1 6 7 ' ' ' . ' t . l t : t . t ; t , r ! , t / , , t n t t t t t l t t t t r t

Alcl-r i tccts have long sor-rght to improve both the fbod

sr.rppl-v an([ social rclat ions thror-rgh dcsigr"rs lbr farms and

{bod dist l ibr.rt ion centcfs. The histor ' l ' ol thrs cngagenrent

i-s largel l ' nndocurnented. but f i orn l t topi iu-t architcctr"rt 'al

thnr-cit ies uf the eishteenth ir lrcl nineteenth centul ies.

such as Ebenezer Horvald's Galclen Cit ies. to po-st-\Vorld

War II supelfarrns and markets. Archigranr's hvdroponic

r-rtopias. \ Ictabol ist agricultulal ci t ies. and dlop-out

C'al i{brnia donc conrnunit ies. the farm and the rnarket

as architectr-rral programs have been nsccl to staltc new

clairns about horv t ire urban and lr,rral -"hr.rr: lcl cornrnitrgle.

The farm has also become a site n-here architects

develop nen concr.pts of sustenance i ind sustainabi l i ty

and ir-r-ragine nen' phvsical connection-q bets'ecn people

and the products they consume. What fol lorvs is a verl '

br ie{ survel ' of the histor5. ol some ofthese undeltakings.

, ; r . , : i l : . l : , . . ' , , ' - ' . l ; ; , . ' , , '

Lr the eighteenth centuri ' . a t ime of nrany ufban

fcrod shortages, European architects sought to irnpror.e

phvsical connections bets'een the cit l 'and the farm.

h'r Paris. prior to t l .re French Revolut ion. n' i th a publ ic

clarnoring for cheaper bread ar-rcl a cit-v- pol ice fbrce

e ager to r-naintain order, great arcl-r i tectural atterl t ion

1vs-r paid to ren"rakrng the citr- 's glain nrarket. the

Halie au Blc. rvhe.r 'e f lour q'as sold to baker' ,*. Though

i t r i a s , , r r l r i r : n ) i l l l l r a l ' 1 o l l h { f n r r r l s r < 1 e r n . t h r ' g l l i n

nalket \ \ 'as a I lotent publ ic s-vmbol of the govLrrnlrent 's

commitnent to f i l l ing t l ' re bel l ie-s of the populac.-.

A ne'r i f i r 'eploof 'nrarket rvas bnrlt in 1763. Desigr.recl b1'

Lt5 '

- 1 .

architect Nicolas le Carlus cle l l r izidrcs, thc r lalkct\vas to keep breacl pncc-s low' bv el ir l inat ing thcovcrcrorvding. specr-Llat ion. and infernos of the oldnrarketl l i : rce. Le Carnus de l lczidres bcgan to irneginctl ' rat a properly'desigr-red nrodcrn market cor,r ld lor,r-elpricers and actual lv provicie better fbod f irr the pol i t ical l .rf iustrated populace. ( i ) Enl ightenment design u,asput in the -qervice of 'sustaining l i f 'e.

Gerrlan c.conornist Johann Hcirtr ich r-orrThi inen u.as sirni lar lv f trscinated r l . i t l ' r hoq' cl ist l ibution-svsterls irnpacted fbocl prices. In a sel ics of textsptrbi islred frorn 1818 to 1E26 as Tlte Isolctt t :d Stnte.hervorked out the re' lat ion-ship betn'cen pr.ol i t ancl sp:rcc.gcnerating a diagram ol thi: rnaxirnum distance-q thatgoods could travel to reach nn urban marketplace.lDair ies and cleanrcrie,s tended to be located closestto cit ies because the goods ther- procluced woLrld pct ' isht lLrickh'. Tin'rber coulcl be gr()\ \ 'n a bit fr ,rrthcr ari- lr .r '{rom t l ' re citv centcr ' . but not too lar ' . as i t rvas di l f icr,r l tto move acloss lor-rg cl istanccs. Farrl is r,rncl rancltcscor-r ld bc located evcn lurther outsidc. thc citr ' . since'thei l prodr-rcts cor,r l<l suLvive a several-dar.. jotLlnt '-r .

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' l ' hun t , n s i r Lens s ' e l c i n i t i a l l r n r r . an t t t ) r l c sc r i i r t ' s ' he re

p loc l uc t i v i ' i n c l r r s t t ' i t ' s apy rc : r l t ' r l a l r i r t nd c i t i e s . l t r - r t I x '

t he t l ' cn t i c t h c ( , 11 tL r r ' \ . r , r l i r an y r I l r nn r ' f s l ( l o l l t ( ' ( l t h t ' t . r t i t s

i u I l ( l ( ' a l n roc l e l f b r s hen , l boc l i n c l us t r i c s o f d i f l ' c l en t

l \ l r r ' : < l i ( ' u l d L , l o c ; t t , t l .

Bcgir - rn i n g i n thc ' I r r te t ' i g l - i t t , t ,nt h cent rLr \ ' .

l ' - r 'ench agl icnl t r . r ra l engineel s s 'e lc a lso lc th inking thc

t ' o r r n t , c t i o r r s ben leen c i t i t , s anc l t i r t , l r g l i cu l t t u i r l i r l c i l s

t ha t sn r l o i . r nc l t ' c l t i r t , n r . Th t l l ca l i z t , c l t h l t t hc i l r n rnn and

lni r ) l l l l \ \ ' i ls tc g( 'ncI i l tc{ l in Pl i | is N0ulc l be an exct 'L lent

sou l c t ' o { ' 1e l t i I i ze r ' . r r nd t l i e r ' 1 . r ' opos t ' c i s chen r t ' s f o t '

s i r ippir - rg l ) :u isr ln sr ' \ \ 'a ! i , out of thc c i tv ancl sprei rc l ing

i t ov t , r ' ag l i cn l t u l a l l r r nc l . l n t hc mrc l - n i r ) e t e cn th ca ' n tL l l ' \ ' .

soci r r l i - . t I ) ien t ' Lelo l rx c l t , r 'e loped rr detrL i lec l I r ro l losa. l

l b r s t r ch l s t - s t ( , n1 . : r p l : r n t l ' r a t he c r r l i ed t i r e ( l i r cu l us . '

I f p lo per '1r ' chan nelccl to t h e r l Lt t t t l r ' ; i r l t ' thr ' , r r . t g l - t

nen' l r - devclo l r t 'c l ser i .e l 's . hunirrn \ \ ' i l -s te coulc i actur l l ] '

. ' t s l r r . r ' ; r l e l r { , r r r . l r t r v r l t t r ' . t t r t t $ i l t t l d i t l ( t r i l . { . h l l l l

r - ie lc ls ancl retLrrn to t l ' re intest ines of c i t r - dr i ' r ' l lers in t l - re

fur lnr of f rcs l - r i l r i i ts and vcgetal r le-s. ( - - i t l and f iLrmland

con l c l f b l n r a c l osec l s l s t ( , n r . c l o i ng as ' a r - s ' i t h t he

nr: ,Lr l i r : tp l lce l l toget i r er ' .

C )nce po l i t i c l l t h t ' u l i s l s sa r v f i l ' n r s an r l c r t i t ' s

as i n t t l connec t cL l s l s t en rs . r ' a t i r e l t han as s t r i c t l v

sel l i l la te t 'n t i t r t ,s . r - r topian archi tects ancl r - r rb ln ists of t l - re

rr i r - rctcenth centLi r l s 'e l r able to c lcat ivr l \ - r t 'conf igule

the l a rn r r nd t he c i t v t o i r l ag i r r e ncn ' f i r nns u f ' con rn run i t y .

- \ r 'chi te cts becrr le inte l cster l in pcl f ect ing ag-r icuI t r , r fa l

leatulcs rs a \ \ ' lv o l engcnclc l ing ' coope-r 'at ior-r .

sc l l :su{ f ic ier-rcr ' . ant l f ' r 'eer l l rn 1 l ' ,mr the \ i i {a l i . i o1 f i rocl

p l ic t 's i i - t l i specr-r lat ive econolr \ ' . - \ p l inralv r , \ i lm]) lc

r r i t h i s k i nc l { r l u t o l l i an ag l i c r - r l t u l a l c i t \ . i s F r ' l ' n c i r

LL t . ) l ) j nn soc ia l i s t ( ' l t r r r ' 1 r , s Fon l i e r " s l ' ha l r L r - r s t i ' r e . r i h i c l ' r

i n c l r r r l ed r t n ' i p l t ' sp r r t ' e f i l cn l t i va t i on . l ) (Fou r i e r " s s -o l l i

l r l : o i l l : l ) i l ca l l - r ' t ' oL r r ' s l t , s r . a r ch . , l ' l i e r a l c l " i i t c c tu l r o f

thc Phalansti ,r 'e. skctchcd bv Foulier- lol lorvcr ' \ t ictor '

Consid6rant. \ \ :as organized radial lv A centlal core ol the

conrl l le\ s 'or-r ld be cledicrrtecl to col lcct ivc' . quict act ivi t ies:

i t contained a I ibrar ' .r 'ancl ntceting.. foout-q. as well as

heating svstcnls i lnd a colnmLlnal restanrant. Extending

out { i 'onr the core \\ 'ere rooms for noisirr act ivi t ics. sncl-r

as f irr educating chi ldrcn, as well as l iving qui lr tcrs

and rvolkshops. Foulicl si tuatecl a rvol l<ing f irnu on thcpcl ipherl of t l ' re complt 'x. rvhere r,r l l rvould scc i t . Thotrgh

no Phalansti :res \\ 'cre actui l l ly constr lrcted. a lnorc

compact vet 'sion cal led Famil istbrc \ \ ' i ts reit l izerl in 1,965

in ( luise. France. b.v Jc:rn-Baptistc And16 Godin. AdapLing

the moclcl to a -srnal ler plot of land in rLn ul lr : ,Ln sett ing.

the Fanri l istbre f irrm n' l ,q replacecl bv l ki tchen garrlcn

anrl a lo\\ ,-cost gr 'ocery store.

I d e a,. f b r s t' I f-,q r,r s t ain i n g co nt m u nit i t' s b c g-a n

to sl ip into ther mainstrcam by thc earlv trvt 'nt iet l-r

centLlr'\'. Hos'ald's cIa,ssic Grzrdert Citit,s of'Ttt )IorroLL'

rel lr ise(l the iclcas of Thrinen and Fouricr ' . suggesting

that an ideal ci t l 'coLrld bc crcated bv irrtegl l t ing

al l rrspect-s ol production and conslrmption including

agricultr-rre-into t l ' re ciL\ ' . ' r ( I Sincc r isir"rg land pl ices

fi'orri Lilllln encrolrchmci-rt tori'ard ugricultr-rral lancl

nracle it difficult fbl ulban Ihmring to bc profitablc. on

tl ' re open market. Hou'ard proposcd rnsti tr-rt ing a sel i t 's

of l inancial strb,sicl ies t l-ult rvould makc' i t pos,qiblu

to continue farrning in close proxi l-nitv to othc-r trrban

activi t ics. hr contr lst n' i t l -r the nincteenth-centur ' .r .

Pl-ralanstere and Lc Canrus de M6zidrc's grl in mnrket,

Hon'alr l 's ideal fbocl-cit l sr:bst i tr-rt t :d mllstel planning

fol alchitectule. Hou'art l n' trs less lbcused on improtrng

fbod c l rs t r ibn t io r - r to cu l ta i l hungcr . In h is r , i s ion .

ag l i cn l tu le \ \ ' i l s no t on lv a mc i lns fb l su-s ta in ing the

citv's inhnbitrrnts: i t gcneratccl iur image ot an orclcrh',

-sclf lsr-Lstaining. ancl social lv coircsir-e cotnnr unit .r , ' .

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lil 0 ll E Il N I Z I tl 0 I fl t [A fi l,{ A li l] i H |,tul i li K ! i

Wit l ' r the spread of t l ' re rai lrval- and t l ' re periect ion ofr l ,ater-based t lansportat ion svstems in the latenineteenth centur.\r, time spent gctting firocl to and fronrmarketpiaces shrank. E-specialh' in the rvesterr-r UniteclStates. this r-ncant that the famr could r.nor-e furtherax'a1-from the cit .r ' . ar-rd i t helped excise food ploductior-r

to the peripherie-s of ci t ies. The ccnters of ntanvcit ies rvere. hoq'ever. st i l l devotcd to the distr ibr-rt ion.preparation. and stolage oflbod. Archite.cture n'asuserd to prolnote nc$-techltologres of fbod prcservation

and distr i l tut ion. r i 'hicl-r enablecl fborl to becomeas r-nuch a speculat ir-c corunoditv as -coruetl- l ing to eat.81. the earl1- t*.et 'r t ieth centurr i Danklnar Adler andLor-r is Sul l ivan \vcle clesigrr ing cold storage q.archouscs

171 t t to t l c r r t i : i r tg t l te fa rn t a r td t l te r r t t . -hc t

adorned'"r ' i th organic motifs in Chicago, an. Walter

Gropius l-rad devoted great architectural at- 'nt ion to

docr-rmenting thc design of grain elevators. ioviet

Constructir . ist architects similarly sought t promote

modern a gricr-rlt ure u,ith n-rodern ilrchitect - :'e. Proj ect s

such a-q architect Konstantin Melnikov's Nrv Sukharcva

N{arket in N'Ioscon' \1924-5) generated an i tage ol

orderly yct bountifut agricultural productit r tl'rat lvould

n'rake col lect ive farrning-somcthing quite rvlsible to

the average \Iuscovite-st i l1 apparent rvi t l n the citrr (4 t

Le Corbusier ' 's agricultural project. her Radiant

F:rrm ( 1934-5 ) (5 ). rvas an outgrorvth of his .r lan l i rr

thc Racl iant Cit lr Inspirecl b-v Norbert B6zld' a rural

adrnirer of 'Lc Corbusier 's work rvho chal le gcd hrnl

to adclress the state of rural l i fe in Francc. , lar ls lbr

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112 the architect's farm

the Radiant Farm were never realized but nonetheless

represent an important attempt to imagine new forms

of agricultural modernism. Taking a bird's-eye view

of the situation, Le Corbusier lamented the time, land,

and money lost to small-scale farming:

From the airplane, I see infinitely subdivided pieces

of land. The more modern technologies develop,

the more the earth subdivides itself, and spurns the

miraculous gifts of the machine. It's a total waste,

it's labor frittered away.a

His plans for the Radiant Farm would eliminate

this waste by consolidating land through the functional

organization of individual agricultural plots, with

zones for the production ofdifferent goods placed

in close proximity to the transportation systems needed

for the distribution and sale ofagricultural products.

Additionally, he allocated a plot ofland to every

citizen for kitchen gardens, which would balance thehypermodernity of the farm. He wrote:

A farm isn't an architectural fantasy. It's something akin

to a natural event, something that is like a humanizedface ofthe earth, a form ofgeometric planting that is

as much a part ofthe landscape as a tree or a hill, andas expressive ofhuman presence as a piece offurnitureor a machine.5

For Le Corbusier, the farm's evocation ofhuman presence was a way to naturalize a large-scalearchitectural intervention in the landscape.

Efforts to modernize farm communities slowedsomewhat during World War II, when industrial attentionwas turned elsewhere, but after the war ended, wartimetechnologies were repurposed to the home front and fundsfor economic reconstruction favored large-scale farm

173 modernizing the farm and the market

modernization projects gtander even than those imaginedby Le Corbusier. This postwar focus on industrial

agriculture is somewhat odd given the popularity andsuccess of wartime Victory Gardens, the near ubiquitouskitchen gardens that could be cultivated in urban

backyards. The U.S. Department ofAgriculture estimatesthat 40 percent offresh vegetables in the United Stateswere grown this way during the war. Nonetheless,planners, architects, and engineers collaborated toproduce industrial-agricultural systems such as farms,

markets, and distribution networks capable ofprovidingfood for growing postwar populations.

In the late 1940s, the French architecturaljournal Techniques et Architecture edited by Auguste

Perret featured liberal coverage ofthe architecture of

the industrial postwar farm. (6) New building types were

surveyed, and traditional farm buildings were updated,

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made subject to t ime and space studies to maxirnrzetheir efficiencli In scale and efficiencl- these farmsseened to take inspirat ion fron the Radiant Farm. butthey carr ied ferv traces of i ts "hunan presence"; thevrvere ful lv nechanized.

High-vield industrial farms n,ere only partof the picture. As in the nineteenth centur)-. architectsfigured out horv to get products fron industrial farrnsto n-rarkets in cit ies. and thel 'advanced architecturalknorvledge in the process. Jean Prouve's marketin Clicht ' , France (1935-40). fbr instance. rvas the f irstbui lding to use prefabricated curtain-n-al l panels. r?)

175 ntoderniz i t tg the lLtr rn ctr tc l th.e marhet

Later. F6lix Candela's Coyoacdn X'Iarket in Nlexico City( 1956) used easi ly constructed modular parts to quickly

build structures for buying and selling. (::) Both Prouv6

and Candela used the market as an opportunity to

insert maximurn flexibility through nodern materials

and prefabrication techniques. Similar strategies were

applied to rvhole-qale food markets, which received

the most attention from architects. Based on modelsfrom the United States. enormous modern markets

capable offeeding entire regions were constructed in

Germanl-, the Netherlands, France, and Japan during'thepostrvar period. They rvere iocated at the peripheries

of cities. rvhere they r'vould easiiy link to highr,vays. rail

lines, and airports, and replace crolvded and unsanitaryinner-city markets. These markets were crucial topostrvar economic developrnent strategy: the theor.y went

that i f the middlemen and congestion costs associatedrvith outmoded urban markets could be elin'rinated.

food prices rvould be reduced for consumers, who rvould

then have roon in their budgets to purchase nonessentialg o o d s . t h u s s t i m u l a t i n g e c o n o m i c g r o \ v t h .

The crdme de la crdme of modern wholesale

narkets r'vas built just outside gastronomically inclined

Paris, at Rungis from 1963 to '69. ( i ' ) Replacing the

overcrorvded markets at Les Halles in Paris. q,hich

once included the aforementioned Halle au 816, Rungis

became the rvorld's largest wholesale food market.6

Its architects-Henri Colboc and Georges Philippe-

sought to lorver food prices by reducing inefflciencres

in the design of the market. They carefully managed

the circulat ion offbod into and out ofbui ldings and also

r-rsed computer technologies to regulate the sale prices

of goods. Their efforts to improve where and how food rvas

sold rvere considered to be as important as paral lel

attempts to modernize postr.var farns, and they showed

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1 7 6 l l t t o r t l t i l t ' t t ' s f d r t t t

t l -rat calefLl lv clcsignctl iu 'chitcctule coti ld spLrr

consr-rnrlr t ion ol nr.rt c.rnl l frurts ancl \ ' ( 'getablt ls, bLrt

l l -so oI consunrcl goorls l ike n' lshir-rg nrachir)cs.

In spitc of t l -rerl appe'al. stanclaldizccl rrr-rd int lustr i t i l ized

lhlrning method-s. rvhcn applrccl too qLricklr-. could ploduce

r l i sas ter ' . In ncr r l v decoIon izec l Tanzr rn ia . fb r ins tancc .

the L-. janraa agl icultulaI vi l lagcs miurdatet l bs fornrcr

I)resiclent Jui i trs Nvcrcle fronr 1967-79 atternpted to

l t 1 , 1 r l r l r . * l f - f " t t , ' t ' e l i r t g r t g | i c t r l t i r t a l . r ' s t e t t t t r r 1 l t e t ' t t t i t e

corrntr\ ' . Lancl s'as col icct ivized. divide cl into ir grid. ar-rd

di,st1i5u1"6 px'sr-rmabl.r ' evenlv nnd bl indl l ' to l 'anzrrtr ian

r rs idcr t . to q r , , \ \ - iden t rca l c ro l l s on cac l ' r p lo t o f lan t l .

The inf inite rel)eatabi l i ty of t l .r i -q nethod of f i rrn.r design

nas in tcnded to repro t lnce soc ia l o lc lc r ' . abunc lance.

cquali tr ' . arrd sr,rpport 1or Nvert,re's S{rvclnrnf nt. and

it lookcd bear-rt i l i r l in pl irn. \ 'et in plact ice. plants cl idn't

glos' u hc're the.r ' rvere supposed to ancl thor,rsands of '

vcars ol local and specif ic knos' ledger o{ hoi.r ' rncl u'hcle

to gro\\ ' fbod in' fanzaniir rvas k.r-rt . Tl-rough -qor.ne of the

flalnaa l i l lage s \ \ ,ele sLrcce,ssi ir l . technucratic planning

tha t rc l ied on the b l ind log ic o f the gr ic l d idn ' t necessr t t ' i l v

plodr.rcc high clop r- ielr ls. Thousands starr-ecl under

thg l i jant i ia svstem.;

Architcctural histol i :rn Sigf i ' icd Gie<l ior.r

rrr ight have prcclrctecl such :r rhsi,Lster ' . In Meclrart izctt iort

7 i t h r ' s ( ' t ' t t t n t t r t t I l . e s o l t u f c a t r r l , ' L u f i r t r l u . t t i : r l

prodr,rct ior-r techuiques * r ' i t ten at thc bel 'rest o1 \\altcr( i lopius in 1943. Giecl ion becanre fascinatecl rvi th

horv foorl procl l lct-s becirr-ne ' 'mcchanizccl ' : that is. horv

the plodr,rct iorr. 1r 'ocessing. anrl consnr.uption ol fbod

increas ing l l - dcpendec l on rnechan icn l techno log ies .

\\- i- i i le lol alchitccture. mechanization proclr.rccci

nt 'rr , {on.r.rs of inl-rabitat ion ancl nerv ol) l)oltnnit ie-s Ibr

1 7 7 t ' l l r i t t l ' t t , : i t , , l t r s t r t , t l l l r t t . , . -

p lo f i t . thc huml r r r n tcchan iza t ion i thc ' Iog ic o I n .h ichcxtcnde(l direct lv to Nazi cleatl t campsrposercl u gr.avcrtLrnger' . I Ie rvrotc:

One t l-r ing is celt ir in. Xlechlnization corr.rc's to a h:r l tl r t ' l i rre l iv ing -cui lstrrnce. A rrerv outlr iok rurLst l trer-rr i li 1 l ) i t tu te i s to be n l l s te ted la ther tha t r deg l l r led . '

Fo l G icc l ion . a p lagmi i t i c coupI i r - rg o l in t lus t r i l i andnr tu ra l i rg l i cu l tu re \y t rs o l l t o l the ques t ion . The log icof rnechanization u'as t ight and teleological ertoughto prec luc lc the coen-s tcnce o f a r t i san l r l and indus t r ia lculturesl the art isanal t as quicl<lv bering lost in i l repostwar pcl iocl. As rnuch A-s ne\\ ' technologic.s nrightbc trdn-r i l t 'd. thei l conncction to l iving lreing-s nt:eded tobc lethotrght :rncl sometimes racl ical l ;r rcfused.

In the 1960s and '70s . G lcek p lanner(lonstantinos Doxiadis lbl lou'ecl the course of lcthinking,lather than ref irsing. I)oxi irdis's approacl 'r to 1t lanningd id no t . jus t cons ic le r phvs ica l in l ias t ruc t r , r rc o r z { ,n inHbLrt also the organization ofspaces for rr l l aspects of 'l i1c. incltLding fbocl procluct ion. Hc generatecl a f irrmulaf irr a tot ir l environtnent that r,voulcl incltrde space forboth inclrLst l ial and trarl i t ional agriculture. In hi,sf ir 'm's jonlnal. E/, ' ls lzcs. he arguccl in f i l 'ol of dcvoturg10 percent of tottr l lancl to food proclr-rct ion arons. '"vhich

hc ci l l led "cult ivalt 'a,c." One cult ivalea n'oulcl bt, fbr"rurtural falnring." f i i led n' i th orchards. 1i 'ee-rotrnt ing

animals. ancl opcn orgrLnic f ields: the ot l ' rcl rvotr lcl bel i r l f ' .61n . . le rn - r ing . s r th a "cornp le te c l iu r ina t ionol ' the natural lanclscapc. l l 'here l pattcrn of roo{.s wil lle place ir ( l istant vies- uf bear-rt i l i r l { ield-. and orchard,s."1,Thi-s teclrnological l .v enhlnced cult ivarci i rvor-r ld be incloser proxirnit l ' to cit ier-s-a nec(,ssarv cvi l for ploviding

lalge'qurlnt i t ies o{ foocl. I l i spitc ol his:rt tention to therl i fTirrenccs betrr, t 'cn thcsc tu'o nrocle-q of production.

| .g$t'

9tuwl

II

Y1 7 8 t l t t u r t l t i t ' c t , f , t t ' t , t

Doxiadis didrr ' t see that the ts'o method-s rr-ele

ir:reconci lable: thev sirnpl l- sen-ecl dif l 'erent societal

functions. both of rvl ' i ic l ' r neeciecl to be -qr,rpported.Hc lh l t th r t rg l i c r r l t r r la lu rodern i tv cou id coex is t rv i th

" b ' " " " " "

aglicuitr-r lal traci i t ions.

Other a rch i tec ts devc loped nrn le r - i s ionarv

and altclnativc food and thlnr schemcs. attcnrpting to

lesoh'c tensions betu'ccn art isanal and industr ial fooclploduction r"ncthods. Japanese l lctabol ist architcct

Kisho Kr-rrokarva clevelopcd tl-rc Agricultulal Citl' for'l'ris

f i lst alchitccttr lel plojcct. procl igiousl l , shorvn at l Iol IAs

\- isionar'1- Architecture crhibit iun orgenize.l b1 Arthur

DlexLel in 1961. { ' t Agricr-r l turc. botir as a program

and as a nctaphor' lbl ur"banisrl . becane a pletext {or '

the advancenent c.rf Kulokau'a's ear"lr- architectulal

idcas. Tl.rc Agricult ' rral Cit l ' n 'as dir- ided into cel l-s. s-hich

could gros' ahnost organical l l - alor,rnd an architecturalf i 'amcri 'olk. Raisecl abor-e glound. self-generlt ing.

and non-hierarchical. t l -re f 'alnr-citv echoecl the tradit ional

dcvcloprnent pattern:r of rural Japanese vi l lages butn-as enhanced b1,' modeln inii'astr"ucture lir-r this ca-qe.-st1'cets containing ut i l i tv pipe-s ). L'r land-stat 'r-ed Japan.Kurokas-a's rural plan \\-ai a tsLl l ' l l l is ingl l dcnsc ancl

1 7 9 r t l l t i t t / t i n g l t t d t t s t r i r t l t ' t u t t t s

urbi ln. In a r lanncr not cl issirni lar to earl icr agricnlturalr i toi l i r is. Knrokan'a's sett lement rvoulcl enable autarchy {brthe falnrcrs of indir.idual ce1ls. Terchnology coulcl supporttraclitior-ral ri a1.s of life that w-ere spatiaily reorganizecl.Like Doriada-s r but unl ike Gicdion ) Knrol<al,a dir l not cal lIbr the racl icai separation of the farn f i .orn tecl-rnolog1..

Food also becarne a lr t : ans for thir-rking altoutthe le. lat i on-qh r p benr.een techno1o g1.. cons Llmpt ron,and er.elvclav life ir-r Gleat Britain. L.r the pop artrvorksof t l -re Jndepencle.nt Gloup of t l -rc earlv 1950s, packageclfbocls appearecl a.-s :urbir.alent s.yrnbois of the drivestcu'arcl consunrptiolr in the incleasinglv prospercnspost\\ 'ar perioci. Sr-rrtrptnou s clel ights-w.idely avai l ablethank-q to irnprovecl ci i ,ct l ' ibut ion ntethods ancl theindr,L-str ial farm-" of the imnediate l tostrvar period_becarne s.vrnbols of the arnbivalent att i tude ofavant-garde culture tonard the pleasures and pit fal lsof a cor-rslirler socictr,-.

For the Brit ish architcctural proi.ocateursArchigrai l . fbod's visceral svmbolism bccarne a rr. tezursto tease out a ne\\' r'elationship betu..een technolog.r,.pol i t ical econorlr l- . and d:ir lv l i fe. Friends rvith rnerlbersof the Indepcnderit ( i loup. trnd :r lso featurecl in Drexler 's\r isionar1'Arcl- i i tecturc- shorv at NIo\tA. thev usediurages of foocl and :Lgricnlture for architectural cr i t iqucs.hr 1963. in the third oftheir periocl ic t leatises. cal leclAlchrgranrs ia r-reologisrl of architect i- ire ancl telegram).the gror,rp cxponnded one rel:r t ionship betr i 'een fuodand architecture:

Ahro-rt rrithout rc:rlizing it. rvc har-c absolbecl ir.rto oul1ir-e.s the f i ist genelat i on of cxpen dable-s. . . foodbags.prLpel t i ss tre,<. polr. thcne \\ : t appel.s. b:r i lpens, E ps. . . .\\-t thron'them ar-,.av alnto-.l as soon ils q,e;rcquire thenr.

Also rvith r-rs :t le the itcrns that ar.e bigger.nncl last

,::]]],. F1ji:l ...

1 8 11 8 0

l

;I{

Ion gcr ' . l r r r t a l r ' n ( )ne t hc iL .ss l r l r rnn tcL tb t ob .o l r ' . i t , nce ' . . .

( ) L u b l s r c n ) € , s s i t g e l ' l

l t u t t l t r , l t o t t t , ' . t l t t L c i t , , l t ' c i l t . t t n r l

l l t L ' f i o : , . t t p e r t t r t t l : t t t ' e l l l l t t s t t t t . , .

L i l i e K u l o k a r v a . A l c h i g l u u r r l r s i n t t ' r ' e s t c c l

i n hos ' i nc l us t l i a l p r ' o r l L l c t i on n r c thods . such as I r l r nnc ( lo l r so l escc ' r r cc . cou l c l t l r r ns l i r lm c i t i e s i n r ' : r d i ca l n ' l u s .

Pe, t t , t ' ( 'ool i s \ \ ' l r ter l ) lLks 1or ' -sei r - l i rmr ing- { 196E t shos-ecl

hr ,n foor l r )1 ight be gr 'o\ \ ' l l in unpledictablc I r l i lccs. 1 i

An r l i n l l c r l l t oo l r f i ' on r 1971 . Cook c i a i n r cd 1 l ) a t t h ( '

fh l nr and c i tv coLi lc l n i i rg ic i l lh ' col lapst i r - r to one i lnot i ter ' :

ho l og lan r ho l s t , s anc l p l an t s po l t ou t o f t hc r . oo l o l i rr l i l l ( ' s t o r ' \ ' l o i i bu i l r l i r r g . I rA l ch i g - r ' n1 r #9 r1 ! ) 70 ) . t h t . l l s to f t hc g l o t r l - r ' s c l i s l t i r l t ' hes . a l l us i vc l v i . r n t l s . r ' n rbo l i cu l l v t oo [<

u l ) t i r c t l l ( ' n1e o l cu l l i r a t i on . , \ l ) l l ( . k c t o l s ce ' c l s \ \ ' i l s l L l c t i ( , ( l

in lo t 'ach nragazine. r r r )d th( , cor . t , r ' b. r 'Warr . t 'n Cl l - r r r l l i

I e t r t L r l ec l r r l l k r i r l s o l g l i ) \ \ ' i ng p l i l r ) t - s . Fo l A r c i t i g ' r . l r n t . t h t '

p l r n t r i n ( l t i - i e f i r r n t \ \ ' r ' l ' L r l s r -mbo l o f l r l i l f e l t ' n t k i nc [ o i

c l i s t l i b r - r t i on - l o t a l i t l ca on pa l l ( , r ' be i ng sen t b r . pos t . l i l i c ,

t he ' g - r oup ' s t h t ' n r l e f i r nc t n r i r gaz inc -b r r t l h r , poss i l r i l i t v o f

i r l i ! i ng s l s t en l i r ( ' t u l t ] l ! bC ing r l i s sen t i n l r t ec l l ^ a | r : h i t ec ,1s

scc l i i ng t o r l i s so l vc i t l r ' h i t t ' t ' t u re i n t o n a I u r ' t , i t s c ]1 .

I ' e ' r hno log i ce l l r cnhe r - r ce , c l l i r l r ns l pp l l r l e l s c r vhe r . r '

t oo . [ I ans I l o l ] r ' i n ' s l r l t i c k ' " r \ l l e s i s t A l ch i t c l i t u r "

tE l t ' r ' l - t h i ng - i s ' \ r ' ch i t c c t r , u ' ( ' ) . a l t ( ' \ l l o i r i o f t h t ' i n c l t ' l r s i ng

l t t r . r gc o f u r ch i t t ' c t n l l L l l ) r o j ( , c t , s . I c l r t u r l s an i n rag t '

of a p lo. j t 'c t i t . r ' l r lchi t t t t Konrtrc i [ . ' r 'er- crr l lec l I iuhs ' i t .kc l

tCou c i l c l c r i i ' on r 19 ( i 7 : " . \ f i r lm p ' o j ec t i nco r ' po ra i i r r g

env i l onn r i ' t r t a l co t - r t l o l n t e ' c l l r n i sn r s h l l ness t , t l c l i r ( ' c t t o

tht ' l r t i r l i t l s -so th l t t l r r r i ld i n gs becort te r r r r r rcct 'ss l l r ' . , ' . " 1 1 1 )

l le lc thc ' f l r l r -n lur i r .n l r l c last ,s t r lc l i t ion rr l r l c l t i t t c t r r le,

d i ss i pa t i r r e r t i n t o t hc c r r v i r onmcn t a t l i t l ' g c .

Thc t 'n l lv I970s ploclLr t 'cc l lnotht , r ' 91tr1 of a lchi tect dr ivcn

f a l r n p ro j i ' c t s . b r r t t h i s t i n r t , l hev s ' e r t , s t , l f - comrn i ss i on r : t l .

n ro r ' ( , r ' ad i c i l l . n ro l e c l o - i t - . r o r r l se l 1 . l r nd t t , r c l r l oduccc lb.r ' r r lchr t t 'c ts u 'ho c l lo l t l tec l r r r - r t l l l her t l tan br ' l i ln tor-rs

I l r ac t i t i on ( ' r ' s . SL rch p |o j cc t s \ ve ] . c i l mc lns t o | c t h l n l i t l ' r c

l r o r , r n r l a l i t , s l t c t n e t n t I t r , o l g i t r r i c t r r r c i t l t t , t c chno log i cn l .

anc l l i s r gu o l p r i l t i c i p r r t i on i n sou r t ' o l t h t 'mo l c l v i l d

s t l i t i l i s o l i , r pe l i r nen t l i i a r ch i t c , c t u l r l p l ac t i c r ' . \V i c l t ' s1 l ' e l c l

r u rb l i n t l i s i n r - es tn l cn t j n t h t , 1960s c re l t ( ' r l ne * ' impc la -

t i v t , s 1o r An rcnc ru - r : r l ch i t ec t s t o l ake i t os i t r ons abou t

t hc r ' o l c o l r l - r e c i t v as i r cen t ( ' r o l p roduc t i v i t r " . I n t hc na l< t '

o f g l o i i ' i r . r r c co iog i ca l ( oncc ln r nc l t he l oom i l i g o i l c l i s i s -

l

I

-

i

.II

182 | l r t r t r t l t i t t ' r t ' . , I r t t n t

an(l alter the lentoval of thc r i . l -rolesale tnalkctsin Eulopean citv center.s. such u-* at Clovent Garden inLonr lon anc l Lcs I ia l les in I )a r is . c l t r r ing thc la te 1960s-ulban i lcce-ss to fbod ancl to thc thmrels u-ho ploduccit u' ls rracle int l tos,sible u. i t i r in t l -re crtr-. and the packageclgloss o{ indr.rstr ial izcd foocl no lor-rgcr. fascinatedl lchitccts. The lacl ical ones rnovod f i 'ont clr.ug-aclcl leclci t ics to their ori n : tutonolnol ls ccological contpor-tncls.f lont San Fluncisco to Berkeltr: Envit 'onnrcr.rtul lr-f l ' icndlv fbocl cntergcd as a pl ivi legecl si tc l i rr nn architcct( ' l s ( ' r ' to l in r i t thc a i iena t ion u l modern l i l c . Rura lI lnglanci ancl the Pacrf lc Nolths't 'st r i 'elc irk,al sett i l tgsI ir l thcse neu'r.rplor:rt ions. rnd intages of gc,ocle-sic cionrcbuiIr lcr-s ancl r ' i ic l ical confnlLrl tcs bcgan to 1tr.oIr leratein rr lchitectr-rral nragazines.

One of t l tc ntain ptrbl i-shcr.-. of snch schentesn rrs Ai r ' f tr le r.1 t tnrl Desigt i t11) r. rrn earlv cl-rarnlt ion of.\r 'chigrarn anci othe.r racl ictr l plact ices of thr earl .r .anclrn id -1960s: thc ' r ' l t l t x - rded a f i i sc ina t ing lcns f i r r look ingut ho*, the icle.as f lon'r thesr, 1rr.ett ices \\ er.r, t l . :utsfbrl .nt:dinto lbocl archit t 'ct l i res. Publisirc'd bv the sitme cataiog.conrprin\- th:. . t l r i intc.d the 11'/rr lL Ectft l t ( . ' ( tct lrg. ADfir l lont.cl fbocl ot i t of t l ' re citr ' . to the ela' ,r r .acl ical famrs artr lt l l o1 t -ou t cornmrrn i t ies . In Derccn tber 1971. AD pub l is l " rec ltu pult l i t i t of thc Librc conl l l tLlnr ' . n'hich grerv i ts orvnIoocl in orclel to be'conre autononrr)Lrs f i .ont l l te-trventieth-cr, l t t urv n|ban |cal estate -spercrr lat ion ancl technocr.atrccortt lol . r ' ( ) Br ' 1972. foocl : i1cl l i rr .uts q.er.r, c,vcLrrvherein thc ntagazino. I 'hc Pner-rmatic lssue ol tr lalch 1972lca tured an ar t i c lc ca l led "U lb ln Farn ' r . "Anot l - re r . shor talt icler f i 'on-r l lar 1972 featrrrcd elcctronic apples. s,hich\\ 'cr '( , not intcnrlccl to be eaten but |ather to intpror-et lre' f i rocl supplv. ( ' ) Then in July uf the same r,car.thc rc n 'as an ar t i c lc on a Be lkc lev course ca l l cd Out lag .BLr i l c l ing . s -h ich to ld the s to r . r ' o f 'a rch i tec tu r . ( , s tudents

1 8 3 r ad i c r t l l h r r r t i t t p

/t'l', a

,,ii[iBR€

fleeing tl-rc.ir studios firr tl're countrvsidL'. r.vhere thc.y built,

alnong rrther st luctLrlL's. orgone chicke'r-r coops. rvl t icl i . i t

s 'as bel ievecl. s-oulcl l L'store the bi ld-s' r ' i tal sexurl cnerg-1

for the proclr-rct ion ol nrorc eggs.r 'At i jacent to t lr is l i r t le

art iclc rvas another :rbout clectronragnetic garclening,

a techniqne of applving raci iat ion to vr:getabler glrrdcns

to inclea-se t l-reir 1-ielcl-s.In the f irst : i l t ic le. students s ho havc bt 'cn

toi l ing "under f luolesccnt l ights" u'elo invited to go to

the cor-rntr'1, so that llrcy could "gror'r' rurder thc sky."

In the scconcl. radi ir t ior-r q'as con,qidt 'r ' t 'c l more valr-rable

and less dangerous. l t lei l-qt for r-e gt ' tablesl i t cotr lcl

_k.\i.:,. ; t "

__I I

|\]=>'/,

enhanc(' rathel t i r i rn destfoJ- thenr. \ I i -r i le ,"eenringl lP r t { ] ' r l ' s i n o l l t l l r e r r r ' f i t < n l n j r l r r r ' , r l l i v i r r " i r r r r r l r l r u r , : r r .

i t 's clenr thlt thcsc al ' t ic lcs also hncl an agcrlr la lbr

afcrhitoctur 'r , that is not cl is,sirni lal to Frcr ' 's. Ther

t lansfrrrrnecl the fbod envirr inrrent into un cxpandcdficld for tecl 'rnological iv cl t 'pendent alcl ' i i tectulalp loduc t ion . Not cven the countc rc r r l tu I ' c "s loud c l i t . sfbr natural and olganic l iving coLrlcl kcep lbod lrom its

te'cl-rnologizecl {atr ir-r AD. In ,si-rch a contr\t . ont cotLlclrr- ln a\\ ' i l ] ' f ionr f l trore-scer-rt l ights anrl t 'at clcct loltagnr' t icr.egctables \\ ' i thotrt a cor-rf l ict.

A-s the o i l c r i s is h i t in 197; : i . a r r -L la l esca l l ( ' to aself-,su{f icient conrnrunrtr ' -seemt,cl I ike Iess of a ladicalgc-cture and actrLal l .r ' bectrtnt ' sonicri ' l tat l tragm:rt ic. At thist ir le. AD began to leatule more arl icLes on grori ' ing foodrvithin cit ics. r.rsing high-tcchnologl ntr: thods appropri i l todlrom enginee'r ing periodicals. The CilctLlr,rs reappcaredin Revuel Brinhlrnr 's skctches lbr : ,rn ccokrgic:r i lv control ledcnvironnrent th:rt converrts hor,rsel 'roIcl u aste into ernclg]1( ) Th€, Janlr:r lr ' 197-1 issue f 'eatr-rrccl alt icles on vert icaigroq.th svstems ancl crop-* that could bc glon'r.r {bl encrgl 'la the l than lboc l . l fhe le s 'e* r h ieh lv t t ' chn ica l c l i sc r - rss rons

1 8 5 r u d i c u l l u r n t i n g

of thc potentirr l frrr extract ir-rg'cnerg.v front yt1:rnts.rr hich could be "appl iecl at a co]l tmuniLy level" fbr l tothsLrstenance nnd electr ici t l : In his book ?/zc Ecologir:al

Corttext ( 1970 r. AD contr ibr-rtor John NIcHale sirni lar lypos i ts p ro te in as a purc sourcc o f l i fe , a quant i f iab le

con) modi tJ' rvho-se con-. urr-rption vnrics accord i ng

to t l-rc level of 'pr ivi lege and exploitat ion practiccs ofdif ferent contincnts. Hcre. fr-rod is odcl lr , dir.orccd fron'r

anv plcasurc onc might takc 1i-om eating. Thc body.

cxpcriencing the ocological cr isi-s. ei l ts chernical frrrrnulas,

not cake. Bv t l-re enrl of t l ' re period. architectule u'as

no longer e\-cn necessaf) ' . only f irrrr ing. \ 'ou could evcn"gro\\ ' ) 'our house."

' I l -rese projects u'erc smaII intcn cntions.

cxpelirnents, an(l fantasies. Thel ' took thc threats tolate-capital ist cr,r l tr-rre posed by the cr-rergy cl isis

seriousl l ' . ancl tr ied to picturc a reoldcred *.orld, rvl ' rether

i t be thc desi lable ancl pleasurablo one ol the Libre

cornrrurre or novel ist Ernest Cailenbach's Ecotopia ur

thc st langelv cl1'stopian and I ikel l ' tastelerss one of

thc portable f ish farm designed {br ir igh protein .vields.I 'etrturecl in AD of 1971. But those projects also put lbl th

an architcctLrral age ncla. Tl-re1' anbit iously expanded

the concept o1 r.vl ' rat architecture did ancl rvhat materials

i t could bc made fronr: seerds. plants. soi l . fert i l izer.

electromagneti ,sln. gcodcsic dorrr.s. enelgv-transfbrming

equat ions . in f la tab le s t rL lc tu res . :u rd c lo th rng . no t to

lr)ention experirnental f trrrns of conunrrnal l i ic. While

it $'as clea| t l"rat architectu|e conld pose no real solut ion

to thc. complex proble.ms a,s,sociatecl r i ' i th ecological

col lapse. therse small exanrples seernc'd l ike ingredier-rts

fur changc. both architectural and ecolof l ical. But when

cheap oi l u'as restolcd ir-r the 1980s. the'prof 'ession and i ts

rnagazines largt ' lv ret lrrncd to lvork on organizing spaccs

for speculat iot-t i t t td consluttpt ion. such as shopping malls.

IB4 I l t l u r t l t i t t ' t t : l i t t t i t

$dt'

r 8 i o b i i t 1 t t t , f o r n t i r t g186 l l t t un l t i t t t t s f o r t t t

markets. an(l nr useums. Architectural pcl iocl icals -stoppecl

clrc r-rrnent i n g s' i lc l erpel iments in t 'cological I iv r n g.

. t i , , , L i : l t , l i t L l r i , , : .

Todav there 's an inc lec l ib le awareness o f the env i ron-

rneuta l . hca l th . and soc ia l danger "s o f inc lus t l ia l n rca t

and gra in px)duc t ion . rampant and un tcs tcd gcnr t i c

rrodif ic: l t ion. ancl the global prol i ferat ion ol agricr, l l t r ,u'al

nonopolies. As iL |e,.nlt . the utopian blrck-to-the-lantl

DIY con-ulr,rrres of t l ' re earlr- 1970s are slos' lv leappearlng

in the mains t rc 'am a lch i tec tu ra l p lcs ,s . Thc lc i s u nes '

appeti te 1bl thc pr-r lc products of sn"ral l olganic thrrns

and a c lanru l ing fb l an cnd to govcrnn lcn t po l i c ie . -s tha t

nrake i t di f l icult for the,qe farns to surl ive. Ga-stronome-q

and ercologtrcs nl i l<c ale rethinking not onlv hori-food

is proclr-rccd. but also 1'rori ' i t night bc blt tcl cl istr ibuted

Ii 'om rr iral alcns to cit ies. Communitv Supported

Agricultulr ' { ( lSAt programs,cel l -qubscript ions of plodr-rce

to cit l clr i cl lcls. provicl ing stable inrome t, , f i rnri lv farrn-q:

fbr exaurplc. Neri ' \ 'ork'-s Nes'Arlsterciam l lnlket tan

ir"r i t iat ivc to bui lcl a perrnanent incloor m:rrke't fbr local lv

ancl sustainabl l proclncecl fcrocl r focr,rses orr irrclcasingn l o f i t . I o r l l r l r r r . r ' . r r o l l o s e l i n - . . f o , ' c l o l i t ' r . > l u l L U l r i L J l l t L l s

Thlivir-rg ancl convivial comrnunit ies are oftcn asse nrbled

alound such init iat ir-e-s. :-et fbrlning thenr rs l i ighlv

incff icicnt u,hcn r. ierved through the indrrstr ial lcrrs.

Thesc horrcgrou.n strategies are " l-rorizontal": t l -rat

is. thel tekc t int- rLncl energl 'and requirc an abundance

o{ lar-rcl that onlv seems to be ar-ai lablc in rural areas.

Irt contrrtst. i r .rcleasirrg global r,rrbanization over thepast t \ \-ent\- 1'r :ars has helped to gcncrate a mult i tucie of"r-ert ical" st latcgie.s { i .rr qrou ing ib, 'r l rnsiclr nf thc citv 's

l i r l i i ts. This intelest in urban foocl is cluc in palt to t1-re

,qecond r.r i l cr isis and a gros-ing awarcness of t l -re social

ancl envi lorrnrcntal costs of shipping f irocl long distances.

t J**r'-.

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But i t is aiso due to the f 'act that urban land is nowhighl.r ' r 'aluable and desi lable. and property owners,alchitccts, and planners have conspired to rethink howlbocl might be grorvn in cit ies, givcr"r these nerv economicand ccologicai prcssures. Front tcchno-futurist urbanfirrnrs such as NI\rRD\,''s Pig Clitr.'. rvhich squeezed apig Iarm into :r skr-scraper i1, ') . to Dickson Despommier's\tr t ical Farm. r i-hich proposLrs grorving h.v-droponicvc'getablc-s rn the cultain-r l 'al l of a skl.scraper, architects

hlu'c designed vert ical f i rrms not only to nake cit ies

nrolc l ivable. pleasant. and sustainable, but also to make

cit ies ir-rto better si tes for inr. 'cstment and real estate

a rc h i te ( ' t 'sl B B t h c a r c h i t e ( ' t ' s . . : t ' n l

prof i t . Evcn engineering girrrrt ARLrP has been researching

hor.v to grorv food-organic. llo 1e-ss-\\'ithin cities and

1-ras producecl a denonstratrrn of their methods in plans

for a nerv "eco-citv" in Dongtan' Chir la ( )

Br-rt aren't there nore transibrn-rative \l'a-vs

that architects can use farnrs toda)-? \Vhat rvor-rld happer-l

if architects clid q'hat thgl' lrave alrva;-s done: design

a better neans of navigatin' l the pol i t ics and techniqr-res

of contenporarl' food prodtr, tion? It's clear flom this

historl- that the relat ionshi, 'betrveen trr 'o strains of

farn-ring that n'e're n611' f3111:lial rvith-industriaI versus

organic. horizontal \rersus r ert ical-actual ly become

less diarnetr ical lv opposed r 'hen they enter the hands

of cr"eative architects. P.F.1 rray be sucir an exampie'

Like Kurokan a's Agricr-rltur -rt Cit1" it's neither horizontal

nor vert ical, but rather 2 f3: m that 's ' 'obl ique" (to borrorv

Paul Vir i t io and Claude p21, 'nt 's term) As Amale Andraos

has said. "PF.1 only clouble. up the ground enor'rgh

to create a social space uncl, ' rneath the farr l " Unl ike

massive. high-tech Yert ical l l rms, PF 1 seens to point out

that ulban space can also s:;Pport sn'ral l-scale farms

that generate corlnunit ies tround t lre production of food'

And unl ike the hypothetica. or remote farms appearing

on the pages of AD in the 'i )s (rv1.rich are in.rpossible

to real ly digest r-rniess you I ke cei lulose and toxic inklt '

thousands ofpeople could l sceral l)- experience the

pleasures of P.F.1 by eating:he food i t produced At PF 1'

\VORKac assembled both crrrdboard cizd corntlunit ies'

The t ime-consuming and st: ange u'ork of actual l l '

making (and not just drari ' i rg or photomontaging) srnal l

utopias-assemblirrg armie . of volunteers' n'ranaging

the complexitl' of such an Lr:rdet'taking' and getting nore

people to taste and clance urtder a canop-v of food that is

grou'n rvith lor-e and effort-'is properly architectural rvork

1 8 9 no tes

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1 . J o h a n n H c i n l i c h l o n T h u n c n .

I ; o l c L t a c l S t o t c : A t t E n g l t s l t t c l t l t o t t

o i D , : r i x , l i t r t e S l . r ( 1 . c d . P e t e r

( ] e o l l l c l I I a l l . t r a n s . ( ' a r l a I L

\ \ - a r t e n b c r g i O r l b l c l : P e r g a r n o n

I ' r c s s . 1 9 6 6 t .

2. Sct f )ominicluc I- i lporte. l l is lolr

o l S / 1 1 . t r a n , . . \ a d i a B c n a b i d a n c L

R o d o l p h e c l - K h o u r r r C a n r b r i d g e :

] I I T P r e s s . 2 0 0 0 .

: i E L - n - z ^ r H u n r r ' , r . C , , / , , t l , r r L .

oS To )IorrctLL r Rt ' i t tg t l t t Setottd

Edt l Lott ol ' 'Tct

) IornttL : o Peatt lul

Path tct Rcal Ref i t rnt t t London:

S . S o n n e n s c h e i n & L l o . . 1 9 { J 2 .

-1 Le CorbrL. ier. -1, : i Felr le

R r , l i n r . n . . \ i l l , , H , d - . r .

r t L H . t , , R . 1 . . \ t . j . . l r : J l

i -1 . i9. Fircerpt t ranslated br

f l e r e c l i t h T e n H o o l

; . I b i d . . 5 9 .

6 . S e e X l e r e r l i t h ' f c r H o o r .' ' A r c h i t e c t u r e a n c l B i o p o l i t i c s r 1 t

Les Hal les. l ' r 'c,a ch Pol i t tcs,

( ' u l t u r e o t t c l S c t c i e l l 2 5 . n o . 2

t S u m n i e r 2 0 0 7 t : 7 J 9 2 .

7 . S e c J a m c s S c o t t . S e e i r g 1 l l r c

a S t a t e . I I o t L L l c r I a i t t S c l t e r i l t s

t o l t n p r o r e t h e H u n t c t n O o t t L l i l i o t t

H a t e F a i l e d i N e r v H a v e n t \ a l e

U n i v e r s i t v P r e , c s . 1 9 9 8 t . , { l s o s e .

Zaki Ergas. \ \ 'h1' l l id thc Lr jrmaa

\ - i l l a ; ' P , l i , . r F , r . l " T , ' n r r r l . , .

G i o b r l - L n a l v s i s . . | o t r r n a I o f l l c t d t , t t t

Afr i tan Stt tdics 1E. no. i3 Scptc.urber

1 9 E 0 r : 3 E 7 1 1 0 .

8. Sigfr icd Gic:cl ict t . l lc< l t a n i ztLt ict t t

TaLts ( ' rnt t nt a n t l : , \ Cont r i bt t l i ot t

Io . \ t t o t t . t nt ot t s Hislor. t ' { New Yol. l ( :

r t ' o r t o r . 1 9 6 9 ) . 2 5 6 .

9 . C . A . D o x i a c l i s . E c o l t g l r t n t l

D / i r ' s 1 r c s . c d . C e r a l c l D i x . ( L o n c l o r r :

F l l c l i . 1 9 7 7 r . 2 2 .

1 0 . t \ r t h i g r a t t t 3 ( A u t L r l t n 1 9 6 3 )

1 1 . H a n s H o l l e i n . ' A l l c s i s t

Architel i tur. Rou: Schri [ t l i i rArr. hi tektur unt l S1ai. l . t . 'bau 20,

n o . 1 / 2 1 1 9 6 3 r : 1 2 E ; I l o l l c i n ' s

, , , r i , l " r r r i l . p r r h l i . h c d ; ' - \ l l , : i -

f s r c l A r c h i t e c t u r e . ' A r c : J t i t e c t u r a l

D e s i g r 2 1 1 9 7 0 ) : 6 2 : t h c a r t i c l c

i n A /J r l tLs the f i rst Engl ish

t r a n s l a t i o n .

12. Librc." Arcl i l t t , t t t t ra l . Design. 47

t I J e c e r l b e r 1 9 7 1 ) : 7 2 7 3 6 .

13. Out laiv Bui lding. ' ' and 'FlN{Ci."

Arc h i ler t rr ro I Desi gt t . 42 tJul) ' 1972)

3 9 9 .