) as well as fair working conditions and a
sustainable business model (Joergens 2006). In contrast to sustainable fashion, trying to slow
down production to manageable timeframes, the fast fashion model that is omnipresent in
today’s fashion system, tries to shorten lead times on production and distribution and aims at
offering new products to the market at high speed (Choi 2014). In other words, the current
fashion system has become synonymous with fast fashion, with designs quickly being replaced,
designed for short lifespans, high turnover and mass production (Fletcher 2014). Considering
this contrast between sustainable and fast fashion, the researchers decided to solely focus on
articles which concentrate on sustainable fashion companies, leaving out fast fashion related
content. Furthermore, topics that cover the luxury sector and the implementation of
sustainability into already existing businesses were not considered. As previously mentioned,
many research articles address the shift from fast fashion models to more sustainable business
approaches. However, the researchers were not trying to investigate this development, but
rather the state of businesses that were currently established sustainable fashion brands.
Moreover, as the focus is on the retailer’s perspective and its challenges in dealing with the
conflicts involved in sustainable fashion practices, issues related to the implementation of
sustainability with case studies from the supplier’s side were eliminated to narrow down the
range of relevance.
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1.5 Thesis outline
This research is divided in six chapters. For an easier navigation through the thesis the outline
is presented as follows:
In chapter 1: ‘Introduction’, the purpose and background of this study, as well as the problem
statement, are presented. Furthermore, the research questions and the delimitations of this thesis
are given.
In the second chapter: ‘Frame of Reference’ the key concepts of the study are explained to gain
uniform interpretation for both reader and writer. By dividing it into three sub-themes, the
characteristics of the fashion industry, sustainability in the fashion industry and sustainable
fashion brands were explained in more detail.
Chapter 3: ‘Methodology’ includes the methodology of the conducted research to show how
this research was carried out. It addresses the research design, research method, the justification
of the research, data collection, and data evaluation. In this way, the necessary data were
collected.
Thereafter, in chapter 4: ‘Results’, an overview of the publication initiates the chapter.
Furthermore, the presentation of the gathered data which were collected through a systematic
review of current studies of sustainable fashion brands are presented and segmented into three
emerging categories: supplier relation, consumer influence and business models.
In chapter 5: ‘Analysis’, the findings of the previous chapter are put into relation with the
‘Frame of Reference’ to answer the stated research questions.
The overall outcome and main conclusions of this research are stated in chapter 6: ‘Conclusion’.
Further, practical implication and potential research areas are presented.
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2 Frame of reference
In order to get a general, equal understanding, the following section displays relevant concepts
which were explained to depict the researchers’ assumptions throughout the thesis.
2.1 The fashion industry and its characteristics Fashion is often taken for granted. From a necessity it became a status symbol. In the past,
people used to look at the functionality of fashion, either as protection from environmental
influences such as weather circumstances or as protection from injury (Steele 2005). Nowadays
it is defined as "the cultural construction of the embodied identity" (Steele 1997, p. 1). Put it
simply, fashion is the style of clothing worn by a group of people, most of whom are culturally,
religiously, traditionally or otherwise connected such with values or views. It is used as a
communication tool in society and reflects the individual (Barnard 2013). The industry behind
fashion has developed mainly in Europe and America. It has grown enormously and is
constantly increasing in complexity. For instance, it is not unusual that clothes are designed in
one country, produced in another and sold in a third country (Burns et al. 2011). Due to
worldwide economic differences, many fashion companies have largely shifted their production
from industrialised to low-wage countries abroad. This creates an even more complex supply
chain with a strong geographical spread that does not exist in any other industry. Globality is a
concise character of the fashion industry (Fletcher 2014). The industry is driven by trends set
by consumers and with the rapidly changing demands, speed is another important feature of the
industry. Customers usually want the product immediately and are not willing to wait a long
amount of time for it. In most cases, the time it takes to manufacture and transport a product is
longer than the time a customer is willing to wait. By responsiveness and effective cooperation
within the supply chain, lead times can be shortened and thus satisfy the consumer demands
(Čiarniene and Vienazindiene 2014). Furthermore, the industry thrives on the ever-changing
trend or in other words the ‘fashion cycle’, which is explained in Georg Simmel's words that
“[…] fashion represents nothing more than one of the many forms of life by the aid of which we
seek to combine in uniform spheres of activity the tendency towards social equalization with
the desire for individual differentiation and change." (Simmel 1904, p.133). The fashion cycle
thus can be defined as a collective process of constant change, in which specific styles
experience a brief popularity only to be interchanged by others. This cycle is fuelled by two
contradicting desires of people to conform and differentiate (Matsuyama 1992). Due to the
permanent attempt of differentiation, favoured by digitalisation (e. g. influencers), trends often
have a short life cycle of only a few weeks. In summary, the most striking attributes of the
fashion industry are velocity, variety, volatility, complexity, dynamic and consumer
dependency (Čiarniene and Vienazindiene 2014).
2.2 Sustainability in the fashion industry
2.2.1 General definition of Sustainability
Sustainability means satisfying the needs of the present without compromising future needs.
Besides natural resources, the concept also refers to social and economic resources. Thus,
sustainability does not only concern environmental protection but also emphasises
responsibility for social justice and economic development.
The origin of the definition comes from the Brundtland Report of 1987, which states:
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“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two
key concepts:
the concept of 'needs', in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which
overriding priority should be given; and
the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on
the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.” (United Nations 1987,
p.41)
The report was produced after decades of efforts to raise the standard of living in many
countries. Industrialisation was intended to combat extreme poverty. It seemed that economic
development at the expense of environmental health and social justice would not lead to lasting
prosperity. In the report "Our Common Future", headed by Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland,
then Prime Minister of Norway and Head of the World Commission on Environment and
Development, the above definition of sustainable development is given. A particular emphasis
in this definition is on the long term and the introduction of ethical principles to achieve justice
between present and future generations (Diesendorf 2000) and simultaneously harmonising the
environmental protection with social and economic concerns. Therefore, sustainable
development is the pathway towards achieving sustainability. In other words, sustainability is
a holistic approach that takes into account environmental, social and economic dimensions and
recognises that all must be considered together to achieve lasting prosperity. The following
Venn diagram (Figure 1) depicts the dimensions and their set intersections (environmental,
social, economic) of sustainability.
Figure 1: Venn diagram of Sustainability.
2.2.2 Sustainability issues in terms of the fashion industry
The unvarnished truth about fashion is that it is a polluting and resource-intensive industry but
it is simultaneously an important sector in the global economy as it provides employment for
hundreds of million people worldwide (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017). However, there is
an unrestrained demand for new products, which is induced by fashion trends created by
retailers and in turn is carried out at the expense of the environment and workers, to drive
economic growth. Nevertheless, a lot of fashion companies have to struggle to make profit
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while producing in Europe due to the high costs. Therefore, production is often moved to
cheaper production countries in order to remain competitive (DeBrito et al. 2007). This
emphasises the significance of economic impacts on sustainability.
Economic sustainability aims at achieving long-term economic growth and tries to utilise
resources responsibly that support stable advantages and establish profitability. In addition, it
incorporates the avoidance of harming social, environmental as well as cultural aspects (Doane
and MacGillivray 2001; Reddy and Thompson 2015; Gopalakrishnan and Karthik n.d.). At the
same time economic sustainability can be viewed as conflicting since businesses oftentimes
focus on internal economic concerns compared to external factors due to the complexity of the
economy. Doane and MacGillivray (2001) argue “if organisations or countries understood
perfectly well what it meant to be economically sustainable, there would be full employment,
less poverty and no bankruptcies.” (p. 18).
Conventionally economic growth is striven for in such a manner that it weakens sustainability.
Simultaneously, sustainability is conventionally striven for in ways that undermine economic
growth (Greyson 2006). As previously stated in Chapter 1, economic growth contributes to an
increase in wealth, income, the overall standard of living and upgraded healthcare resources. In
addition to having numerous upsides, it largely contributes to the issues arising in the
environment such as an overexploitation of natural resources and the increased accumulation
of carbon emissions in the atmosphere (United Nations 1987). The more rapid the growth and
thus consumption of materials, the more waste is compiled and the more likely environmental
degradation and exhaustion become. Considering that the resource base is finite, economic
activity and thus growth is at risk. Nevertheless, economic growth and taking profit are
necessary to a certain extent for people to deal with issues other than the pure need to survive.
Therefore, developed nations can more easily handle and target concerns surrounding
environmental and social sustainability (Bascom 2016).
According to McKinsey (2017), the industry has grown as fast as the turnover of products, i.e.
the fast fashion cycles have increased and therefore there are more collections and even cheaper
prices (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017). This puts more pressure on suppliers, as they are
supposed to achieve within a shorter timeframe for less financial returns (McKinsey 2017). The
fashion system is almost completely linear. Usually the production of clothing only happens in
a short amount of time but simultaneously uses large amounts of non-renewable resources
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017). Linked to that the clothing ends up in landfills or is
incinerated, where high CO2 emissions are emitted. For a long time, problems relating to social
standards or environmental guidelines were ignored in the fashion industry to achieve economic
viability (Reuter and Zetterlund 2018). Only after the economy and society noticed that
resources are becoming increasingly scarce the linear business model was scrutinised.
This ‘take-make-dispose' model, or as in this thesis the researcher calls it ‘fast fashion’ model,
has many negative environmental and social impacts. The effects on the environment which
can be attributed to the textile industry are also becoming increasingly clear in one extreme
case. The Aral Sea in Central Asia, once the world’s fourth largest lake, has now almost
disappeared. One huge contributor to this environmental devastation is the vast quantity of
water needed for the cotton production (Whish-Wilson 2002). Another example is the
greenhouse gas emissions from textile production which amount to 1.2 billion tons per year.
That is more than all emissions of international flights and sea ships combined (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation 2017).
The social impact is emphasised through poor working conditions and exploitation especially
in many producing countries (Fletcher 2014). In addition, harmful chemicals are used in
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manufacturing clothes which are dangerous for the workers in the factories on the one hand,
and for the wearer on the other hand. Some substances are washed out during the manufacturing
process and released into the environment, while others are only washed out during the use
phase at the customer's premises. When clothes are washed, microplastic can be released and
end up in the environment. Every year, approximately half a million tons of microplastics
contribute to marine pollution (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017).
With the emergence of many different environmental and social concerns, the textile industry
is now increasingly trying to cover sustainability. Fletcher (2014) describes sustainability in
fashion and textiles as an approach that “[…] fosters ecological integrity, social quality and
human flourishing through products, action, relationships and practices of use” (Fletcher 2014,
p. XVIII).
Concern about sustainability issues in the fashion industry has also led to the increased
formation of initiatives such as the Sustainable Apparel Coalition or the Ethical Fashion Forum.
The United Nations (UN) Alliance for Sustainable Fashion was also officially founded in 2019.
This puts pressure on the fashion industry from the UN to meet the Sustainable Development
Goals (Unece 2018).
2.3 Sustainable fashion brands
Global and local fashion brands often express themselves differently when it comes to
sustainability. Sustainable fashion is mostly associated with terms such as "green" or "eco" but
also more exclusive terms such as "organic", "slow", "ethical" or "recycle" and refers to fashion
production and consumption practices (Evans and Peirson-Smith 2018). In this thesis the
authors use these terms synonymously.
However, there is no universal definition for sustainable fashion and no industry standards are
given (Joergens 2006). Chan and Wong (2012) defined eco-fashion “[…] as the type of clothing
that is designed and manufactured to maximize benefits to people and society while minimizing
adverse environmental impacts.” (Chan and Wong 2012, p. 194). They emphasised that the
materials of eco-fashion are biodegradable or recyclable and there should be a focus on
environmentally responsible production processes. According to Carey and Cervellon (2014),
sustainable fashion is part of the slow fashion movement (referring to the Slow Food
movement). Joergens (2006) interpreted ethical fashion as a new approach of clothing
companies which offer clothing that is fashionable and “[…] incorporate fair trade principles
with sweatshop-free labour conditions while not harming the environment or workers by using
biodegradable and organic cotton” (Joergens 2006, p. 361) or other materials. Pookulangara
and Shephard (2013) highlighted social aspects as well and indicated to the consideration of the
entire supply chain from e.g. the farmer to the consumer. According to Fletcher (2010)
sustainable fashion practices involve small scale production, the application of local materials
to support local markets, the use of traditional handcrafting techniques, season-less collection
designs, long lead times for sufficient time to focus on quality and durability of items and prices
that reflect environmental and social cost.
Consequently, sustainable fashion can be described as fashion that is produced in the most
sustainable manner, i.e. without exploiting or harming the environment and workers, and using
materials that are biodegradable or recyclable. Moreover, the consumer use phase and
behaviour need to be taken into account due to their enormous impact on the environment
(Black 2011).
Notwithstanding companies have to use their resources in an efficient and responsible manner
to ensure consistent production and operational profit. The textile industry is energy and labour
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intensive and thus connected to high costs, inefficient processes and risk of industrial actions.
The often reduced ability to invest in new technology is an additional obstacle for fashion
businesses (Karthik and Gopalakrishnan n.d.). The consideration of all aspects of the life cycle
of their products including production and consumption phases is inevitable for sustainable
fashion companies. Furthermore, they need to encourage their customers to adopt more
sustainable behaviour by consuming more thoughtfully, through the careful use of clothes, but
also by rethinking their washing behaviour and practices (Fletcher 2014).
In addition, it should be noted that sustainable fashion brands also have to deal with the rumour
of green-washing2, as unjustified or exaggerated claims are made that these fashion brands only
pretend to market sustainability and environmental friendliness in order to have a better image.
However, sustainable brands are trying to put their statements and core values into action to
make a difference in the environment and society, not to improve their reputation (Dahl 2010).
Altogether, sustainable fashion can be seen as a holistic concept of brands that are striving to
balance the economic, environmental and societal dimension of their business. In the
researchers’ eyes, these companies reflect their concern for environmental and social issues in
the fashion industry within their core values and business mission and are mainly denoted as
sustainable fashion brands in this thesis.
Through the review of scholarly literature about sustainable fashion brands, the researchers
identified three different areas that were emphasised by research on sustainable fashion brands.
The determined areas are the consumer behaviour in relation to fashion, corporate social
responsibility in the fashion industry and innovative business models to tackle sustainability
issues in the fashion industry. Often, these areas overlap each other and vary in dependency.
2.3.1 The consumer’s behaviour in relation to fashion
In recent years, a new type of consumer has emerged that questions values and seeks new ways
of fashion consumption as environmental influences of the current fashion system are becoming
a larger topic of concern (Niinimäki 2010). While these consumers demand transparency from
companies within the fashion industry, their consumption choices do not reflect their concern
for social and environmental issues. According to research, there is a gap between the
knowledge of environmental and social sustainability concerns and the actual consumption
behaviour of such items (Joergens 2006). Consumption is driven by the consumers wish to
express meanings and create an identity about oneself (Matsuyama 1992). In the case of fashion
and clothing, which is on constant display, this is particularly valid (Berger and Heath 2007).
Unfortunately, the desire to construct an identity and portray oneself as fashionable oftentimes
exceeds the desire to purchase ethically. Even consumers that look for ethical or sustainable
fashion options deal with the desire to change their wardrobe to dispose of items that are no
longer in style after only limited use which in return leads to increased waste (Morgan and
Birtwistle 2009). The awareness of the waste generation in relation to the disposition of textile
still seems rather low (Birtwistle and Moore 2007).
Birtwistle and Moore (2007) believe that this phenomenon exists due to the lack of knowledge
of negative influences of the fashion industry on the environment. Further factors have a larger
influence on the consumer’s purchasing decisions such as value, trends, brand image, and price
(Solomon and Rabolt 2004). Previous studies have shown that fashion consumers consider
buying sustainable fashion but are not willing to make personal sacrifices such as paying a
larger amount (Joergens 2006).
2 “Behaviour or activities that make people believe that a company is doing more to protect the environment than
it really is” (Cambridge University Press 2020).
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The fast fashion industry recognises and utilises the consumers continuous demand for
newness, which is especially successful among young female consumers that are unaware of
ethical circumstances within the production chain (Morgan and Birtwistle 2009).
It is essential that consumers learn to understand the contrast between the inexpensive fast
fashion items that are widely available to them and their profound interest in environmental and
social sustainability concerns in order to generate change (McNeill and Moore 2015).
2.3.2 Corporate social responsibility in the fashion industry
The European Commission define corporate social responsibility (CSR) as “the responsibility
of enterprises for their impact on society” (European Commission 2011). According to
Campbell (2007), firms should not knowingly practice business that potentially harms their
stakeholders, stressing their centrality to CSR. Being identified as a cluster concept, it is also
connected to business ethics, corporate citizenship, sustainability and environmental
responsibility (Matten and Moon 2005). What is essential to all definitions of CSR is that a
company’s actions must go beyond their own immediate interest in profit-maximisation and
past solely following laws and regulations (McWilliams and Siegel 2001). Therefore, before
making business decisions, socially responsible firms take the impact of all stakeholders, that
could be affected by their actions, into account. Further, they should balance the needs of all
stakeholders with their own need to generate profit (Perrini 2006). It is an integral part to several
companies’ customer relationship management programs and can deal as a source of
competitive advantage especially when incorporated at a firm’s core (DiBenedetto 2017).
Companies are facing social and environmental pressures from several stakeholder groups
which explains the overall increase in concern for CSR (Matten and Moon 2005). Social and
environmental stress can, for instance, originate from customers to suppliers (Baden et al.
2009).
The fashion and apparel industry is especially relevant in relation to CSR as it has significant
social and environmental influences and is progressively engaged in such practices. Worldwide,
the industry makes up for 7% of all exports and employs more than 20 million people (Allwood
et al. 2006). Fashion brands oftentimes deal with complex supply chains as suppliers are
distributed worldwide. To tackle ethical and environmental issues, fashion brands adopt CSR
measures including sustainability reporting, auditing initiatives, development of codes of
conduct, adoption of supplier disclosure and transparency practices along the supply chain
(Todeschini et al. 2017).
2.3.3 Innovative business models to tackle sustainability issues in the fashion
industry
Recently, the interest in integrating corporate sustainability into fast fashion business models
has risen with companies such as Swedish fashion retailer H&M integrating take-back schemes
into their stores to assume responsibility for the recycling of apparel waste (Remy et al. 2016).
Business models define the basis that comprises the way a company does business (Osterwalder
et al. 2005). Approaches such as sustainable business models have been introduced to describe
innovative concepts that can be beneficial to both the firm and the society (Stubbs and Cocklin
2008). These concepts due to their holistic approach have the potential to create significant
change in the way companies currently conduct business (Osterwalder et al. 2005). Nowadays,
a number of fashion brands launch new sustainability projects to challenge fast fashion business
models. These brands e.g. introduce new textile fibres as new resources or innovative revenue
channels through clothes leasing (Pedersen et al. 2018).
To avoid harming the environment and to consider society, companies are looking towards the
implementation of innovative business models that can help thrive in a competitive market
setting. Especially in the resource-intensive fashion industry such models can offer numerous
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opportunities for instance the reduction of environmental impacts (Todeschini et al. 2017). They
can provide for the implementation of a circular economy within the textile and fashion industry
and help tackle challenges faced due to climate change as well as resource scarcity (Tunn et al.
2019). Circular economy (CE) is a progressively popular method to build sustainable
companies. By avoiding excessive resource consumption through the use of several product
and material loops (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2015), businesses try to achieve a sustainable
society and economy. To achieve circularity, consumption and production practices need to be
altered. Innovative business models have the potential to change both practices as they define
a business at its core, outlining the way the company conducts business and further influencing
the relationship with the consumer (Tunn et al. 2019).
Again, putting this into the fashion perspective, these business models can function at several
steps of a garments lifecycle, e.g. utilising scrap materials from industry waste and turning these
into high fashion shoe designs or on a service level providing consumers with a lease service
for clothing items (Todeschini et al. 2017).
The focus throughout the research hereby lies on product-service systems that can be used to
fulfil consumers needs in innovative ways through services that can lead to a shift in ownership
structure. This can include the sale of a one-time-use rather than the ownership to a product,
the shift to a leasing society, a change from throw-away to a repair society and consumers’
attitudinal changes from product to service focus (Mont, 2002). The term collaborative
consumption refers to collaboration as a supporting ecosystem in which resources and
knowledge are being shared and the diffusion of sustainable practices is promoted. It allows for
business model experimentation and therefore is a critical driver for start-ups and small
businesses. Second hand as part of collaborative consumption refers to the selling or donating
of already used clothes. It promotes the reuse of items that are otherwise not worn and reduces
demands for new items and thus also raw material. The concept of fashion libraries offers a
service in which garments can be rented and used for a limited amount of time. In this,
consumption shifts from product-centred to service-centred. (Todeschini et al. 2017)
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3 Methodology
In the previous chapter the stepping stone to the research is laid out. The general issues within
the fashion and textile industry are presented and narrowed down to the major concerns for this
research paper. The methodology utilised for the study is presented in the following section,
including the data collection methods and a description of the analysis.
3.1 Research Design
The research was conducted using a qualitative approach. According to Bryman (2012), this
approach generally surrounds words rather than numerical data. This data is used to understand
the social world through the analysis of the interpretation of the world by its participants. This
can include both, the researchers and the interviewees of a study. The purpose of a qualitative
study is to understand the ‘how or why’ to gain a contextualised understanding of a certain
topic, which is used to explain certain behaviours or actions. This is achieved through an
interpretive analysis (Hennink et al. 2010).
While the general approach to qualitative research is oftentimes inductive, generating theory
after analysing a set of data, according to Silverman (1993) deductive reasoning can be a valid
approach to testing theory too. The approach to the study was based on deductive theory as the
starting point is the hypothesis that a conflict between being economically stable and acting
sustainably exists for sustainable brands. According to Bryman (2012) it is the most common
perspective of the type of relationship between theory and research. It requires the researcher
to form a hypothesis that can be formed into practical terms that are researched using data
collection methods. First comes the theory followed by the process of gathering data, the
presentation of findings and confirmation or rejection of the hypotheses and an alteration of the
theory (Bryman 2012).
The study was solely based on the collection of secondary data, which was previously gathered
by other researchers. The utilisation of such data can help researchers start off their study
process more easily while also offering the possibility to avoid the time-consuming process of
having to gather primary data in order to find answers to their research questions (Bryman
2012).
The review on literature was used to introduce the reader to different subchapters concerning
sustainable fashion retailers and the challenges they face, which lastly lead to a support of the
initial theory. The gathered secondary data was narratively discussed throughout the finding
and analysis chapters.
3.2 Research Method
This study is based upon a systematic literature review in which data is collected and literature
is analysed. It can be described as a replicable, scientific method which minimises bias by
utilising peer-reviewed published studies. It requires a transparent process of searching and
evaluating the data disclosing the researcher's decisions, steps and interpretations (Tranfield et
al. 2003). The systematic literature review, analysing secondary data, is especially relevant for
students as it offers the possibility to collect valuable data while also enabling more freedom in
terms of time management and the formulation of research questions, the analysis and
interpretation of their data. High quality data is being collected that could otherwise not be
gathered in the given timeframe such as results of surveys with numerous respondents and the
possibility of geographical spread. That way, researchers are able to compare data from
different cultural backgrounds, and thus can draw larger and possibly more relevant conclusions
- 14 -
based on the collected data sets (Bryman 2012). This is especially relevant to the fashion
industry that is known to be dispersed globally with its complex supply chains.
The study is based on four steps of a systematic literature review as given by Bryman (2012):
formulation of purpose, review planning, review conducting and the presentation of findings.
A purpose of the study was initially formulated with the support of a research question. This
built the base to define keywords and narrow the search for relevant studies, which was the
following step. The search was conducted and described in a way that enables replicability. In
this step the researcher further defined the sources of data. Next, data was collected and further
narrowed down by language. Generally, it can be limited to a certain time period or location if
one wants to focus on a significant area. Further a particular research method can be selected
or left out. The final step was the analysis of the data and the linking of the different studies as
the result. In the case of a qualitative research approach, the data is oftentimes presented in a
narrative form that combines key outcomes (Bryman 2012). Since the given timeframe to
conduct the research was limited to ten weeks, the researchers narrowed down their topic’s
focus to assure validity and consistency of the results.
3.3 Selection and Justification of Research
The study approach was chosen to gain an overview of the current state of literature based
around the topic of sustainable brands and the challenges they face in the competitive
environment of the fashion and textile industry. Extant literature can be found surrounding the
consumer perspective on sustainable clothing and its consumption (e.g. Joy et al. 2012; Mora
et al. 2014; Connell 2010; Ha-Brookshire and Norum 2011; Perry and Chung 2015). While
searching for data on sustainable brands and their retail perspective, only little information can
be encountered (Yang et al. 2017).
The research aims at providing a basis on the topic as there is currently a lack of studies going
into the retailer’s direction and the challenges that need to be dealt within the implementation
and workings of sustainability as a core value of a fashion and textile brand. Additionally, it
can form a starting point for further research handling challenges that sustainable fashion brands
face.
3.4 Data Collection
Based on the purpose of wanting to define how sustainable fashion brands can deal with the
paradox of requiring sales and wanting to contribute to reduced consumption and lowered
impacts on the environment, keywords were defined. To create a significance of the collected
data, no time frame was set to the search for articles. The first relevant papers were found after
1998. The researchers believed the Rana Plaza incident, mentioned in the introduction chapter,
to be a turning point for many companies in the fashion industry which led to an increase in
literature on the topic past year 2013.
After a preliminary data analysis based on the topic, the defined keywords were combined as
shown in Table 1 below. The asterisk feature (*) was used in order to include all words starting
with a particular search term to include all words with the same root. The Boolean operators
(AND and AND NOT) were utilised as a measure to combine certain words and topics with
one another or to eliminate irrelevant areas.
- 15 -
Table 1: Keyword Search.
Themes Keywords
Sustainability sustainab* OR eco OR ecologic* OR green* OR
slow OR fair
AND
Textile textil* OR cloth* OR fashion OR garment* OR
apparel*
AND
Brand brand* OR retail* OR compan* OR
organization* AND NOT “fast fashion” AND
NOT luxury
AND
Paradox / Motivation motivat* OR reason* OR paradox* OR conflict*
OR contrast* OR contradict* OR discrepanc*
OR challeng* OR barrier*
The data are collected from Scopus, the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed
articles including books, scientific journals and conference proceedings (Scopus 2019). The
chosen sources were peer-reviewed journal articles, while conference papers, reviews, working
papers, book chapters and commentaries were filtered out. The search was further narrowed
down to articles written in English according to the researchers’ language skills. Since the focus
of the research is on the management of sustainable brands, the search was limited to articles
in the subject area of Business, Management and Accounting. All limitations are stated in Table
2 below. The first step resulted in a number of 191 articles.
Table 2: Search Limitations.
Limitations Reason
Field Sustainable fashion challenges
Search area Title, abstract, keywords
Source type Peer-reviewed articles
Filter out Reviews, conference papers, working papers,
commentaries, book chapters
Subject area Business, Management and Accounting
Language English
Following, the study decreased the initial list of 191 articles through the examination of the
relevance of title and abstract by using explicit keywords and filtering out articles that were
concentrated on different subjects and industries. After evaluating all abstracts of the study,
they reached a number of 70 relevant results. Next, the full texts of the articles were evaluated
on their relevance to the retailer’s perspective within the fashion industry with a focus on
sustainability. Articles that were not contributing to the purpose of the research were excluded
and hence the total number of the selection was further reduced. The outcome were 40 studies
that were analysed. The search scheme is presented in Figure 2 below.
- 16 -
Figure 2: Search Process
3.5 Data Evaluation
Following, the data was analysed and further narrowed down to reduce the large corpus of
information into themes emerging from the literature. In order to categorise the articles, these
were read and described in short key terms. After, the articles most relevant sections were
highlighted and the texts were grouped together according to their themes. Three themes that
emerged from the literature were identified to structure the findings: business model, supplier
relation and consumer influence. These were highlighted and organised through colour-coding
within the research articles as shown in Appendix I.
In a next step, the data gathered from relevant articles is analysed using a narrative approach. It
is used to generate understanding instead of accumulating knowledge, therefore the course of
reviewing the literature is more ambiguous and less focused (Geertz 1973).
While the systematic review is generally replicable, and in the case of this research can be
simulated until the point of analysis, the narrative form of the analysis makes the study less
imitable. The systematic way of searching for articles offers opportunities such as transparency
and the comprehensiveness of the search for literature (Bryman 2012). This element of
transparency is included in the study in the form of key terms used for the article search that
are specified above. Moreover, the narrative analysis of the found articles has advantages of
flexibility that are especially more appropriate to perform qualitative research. The narrative
analysis offers the possibility to evaluate different types of data and themes to bring them
together (Bryman 2012).
- 17 -
In the case of this study, all papers relating to the topic of sustainable fashion brands and their
challenges and motivations were reviewed in the field of business, management and accounting
to create a full picture of what influences them and which themes are depicted in the literature.
While a number of articles stating the most significant findings are collected, the analysis of
these is reliant on the researchers’ subjective interpretation. The analysis of secondary data in
qualitative research allows the researcher to reveal new interpretations of the examined data or
to evaluate data that were not mined by previous investigators (Bryman 2012). The researchers’
goal is to review the most important data to be found on the topic of sustainable fashion brands
challenges and to generate a full picture of these linking to stakeholder influences.
3.6 Research Quality
Qualitative data analysis is rather difficult as a large body of information is collected that needs
to be structured. The richness the data can provide can mean a challenging analysis. Thus,
themes that emerge from the dataset can help the researcher in the coding and interpretation of
the collected information. However, as the data is interpreted and influenced by the researchers’
preconceptions, qualitative data analysis can be seen as subjective and thus weaken internal
validity.
In the case of a structured literature review, the reliability of the study is strongly linked to its
replicability. This means, that the study could be repeated and conducted the same way in a
different setting and generate the same results (Bryman 2012). Throughout the research, all
steps taken to collect the data were presented, with the use of keywords shown in Table 1. The
description of the data collection is fully described allowing for full replicability.
Throughout the research, decision making factors, research techniques and methods were kept
record of and can be tracked throughout the thesis. This aimed at reaching a high level of
transparency and thus external reliability (Bryman 2012).
Since the study was limited to a given timeframe of only ten weeks, limited data could be
collected and analysed. To ensure a thorough analysis of all relevant data, more time is required.
Systematic literature reviews entail the collection of all relevant data related to a certain topic
as in this case the paradox of sustainable fashion brands. The data is not restricted to a certain
time period, geographical location and different types of data are collected such as quantitative
and qualitative data, case studies as well as survey results (Bryman 2012). This ensures
increased external validity as the data gathering is not limited. Thus, the thesis outcome can be
generalised.
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4 Results
4.1 General overview of publications
The analysis results of the review show that the 40 research articles come from 17 countries,
which are summarised by Figure 3. According to the Scopus database, the measures were taken
by the number of publications for each country based on the country of publication. It turned
out that most articles (17) came from the United States of America, followed by the United
Kingdom with seven research papers. Denmark, Netherland, Portugal and Sweden contribute
three articles each to the results. Five additional countries are represented with two research
papers each (Brazil, Germany, Italy, South Korea and Switzerland). Finally, the countries
China, Finland, France, Peru and United Arab Emirates have each contributed one article to the
final results.
The publication overview by country shows that research of sustainability in relation to fashion
brands has been carried out mainly in Western countries, which confirms the statement in the
UNESCO Science Report that research into sustainable development comes mainly from the
European Union and North America (UNESCO 2019).
Figure 3: Overview of the research articles by country.
Figure 4 shows the distribution of research articles over the study period between 1998 and
April 2020. It shows that research focusing on sustainable fashion and its characters has
accelerated from 2013 onwards, indicating that interest has increased after the Rana Plaza
disaster and yet this area is relatively new but growing. The red trendline illustrates the
continuous increase in the sustainability research domain.
For example, in the years before 2013, no articles were found that focused on the orientation of
sustainable fashion companies and their business models; however, in the last four years, two,
four, four and three research articles have been published in this area. Thus, the trend of articles
on this topic is growing.
Before 2013, the focus of research was on consumer views on sustainable fashion, with six out
of ten articles in this period being consumer-related (see also Appendix II).
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Figure 4: Distribution of the research articles between 1998 – 2020 ( = = until April 2020).
The analysis results show that the research articles come from 19 journals. Figure 5 summarises
the selected papers by journals. The largest sources are the Journal of Fashion Marketing and
Management (8 articles) and the Journal of Cleaner Production (7 articles), followed by the
International Journal of Consumer Studies (4 articles), the Social Responsibility Journal (3
articles), the Journal of Retailing and Consumer Service (2 articles), the Journal of Global
Fashion Marketing (2 articles) and the Business horizons (2 articles).
Figure 5: Overview of the research articles published by journal.
In order to obtain a coherent overview of the topics covered by the literature on sustainable
fashion, the content of all 40 research articles was carefully reviewed and analysed. The authors
carried out this classification in three steps. First, the articles were read in full and sorted into
provisory subject areas based on the researcher's assumption of similarity factors. Secondly, the
areas identified were compared and divided into main themes. After the articles had been further
- 20 -
classified according to the main categories, a repeated data analysis was carried out, this time
focusing on the relevance of the research. The results of the data analysis indicated that the
research articles can be categorised into three main areas, which are (i) business model, (ii)
supplier relation and (iii) consumer influence. In addition, some articles overlap in the themes
due to the mutual influence of different factors as already mentioned in the frame of reference
chapter (2). For this reason, some articles were assigned to several categories. The following
Table 3 shows all authors of the selected literature divided into the three main areas. To get a
more accurate idea of the article allocation, a total of 19 papers were selected for the business
model category. For supplier relation eleven articles were chosen and 15 results were taken in
the category of consumer influence. For a detailed overview, Appendix II is referenced.
Table 3: Content Analysis Results of Topics of Research Articles.
Content Areas Articles
Business model
Freudenreich and Schaltegger 2020; Jin and Shin 2020; Lee and Chow
2020; Machado et al. 2019; Park and Joyner Armstrong 2019; Pedersen et
al. 2019; Tunn et al. 2019; Ashby 2018; Gopalakrishnan and Matthews
2018; Jacobs et al. 2018; Lang and Armstrong 2018; Franco 2017;
Todeschini et al. 2017; Hvass 2014; Armstrong and Lang 2013
Supplier relation
Alexander 2020; Li et al. 2020; Ashby 2018; Di Benedetto 2017; DiVito
and Bohnsack 2017; Todeschini et al.2017; Huq et al. 2014; Curwen and
Sarkar 2013; Goworek 2011; De Brito et al. 2008; McSpirit 1998
Consumer influence
Dickenbrok and Martinez 2018; Jacobs et al. 2018; Di Benedetto 2017;
Grappi et al. 2017; Egel-Zandén and Hansson 2016; Harris et al. 2016;
Perry and Chung 2015; Bly et al. 2015; Clancy et al. 2015; Ritch 2015;
Rodrigues and Borges 2015; Kozar and Connell 2013; Stall-Meadows and
Davey 2013; Hill and Lee 2012; Goworek 2011; Ha-Brookshire and
Norum 2011; Connell 2010; Littrell et al. 2005; Meyer 2001
4.2 The relation between fashion brands and suppliers
Fashion brands often have to deal with transactional and poorly coordinated supply chains,
resulting in a lack of environmental and social responsibility. One of the most important players
in this supply chain is the supplier (Ashby 2018). As previously mentioned, the supplier
network is especially complex in the fashion industry. Due to strong competition in this
industry, the costs of suppliers are pushed down increasingly and the production is moved to
low-wage countries (Todeschini et al. 2017). This extensive outsourcing of manufacturing
contributes to major environmental challenges, particularly around waste and resources usage
(Ashby 2018) and the difficulty for fashion brands to control working environments and
conditions rises (DeBrito et al. 2008). With the emergence of increased consumer interest in
social aspects of the fashion supply chain, several non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
were established in the 1990s to encourage fashion brands to source their products from
manufacturers that have made sustainability part of their values (Goworek 2011; DeBrito et al.
2008). According to Todeschini et al (2017), for many suppliers, sustainability is not always
part of their corporate culture. Therefore, the implementation of sustainable practices is on the
one hand a sign of commitment, but on the other hand also a major challenge. DeBrito et al.
(2008) argues that there is an apparent regional difference in how the term sustainability is
- 21 -
understood by the supplier side. This is clearly evident in environmental, health and safety
legislation between Europe and Asia. These differences in perspective, make it difficult to have
a common goal, common mission, to ensure long-term success for all parties.
4.2.1 Environmental issues connected to suppliers
As previously initiated by Ashby (2018), the complex and cost-driven industry is strongly
linked to environmental challenges that are becoming increasingly important.
In particular, the use of natural resources, chemicals, waste and the resulting environmental
pollution are of great importance and must be considered throughout the supply chain (Goworek
2011). Environmental issues cannot be treated as a single problem and isolated from other
activities in the supply chain. Elementary decisions are made at the design and development
stage on how and where something can be produced, distributed and disposed of, and therefore
have a huge impact on whether or not environmental issues can be minimised (Ashby 2018).
With environmentally friendly materials (e.g. recycled materials, sustainable fibres) and
environmentally responsible manufacturing processes (e.g. natural dyeing processes, zero
waste technologies), fashion brands can on the one hand act more sustainably and responsibly
and on the other hand, this can also bring relevant business benefits. However, this is associated
with challenges and not always easy to realise as a fashion brand (Todeschini et al. 2017). A
close cooperation with suppliers could enable fashion brands to develop and test new and
innovative technologies and techniques in order to reduce the environmental impact together
(DiVito and Bohnsack 2017). Furthermore, local production, geographically closer to the lead-
firm, could be another aspect to reduce negative environmental impacts such as global transport
and at the same time increase supply chain transparency. Fashion brands also need to work with
suppliers who can meet the requirements of environmental concerns and ensure that materials
are used in the best possible way with minimal to no waste (Ashby 2018).
Furthermore, financial policies could be an incentive for fashion brands and suppliers to use
more environmentally friendly materials and processes. By supporting policy makers through
grants or approvals, collaboration between fashion brands and suppliers to develop new
environmentally friendly materials or processes could be improved (DiVito and Bohnsack
2017).
4.2.2 The connection between CSR and supplier
The increased demand of the customer for sustainable clothing leads to the growth in pressure
on globally networked fashion brands which thereby tend to focus more on their social
responsibility. An important function is the selection of suppliers, as e.g. responsible sourcing
of merchandise can help to fundamentally improve corporate social responsibility (CSR)
(Goworek 2011). Further important CSR measures can be taken through sustainability reports,
third party audits (certifications), development of codes of conduct and labour safety programs,
supplier disclosure and transparency practices throughout the supply chain (Todeschini et al.
2017). Accordingly, these measures further shift the pressure onto suppliers, because fashion
brands want to maintain their prices, or even lower them to remain competitive (DiVito and
Bohnsack 2017), but at the same time purchase environmentally friendly materials (Goworek
2011; McSpirit 1998). In addition, fashion brands demand their suppliers to act more
sustainably, but are not prepared to share the immense costs of implementation. Furthermore,
the adherence to the agreements of code of conducts is difficult for suppliers. Firstly, the
conditions differ between the multiple fashion brands and there is an absence of constant
guideline and secondly the cultural and socio-economic conditions of the countries are very
different (DeBrito et al. 2008), especially in developing countries (Huq et al. 2014; Li et al.
2020). As a result, suppliers have to struggle to meet all requirements. Huq et al. (2014) argues
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that for example third party auditors have higher demands than the fashion brands themselves.
Depending on who comes to audit, other aspects are controlled and documented. Moreover,
codes of conduct often refer to the exclusion of child labour. This is an issue that is taken for
granted and easily implemented from the perspective of developed countries. However, the
reduction or ‘prohibition’ of child labour, especially in countries such as Bangladesh, does not
solve the problem, but only postpones it and perhaps even aggravates it. If children are banned
from working in the fashion industry, they will not stop working, they will look for work
elsewhere that is possibly much more dangerous and less regulated such as construction. This
example once again highlights the complexity of sustainability, especially its social aspect (Huq
et al. 2014).
Another critical point in the area of certification requirement’s audits is that the purpose of
compliance to these is primarily for fashion brands wanting to have control over their suppliers.
But this can lead to an unequal balance of power between these two parties (Alexander 2020).
A further hurdle between fashion brands and suppliers often is the difference in knowledge of
sustainability (DeBrito et al. 2008). Communication usually exclusively happens between the
fashion brand and the first-tier supplier and the sub-suppliers are not included in the
"representative" supply chain. They assume that the first-tier supplier will pass the information
on to their suppliers (subcontractors). Thus, the material flow is maintained, but the exchange
of knowledge, especially about sustainability, is limited. Therefore, it is challenging to achieve
knowledge and an overall understanding of the principles of sustainability and its differences
between cultures across the entire supply chain (Alexander 2020; Huq et al. 2014; Li et al.
2020).
4.2.3 Measures for sustainable fashion brands and their suppliers regarding CSR
A sincere interaction between the fashion brands and their suppliers, hence can lead to strong,
long-lasting and trusting supplier relationships. This can be reinforced with shared
environmental and social principles (Ashby 2018). Through closer cooperation between fashion
brands and manufacturers, social responsibility, as well as ecological responsibility, can be seen
as strategic resources for the manufacturing company that at the same time act as competitive
advantage (DiBenedetto 2017). Through collaborative, often personal supplier relationships,
fashion brands can track their environmental and social performance and share the information
with other stakeholders. Through good partnership, sustainability challenges can be tackled
together. In addition, partnership can bring together several partners and create a buyer-seller
network that shares the same values and, as a united force, can handle more complex challenges
(Alexander 2020; DeBrito et al. 2008). By extending their vision and commitment to their
suppliers, fashion brands can ensure their sustainability strategy and share knowledge
effectively (Ashby 2018). Another way for fashion brands to build a good, trusting relationship
with their suppliers while demanding sustainable practices is through a support service
mechanism. This refers to encouraging manufacturers to use more sustainable processes and
materials by providing assistance. However, there are difficulties in partnerships, as well as in
support service, when it comes to explicit behavioural changes. This means that if, for example,
a partner/supplier does not agree, they will not necessarily change everything immediately and
this can lead to an imbalance of power (DiVito and Bohnsack 2017; Alexander 2020).
Nevertheless, according to Alexander (2020), a combination of support service and partnership
is especially useful for smaller suppliers who cannot afford expensive certifications. Together
with fashion brands, mostly sustainable fashion brands, they can address the benefits of co-
developing ecological innovations and social projects (Todeschini et al., 2017). The trust
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between fashion brands and suppliers can also ensure the implementation of CSR policies
(Goworek 2011) and the suppliers' needs can be taken into account (Curwen et al. 2012).
Fashion brands that have a broad knowledge of sustainability must be able to share this
knowledge with their suppliers or rather with the entire supply chain and educate them if
necessary. Educating suppliers to meet social and ecological standards (McSpirit 1998) also
includes the understanding that corporate social responsibility can lead to a better working
environment (Li et al. 2020) and thus to increased productivity (Huq et al. 2014). Put it simply,
social sustainability can lead to economic benefits. This can be implemented, as mentioned
above, through supplier education, but also through training of employees of suppliers. By
providing manuals on workers' rights and codes of conduct, both in a local language to provide
greater transparency and with reference to regional circumstances, suppliers and workers can
benefit and build strong, long-term relationships (Huq et al. 2014; Todschini et al. 2017). In
addition, DiVito and Bohnsack (2017) point out that speed is not one of the essential factors for
sustainable fashion brands to remain competitive. It is sometimes of higher relevance to search
more intensively for appropriate suppliers and materials in order to create long-lasting products
and relationships.
4.3 The consumer influence on sustainable fashion brands
As the present consumption behaviour of fashion contributes to detrimental environmental
influences, there is a growing concern for sustainability challenges (Birtwistle and Moore
2007). Through their ever-increasing demand, consumers are driving the success of the fast
fashion movement. Trendy items are sold at favourable prices with their predetermined purpose
of only lasting a few numbers of washes (Di Benedetto 2017). Further, consumers are a big
contributor to the overall footprint a garment leaves behind post-purchase. The maintenance of
their items accounts for more than half of its total energy consumption (Enquête-Komission,
cited in Meyer 2001). Fashion brands are increasingly working on the development of more
sustainable options for their customers and on marketing these items to promote sustainable
consumption (Joergens 2006).
The term ‘sustainable consumption’ first came up in international policy and studies on Agenda
21, the action plan that was adopted 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit in order to tackle sustainable
development. The core of the concept meant a change in the way goods were produced and how
these were consumed, the background being the strong driving force consumers have on the
transformation of a market in terms of social and environmental regards (Seyfang 2011). Later
on, this framework was extended in order to include features of reusability, compostability,
recyclability and sufficiency (Princen 2005). The concept of ‘fashion’ other than the purpose
of clothing that serves the needs of coverage and decency, deals as a manner to reflect meanings
and shares mutual social understanding (Bly et al. 2015). Fashion offers the possibility to
express one’s uniqueness while also representing social conformity, it is dictated by external
factors and pointless consumption. On the other hand, style is exclusive to an individual and a
timeless statement (Mikkonen et al. 2014). In a study by Hill and Lee (2012) consumers
highlight that fashion and sustainability are incompatible since fashion is about newness and
change driven by trends, which simultaneously makes it so captivating.
Generally speaking, people carry a positive attitude toward the environment and show eco-
friendly behaviours throughout their daily routines (Perry and Chung 2015). In contrast, their
sustainable-apparel purchase behaviour does not reflect their beliefs. While a majority of people
respond positively to the idea of sustainability as a step in the right direction (Hill and Lee
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2012), they are barely influenced by the environment while doing clothing acquisitions despite
them recognising different benefits that it could yield such as energy and resource savings,
environmental protection, health and benefits for future generations. There is a gap between
attitudes towards sustainable fashion and the related purchasing behaviour (Perry and Chung
2015). Moreover, consumers are unaware of their influence on the environment throughout the
use-phase of their items through both washing and product disposal. Societal norms of
frequencies, temperatures and sizes of washing loads prevent consumers from adopting more
sustainable washing behaviours that could have a big impact on energy use. Consumers,
unaware of their disposal influences, are no longer utilising their apparel until it is worn out
since it can more easily be replaced than fixed, repurposed or redesigned. The disappearing
skills for mending clothes are further contributing to this phenomenon. However, as the
purchasing of high-quality items is more challenging, even when consumers want to use their
items for a longer time, the low quality, that is nowadays oftentimes the standard, prevents them
from doing so (Harris et al. 2016).
Different factors have an influence on the consumer’s willingness to purchase more sustainable
fashion items, these can be broken down into internal and external barriers.
The following subsection will deal with internal barriers including knowledge and attitude
challenges and external barriers incorporating availability, economic and societal issues that
hinder consumers from purchasing in a more sustainable manner:
4.3.1 Internal barriers
The majority of consumers lack knowledge in the relationship between apparel production and
consumption and its influence on the environment (Connell 2010; Hill and Lee 2012; Harris et
al. 2016). In a study by Connell (2010), participants stated to not know more than broad
generalisations, such as being aware that waste is generated during production processes.
Participants further lacked knowledge of environmental effects in relation to different fibres.
They wrongly assumed man-made fibres to have larger impacts on the environment compared
to natural fibres. Moreover, they admitted a lack of education in sustainable fibre choices which
prevents them from making more conscious choices.
Perry and Chung (2015) further state that sustainable clothing lacks emotional benefits. A
participant in their study states “the reason why I purchase [Eco-Apparel] is because I have the
needs. If there is a product that can meet my needs, change my life, but it is not Eco-Apparel, I
think I still will purchase it.” (Perry and Chung 2015, p. 113). Consumers are not willing to
make a bigger effort to purchase more sustainably (Perry and Chung 2015). Further, consumers
are sceptical about the trustworthiness of sustainably marketed apparel and the positive effect
a sustainable purchase can have. They believe that they are oftentimes confronted with false
claims and are therefore subject to green washing (Hill and Lee 2012). They doubt both the
accuracy of the claims as well as the motives retailers have making them, thus believing it is
another way for them to sell (Harris et al. 2016).
Sustainable clothing is moreover still perceived as less desirable in terms of its look. The items
are seen as less stylish and shapeless when compared to mainstream clothing. Further, they
believed sustainable fabrics such as hemp gave the look of a subculture style they did not want
to be associated with: “It’s almost like the people who produce that clothing assume that
everyone that wants hemp clothing is a hippy or something.” (Connell 2010, p. 282). Along
with the style, consumers criticised fit. Sustainable apparel was associated with wide,
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unconstructed, flowy items made of organic hemp. They consider themselves more open to
purchasing sustainable apparel items once the fit is tighter and more flattering (Connell 2010).
4.3.2 External barriers
Consumers emphasise the lack of availability of sustainable clothing options and the limited
knowledge of sources for acquiring these as external barriers. They believe, only limited
choices that are desirable are available and that sustainable fashion lacks certain categories
altogether, such as footwear, formal, intimate, outdoor and business wear. Further, they
compare organic clothing to organic food options. Conventional food options are oftentimes
located right next to the organic ones, which provides a possible choice. In comparison, apparel
selections are much more restricted and the limited accessibility does not allow consumers to
make ethical choices all around (Connell 2010).
Another concern is price. Typically, the sustainable option is more expensive. Studies have
shown that consumers are not willing to pay a higher price for organic cotton clothing compared
to conventional cotton. They require other tangible benefits such as a strong brand image, colour
choice, fit, reasonable price and promotional campaigns. Moreover, age and gender influence
the likelihood of purchasing sustainable clothing items. Organic apparel is more attractive to
younger consumer groups while sustainable apparel especially appeals to women (Ha-
Brookshire and Norum 2011). A study by Hill and Lee (2012) on consumption behaviours of
Generation-Y shows that younger consumers would purchase ethically if the price was
reasonable. Sustainable clothing is oftentimes perceived as more expensive and therefore
neglected (Hill and Lee 2012). Participants in a study by Connell (2010) likewise state that they
would buy more sustainably but are constrained due to limited economic resources.
Harris et al. (2016) believe overconsumption to be pushed by social pressures induced by the
fashion industry and media that purport the need to update one’s wardrobe regularly and not be
seen wearing the same outfit twice. Social pressures further restrict conscious consumers in the
way they dress in professional settings in which a certain appearance is expected. Hemp e.g. is
not seen as an appropriate fabric in academic environments, which limits the consumer to
conventional apparel choices (Connell 2010).
4.3.3 Sustainability-minded consumers
Large market potential seems to be arising from sustainability-minded consumers that prioritise
self-enhancement aims. These consumers concentrate on personal advantages of sustainable
apparel, like health benefits through the use of organic materials and emotional benefits
achieved by contributing to a better society (Ha-Brookshire and Norum 2011). By them,
sustainability is seen as a holistic endeavour which demands environmental and social attention.
They believe that it requires full engagement from a business, quite opposite to profit motives.
Consequently, these consumers distrust large corporations viewing them as self-interested with
scepticism compared to smaller local producers that they perceive as true to their core. These
consumers further make a difference between style and fashion, explaining that they no longer
partake in the fashion system but rather form their own sense of style that is unique and non-
dictated. A freedom of fashion for them means freedom of seasonal consumption (Bly et al.
2015).
Participants in a study by Bly et al. (2015), questioning sustainable apparel consumers, found
that they proved more knowledge on sustainability issues. This in turn raised bigger questions
for them of wanting to trace back where a clothing item came from. Since that question offers
no clear answer it generally causes them to be less trusting of traditional sustainable offerings.
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They view the fashion system itself as its biggest barrier to sustainable consumption.
Consumption is a part of life for all consumers that is further fuelled by promotion of
governments and companies. Sustainable consumers believe the systemic problem to be rooted
in the never-ending need for profit that leads to sourcing of low-cost labour and cheap materials
and in turn satisfies increasing sales. The participants see the fashion system as the climax of
the paradox that exists between consumption and sustainability.
4.3.4 Approaches to more consumer engagement
To create more engagement with consumers, sustainable brands need to provide more
information on their apparel items. Participants from Connell’s study (2010) felt that their
acquisition decisions could be improved with better information on supply chain processes such
as manufacturing and transport and the correlated emissions. Further knowledge on fibre
differences is needed as well as information on where to purchase sustainable apparel options.
The information can help against feelings of distrust, minimising scepticism with the help of
full transparency and factual support (Schroder and McEachern 2004; Harris et al. 2016). Some
of this information could be provided through improved product labelling systems (Connell
2010).
Moreover, as participants complained about limited options and availability of attractive
sustainable apparel styles, the availability in retail stores should be increased to attract
consumers that prefer shopping offline and shopping guides could support consumers on the
lookout for sustainable apparel (Jacobs et al. 2018). A strong market could potentially also exist
in product categories that are currently difficult to find such as sustainable business wear as
well as intimate wear, outdoor clothing and formal wear (Connell 2010). The design of
sustainable clothing should further be improved as there are conceptions that such clothing is
shapeless and unattractive. Normalising design and improving fit could contribute to a better
adoption of sustainable styles to the mainstream market (Harris et al. 2016).
Meyer (2001) conceded in a study on the promotion of sustainable apparel through marketing
efforts that sustainability as the only core value can be rather unsuccessful. Since sustainable
products oftentimes have a higher cost than conventional fashion items including product and
search cost and only receive minor benefits he suggests, products should deliver additional
attributes that speak to the consumer such as functionality and visual properties.
Harris et al. (2016) believe that the consumers’ mind-sets need to be changed in order to achieve
a more sustainable consumption behaviour, away from following fashion and acquiring
numerous garments to investing in items that will last. According to them, social norms present
a major barrier to altering this behaviour. Different steps can be taken to convince consumers
of alternative behaviours. Retailers e.g. decided to give more in-depth care instructions on how
to wash their denim garments to lower energy and water consumption. Further, to change
disposal behaviours of consumers, upcycling was advised to prolong the use-phase of an item.
To overcome social norms, the researchers recommend the use of social marketing campaigns
developed to challenge these and adding textile and recycling in school’s syllabi. Connell
(2010) on the other hand, having the background of interviewing sustainable consumption
pioneers, believes that if fashion continues the way it is now, representing change, transience
and seasonality, especially those sustainable consumers will not adopt it on a larger scale as
they believe that sustainability can only be achieved when consumption is lowered.
Simultaneously, to be successful in the market, aspects associated with fashion are essential to
the mainstream adoption of sustainable apparel. Sustainable consumers however do not trust
large corporations implementing and marketing sustainable change in their companies and
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strive for uniqueness and freedom. Therefore, Connell (2010) wonders - how could sustainable
fashion ever become accessible and successful on a large scale?
4.4 Innovative business models and their potential to lower consumption
Present challenges including resource scarcity and climate change are sped up through
consumption and production patterns. According to the United Nations (2017), as cited by Tunn
et al. (2018), humankind would be needing three planets by 2050 if consumption practices were
to remain constant with a growing population. To tackle threats such as resource scarcity and
climate change, sustainable consumption could be combined with the concept of circular
economy. This would help reduce resource quantities and increase use-phases of materials and
products that can cycle more frequently through the economic system, in that reducing carbon
emissions and raw material use. In order to implement circular consumption and production,
overall practices need to be adjusted. Innovative business models have the potential to change
both practices as they define the relationship between business and consumer and the way they
conduct business (Tunn et al. 2018). Product-service oriented systems can increase consumer
satisfaction while simultaneously dematerialising production-consumption systems (Armstrong
and Lang 2013). They were defined by the United Nations Environmental Programme (2002),
as referred to by Armstrong and Lang (2013), as a mix of products and services that delivers
usefulness as a substitute for the personal ownership of items. The approach highlights the
interaction with consumers to cover needs and reach a life cycle concept that reduces
environmental impacts. Design implications for such often incorporate characteristics such as
durability, flexibility, ease of use and modularity (Van Halen et al. 2005). Especially durability
is of big concern because it ensures that the product can later be reused in its original or in a
different form (Mont 2002). Further Armstrong and Lang (2013) emphasise that product-
service systems are able to better meet fundamental human needs such as the need for personal
expression and social interaction. Particularly the increased consumer involvement can
positively influence their knowledge of environmental features of certain items and their
impacts and lead to more interest in recycling and reusing. This could in turn be advantageous
for retailing systems that are wanting to close the loop (Mont 2002).
4.4.1 Product-service systems
In the following abstract different innovative product-service systems are presented. These
represent a certain type of value proposition that firms can offer to their customers which entail
a blend of tangible products and intangible services developed and combined to fulfil the needs
of a final customer. The advantage of product-service systems lies in their shift away from
existent product approaches to systems that put the required need, demand or function in the
spotlight. Accordingly, the ability to discover innovative improvement options is significantly
enhanced. Such systems can be categorised into three general types: results-oriented, product-
oriented, and use-oriented systems (Tukker and Tischner 2006):
Results-oriented systems
According to Tukker and Tischner (2006), these services are the only ones that can be seen as
truly need-oriented, however simultaneously need more than a company updating their business
model, which is a change of context. Results-oriented systems rather provide a result than a
product. This can include the management of activities or outsourcing, a functional result, or
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pay per unit. The concept of result-oriented systems is less applicable to apparel products which
are in great demand for the daily life. This presents a major challenge to their implementation
into the fashion business (Armstrong and Lang 2013).
Product-oriented systems
Product-oriented systems retail items with value-added services such as repair, take-back
schemes or consultancy (Armstrong and Lang 2013). Upcycling as a way to reuse items that
would otherwise be discarded can help create new products of higher or equally perceived
quality and worth. This helps extend their lifespan and lowers the need for raw material
utilisation (Todeschini et al. 2017) According to Freudenreich and Schaltegger (2019) the reuse
of items through the offering of maintenance and repair services requires labour-intensive
processes and innovative business models to achieve financial viability. In order to achieve
adequate qualities of items even after repair, items should initially hold a high value. They
further emphasise that remanufacturing and repair services can add value to items by using
artistic darning or embroidery to repair and hide holes.
The providing of style consultancy can give consumers ideas to wear and use their current
wardrobe in innovative ways which offers the possibility to extend their use-phase. Intentions
to trying these services could include cost savings as the repair or alteration is less cost intensive
than the acquisition of a new item. Consumers are encouraged to rediscover old items or adjust
these through alteration or redesign (Lang and Armstrong 2013).
Use-oriented systems
Use-oriented systems stand for product-leasing, renting and sharing or pooling structures. In
this case, the company remains the owner of all items and is furthermore responsible for the
maintenance of those (Armstrong and Lang 2013). The reuse of items can be achieved through
physical or digital platforms in which consumers are able to directly exchange clothes for reuse.
The providers of such events or platforms are able to generate revenue through the adding of
listing fees, transaction fees or charges for tables at flea markets (Freudenreich and Schaltegger
2019). This form of reuse can also be described as second hand, which refers to the selling or
donating of apparel that is no longer utilised by its wearer. It promotes the reuse of apparel and
reduces demands for newly manufactured products and their linked raw material use
(Todeschini et al. 2017).
A further case of a use-oriented system are fashion libraries that offer subscription services for
clothing. In this instance the retailer remains the owner of the fashion items while the consumer
on the other hand can access and use the items for a limited amount of time. Through the use
of sharing structures, items that would otherwise be rarely utilised by their owners reach a wider
audience hence possibly decreasing needs for new apparel (Todeschini et al. 2017). The renting
of clothing also makes it possible for consumers to engage in current fashion without having to
make a commitment to a new piece in their wardrobe (Lang and Armstrong 2018). Further
revenue mechanisms change from traditional single transactions to subscription fees based on
use (Todeschini et al. 2017). According to Tukker and Tischner (2006) these systems possibly
lack control in that the service providers are not always the producer of the items they are
renting out and are therefore not able to regulate their durability.
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4.4.2 Challenges and drivers in the implementation of innovative business models
In a study by Tunn et al. (2018) experts in the field of circular economy were interviewed to
distinguish how business models can support sustainable consumption in the shift towards a
circular economy, about 30% of the interviewees believed use-oriented systems in combination
with cycling products and materials to be successful. They were convinced that these would
help the implementation of a circular economy. Half of the participants however suggested
forthcoming business models to be based on product-oriented systems in which ownership is
still of relevance. Further, to reduce consumption and intensify garment use, three experts
advised to reduce consumption with a combination of a subscription model with sourcing of
cycling materials and a minimum effort for the consumer.
The collaborative consumption of fashion in the case of the renting of garments requires returns
of products in comparison to the owning and disposing of own items. The shift towards more
circularity is dependent on the consumer’s actions and their commitment to pass products on
from one phase to another (Pedersen et al. 2019). Studies however have shown that social and
environmental issues are generally not the priority when consumers acquire apparel (Joergens
2006) and that consumers are unable to recognise the value of the defining dimensions of
sustainable fashion. Consumer education is necessary to initiate changes in consumer behaviour
towards consumption patterns and enlighten them about the value of existing garments and the
effect that an extended use can have (Todeschini et al. 2017).
To guarantee circular design and shift towards sustainability, different technical requirements
need to be fulfilled as these have significant influence on the total environmental impact of a
new product (Pedersen et al. 2019; Kozlowski et al. 2016). The organisation of sharing business
models relies on products. These solely rely on their quality and durability and need to be able
to retain their value over time to generate profit. While moving away from product-oriented to
service-oriented business models, knowledge is required for sustainable value creation
throughout the entire lifecycle of a product as the footprint does not utterly rely on design
decisions. The sustainability of a product entails the challenging cooperation with internal and
external stakeholders (Pedersen et al. 2019).
The major challenge to product-service systems is the different cultures (industrial,
organisational, political and consumer culture) needed to initiate a shift toward a
dematerialisation of the production-consumption cycle (Armstrong and Lang 2013). “A
political system that does not favour policy changes, an industry or organization unwilling to
separate its business performance from material consumption, or normative values of a
consumer culture malcontent with eclipsing consumption is a certain recipe for PSS [product-
service systems] failure” (Armstrong and Lang 2013, p. 7). Even for experts in the field of
circular economy it is difficult to imagine radical changes in businesses to achieve sustainable
consumption. The authors believe that this could be connected to the assumption that the aim
for strong sustainable consumption contradicts the objective of growth (Tunn et al. 2018).
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5 Analysis
This thesis provides a comprehensive review of peer-reviewed research articles dealing with
challenges and paradoxes sustainable fashion brands need to handle. Initially, the purpose of
the thesis was to explore the relationship between a company’s economic needs and their wish
to conduct business in the most sustainable way possible. While literature shows that there is a
prominent conflict between the two and a need for balance to achieve sustainability (Higgins
2013), the findings of the systematic literature review do not reflect on this conflict sustainable
fashion brands find themselves in.
To remain valid in the marketplace, sustainable fashion brands need to market to the consumer
who is nowadays more interested in environmental and social concerns related to the textile and
fashion industry but is concurrently accustomed to spending small amounts of money on trendy
clothing items that are delivered by fast fashion practicing businesses. To tackle the
overconsumption, sustainable businesses are trying to shift their focus from selling a product to
offering a service by implementing product-service systems such as leasing and repair services.
That way, consumers are able to attain new items but at the same time do not contribute to an
increase in waste material as garments are passed onto the next person or recycled after its use-
phase. Further, brands find themselves responsible to educate both their suppliers and
consumers. Suppliers oftentimes have a different understanding of the term sustainability. To
create a mutual understanding, closer collaboration is of great importance (Ashby 2018).
Further, the consumer needs to be educated on e.g. better maintenance of their clothing. The
gathered literature has shown that consumers are unaware of the significant impact (Black
2011) they can have in changing their washing behaviours but did not particularly state the issue
of microfibers that enter the environment through laundering of synthetic materials.
The following section analyses the results collected in the findings to respond to the originally
formulated research sub-questions firstly addressing the root causes for the paradox sustainable
fashion brands find themselves in and secondly pointing out their key challenges and drivers.
This will support the response to our main question on how sustainable fashion brands can
potentially deal with the contradictions they find themselves in between their need to sustain
and act responsibly.
5.1 Question 1
What are the root causes for the paradox present in sustainable fashion brands?
Sustainable fashion can be defined as items that are produced and marketed in the most
sustainable way possible, considering their impact on society and the environment while at the
same time contributing to economic growth. Since businesses oftentimes narrow their view to
their internal economic concerns rather than looking at the full picture external environments
are neglected. Due to the economic complexity a full understanding of all factors within the
supply chain is difficult to achieve (Doane and MacGillivray 2001). However, sustainable
brands try to involve small scale production, season-less designs and sell items reflecting their
social and environmental costs (Fletcher 2014). This contradicts the fashion system that
continuously promotes change and newness. It gives people the chance to simultaneously
identify themselves with a social group and also create their own unique identity. Consumption
is driven by the wish to express meaning about oneself and create this identity (Matsuyama
1992). Since fashion is continuously moving forward and items go out of style, consumers
acquire more clothing to reflect their fashion sense and show that they ‘fit in’ within society.
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The fashion industry that now equates the fast fashion movement (Fletcher 2014), providing
consumers with several new collections a year, attracts the consumer to purchase more and
drive economic growth by offering garments at low prices. Given this, sustainability and
fashion are in direct conflict with each other, on the one hand wanting to tackle
overconsumption and on the other hand promoting economic growth at all costs. If sustainable
fashion was to enter the fashion cycle it would concurrently defeat its purpose to provide longer
lasting styles.
Fashion consumers are increasingly aware about social and environmental issues related to the
industry and progressively require brands to be transparent about their manufacturing practices
(Niinimäkii 2010). However, sustainable brands that try to tackle the negative environmental
and social influences apparel acquisitions produce, struggle to reach these customers. The
literature shows that sustainable fashion offerings lack attractiveness and availability (Connell
2010). Properties such as looks, fit and price outweigh the environmentally and socially
sustainable properties of a garment (Perry and Chung 2015). Moreover, consumers believe
sustainable fashion requires a more visual appeal and a larger style selection. They more or less
demand the properties mainstream fashion items can offer such as affordable prices and a wider
range of styles. Studies have shown that to become relevant and target the average consumer
these implementations might be necessary (Jacobs et al. 2018). This however is contrary to the
meaning of sustainable fashion, which means a slower and more thoughtful consumption of
lesser items that should be worn for a longer time (Fletcher 2014). To overcome such issues
innovative product-service systems can potentially be integrated to shift the ownership from
consumers to companies and lower waste generation through the use of collaborative
consumption offerings such as the leasing of clothes.
Further, pressures from consumers have led fashion companies to integrate CSR practices into
their businesses. Hence, brands require their suppliers to fulfil codes of conducts and set up
contracts to ensure that policies are fulfilled. These can however differ from retailer to retailer
leaving suppliers occupied adjusting their manufacturing facilities to comply with all, while
oftentimes not receiving financial support to help fulfil these standards (DeBrito et al. 2008).
Moreover, as opinions on sustainability differ depending on region, unwanted local conflicts
can arise such as the prohibition of child labour in Bangladesh that ultimately led children to
leave a relatively safe employment in textile factories to more dangerous work environments in
e.g. construction (Huq et al. 2014). Unfortunately, retailers, that in their view only want to do
good, lack communication with their suppliers and judge their situations by their own economic
and social standards leading to unforeseen consequences in local manufacturing environments.
Moreover, the complexity of fashion supply chains, with numerous tier suppliers, leaves
retailers with little to no control over the issues arising down the chain past their first-tier.
Fashion businesses are limited in their aim for transparency in such settings and are
consequently restricted in their implementation of corporate social responsibility to consider all
stakeholders while taking business decisions (Alexander 2020; Huq et al. 2014; Li et al. 2020).
To ensure sustainability throughout, a high level of transparency and control is required that is,
rather difficult to achieve. In principle, this means that economic sustainability can hardly be
achieved. Retailers lack communication down their supply chains past the first-tier supplier. To
ensure that all parties involved in the development process of garments are treated fairly and
benefit from working with a brand that establishes sustainability in their core, full transparency
needs to be guaranteed.
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What ultimately leads sustainable fashion brands to be seen as a paradox, is the many conflicts
they find themselves in. To be fully sustainable, brands need to be fully aware of actors in their
supply chain to be able to deal with all sustainability related issues including social,
environmental and economic concerns. Further, it struggles to be adopted into the mainstream
market, currently lacking availability and demand. According to research, to be adopted, it
requires properties that are typical for the items in the fast fashion market, such as a variety in
styles and greater accessibility (Connell 2010; Jacobs et al. 2018). This however, does not
match the purpose of sustainable fashion, wanting to lower consumption levels and impacts on
society and the environment. A larger number of styles and more attractive clothing can further
mean that items, equal to mainstream fashion, can go out of style, defying its purpose to extend
use. However, to exist and initiate change in the fashion industry, sustainable brands need to
reach the consumer and generate profit to a sufficient extent leaving them in a dilemma.
5.2 Question 2
What are challenges and motivations for sustainable fashion brands?
The literature shows that two actors, consumer and supplier, emerge in relation to sustainable
fashion brands. The former has a very strong impact and is as a promoter of sustainable fashion
partly responsible (Hill and Lee 2012; Joergens 2006). The supplier, on the other hand, is the
one who carries out what is required and is usually reactive in terms of sustainability (DiVito
and Bohnsack 2017).
However, it can be argued that the biggest challenge for sustainable fashion brands is the
consumer. Due to the lack of knowledge about sustainability and about the entire fashion
industry, including materials science, it is difficult for the consumer to see the problems of
fashion in terms of environmental and social impact (Connell 2010; Hill and Lee 2012; Morgan
and Birtwistle 2009). The higher price of sustainable products is therefore usually seen as
unjustified by consumers or even as rip-off (Harris et al. 2016). However, there are also more
enlightened customers who are more interested in protecting the environment and people
involved in the manufacturing process. These customers require just as much from sustainable
fashion brands. On the one hand, they demand total transparency in the supply chain, which has
a corresponding effect on suppliers. On the other hand, customers often find it difficult to cover
all categories of clothing with sustainable fashion because the availability of certain sustainable
garments is limited or not widely enough published (Connell 2010).
The transparency demanded by customers often puts pressure on suppliers to implement the
social and environmental standards of developed countries in their companies. However, since
sustainable fashion brands generally have smaller suppliers, there is an opportunity to build
partnership relations in order to exchange mutual knowledge and build trust. The challenge for
sustainable fashion brands is to acquire the knowledge about cultural, economic and political
differences. Sustainable fashion brands need to know about the circumstances in the countries
of production, whether they produce in Asia or Europe, in order to demand realisable
requirements that produce positive effects on both sides (DeBrito et al. 2018) and further be
able to treat all parties involved in the process fairly considering economic and social factors.
To counteract the fast fashion cycle, attempts are being made to build more on a circular
economy. However, there is also a dependence on the consumer (Pedersen et al 2019).
Sustainable fashion brands that focus their business on circular economy, such as value-added
services, renting or sharing still have to struggle with the fact that the value of an item of
clothing is not recognised or that overall consumption is too high, which in turn contributes to
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the throwaway society. In the latter case, it makes virtually no difference whether an item of
clothing has been produced in a sustainable manner if it ends up being part of the fast fashion
cycle (Black 2011).
According to this, the main drivers for sustainable fashion brands are the reduction of the
amount of resources, the extension of the use phase of materials or clothing, the reduction of
raw materials and the reduction of CO2 emissions (Fletcher 2014). Through effective
interaction between sustainable fashion brands and consumers, but also suppliers, the
understanding of sustainability can be communicated (Harris et al. 2016, Connell 2010, Ashby
2018; Alexander 2020). Therefore, another important driver is the education of stakeholders,
especially consumers and suppliers. By involving these two actors in individual processes and
decisions or through innovative business models, sustainable fashion brands can better respond
to the interests and needs, thereby create tangible benefits (e.g. strong brand image, reasonable
prices, material durability and quality) and intangible benefits (e.g. sustainability and
consumption awareness, employee motivation) (Ha-Brookshire and Norum 2011; Bly et al
2015; Huq et al. 2014; Todeschini et al. 2017). In addition, consumers can be encouraged to
adopt sustainable purchasing behaviour.
Ultimately, for sustainable fashion brands every challenge regarding environmental, economic
and social issues, is also an incentive to act better to ensure that future generations are not
restricted in satisfying their own needs.
5.3 Main research question
How can sustainable fashion brands deal with the paradox of acting sustainably while at the
same time taking profits and growth?
As described above, sustainable fashion brands do not have to struggle with the problems of
sustainability alone. An important co-actor is the supplier. The supplier seeks to represent and
fulfil its own interests, but is also largely dependent on the fashion brands to be economically
successful. In the same way, sustainable fashion brands rely on a steady economic situation
which can be carried out through the clothing consumption of the consumer, but simultaneously
strive for the reduction of environmental impact and compliance of social standards or rather
achievement of global social equivalence.
An important approach for sustainable fashion brands to deal with the paradox described
previously is a good, trustworthy and long-lasting relationship with their suppliers. A strong
relationship, as written by Ashby (2018), can lead to mutual success and ensure
competitiveness. Through regular communication about improvements, innovations or even
joint discussion of problems, environmental and social challenges can be tackled conjointly.
Furthermore, collaborations of buyer and seller can improve the bundled power to achieve
greater influence towards governmental policies (DiVito and Bohnsack 2017).
Moreover, for sustainable fashion brands, local production that is more environmentally
friendly in terms of transport is not always possible from a financial point of view, as the
European industry, for example, cannot compete with low-wage countries on price (DeBrito et
al. 2008). In this case, sustainable fashion brands can attempt to work on closer collaboration
with their suppliers to develop and investigate the use of new technologies to produce more
sustainable products.
Another important action is the education of employees and suppliers. Especially among
suppliers, there may be a lack of knowledge about sustainability, as geographical and economic
differences mean that there is not always a uniform understanding. Therefore, sustainable
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fashion brands should inform themselves extensively about the supplier but also about country-
specific policies and legislations in order to demand corresponding social, economic and
environmental standards. A partnership-based relationship also makes it easier to create a
transparent supply chain and gives customers the confidence to act in a truly sustainable
manner. In addition, past the involvement of sustainable design practices such as season-less
collections, longer lead times to sufficient selection of quality, and environmentally friendly
material, sustainable fashion brands need to be aware that sustainability is a process of
continuous improvement and propagate this attitude to consumer and supplier.
It is also important to understand that a lower prioritisation on profitability is not necessarily
detrimental to business, but rather the other way around. A stronger focus on social aspects,
especially on the working conditions of workers in production, could lead to increased
performance, as low social standards often contribute to higher sickness rates and absenteeism
and therefore reduced output (Huq et al 2014; Goworek 2011).
Through CSR practices, such as codes of conduct that take into account the needs of suppliers
and workers, greater environmental and social concerns can be addressed collectively and lead
to mutual benefits.
The consumer who is the key driver for all businesses, pushing the fashion industry’s growth
and cycle simultaneously seeks to find more information on the background of items they
acquire as awareness of social and environmental issues related to the industry reaches them.
The transparency achieved through stronger collaboration within supply chains can support
sustainable fashion brands to better share their knowledge and practices with their customers to
educate them on the importance of better, more sustainable processes. Hereby, the focus should
be on all steps essential to a products sustainability such as production circumstances, location,
emissions and fibres as consumers lack information on what materials are more or less
impactful for the environment, which could e.g. be added to an items label. Moreover, as
consumers relate sustainable clothing to items of a subculture they do not want to associate with
(Connell 2010), they should work on their attractiveness, fit and style choices (Jacobs et al.
2018; Harris et al. 2016) while keeping their core value in mind to create long-lasting designs
and continuously work on the improvement of their business practices.
Moreover, as Meyer (2001) discovered, brands should not solely promote themselves with
apparel items that have sustainability as their core value as consumers do not acknowledge this
as an added benefit compared to conventional clothing items. Further advantages should be
highlighted such as visual attributes and functionality.
The strong dependence of sustainable fashion brands on consumer behaviours and attitudes is
evident in numerous aspects. Business models in which clothing items are sold to customers
always inherit the risk that the items are disposed of after a short period of time as consumers
are triggered by changing trends and the feel to on the one hand belong and concurrently
differentiate themselves from others. An approach to tackle such behaviour is the shift from
product to service-based business models in which the companies for instance offer the leasing,
redesign, recycling and repair of apparel items. At this juncture, businesses can form stronger
relationships with their customers. In the case of a leasing model such connections are
maintained as the brand remains the owner of its products. What is critical about this particular
model is this conjunction and dependence on the customers. They need to bring back the items
they rented for the circle to close and the system to work, which requires an initial understanding
of its importance (Pedersen at al. 2019) and therefore should be kept as effortless as possible
(Tunn et al. 2018). It can also be seen as an opportunity in relation to economic sustainability.
Consumption of items is usually co-related to the use of natural resources (United Nations
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1987). When product-service systems are integrated, consumers can enjoy wearing new
clothing items while concurrently not contributing to increased utilisation of raw materials and
an overall extended use of these (Todeschini et al. 2017).
Consumers’ education is seen as central to introduce a shift in consumer behaviour towards
better consumption practices and an understanding of the value of existing garments. A products
sustainability is linked to both, internal and external stakeholders and entails the challenging
relationship between these (Perdersen 2019). Brands that want to fight the paradox of
sustainable fashion have to recognise their responsibility to continuously improve their own
business practices since sustainability is a continuous process, and meanwhile communicate the
importance of sustainable consumption and practices to their customers to try and educate them
on the value of their apparel.
As previously mentioned, a significant part to answer the researchers’ main question is not
directly covered in the literature, namely the economic perspective for sustainable fashion
brands. Only occasionally, the reference to economic sustainability is highlighted and
connections can be made through the use of Chapter 2 (frame of reference).
Nevertheless, sustainable fashion brands must also consider these aspects and deal with
economic sustainability, since it goes beyond their own business and affects not only internal
but also external stakeholders (Doane and MacGillivray 2001). Further, sustainable fashion
brands need to raise awareness that economic growth and profit generation is only necessary to
a certain extent in order to be financially viable. Through this, a sustainable economy can help
support the society and environment (Bascom 2016).
All in all, sustainable fashion brands should try to find a balance between their dependence on
economic growth and profit and their aim to do business in the least detrimental way possible.
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6 Conclusion
The purpose of this thesis is to present the current state of literature based on sustainable fashion
brands with an emphasis on their inherent paradox between wanting to sustain economically
and conduct business considering both the environment and society. The insufficient research
about the compatibility between sustainability and economics in sustainable fashion companies
led the researchers to analyse the existing literature in order to understand the current scientific
knowledge of the topic and provide a foundation for future research in the area of sustainable
fashion. Therefore, the investigation and synthesis of academic papers based on a literature
review is a meaningful endeavour and a valuable contribution in particular the emerging results
can be used as a starting point for other researches in the area of handling challenges of
sustainable fashion brands.
The methodology of the thesis was a systematic process to provide transparency throughout the
collection and evaluation of the data and minimising the bias by using peer-reviewed journal
articles in relation to sustainable fashion challenges in the English language. The 40 selected
papers were published in a timespan between 1998 and April 2020. The selected articles were
subsequently handled with the aim to systematically identify, categorise, analyse and synthesise
themes that appear across the literature. Three categories emerged from the review, consumer
influence, supplier relation and business model.
The results and analysis show that sustainable fashion is a large field covering many aspects.
Amongst other things it deals with the two most influential stakeholders, consumers and
suppliers as well as the relevance of business models for the handling of the current
overconsumption and quick disposal of apparel items. Additionally, the researchers ascertained
that the initial assumption about the presence of the paradox at sustainable fashion brands is
generally supported by the literature in terms of social and environmental sustainability. It is
reflected in current challenges that are outlined by a number of researches, such as the most
prominent paradox, which is based on the consumers’ lack of knowledge. Customers need
further education on fibres (Harris et al. 2016), the availability of more sustainable options
(Jacobs et al. 2018), maintenance behaviours, and consequences of quick disposal of apparel
items (Harris et al. 2016). They desire products that fulfil their wishes for differentiation
(Simmel 1904), hence wish sustainable options to be broader and more diversified (Jacobs et
al. 2018). Sustainable brands following these wishes of trendiness and accessibility
consequently insert themselves in the fashion cycle, thus risk to create garments that go out of
style and further increase the chance for disposable fashion items (Connell 2010). The research
shows the importance of close relationships between the lead firm and its stakeholders. A
particular emphasis hereby lies on consumer and supplier relationships. Innovative product-
service systems which focus on persistent connections between the brand and its customer, has
the potential for a shift in ownership. This allows products to have more than one wearer and
therefore extend their use which contributes to the reduction of consumption and raw material
use. It further prevents the disposability of apparel items that thereby no longer partake in the
fashion cycle. Through closer relationships with suppliers, sustainable fashion brands can
benefit in terms of social and environmental issues. Especially social problems such as working
conditions and gaps in knowledge can be tackled together. Therefore, codes of conduct and
other CSR measures can help in the prevention of worker exploitation and can improve the
social performance and ensure economic sustainability (Huq et al. 2014). Furthermore, the
exchange of knowledge and mutual support to improve sustainability concerns is an essential
part of building and maintaining long-term relationships. Through a partnership relationship,
- 37 -
more transparency can be created and thus confidence within the supply chain can be increased
(Alexander 2020).
Cultural and economic differences between the country of production and the country of the
retailer must also be taken into account (DeBrito et al. 2008) in order not to disregard the
possibilities of the suppliers and thereby create an imbalance. This would be counterproductive
for trust and the development of long-term relationships.
However, it is important to emphasise that all actors in the supply chain are aware that
sustainability is a continuous process of improvement and that everyone can and should
contribute to it.
The initial idea of exploring the paradox between acting sustainably while at the same time
taking profits and growth is not directly covered in current literature based on sustainable
fashion. The researchers identified a gap in relation to economic sustainability of sustainable
fashion brands, as there is little knowledge of how environmental and social issues can be
addressed in a rational economic way while remaining profitable in the long term. In most cases,
only the economic consequence of certain actions is shown, but this needs to be studied in more
detail.
6.1 Theoretical implications
There is a growing interest in the field of sustainable fashion and its potential for the tackling
of environmental and social issues. Further research in the field is required to focus on brands
that were born sustainable as a lot of literature currently focuses on the shift from fast fashion
to better practices (Todeschini et al. 2017). The research contributes to the field of sustainable
fashion by addressing the importance of the challenges sustainable brands encounter and their
motivations for acting responsibly and simultaneously describes the conflicts they find
themselves in relating to the overall paradox of sustainable fashion brands. It provides
information on constraints that currently make it difficult for sustainable apparel firms to reach
mainstream markets and further hinder smooth collaboration with suppliers abroad. It further
offers starting points for possible transitions into a circular economy through the utilisation of
product-service systems integrated into business models.
6.2 Practical implications
The findings can serve as a support for existing sustainable brands as well as new establishments
in the field. It can provide valuable insights into relevant sustainability obstacles that concern
social, environmental and economic issues. As discussed earlier, the collected results identified
a major influence of two stakeholders namely the consumer’s and supplier’s that challenge the
firm’s overall sustainability. The study depicts ways for the handling of these and hereby
provides information on current consumer expectations, supplier’s demands and offers a
number of possibilities to lower apparel and material consumption through the integration of
innovative business models with a focus on product-service systems. Especially consumers
demand more detailed information on manufacturing, fibres and expect more and more
background information when purchasing apparel. Hence the overall idea of sustainable fashion
is supported by them but is nevertheless lacking in certain areas such as style options, fit and
in-store availability. Moreover, consumers believe there are gaps in sustainable product
offerings of e.g. formal, intimate and business wear. These gaps could offer new potential
markets.
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Further, the need for strong collaboration with suppliers is outlined. Since sustainable fashion
brands, due to pressure from strong competition within the industry, produce in low-wage
countries too, they need to consider a number of things. A close relationship to their suppliers
can be beneficial to increase transparency past the first-tier suppliers. It can lead to mutual
success and increase competitiveness. Steady communication about challenges, innovations
and potential improvements can help deal with environmental and social issues conjointly.
Further, this can contribute to less misapprehensions between the parties as the understanding
of sustainability can largely differ between cultures. Education can therefore be a valuable tool
to create a more mutual understanding between retailer and supplier.
Lastly, innovative business models integrating product-service systems are outlined which offer
the possibility to lower both consumption and raw-material use through the reuse of apparel
items in various manners.
In conclusion, through acknowledging the importance of challenges concerned with sustainable
fashion brands and the enabling of more sustainable practices, it can facilitate brands to make
better managerial decisions towards less contradictory business in the future. Moreover, it can
create an understanding of the overall challenges faced in the field of sustainable fashion. The
research can further help as a guidance, offering valuable information that can be beneficial to
setting up a new business in the field of fashion and apparel considering influences from society
and the environment.
6.3 Limitations and potential future research
In spite of relevant contributions, this thesis has to be considered with limitations in mind.
Although the initial literature search resulted in a number of 191 articles, this study drew data
from only 40 articles based on limitations set by the researchers. In addition, the findings were
only selected from academic journals however books, conference papers and commercial
journals might have some interesting insights, too. The timeframe of only ten weeks, prescribed
by the University of Borås for achieving the Master’s degree, further limited the thesis. Another
restraint is the chosen database. For this thesis the article search was restricted to one, namely
Scopus. Even though Scopus is one of the largest abstract and citation databases of peer-
reviewed articles, other platforms may have offered additional relevant academic papers
covering the subject area.
These limitations pose a potential argument for further research with a broader range of material
and time. In order to improve the validity, a quantitative data analysis based on the research
articles could be undertaken and a greater number of articles could lead to richer results.
Moreover, expert interviews with brands working in the field of sustainable fashion could add
interesting insights that could further be explored. In addition, case studies of sustainable
fashion brands could help understand the economic perspective to discover to what extent
economic growth can really be sustainable and how this growth can contribute to better social
and environmental circumstances throughout the internal and external environment of the lead
firm. Furthermore, different stakeholder perspectives such as shareholder, government or NGO
could be taken into account to expand the knowledge of the influential factors towards
sustainable fashion brands. Based on the thesis results, further research could also be conducted
in the field of supplier relations to build strong partnerships and ensure transparency throughout
the supply chain.
- 39 -
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Appendix I Colour-coding example
- 49 -
Appendix II Selected articles with theme allocation sorted by date in descending order.
Reference Year
Theme
(Supplier relation, Consumer, Business
model)
Journal
Alexander, R. 2020,
"Emerging Roles of Lead Buyer Governance for Sustainability Across Global Production Networks",
Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 162, no. 2, pp. 269-290.2020 Supplier relation Journal of Business Ethics
Freudenreich, B. & Schaltegger, S. 2020,
"Developing sufficiency-oriented offerings for clothing users: Business approaches to support consumption reduction",
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 247.2020 Business model Journal of Cleaner Production
Jin, B.E. & Shin, D.C. 2020,
"Changing the game to compete: Innovations in the fashion retail industry from the disruptive business model",
Business horizons, .2020 Business model Business horizons
Lee, S.H.N. & Chow, P.-. 2020,
"Investigating consumer attitudes and intentions toward online fashion renting retailing",
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, vol. 52.2020 Business model Journal of Retailing and Consumer Service
Li, Y., Barrueta Pinto, M.C. & Diabat, A. 2020,
"Analyzing the critical success factor of CSR for the Chinese textile industry",
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 260.2020 Supplier relation Journal of Cleaner Production
Machado, M.A.D., Almeida, S.O., Bollick, L.C. & Bragagnolo, G. 2019,
"Second-hand fashion market: consumer role in circular economy",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 382-395.2019 Business model Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Park, H. & Joyner Armstrong, C.M. 2019,
"Will “no-ownership” work for apparel?: Implications for apparel retailers",
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, vol. 47, pp. 66-73.2019 Business model Journal of Retailing and Consumer Service
Pedersen, E.R.G., Earley, R. & Andersen, K.R. 2019,
"From singular to plural: exploring organisational complexities and circular business model design",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 308-326.2019 Business model Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Tunn, V.S.C., Bocken, N.M.P., van den Hende, E.A. & Schoormans, J.P.L. 2019,
"Business models for sustainable consumption in the circular economy: An expert study",
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 212, pp. 324-333.2019 Business model Journal of Cleaner Production
Ashby, A. 2018,
"Developing closed loop supply chains for environmental sustainability: Insights from a UK clothing case study",
Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 699-722.2018
Business model
Supplier relation Journal of Manufacturing Technology Managment
Dickenbrok, C. & Martinez, L.F. 2018,
"Communicating green fashion across different cultures and geographical regions",
International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 127-141.2018 Consumer International Review on Public and Nonprofitt Marketing
Gopalakrishnan, S. & Matthews, D. 2018,
"Collaborative consumption: a business model analysis of second-hand fashion",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 354-368.2018 Business model Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Jacobs, K., Petersen, L., Hörisch, J. & Battenfeld, D. 2018,
"Green thinking but thoughtless buying? An empirical extension of the value-attitude-behaviour hierarchy in sustainable clothing",
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 203, pp. 1155-1169.2018
Business model
Consumer Journal of Cleaner Production
Lang, C. & Armstrong, C.M.J. 2018,
"Fashion leadership and intention toward clothing product-service retail models",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 571-587.2018 Business model Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Di Benedetto, C.A. 2017,
"Corporate social responsibility as an emerging business model in fashion marketing",
Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 251-265.2017
Consumer
Supplier relation Journal of Global Fashion Marketing
DiVito, L. & Bohnsack, R. 2017,
"Entrepreneurial orientation and its effect on sustainability decision tradeoffs: The case of sustainable fashion firms",
Journal of Business Venturing, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 569-587.2017 Supplier relation Journal of Business Venturing
Franco, M.A. 2017,
"Circular economy at the micro level: A dynamic view of incumbents' struggles and challenges in the textile industry",
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 168, pp. 833-845.2017 Business model Journal of Cleaner Production
Grappi, S., Romani, S. & Barbarossa, C. 2017,
"Fashion without pollution: How consumers evaluate brands after an NGO campaign aimed at reducing toxic chemicals in the fashion
industry",
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 149, pp. 1164-1173. 2017 Consumer Journal of Cleaner Production
Todeschini, B.V., Cortimiglia, M.N., Callegaro-de-Menezes, D. & Ghezzi, A. 2017,
"Innovative and sustainable business models in the fashion industry: Entrepreneurial drivers, opportunities, and challenges",
Business horizons, vol. 60, no. 6, pp. 759-770.2017
Business model
Supplier relation Business horizons
Egels-Zandén, N. & Hansson, N. 2016,
"Supply Chain Transparency as a Consumer or Corporate Tool: The Case of Nudie Jeans Co",
Journal of Consumer Policy, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 377-395.2016 Consumer Journal of Consumer Policy
Harris, F., Roby, H. & Dibb, S. 2016,
"Sustainable clothing: Challenges, barriers and interventions for encouraging more sustainable consumer behaviour",
International Journal of Consumer Studies, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 309-318.2016
Consumer
Lead-firm issues International Journal of Consumer Studies
Perry, A. & Chung, T. 2016,
"Understand attitude-behavior gaps and benefit-behavior connections in Eco-Apparel",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 105-119.2016 Consumer Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Bly, S., Gwozdz, W. & Reisch, L.A. 2015,
"Exit from the high street: An exploratory study of sustainable fashion consumption pioneers",
International Journal of Consumer Studies, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 125-135.2015 Consumer International Journal of Consumer Studies
Clancy, G., Fröling, M. & Peters, G. 2015,
"Ecolabels as drivers of clothing design",
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 99, pp. 345-353.2015
Lead-firm issues
Consumer Journal of Cleaner Production
Ritch, E.L. 2015,
"Consumers interpreting sustainability: moving beyond food to fashion",
International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 1162-1181.2015 Consumer International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management
Rodrigues, P. & Borges, A.P. 2015,
"Corporate social responsibility and its impact in consumer decision-making",
Social Responsibility Journal, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 690-701.2015
Consumer
Social Responsibility Journal
Huq, F.A., Stevenson, M. & Zorzini, M. 2014,
"Social sustainability in developing country suppliers: An exploratory study in the ready made garments industry of Bangladesh",
International Journal of Operations and Production Management, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 610-638.2014 Supplier relation International Journal of Operations and Production Management
Hvass, K.K. 2014,
"Post-retail responsibility of garments – A fashion industry perspective",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 413-430.2014 Business model Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Armstrong, C.M. & Lang, C. 2013,
"Sustainable Product Service Systems: The New Frontier in Apparel Retailing?",
Research Journal of Textile and Apparel, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1-12.2013 Business model Research Journal of Textile and Apparel
Curwen, L.G., Park, J. & Sarkar, A.K. 2013,
"Challenges and Solutions of Sustainable Apparel Product Development: A Case Study of Eileen Fisher",
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 32-47.2013 Supplier relation Clothing and Textiles Research Journal
Kozar, J.M. & Connell, K.Y.H. 2013,
"Socially and environmentally responsible apparel consumption: Knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors",
Social Responsibility Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 316-325.2013 Consumer Social Responsibility Journal
Stall-Meadows, C. & Davey, A. 2013,
"Green marketing of apparel: Consumers’ price sensitivity to environmental marketing claims",
Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 33-43.2013 Consumer Journal of Global Fashion Marketing
Hill, J. & Lee, H.-. 2012,
"Young Generation Y consumers' perceptions of sustainability in the apparel industry",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 477-491.2012 Consumer Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Goworek, H. 2011,
"Social and environmental sustainability in the clothing industry: A case study of a fair trade retailer",
Social Responsibility Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 74-86.2011
Consumer
Supplier relation Social Responsibility Journal
Ha-Brookshire, J.E. & Norum, P.S. 2011,
"Willingness to pay for socially responsible products: Case of cotton apparel",
Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 344-353.2011 Consumer Journal of Consumer Marketing
Connell, K.Y.H. 2010,
"Internal and external barriers to eco-conscious apparel acquisition",
International Journal of Consumer Studies, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 279-286.2010 Consumer International Journal of Consumer Studies
De Brito, M.P., Carbone, V. & Blanquart, C.M. 2008,
"Towards a sustainable fashion retail supply chain in Europe: Organisation and performance",
International Journal of Production Economics, vol. 114, no. 2, pp. 534-553.2008 Supplier relation International Journal of Consumer Studies
Littrell, M.A., Ma, Y.J. & Halepete, J. 2005,
"Generation X, baby boomers, and swing: Marketing fair trade apparel",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 407-419.2005 Consumer Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management
Meyer, A. 2001,
"What's in it for the customers? Succesfully marketing green clothes",
Business Strategy and the Environment, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 317-330.2001 Consumer Business Strategy and the Environment
McSpirit, K. 1998,
"Sustainable Consumption: Patagonia's Buy Less, but Buy Better",
Corporate Environmental Strategy, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 32-40.1998 Supplier relation Corporate Environmental Strategy
Visiting address: Allégatan 1 · Postal address: 501 90 Borås · Phone: 033-435 40 00 · E-mail: [email protected] · Webb: www.hb.se