VERNACULAR BUILDING DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR MODERN SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS IN HOT, TEMPERATE, AND COLD REGIONS

Laszlo Szoboszlai 20313274

A Senior Honours Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of

Bachelor of Environmental Studies (Honours Geography and Environmental Management)

Department of Geography and Environmental Management Faculty of Environment University of Waterloo

April, 2015

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Table of Contents

Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....3 1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….4 2.0 Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………………………………6 3.0 Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……9 3.1 Key Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….9 4.0 Scope of Study………………………………………………………………………………………………………15 5.0 Vernacular Building Design Strategies in Hot, Temperate and Cold Regions..………..18 5.1 Hot Climate Regions………………………………………………………………………………………………19 5.1.1 Solar Strategies…………………………………………………………………………………………………..19 5.1.2 Ventilation………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22 5.1.3 Siting and Materials……………………………………………………………………………………………24 5.1.4 Examples with Combination of Strategies…………………………………………………………..27 5.1.5 Summary and Sustainability……………………………………………………………………………….31 5.2 Temperate Climate Regions…………………………………………………………………………………..33 5.2.1 Solar Strategies…………………………………………………………………………………………………..33 5.2.2 Ventilation………………………………………………………………………………………………………….35 5.2.3 Siting and Materials……………………………………………………………………………………………37 5.2.4 Examples with Combination of Strategies…………………………………………………………..39 5.2.5 Summary and Sustainability……………………………………………………………………………….42 5.3 Cold Climate Regions…………………………………………………………………………………………….44 5.3.1 Solar Strategies…………………………………………………………………………………………………..44 5.3.2 Ventilation………………………………………………………………………………………………………….45 5.3.3 Siting and Materials……………………………………………………………………………………………46 5.3.4 Examples with Combination of Strategies…………………………………………………………..48 5.3.5 Summary and Sustainability……………………………………………………………………………….51 6.0 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………………………..53 7.0 Limitations/Challenges………………………………………………………………………………………….55 8.0 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….56 References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…58

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List of Figures

Figure 1 - Updated Koppen Climate Classification Map (Kottek, Grieser, Beck, Rudolf & Rubel, 2006) Figure 2 - Three Spheres of Sustainability (Henderson, 2012) Figure 3 - Environmental impacts of buildings as a percentage of overall environmental impacts for the US (Hyde, 2008) Figure 4 - A mashrabiya in Iran (Fathy & Shearer, 1986) Figure 5 - Wind towers as used in Middle Eastern hot regions (Gallo, 1998) Figure 6 - Air movement as a result of low pressure from courtyards (Gallo, 1998) Figure 7 - Small opening above window in Lebanon to allow for cross ventilation (Weber & Yannas, 2014) Figure 8 - Massing of Wall around the World (Zhai & Previtali, 2010) Figure 9 - Variations of vaults and cross-vaults (Weber & Yannas, 2014) Figure 10 - Exterior of Tulou in China (Sun, 2013) Figure 11 - Interior of Tulou in China (Sun, 2013) Figure 12 - Traditional house in Nagappattinam compared to modern house (Shanthi, Sundarraja & Radhakrishnan, 2012) Figure 13- Loggia in Venice, Italy offering shade (Givoni, 1998) Figure 14 - Brise-Soleil in Marseille France (Givoni, 1998) Figure 15 - Trombe wall for solar passive ventilation (Gallo, 1998) Figure 16 - Dog trot house to allow for convection ventilation (Richardson, 2001) Figure 17 - Shot gun house, allowing for cross ventilation (Richardson, 2001) Figure 18- Roof eaves and solar incidence angles on Chinese vernacular houses (Weber & Yannas, 2014) Figure 19 - Ventilation passing through courtyard, eyvan and chimney (Weber & Yannas, 2014) Figure 20 - House by Markus Wespi and Jerome de Meuron in Switzerland (Richardson, 2001) Figure 21 - Oasts on modern shopping centre (Richardson, 2001) Figure 22 - Oasts on British vernacular building (Richardson, 2001) Figure 23 - Gateway feature in Hungary as part of architectural revival movements (Schoenauer, 2000) Figure 24 - Optimal house layout for solar exposure in cold climatic regions (Weber & Yannas, 2014) Figure 25 - Cross section of igloo (Schoenauer, 2000) Figure 26 - Irish vernacular building layout, with sunspace and high thermal walls shown (Weber & Yannas, 2014) Figure 27 - Ondul or kang bed-stove for radiant floor heating (Sun, 2013) Figure 28 - Kugluktuk recreation complex (McMinn, 2005) Figure 29 - Psychometric Chart showing design strategies in response to environmental conditions. (Chalfoun, 1989)

List of Tables

Table 1 - Climate Regions Summary (Kottek et al., 2006) Table 2 - Thermal conductivities of some building materials (Givoni, 1998) Table 3- Thermal transmittance of window types (Givoni, 1998) Table 4 - Contemporary and vernacular approaches to buildings contrasted (Kazimee, 2009) Table 5 - Average emissivities and absorptivities for some common building surfaces under relevant conditions (Fathy & Shearer, 1986) Table 6 - Reflectivities of various materials and paints (Fathy & Shearer, 1986) Table 7 - Landscaping - energy conserving locations for hot climates (Maddex, 1981) Table 8- Negative comments toward vernacular systems (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011) Table 9 - Positive comments towards vernacular systems (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011) Table 10 - Energy conserving landscaping locations for temperate climates (Maddex, 1981) Table 11 - Landscaping energy conserving locations in a cold climate region (Maddex, 1981)

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Abstract

The 21st century faces some remarkable challenges such as climate change,

strain on resources, a booming human population and environmental degeneration.

The building sector accounts for nearly 70 percent of all energy use in developed

nations. Contemporary buildings are energy-intensive and energy-inefficient and are

not suited to their local climates. This thesis aims to draw from the knowledge of the

past and identify how buildings can work with the climate, rather than against it, in

order to create modern sustainable buildings using techniques and designs from

climate-specific vernacular architecture. The scope of study will be all regions that can

be defined as hot climatic regions, temperate climatic regions and cold climatic regions.

Through the analysis of various design strategies, building forms and orientations it is

found that many of these strategies can help increase thermal comfort, reduce energy

dependence, and cultivate a stronger sense of place and culture. While it is found that

vernacular strategies are unable to provide all of the necessary functions for thermal

comfort and need to be supplemented with modern technologies, the intention

remains that combining vernacular building strategies with modern building technology

will reduce energy use while maintaining the comfort and needs of today’s population.

Vernacular building design implementation in modern buildings will make buildings and

how they are used more sustainable in an environmental, economic and social context.

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1.0 Introduction

Energy and resource scarcity has become a growing concern for Earth’s growing

human population. In just over 200 years, the world’s population has grown from 1

billion to 7 billion people (Henderson, 2012). Along with an increasing population,

humans are increasing their energy consumption and economic outputs which have

risen 80 times and 68 times respectively (Henderson, 2012). The majority of these

increases have happened in the last 50 years (Henderson, 2012). In terms of resource

accessibility, a rising gap between the rich and the poor has meant that only about 25

percent of the entire population is using about 70 to 80 percent of all available

resources (Henderson, 2012).

As the developed world has had access to the majority of resources, they have

created an unsustainable economy, one that uses the energy inefficiently and outside

of the local environmental constraints (Noble, 2013). This has been a particular issue in

the building industry, where large buildings have been completely serviced by non-

renewable resources such as natural gas and electricity to create a comfortable living

space in challenging environments (Noble, 2013). Abundant and cheap energy has

developed a housing and city form shaped by technology, satisfying mostly economic

goals rather than environmental and social (Hough, 1984). Globalization has spread this

trend throughout the world, where even in developing countries, modern building

practices are replacing vernacular building strategies (Henderson, 2012).

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The purpose of this study is to identify how buildings can work with the climate,

rather than against it, in order to create modern sustainable buildings using techniques

and designs from climate-specific vernacular architecture around the world. Earlier

studies on vernacular architecture have focused on the anthropological and

archaeological scope of these buildings, whereas this study aims to incorporate the

three pillars of sustainability; environment, economy and society (Noble, 2013).

Traditionally, people have had to make do with what was available, and

therefore the housing was defined by the locally available materials, the local climate

and any other socio-economic factors (Noble, 2013). Vernacular architecture has

developed over many centuries in response to many factors with climate only being

one of them (Givoni, 1998). Therefore it is important to also acknowledge the

economic or social impacts on building form and use. This is not meant to be an anti-

technology thesis, rather an acknowledgement that combining modern design with

climate-specific vernacular design can more efficiently and effectively address our

resource scarcity concerns while ensuring cultural and environmental diversity thrive.

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2.0 Literature Review

This study investigates various vernacular building design strategies to deal with

the climatic challenges around the world in hot, temperate and cold regions. Many

researchers involved in sustainable building design agree that contemporary buildings

are too reliant on non-renewable energy sources and they are not optimized for their

climates (Babalis, 2006; Cofaigh & Olley, 1996; Dahl, 2010). Many of these same studies

are done with a contemporary technological approach, focusing on modern design

principles of sustainable technologies, and not referencing traditional knowledge.

There is a wealth of knowledge available in past building technologies to suit the needs

of its inhabitants with local resources. The majority of the research presented in this

study acknowledges this past knowledgebase but does not necessarily relate it to

modern buildings.

The few studies that were conducted on the potential for modern

implementation have been concentrated in hot and arid regions mostly in the Middle

East (Badr, 2014; Fathy & Shearer, 1986; Hyde, 2008) and in Eastern Asia ( Bodach,

Lang & Hamhaber, 2013; Shanthi, Sundarraja & Radhakrishnan, 2012; Sun,2013; Zhai,

Previtali, 2010). The studies make excellent references to thermal mass incorporation,

shading and cooling techniques as well as describing the initial intention of building

forms. These lessons from these Asian regions can be applied around the world, where

similar climates are found. Most of these authors are in agreement that vernacular

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building strategies are effective and can contribute to lowering the energy-intensity of

modern buildings.

The principle methodology used in these studies is to compare modern

contemporary buildings in the region with vernacular building examples and contrast

indoor thermal comfort between the two. This is done using surveys of building

occupants (Badr,2014), tracking indoor climatic changes with temperature and

humidity sensors (Fernandes, Mateus, Braganca, Correia da Silva & Silva, 2014; Shanthi,

Sundarraja & Radhakrishnan, 2012) and assessing air movement studies and solar

radiation incidence in building areas (Bodach, Lang & Hamhaber, 2013; Sun, 2013;

Weber & Yannas, 2014; Zhai & Previtali, 2010). While these approaches are important

in understanding thermal comfort and climatic conditions, they do not specifically give

a quantitative analysis that may help understand the energy reductions in modern

buildings from the vernacular design implementations. This is a research gap that was

found in all of the literature reviewed and therefore warrants further primary research.

These methods also do not specifically address other resource issues such as water and

food availability, therefore not addressing the complete sustainability of these

dwellings.

In reference to the vernacular building forms and strategies of cold regions, it

becomes more difficult to find relevant literature. The literature that was available

however was excellent at pointing out the social, environmental and economic

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constraints that far north regions of the world face. Due to the harshness of cold

climates, most vernacular architecture was ephermal, or seasonal and very few

examples exist of permanent dwellings as most groups were nomadic. The research

done by Decker, 2010; Matus, 1988; McMinn, 2005 and Strub, 1996 form the

foundation for many further studies in the cold regions of the world. They highlight

building form characteristics common to cold regions and provide insights in to how

these forms may be applied to future buildings in the area.

The literature reviewed in general notes that vernacular building designs and

strategies were well suited to the local climate, available resources and social needs of

their respective locations, and that these cultures found ways to survive using these

techniques in challenging climatic conditions. While some authors such as Foruzanmehr

& Vellinga (2011) acknowledge these vernacular designs are not enough, they do see

the value in them and the potential for implementation in modern designs. This thesis

collects and analyzes the findings of all of the above research and seeks to identify if

these vernacular building strategies offer improvement in the sustainability of modern

building practices across hot, temperate and cold regions of the world by evaluating

the environmental, social and economic advantages that the buildings provide.

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3.0 Methods

This thesis is developed through the review of studies on vernacular

architecture around the world and their potential implementations for a more

sustainable modern building approach. The studies were all drawn from academic

literature and ‘grey’ literature sources. The majority were published after or just before

the year 2000, and so they are written with the awareness of climate change and rising

emissions in greenhouse gases. This report includes mostly qualitative studies of

building form, with a few examples of quantitative analyses. Research was categorized

and summarized into three categories; hot regions, temperate regions and cold

regions. The exact definition of these regions will be defined in the following sections.

This section aims to provide relevant definitions and demonstrate the approaches

taken to conduct the research.

3.1 Key Definitions

Climate Regions

The climatic regions this thesis will categorize all relevant research in to are hot

regions, temperate regions and cold regions. These are relatively broad regions of the

world and the purpose behind this categorization or simplification was to combine the

many diverse climatic conditions into manageable zones that can be studied. While

vernacular architecture is very diverse to suit the diverse climatic conditions of the

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world, it was found that the functions of heating, cooling and maintaining thermal

conditions in a building can be categorized into these three regions (Kottek, Grieser,

Beck, Rudolf & Rubel, 2006). The climatic regions were developed from an updated

version of the more comprehensive Koppen Climate Classification system developed by

Kottek et al. (2006). The following Table 1 shows which groups of the Koppen Climate

Classification group were combined to determine the climate regions or categories that

this thesis will henceforth use.

Table 1 - Climate Regions Summary (Kottek et al., 2006)

Koppen climate group

Climate region used in this thesis

Group A: Tropical/megathermal climates Group B: Dry (arid and semiarid) climates

Hot Climate Region

Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates

Temperate Climate Region

Group D: Continental/microthermal climates Group E: Polar and alpine climates

Cold Climate Region

The below Figure 1 shows the Koppen Climate Classification map and all groups

within the classification. As mentioned above, for the purposes of this study group A

and B were categorized into the hot climate region, group C was categorized into the

temperate climate region and group D and E were categorized into the cold climate

region.

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Figure 1 - Updated Koppen Climate Classification Map (Kottek, Grieser, Beck, Rudolf &

Rubel, 2006)

Sustainability

The term sustainability was first officially defined in the Brundtland Commission

of the United Nations in 1987 (Henderson, 2012). The formal definition can be

summarized as meeting current needs without impacting the ability to meet the needs

of future generations (Henderson, 2012). Furthermore, to achieve true sustainability

the social, environmental and economic factors need to be addressed. These ‘three

spheres of sustainability’ are shown in Figure 2 with specific relation to the social,

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economic and environmental needs of buildings and the communities in which they

reside.

Figure 2 - Three Spheres of Sustainability (Henderson, 2012)

The triple bottom line is at the heart of sustainability and is defined as making

balanced decisions based on satisfying economic factors, social factors and

environmental factors (Henderson, 2012). Another popular way of phrasing this

concept is people, planet, and profits (Henderson, 2012).

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Thermal conductivity

One important aspect of understanding the effectiveness of a building form is to

determine how much heat is being transferred through its walls, windows, floors and

roof. This is determined by a material’s thermal conductivity and can be described as

the rate of heat flow through a unit surface area of a building element of unit thickness

per unit temperature difference (Givoni, 1998). The thermal conductivity is measured

in W/m.C (Givoni, 1998).

Table 2 - Thermal conductivities of some building materials (Givoni, 1998)

Material Metric (W/m.C) Thermal Conductivity

Dense concrete 1.7

Concrete blocks 1.3

Face Bricks 1.3

Common Bricks 0.7

Cement mortar 0.8

Stucco/Interior Plaster 0.7

Softwood (fir, pine) 0.12

Hardwood (oak, redwood) 0.12

Gypsum/Plaster Boards 0.16

Plywood 0.12

Thermal transmittance

When it comes to the thermal transfer in windows, a U-Value is assigned to

different window types. U-values denote thermal transmittance through a unit area of

an element, in unit time per unit temperature difference with a unit of W/m2.C (Givoni,

1998). The higher the U-value the more heat is transmitted through (Givoni, 1998). The

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following Table 3 summarizes the most common window types and their respective U-

values.

Table 3 - Thermal transmittance of window types (Givoni, 1998)

Window Type Metric (U-Values)

Single clear glass 6.0

Double clear glass 3.0

Triple Glass 2.0

Low-E Double Glass 2.3

Double skin plastic glazing 2.8

Thermal comfort

ASHRAE 55-74 standard defines thermal comfort as “That condition of mind

which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment” (Gallo, 1998).

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4.0 Scope of Study

The scope of work for this particular thesis will focus on vernacular building

strategies in three climatic regions which are hot climate regions, temperate climate

regions and cold climate regions as defined in section 3.1. The report will evaluate solar

strategies, ventilation strategies, and proper siting of buildings and material use.

Specific examples where these strategies were employed in the three climatic regions

will also be analyzed. The analysis will be done by contrasting strategies to achieving

sustainability, meeting environmental, economic and social criteria.

Contemporary architecture ignores principles of sustainable design using

excessive energy to heat and cool buildings (Gallo, 1998). In developed countries,

buildings accounts for 70 percent of all energy use (Gallo, 1998). The development of

vernacular architecture principally occurred as a way to deal with a lack of energy

(Maddex, 1981). This is best explained by Kevin W. Green, the editor of Research &

Design, a publication released quarterly by the American Institute of Architects.

“Energy – or the lack of it – has shaped the nation’s buildings from time immemorial.

From the solar oriented pueblos of Native Americans to the half-buried sodbuster

homes of the Midwest, from New England’s saltboxes to Charleston’s breezy piazzas,

much of America’s architectural evolution documents a struggle to defeat the less

pleasant aspects of climate and environment without energy as an ally… But with the

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onset of the energy crisis, designers have gradually become more aware of their

forebears’ struggles, and their solutions.” – Kevin W. Green – editor (Maddex, 1981)

The importance of energy is further highlighted by the Australian Greenhouse

Office report (AGO, 1999) which notes that the energy used in buildings is responsible

for 27 percent of all energy related greenhouse gas emissions. It also noted that by

2010, emissions from buildings will increase by 48 percent above 1990 levels (Hyde,

2008). Energy use in buildings is resource use, and therefore inherently has an impact

on the environment. The environmental impacts of buildings as a percentage of overall

environmental impacts for the US is shown in Figure 3 below (Hyde, 2008).

Figure 3 - Environmental impacts of buildings as a percentage of overall

environmental impacts for the US (Hyde, 2008)

42%

40%

30%

25%

24%

20%

15%

12%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%

Energy Use

Atmospheric Emissions

Raw Materials

Solid Waste

Water Waste

Water Effluents

Land Use

Other Uses

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In terms of the social context of vernacular buildings, the New Charter of

Athens of 1998 defined one of the key areas for sustainable cities is to protect the

urban heritage and cultural landscape of the cities (Kazimee, 2009). This thesis will also

acknowledge the importance of this social aspect. This is because while using

vernacular architectural techniques to satisfy environmental conditions and reduce

energy use, significant cultural values are also being revived which many regions

identify with (Kazimee, 2009). This helps to enrich their culture and provide a cultural

identity that the community can connect with and take pride in (Babalis, 2006). In this

particular thesis, the cultural landscape refers to the aesthetic, historic, scientific, social

and spiritual values of a certain area (Babalis, 2006). To understand the difference

between a contemporary approach and the vernacular approach, Table 4 aims to

summarize the differences in social, economic and environmental factors and how they

are addressed in either approach (Kazimee, 2009).

Table 4 - Contemporary and vernacular approaches contrasted (Kazimee, 2009)

Contemporary Approach Vernacular Approach

Linear logic, hierarchical Cyclical logic, optimization

Reductionist simplicity Holistic integration

Use of fossil fuel (non-renewable) Use of site natural energy (renewable)

Use of industrial composite materials Use of local materials and technology

Single use specialized buildings Multiuse, flexible, and adoptable

Independent of site climate Shelter and climate adaptation

Dominant acquisition of nature Symbiotic harmony between people and place

Human centered Participatory and community process

Reduced choice for affordable shelter Affordable shelter availability

Economic growth/expansion of wealth Ecology/efficiency and need oriented

Dispersal and sprawl Density and compact settlement

Automobile focused priority Walking and cycling friendly

Anonymity and fragmentation Cultural/historical integrity

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Buildings that are left out and not considered in the scope of work are those

built between 1940 and 1970 as they were the least energy efficient (Maddex, 1981).

Older buildings better utilized natural sources of heating, cooling and lighting (Maddex,

1981). It is for this reason that this thesis will focus more on these older buildings as

opposed to the buildings constructed between 1940 and 1970.

How a building performs depends on the design of its form, its plan, its section

arrangements and heights, the size and layout of internal and external openings and

connections, the thermal inertia and transparency of its construction, the orientation

of its spaces and finally on the design of the buildings immediate external environment

(Cofaigh & Olley, 1996). It is these properties that are discussed in the following

sections grouped by climatic regions.

5.0 Vernacular Building Design Strategies in Hot, Temperate and Cold Regions

This section will present the vernacular buildings and their design strategies

that were found to be relevant to achieving the environmental, economic and social

needs of their respective climatic regions. The regions’ buildings will be further

categorized by the specific functions they serve including access to solar radiation,

ventilation, siting of buildings, and materials used. Examples where these strategies are

being implemented in vernacular and modern buildings will follow with an analysis of

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the environmental, social and economic criteria being met in the respective climatic

region.

5.1 Hot Climate Regions

The first climate region to be examined is the hot climate region, which is a

combined category of Group A and Group B climate groups from the updated Koppen

Climate Classification System (Kottek et al., 2006). In hot climates the thermal

transmittance or thermal inertia between the outside and the inside of a building is not

as important, as temperatures remain hot and dry throughout all parts of the day and

the year (Gallo, 1998). Providing adequate shading and openings to allow for air

circulation is the main objective (Gallo, 1998). The general objectives of building design

in a hot climate is to slow the heating of spaces during the daytime, speed up cooling of

spaces during the evenings, minimize dust, and provide adequate ventilation

throughout the day (Givoni, 1998).

5.1.1 Solar Strategies

During the day time, the strong sun provides excess solar radiation to buildings

in hot regions of the world. Throughout history people have developed strategies to

reduce the amount of solar radiation or solar incidence reaching their houses in order

to keep temperatures lower (Givoni, 1998). One such strategy was to reduce how much

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radiation the building surface absorbs or in other words decrease the emissivity. The

following table shows the emissivities or thermal absorptivities of common building

surfaces. The lower the value the better it is suited for hot climate regions (Fathy &

Shearer, 1986).

Table 5 - Average emissivities and absorptivities for some common building surfaces under relevant conditions (Fathy & Shearer, 1986)

Surface Emissivity or Thermal Absorptivity at 10-38 degrees Celsius

Absorptivity for Solar Radiation

Black non-metallic surfaces

0.90-0.98 0.85-0.98

Red brick, concrete and stone, dark paints

0.85-0.95 0.65-0.80

Yellow brick and stone 0.85-0.95 0.95-0.70

White brick, tile, paint 0.85-0.95 0.30-0.50

Window glass 0.90-0.95 Transparent

Gilt, bronze or bright aluminum paint

0.40-0.60 0.30-0.50

Dull copper, aluminum, galvanized steel

0.20-0.30 0.40-0.65

Polished copper 0.02-0.05 0.30-0.50

Highly polished aluminum 0.02-0.04 0.10-0.40

The inverse of absorptivity is reflectivity and this can also be given as a

percentage of solar radiation reflected. Table 6 below show the reflectivities of various

materials, in this case the higher value being the most suitable for hot climates. You will

notice that the highest reflectivity is white paint. Another way of referring to solar

reflectance is solar albedo which is a value ranging from 0, which offers no reflectance,

to 1 which offers complete reflectance (Weber & Yannas, 2014). In Lebanon and

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Greece houses were painted white to reflect the solar radiation from the building

surfaces to keep it cool (Weber & Yannas, 2014).

Table 6 - Reflectivities of various materials and paints (Fathy & Shearer, 1986)

Material or Paint Reflectivity (Percentage)

Red brick or stone 30-50

Slate 10-20

Asphalt bituminous felt 10-20

Galvanized metals 36

Dark paints 10-20

Aluminum paints 40-50

Polished metals 60-90

Whitewash or white paints 80-90

A popular shading device in the Middle East is the mashrabiya as seen in Figure

4, which is a type of screen that was originally used to cool water jars through

evaporative cooling (Fathy & Shearer, 1986). They have a total of five functions which

are to control light passage, allow air movement, reduce air current temperature,

increase humidity and increase privacy (Fathy & Shearer, 1986).

Figure 4 - A mashrabiya in Iran (Fathy & Shearer, 1986)

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5.1.2 Ventilation

One of the most important aspects of vernacular architecture in hot regions was

the ability to ventilate the building’s interior without the use of mechanical energy. This

natural ventilation process was essential in keeping temperatures from reaching a peak

inside the building and providing fresh air to the occupants (Gallo, 1998). A notable

example of natural ventilation in hot regions of the Middle East were wind towers.

They were built to catch the breeze in any direction and bring it into the interior of a

building as seen in Figure 5 below (Gallo, 1998).

Figure 5 - Wind towers as used in Middle Eastern hot regions (Gallo, 1998)

Another example of natural ventilation was the spacing of buildings in Qatar.

Buildings were close together to shade each other; however, by adding a courtyard in

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the middle a low pressure area was created to move air and keep it cool (Gallo, 1998).

This change in pressure allowed ventilation to occur between the buildings as well as

throughout the interior of the buildings (Gallo, 1998). The arrows in Figure 6 show the

air movement in courtyards throughout the day. Spacing houses in a staggered manner

allowed for even more air circulation between them (Gallo, 1998). Adding water to the

center of the courtyard in the form of a fountain, allowed evaporative cooling to take

place as well (Gallo, 1998). Evaporation consumes heat energy at about 580 calories

per gram of water (Hough, 1984). Another innovation that made use of evaporative

cooling was a maziara cooling jar used in Upper Egypt to keep perishable foods cool.

These jars kept contents at a constant 20 degrees Celsius, even with temperatures

ranging from 19 to 36 degrees Celsius (Hough, 1984).

Figure 6 - Air movement as a result of low pressure from courtyards (Gallo, 1998)

High domed roofs were standard in many hot and humid areas and allowed for

more thermal comfort as the hot air rose to the top and allowed for more air

circulation (Badr, 2014). Additionally, in equatorial regions of the world, direct

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radiation from the sun would heat the roof and therefore the further away the roof is

from the occupants, the less radiation they would receive (Badr, 2014).

Cross ventilation allowed air to travel through the interior of the house to keep

it cool. In Lebanese architecture one distinct feature is the small opening above or

below windows and doors (Weber & Yannas, 2014). These small openings, usually

about 10x10 centimeters to 30x50 centimeters were used to cross ventilate the houses

during the warm summer months (Weber & Yannas, 2014).

Figure 7 - Small opening above window in Lebanon to allow for cross ventilation (Weber & Yannas, 2014)

5.1.3 Siting and Materials

It is impressive to note that most vernacular buildings were built with whatever

materials were accessible on whatever site was available to the occupants. However,

even with these restrictions, people managed to find ways to make these variables

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work to their advantage. An example of this innovation is that many of the buildings in

the area were made of high mass rammed-earth walls (Gallo, 1998). This was an

abundant material and also provided the advantages of thermal massing (Gallo, 1998).

As the wall is higher in mass, it takes longer to heat up and longer to cool down than a

lighter weight wall (Gallo 1998). This was advantageous in the daytime when the

temperature would dramatically spike as it provided a delay between the building’s

interior warming up and peak outdoor temperatures (Gallo, 1998). It also allowed the

building to flush out slowly at night, ensuring the night temperatures inside the

building wouldn’t fall uncomfortably low (Gallo, 1998). In Figure 8 below, it is noted

that the majority of walls in the hot- dry and cold-dry regions of the world are high

mass walls. In the more humid and tropical regions of the world due to the abundance

of lightweight wood this was the primary building material used (Zhai & Previtali,

2010).

Figure 8 - Massing of Wall around the World (Zhai & Previtali, 2010)

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In Santorini Greece, vaulted roofs became standard construction as they used

locally available materials such as pumice and red or black lava stone (Weber & Yannas,

2014). As timber was not available, which normally provides structural support the

vaulted roofs made up for this (Weber & Yannas, 2014). The wealthier houses wanted

to distinguish themselves from the normal vaulted roofs, and thus built flat roof shells

over the vaulted roofs as a flat roof showed wealth over a vaulted roof. The basic

structural support was still provided by the vaults (Weber & Yannas, 2014). This use of

local materials and vault techniques showed the ingenuity of local populations to deal

with their available resources. The distinction between rich and poor added a social

and cultural element to the buildings; however, structurally they were the same

(Weber & Yannas, 2014).

Figure 9 - Variations of vaults and cross-vaults (Weber & Yannas, 2014)

An example of modern material implementation in the wrong environment is

the popularity of the corrugated iron and zinc roofs (Noble, 2013). Much of the

developing world has taken on this material as it is readily available, affordable and

27

easy to assemble (Noble, 2013). However, the thermal properties of this material are

ill-fitted for most of the environments in which they are used, as they are high

conductors of heat into the dwelling, causing it to be more uncomfortable than it

would have been using traditional roofing materials (Noble, 2013).

Where available, vegetation was planted alongside buildings to reduce heating

and cooling loads (Givoni, 1998). It has been shown that shrubbery and trees around a

building can reduce solar heat gain by as much as 30 percent, reduce air infiltration by

up to 40 percent and reduce heating energy requirements by as much as 20 percent

(Givoni, 1998). Table 7 below summarizes the best landscaping elements and where to

position them in a hot climate building (Maddex, 1981).

Table 7 - Landscaping - energy conserving locations for hot climates (Maddex, 1981)

Landscape Elements Hot Climate

Ground cover or grass East, West and South

Paving Shaded if on East, West and South

Shrubs against house wall On all sides

Deciduous shade trees East and West

Evergreen trees East and West

Windbreak (trees, fences) Undesirable on all sides

Windbreak to funnel wind Where cross-ventilation possible

5.1.4 Examples with Combination of Strategies

The following are examples where all of the above mentioned strategies are

presented in buildings and some particular cases that show how these strategies

28

perform. These are all vernacular buildings in hot regions of the world that do not

employ any modern technologies such as mechanical ventilation or cooling.

In the hot regions of China, round buildings called Tulou, with large 400

apartment units shown in Figures 10 and 11, had thick clay walls to even out

temperature fluctuations during the summer heat (Sun, 2013). The units had open

balconies facing towards the central complex which included the temple and baths to

allow for natural ventilation to reach the rooms (Sun, 2013). While these were mostly

constructed for defensive purposes they were fitting to the local hot climate (Sun,

2013).

Figure 10 - Exterior of Tulou in China (Sun, 2013)

Figure 11 - Interior of Tulou in China (Sun, 2013)

29

In a study done in Evora, Portugal, temperature and humidity sensors were

installed at various locations in a building that had vernacular cooling strategies such as

a large courtyard, plants for shading and high thermal mass (Fernandes, Mateus,

Braganca, Correia da Silva & Silva, 2014). The building was located close to the city

center, where another set of temperature and humidity sensors were installed to

provide as a normal control for the experiment (Fernandes et al, 2014).

Throughout the day, the temperature in the vernacular house remained much

more stable than in the city center, avoiding at one point a 9 degree Celsius spike in

temperature between the two locations (Fernandes et al, 2014). It also provided a

delay of approximately 90 to 150 minutes between peak temperatures in the city, and

when the temperature in the courtyard began to rise (Fernandes et al, 2014). This

study proved that the high thermal mass provided a delay between spikes in heat, and

the vegetation worked against the urban heat island effect to keep the area around the

house cool (Fernandes et al, 2014). A similar study completed in the coastal region of

Nagappattinam, India found the high thermal mass and evaporative cooling in the

vernacular house contributed to much lower maximum and minimum temperatures

compared to a concrete modern house with an iron roof as shown in Figure 12 below

(Shanthi, Sundarraja & Radhakrishnan, 2012).

30

Figure 12 - Traditional house in Nagappattinam compared to modern house (Shanthi, Sundarraja & Radhakrishnan, 2012)

A study conducted in the city of Yazd in Iran found that while vernacular cooling

methods did help keep the building stable from temperature swings it did not perform

well enough for the extreme heat days (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011). Additionally,

problems such as the need to clean the systems from dust and seasonal maintenance

was a negative factor in the technologies as seen in Table 8 (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga,

2011). It was not all bad news, as Table 9 showed the survey responses that were

positive towards the vernacular cooling systems. From being more pleasant to saving

energy, occupants still saw value in the systems (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011).

Therefore for this example it can be concluded that the vernacular strategies alone

were not enough to provide thermal comfort throughout the year; however, they do

help and have many positive qualities that should not be overlooked (Foruzanmehr &

Vellinga, 2011).

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Table 8 - Negative comments toward vernacular systems (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011)

Table 9 - Positive comments towards vernacular systems (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011)

5.1.5 Summary and Sustainability

Traditionally cities with high populations in the hot areas of the Middle East had

a high density of people (Kazimee, 2009). This was to use the land efficiently and

provide services more effectively (Kazimee, 2009). This same principle is now driving

developments in large modern cities such as Toronto, where urban density is rising and

people are making use of the ability to walk to their services and needs (Kazimee,

32

2009). Higher density also creates more social diversity and economic opportunity

(Kazimee, 2009).

As mentioned previously, adding vegetation to buildings’ surroundings helps

keep the space cooler and more comfortable. The addition of green spaces in a

community has also been proven to increase interaction and improve the physical

surroundings of low income areas (Hough, 1984). It also teaches people about how to

control their environments, and thus gives them a sense of belonging to the

environment (Hough, 1984). This enriches their environmental education and also

provides positive outputs such as community gardening and organics composting

(Hough, 1984).

Through the implementation of simple building form features such as a

courtyard, a wind tower, high mass thermal walls, shading screens, high albedo wall

surfaces and cross ventilation, energy savings can be realized while thermal comfort is

maintained. An example in Qatar shows that 50 percent of energy use in the country

can be saved using principles such as shading, evaporative cooling, appropriate thermal

mass and natural ventilation (Gallo, 1998). This helps people pay less utilities and pay

for less expensive mechanical equipment to keep their buildings cool.

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5.2 Temperate Climate Regions

A temperate climate is a difficult climate to design one standard building for as

it exhibits seasonality, variations between hot and cold, dry and wet (Givoni, 1998).

These conflicting performance requirements require building performance to change

based on season and time of day (Givoni, 1998). Vernacular strategies that alter the

buildings form based on the present needs were therefore developed (Givoni, 1998).

5.2.1 Solar Strategies

The loggia (Figure 13), portico or brise-soleil (Figure 14) works as a shaded

balcony in the summer when the sun’s rays are high, yet allows the lower sun to enter

in the winter for solar advantage (Cofaigh & Olley, 1996). While this is a permanent

building addition, it can be designed to be folded away entirely in the winter for

additional solar access (Cofaigh & Olley, 1996).

Figure 13- Loggia in Venice, Italy offering shade (Givoni, 1998)

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Figure 14 - Brise-Soleil in Marseille France (Givoni, 1998)

Another example of this similar concept is the bellcast roof, which became very

popular in Quebec (Shoenauer, 2000). Its extended eaves were developed to protect

the houses from rain but also provide shading to the houses in the high summer sun,

while letting in the lower sun in the winter. (Schoenauer, 2000).

A way to quantify the addition of heating in a building from solar radiation is by

using an index called the solar heating fraction. The solar heating fraction is the fraction

of total heating energy provided by the sun and the amount retained in a building

(Givoni, 1998). Using passive heating technologies can achieve a solar heating fraction

of 0.8 or 80 percent in areas such as New Mexico, 0.6 in the American midwest and 0.5

in the American northeast (Givoni, 1998). This means that areas such as Boston or

Toronto can achieve up to 50 percent of their heating loads from the sun, using

techniques as described above, thermal massing as described in section 5.1.3 and

35

passive convective loops such as trombe walls which will be discussed in the next

section (Givoni, 1998).

5.2.2 Ventilation

In temperate climates, proper ventilation must occur both during heating and

cooling seasons (Gallo, 1998). As traditional homes did not have mechanical

ventilation, they utilized other techniques to move air. One such technique that has

been modernized is the trombe wall for heat collection. This is an example of solar

induced ventilation that was borrowed from vernacular architecture (Gallo, 1998). A

window or glazing material is placed in front of a high thermal mass with an air pocket

left between them. The thermal mass has two gaps, at the top and at the bottom. As

the sun heats the air through the glazing, a pressure change between the bottom and

top of the thermal mass creates an air cycle as seen in Figure 15. This brings in warm air

from between the thermal mass and the glazing, into the interior of the building (Gallo,

1998). Additionally, the thermal mass retains the heat and releases it through radiation

(Gallo, 1998). In the summer when this process is not required, the gaps can be closed.

36

Figure 15 - Trombe wall for solar passive ventilation (Gallo, 1998)

To achieve cross ventilation during the summer, many houses in the American

south were built with an exterior gap in the middle between two portions of the house

(Richardson, 2011). This was named a ‘dog trot’ and was an exterior passageway that

cooled the inside of the rooms by removing warm air through convection (Richardson,

2001)

Figure 16 - Dog trot house to allow for convection ventilation (Richardson, 2001)

Another technique in the American south is to elongate the houses to induce

cross ventilation. These houses were called ‘shot-gun houses’ and were long and thin

37

as seen in Figure 17, to allow for easy transfer of air between the walls and the exterior

of the house (Richardson, 2001).

Figure 17 - Shot gun house, allowing for cross ventilation (Richardson, 2001)

5.2.3 Siting and Materials

The way a building is oriented to the sun, or topographically can have significant

impacts on its thermal comfort and energy use (Cofaigh & Olley, 1996). For example

siting bedrooms on the eastern side of the building increases access to morning light

(Cofaigh & Olley, 1996). Locating kitchens on the northern edge of the building helps

38

them remain cool in the summer, and in the winter, the heat from cooking activities

keeps the coldest half of the house warmer (Cofaigh & Olley, 1996). Positioning the

house on stilts as seen in many Southeast Asian countries helps to keep the house safe

from flooding and also keeps it cool as air circulates below it (Givoni, 1998).

The exterior of the house also plays an important part in indoor comfort. Flat

roofs for example can delay water runoff, while also facilitating evaporative cooling to

reduce heating loads of buildings in the warmer rainy temperate climates (Givoni,

1998). A landscaping concept frequently used was to plant deciduous trees on the

southern face of a building, so that in the summer the leaves shade the house, while in

the winter as the leaves fall, they allow sunlight in (Maddex, 1981). Coniferous trees

could be planted on the north side of the house to protect it from cold northerly winds

in the winter (Maddex, 1981). Table 10 below summarizes the best landscape elements

and where to position them in a temperate climate building (Maddex, 1981).

Table 10 - Energy conserving landscaping locations for temperate climates (Maddex, 1981)

Landscape Elements Temperate Climate

Ground cover or grass South

Paving Shaded if on South

Shrubs against house wall East, West, North

Deciduous shade trees South and West

Evergreen trees East and West

Windbreak (trees, fences) Sides exposed to winter winds

Windbreak to funnel wind Sides exposed to summer winds

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5.2.4 Examples with Combination of Strategies

In Zhouzhuang, China, the courtyard house is the main residential dwelling with

typical curved roof eaves and lattice screens. The lattice screens serve to diffuse direct

light in the summer, while allowing lower light in during the winter solstice (Weber &

Yannas, 2014). They provide a double function of allowing cross ventilation to take

place (Weber & Yannas, 2014). The long roof eaves also block direct sunlight while

allowing in the lower winter sun as seen in Figure 18 below.

Figure 18- Roof eaves and solar incidence angles on Chinese vernacular houses (Weber & Yannas, 2014)

In southeast Turkey, the winters are cold with an average temperature of 3.4

degrees Celsius while the summers are hot with an average of 29.8 degrees Celsius in

July (Weber & Yannas, 2014). Courtyards are the most significant feature of residential

dwellings in this region (Weber & Yannas, 2014). The winter areas of the house were

always oriented to the north of the courtyard, giving them a southern orientation

40

(Weber & Yannas, 2014). A passive cooling strategy in the summer is called the ‘serdap’

where spaces at the basement level which are cooler due to contact with the ground,

have water flow along them to a central courtyard pond (Weber & Yannas, 2014). The

‘eyvan’ a semi-open transitional area between the rooms and the courtyard allows

ventilation from the courtyard into the rooms, and also sometimes has a chimney at its

far side to allow air to rise and flow through the rooms as seen in Figure 19 below.

Figure 19 - Ventilation passing through courtyard, eyvan and chimney (Weber & Yannas, 2014)

An example of a modern house with reference to vernacular strategies was built

in 2000 by Architects Markus Wespi and Jerome de Meuron. The house (as seen in

Figure 20) makes use of the locally sourced timber materials to create a lattice screen

to allow sun in the winter, and shade in the summer (Richardson, 2001). This design

was inspired by the nearby vernacular agricultural buildings in this region that used this

slatted-timber screen design to allow for air circulation in order to dry out grass

(Richardson, 2001).

41

Figure 20 - House by Markus Wespi and Jerome de Meuron in Switzerland (Richardson, 2001)

A shopping center in Dartford England uses a series of ‘oasts’ on its roof to

provide ventilation for the center shown in Figure 21. Traditionally these oasts as seen

in Figure 22 were used to draw air out to dry hops as a pressure change was created

when the wind blew past the forms (Richardson, 2001). In this shopping center, that

process was reversed to allow for fresh air to enter the building. Many locals rejected

the idea of a shopping center in the area because it was very un-British, therefore the

roof oasts meant to serve as a testament to the region’s heritage and agricultural

history (Richardson, 2001).

Figure 21 - Oasts on modern shopping centre (Richardson, 2001)

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Figure 22 - Oasts on British vernacular building (Richardson, 2001)

5.2.5 Summary and Sustainability Evaluation

As temperate climates exhibit seasonality and vary between hot and cold, and

dry and humid, it is important that the building form can be managed to suit the

present needs. In summary, in cold weather it is necessary to maximize solar and other

free heat gains, provide good heat distribution and storage, reduce heat losses and

allow for suitable ventilation (Cofaigh & Olley, 1996). It is also good to centrally locate

the fireplace or kitchen and have the house face south (Dahl, 2010). In warm weather it

is necessary to minimize heat gains, avoid overheating and optimize cool air ventilation

and other forms of natural cooling (Cofaigh & Olley, 1996). It is also advantageous to

have high pitched roofs with long eaves for shading and precipitation runoff (Dahl,

2010).

Environmental protection is realized by reducing the reliance on fossil fuels for

heating sources by introducing alternate heating sources, reducing reliance on non-

local building materials, and using landscaping features to benefit the site (Dahl, 2010).

43

Using local materials and saving resources also helps realize economic benefits by

saving on material and transportation costs and reducing utility costs (Dahl, 2010).

Socially it is important to maintain a sense of identity and culture in the

vernacular buildings that form the identity of a place. This place identity can help bring

people in the locality together and enrich their cultural characteristics. An example of

this cultural preservation came in 1896 when Hungary celebrated its 1000 year

anniversary (Schoenauer, 2000). The country was in a massive building frenzy with

many landmark buildings and monuments built for the celebration. An architect named

Odon Lechner formed a group of young architects called the “Young Ones” with the

motto “Regiben az Ujat! (In the Old the New) and brought back many traditional

Transylvanian features such as the gateway seen in Figure 23 to various districts in

Budapest (Schoenauer, 2000). Many of these features helped the buildings achieve

thermal comfort; however, it also played an important social role by paying homage to

the region’s culture (Schoenauer, 2000).

Figure 23 - Gateway feature in Hungary as part of architectural revival movements (Schoenauer, 2000)

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5.3 Cold Climate Regions

Research in vernacular buildings for cold and arctic regions becomes difficult

because most dwellings in these areas were temporary, as the people living in these

regions were hunters and gatherers (Shoenauer, 2000). The populations were spread

out and lived in ephermal or seasonal dwellings (Schoenauer, 2000). There are however

still some strategies that can be learned from the vernacular building forms of this

region. The general objectives in cold climate buildings is to reduce heat loss, provide

protection against cold winds and provide alternate heating sources (Weber & Yannas,

2014).

5.3.1 Solar Strategies

Due to the extreme cold conditions in this region, it is difficult to harness the

solar radiation from the sun without compromising the insulating effects of the building

form (Weber & Yannas, 2014). It is for this reason that window sizes were generally

kept to a bare minimum and entry doors were small and sheltered (Weber & Yannas,

2014). Windows should be kept to about 10 percent window to wall ratio, as anything

higher would lose too much heat (Weber and Yannas, 2014). A model for how modern

buildings could be laid out is shown in Figure 24, showing the kitchen in the center to

spread out heat from cooking, and the sunspace pointing south to utilize the most

exposure to the sun.

45

Figure 24 - Optimal house layout for solar exposure in cold climatic regions (Weber & Yannas, 2014)

5.3.2 Ventilation

Similar to passive solar strategies, it was difficult to make use of ventilation

strategies in these cold climatic regions. Whereas other regions encouraged the entry

of air during some periods of the year, in cold climates the strategy is to reduce any air

infiltration (Bodach, Lang & Hamhaber, 2013). An example of this is the igdluling

passage entry to an igloo which sits about one foot lower than the igloo as seen in

Figure 25, to minimize drafts of cold air (Schoenauer, 2000).

Figure 25 - Cross section of igloo (Schoenauer, 2000)

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5.3.3 Siting and Materials

Locating a building in an area protected by wind and providing high thermal

insulation is the most important aspect of cold climate building (Bodach, Lang &

Hamhaber, 2013). Seeking shelter from chilling prevailing winds was done in West

Ireland by placing windows and entrances on the lee side of a buildings self-sheltering

form (Cofaigh & Olley, 1996). Additionally low ceilings, attaching buildings to each

other and promoting the design of infill type developments will increase thermal

protection. An example of these strategies is found in the alpine climates of Nepal

where houses are small, with low ceilings and close proximity to each other (Bodach,

Lang & Hamhaber, 2013).

While the aboriginal peoples of Canada, the Kazaks or Mongols of central Asia

or any other nomadic group of peoples had clever temporary migratory solutions for

their climates, another option was to have different parts of the same permanent

house used for different seasons (Gallo, 1998). This is still popular in many

Mediterranean countries and would make sense to implement in a place such as

Canada (Gallo, 1998). House heating could be restricted to the bedrooms and family

rooms with the highest traffic, while other rooms such as the office, living room, dining

room, basement and hallways could be zoned off for a lower heat setting (Gallo, 1998).

47

The shape of buildings helped reduce heat loss as well (Hough, 1984). The

spherical shape of the igloo, provided maximum indoor volume for minimum exposed

surface area contributing to less heat loss through the walls (Hough, 1984). In Ireland,

buildings were always longer than wide, with the narrowest side of the house facing

the prevailing winds (Weber & Yannas, 2014). Windows were small and tapered, to

reduce heat loss but increase maximum daylight penetration (Weber & Yannas, 2014).

The houses were typically one room wide, with a large hearth in the center and thick

stone walls to retain the heat (Weber & Yannas, 2014). An example of an optimum

building layout with a thick wall spine and central sunspace and kitchen to store heat is

show in Figure 26 below (Weber & Yannas, 2014).

Figure 26 - Irish vernacular building layout, with sunspace and high thermal walls shown (Weber & Yannas, 2014)

To shelter the building form from cold prevailing winds, coniferous trees can be

planted on the east, west and north sides of the building where the site is below the

tree line (Maddex, 1981). This positioning ensures no solar gain is being blocked from

the south (Maddex, 1981). A further breakdown of optimal landscaping elements and

locations in a cold climate can be seen below in Table 11.

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Table 11 - Landscaping energy conserving locations in a cold climate region (Maddex, 1981)

Landscape Elements Cold Climate

Ground cover or grass Negligible on all sides

Paving South

Shrubs against house wall East, West and North

Deciduous shade trees South

Evergreen trees East, West and North

Windbreak (trees, fences) Sides exposed to winder winds

Windbreak to funnel wind Undesirable on all sides

5.3.4 Examples with Combination of Strategies

In the Chinese and Korean cold climate regions, there is a popular feature in

many homes that keeps the house warm through radiant floor heating (Sun, 2013). In

China it is called a ‘kang bed-stove’, while in Korea they refer to it as ‘ondul’ (Sun,

2013). It is essentially a wood-stove that channels heat through flues in the floor, and is

covered by stone to retain the heat as shown in Figure 27 (Sun, 2013). Most times

there is a bed that receives heat from the stove and this is where the family gathers

and sleeps in the extreme cold (Sun, 2013).

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Figure 27 - Ondul or kang bed-stove for radiant floor heating (Sun, 2013)

The main strategy in northern climates is to shelter the building from the cold

and reduce heat loss. While there are not many permanent vernacular examples that

can be evaluated, there are many projects built and being developed that take cues

from vernacular strategies. One such project is the Kugluktuk recreation complex

shown in Figure 28, which uses the same principles as the vernacular igloo in the

Canadian Arctic (McMinn, 2005). An entrance that is sheltered by the curve of the

building keeps the cold air from directly entering the building (McMinn, 2005).

Additionally, the curved structure of the roof is aerodynamic, and utilizes the most

volume with the least surface area to reduce heat loss (McMinn, 2005). The back of the

50

building is also optimized to prevent snow accumulation around the perimeter of the

building (McMinn, 2005).

Figure 28 - Kugluktuk recreation complex (McMinn, 2005)

An architect by the name of Ralph Erskine (1914-2005) was an expert in

northern climatic architecture. He frequently studied snow’s uses as an insulator, and

the sloped roofs of Finnish architecture to protect against cold winds (Decker, 2010). A

more modern example of his innovations included working on the issues of thermal

bridging to reduce thermal heat loss. As external balconies concrete floors extend into

the interior of an apartment building, it acts as a thermal bridge, as concrete is a

thermally conductive material (Decker, 2010). Erskine’s solution to this was a

suspended balcony façade on apartment buildings that were supported from the top

(Decker, 2010).

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An example where modern practices went wrong and vernacular strategies

were ignored was in the Canadian Arctic regions in the 1950’s (Strub, 1996). Euro-

Canadian buildings were built in the Arctic regions of Canada in the 1950’s when the

Canadian government wanted to better assimilate Inuits into the Canadian society and

economy (Strub, 1996). It began building schools, recreation centers and housing using

layouts and materials the Inuit had never known (Strub, 1996). However, with time the

buildings started to have problems, with entrances being blocked by snow drifts and

drafts entering between floor boards and windows (Strub, 1996). The locals started

keeping whale blubber in bathtubs and repairing equipment in kitchens (Strub, 1996).

The buildings were not designed properly for the local climate or for the uses of the

population (Strub, 1996).

5.3.5 Summary and Sustainability

Due to the extreme cold nature of cold climate regions it is necessary to keep

heat in, reduce apertures to reduce heat loss and build an air tight and limited outside

surface area (Gallo, 1998). High insulation walls are necessary, and high thermal mass

to keep in heat (Gallo, 1998). Snow acts as an excellent insulator as demonstrated by

igloo architecture and therefore keeping some snow on rooftops can acts as a thermal

insulator (Gallo, 1998). Curved walls working with the wind instead of against it will

help prevent air infiltration and a centrally located kitchen or fireplace ensures heat

spreads throughout the building (McMinn, 2005). Keeping buildings close together and

52

orienting them towards the south will ensure less heat loss and more exposure to the

sun (Weber & Yannas, 2014).

Environmental sustainability can be achieved by implementing these heat

retention strategies in modern northern buildings in order to reduce fossil fuel use and

reduce greenhouse gases from their consumption (Weber & Yannas, 2014). As opposed

to constructing large buildings with a high window to wall ratio, utilizing these

vernacular strategies will ensure the most efficient use of resources. Saving resources

also helps realize economic benefits by saving on utility costs (Weber & Yannas, 2014).

Secondary economic benefits could also be achieved as a building that reflects local

and traditional culture can increase tourism and facilitate property price increases

(Babalis, 2006). In a social context, these references to vernacular strategies in building

form help connect the local community to their heritage, giving them a strong sense of

place and belonging to a space (Ferrara & College, 2008). This principle of balancing

ones social, environmental and economic health in a balanced environment is referred

to by the Inuit of Nunavut as ‘Avativut’ (Ferrara & College, 2008).

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6.0 Recommendations

The principal recommendation of this thesis is to integrate vernacular building

methods and design strategies into modern architecture and future designs and focus

research less on the historical context of vernacular buildings and more on the

environmental sustainability aspects these strategies help to improve (Weber &

Yannas, 2014).

Socially, the way people live in their homes also needs to be changed. They

need to be more involved and in control of their thermal comfort. The new urbanism

movement for example is one “that acknowledges that people do not want to feel of

their homes as technological tools to live in, but instead unique places that fosters

social interaction, connection with the environment and proximity to amenities”

(Schoenauer, 2000, page 112). Making streets more narrow and reducing isolation as

seen in the suburbs, and promoting face-to-face interaction between community

members seeks to bring social features back into housing (Shoenauer, 2000). By

creating buildings that refer more to the vernacular, people get more involved with the

house and their sense of place strengthens (Shoenauer, 2000). “Things such as

landscape and climate are not just contexts of human existence, they shape human

character and culture and process of thought” (Decker, 2010, page 27).

54

Environmentally and economically, vernacular building strategies can help to

maintain thermal comfort while reducing resource use (Weber & Yannas, 2014). The

following Figure 29 is a psychometric chart, which charts the human comfort zone in

relation to dew point temperature, dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature and

relative humidity (Chalfoun, 1989). The chart shows at which climatic conditions

vernacular building strategies such as solar heating, evaporative cooling, natural

ventilation, and high mass cooling would be most effective (Chalfoun, 1989).

Figure 29 - Psychometric Chart showing design strategies in response to environmental conditions. (Chalfoun, 1989)

Lastly, vernacular building strategies and their potential implementation in future

modern sustainable buildings should be integrated into architectural, geographical and

environmental educations curriculums, so that young professionals begin to realize the

55

value of these strategies and not remain so focused on advanced technological systems

that require large amounts of energy to achieve basic cooling and heating functions

(Babalis, 2006).

7.0 Limitations/Challenges

The built form and materials used in the construction of a vernacular building

can help to identify its climatic region; however, this does not necessarily mean it

provides all-year environmental performance (Foruzanmehr & Vellinga, 2011).

Especially in warmer climates, houses may be designed well to remain cool in the

summer, but may not be as good at staying warm in the winter, and therefore need to

be serviced with alternative energy sources (Rapoport, 1969). Another main challenge

is that while climate does have a significant impact on vernacular architecture, it is but

one of a variety of different elements that have shaped the built form over the many

centuries of development (Rapoport, 1969). It is therefore challenging to distinguish

what elements were influenced by cultural and social issues, technical constraints,

material availability or climate (Rapoport, 1969). Additionally, there is a difference

between architecture and buildings. Architecture is more often viewed as an art form,

and therefore there is an elitist attitude towards it and how it is applied (Noble, 2013).

Many studies of vernacular buildings have been carried out through this architecture

lens, and thus have only included high class wealthy dwellings and not included

traditional folk housing in the studies (Noble, 2013).

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8.0 Conclusion

Researchers and scholars have had a tendency to study vernacular architecture

through a historical and anthropological lens, rather than an environmental

sustainability lens. The strategies, designs and forms of vernacular technologies were

dismissed and replaced with energy-intensive buildings unfit for their climate. The

economic implications of implementing vernacular building designs in modern buildings

include long-term savings on utility bills and resource costs, the creation of local

markets to supply local materials, the creation of specialized jobs to support the

industry, retrofitting opportunities on existing housing and increased tourism and

property prices from adding a cultural component to buildings. The environmental

advantages include addressing challenges such as resource scarcity, land use, and

greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, adding landscaping elements to building

surroundings will expand the tree canopy and add more greenspace, while also

reducing the urban heat island effect. Social implications include offering more

affordable and accessible green housing to the population, more integration with

community members, more involvement in the natural environment, stronger

connections to cultural heritage, and a stronger sense of place and identity.

Considering the quality and diversity of vernacular architectural knowledge,

there is very few examples of these principles being applied to contemporary

‘standard’ building. This thesis encourages looking to the past for future solutions in a

57

realistic manner. It is also acknowledged that there are certain limitations, such as how

dwelling use has changed over time. People now use them for a variety of purposes

including sleeping, working, and relaxing. They are used continuously, intermittently

and year round. People require and expect privacy, daylight and natural ventilation. It is

for this reason that vernacular strategies will still need to be supplemented with

modern technologies, to ensure these needs and conditions are met at all times.

Further research should be conducted in better quantifying the effects of vernacular

design strategy implementation and introducing it into educational curriculums so

future generations can benefit from the wisdom of the past. In conclusion, combining

appropriate vernacular building methods with contemporary technologies will result in

resource savings, enrichment of culture, a stronger sense of place, and provide a more

comfortable living environment for generations to come.

58

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