sustainability working paper asia’s … science and analytics indicate that the environmental...

Asia’s Sustainable Development A Literature Survey

Jens Hein and Felix Preston

January 2014

SUSTAINABILITY WORKING PAPER

Contents Preface .................................................................................................................. 3

1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 5 1.1 About this paper ............................................................................................ 5

2. The three pillars of sustainable development ............................................... 6 2.1 Economy ....................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Environment .................................................................................................. 8 2.3 Society ........................................................................................................... 9 2.4 The convergence of sustainability issues .................................................... 10

3. Priorities, strategies and approaches .......................................................... 13 3.1 Geographical coverage ............................................................................... 13 3.2 Systemic versus incremental change .......................................................... 14 3.3 From national to local and global ................................................................ 16 3.4 Identifying practical solutions ...................................................................... 17 3.5 Working with local partners ......................................................................... 19

4. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 19

Appendix 1: Methodology ................................................................................. 21

Appendix 2: Survey Literature .......................................................................... 23

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 35

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Asia’s Sustainable Development: A Literature Survey

Sustainability

Preface Economists have predicted that the global economy will more than double in size in the next quarter century, and by that time, our population will be well on its way to reaching 9 billion people. Basic science and analytics indicate that the environmental stress and social inequality that we see today could get a lot worse by that time, unless we alter the way we organize society and manage scarce resources.

The above challenge has largely given rise to the subject of sustainability, or how societies, organizations and humans create growth, generate wealth and develop over time, given environmental risks, constraints and social priorities. The study is especially relevant for Asia which has made huge strides in reducing poverty, only to find that the industrialization that was so useful in addressing poverty, has helped to create an entirely new set of environmental challenges.

In short, Asia needs new sets of tools and growth models in order to finish the task of ending poverty, while putting in place governance systems and policies that clean up its environment, conserve natural resources, and promote sustainable business.

Of course, Asia’s developmental and environmental struggles take place amidst great change and opportunity in the global economy. On the production side, the region already plays major roles in global supply chains, and on the consumption side, the region houses the world’s largest rising middle class. In both respects, the region could well become an even more dominant force, but to do this without putting in place mechanisms to address its core environmental and social issues may well be self-defeating.

Thus, although the study of sustainable development in Asia is in its infancy, the call for solutions is as loud and urgent as ever. The Fung Global Institute was founded on the belief that the search for new and better models must involve both bottom-up and top-down solutions, and draw from a wide group of stakeholders and influencers, rather than just from business and policymakers.

As a first step towards understanding the response thus far, the Fung Global Institute commissioned Chatham House to do a standard literature survey of the sustainable development space in Asia. Our questions were as follows:

• What is the work done on Asia taking into account economic, environmental, and social dimensions as an integrated challenge?

• Which countries appear as early leaders in this space? • Where are the under-served areas of study or countries?

We are pleased to present the results herein, with the caveat that the field of sustainable development is changing fast. Our hope is that the pace of change will accelerate as knowledge is shared and solutions are discovered and scaled.

Pamela Mar Project Director and Fellow Fung Global Institute

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1. Introduction The concept of sustainability or sustainable development – brought to the fore by the Brundtland Commission report of 19871 and the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 – is still key to policy debates today. Developed and developing countries, together with different stakeholders and constituencies, have continued to explore how best to apply the concept and integrate the three pillars of sustainable development – environment, economy and society – into policy planning and implementation.

The rise of Asian economies, and the shifting power balance, is reshaping global economic and political relations. Emerging countries from Asia alone doubled their share of global output in the past two decades.2 Asia’s economic growth over the past few decades has helped lift hundreds of millions of people out of poverty across the region. It has also fundamentally changed the patterns of consumption, production and trade across the world, especially in natural resources. Many Asian economies, particularly China, are switching from their traditional role as exporters of primary commodities to importers of key resources.

The rise in the manufacturing competitiveness of economies like China, India and Korea has also led to the expansion of regional production networks, which are themselves becoming new demand centers. Deloitte and the U.S. Council on Competitiveness pointed to a ‘new world order for manufacturing competitiveness’ in less than a decade.3 Asia’s growing prowess also brings renewed global scrutiny on its track record in the global public policy agenda, including their social and environmental legacies. Rapid industrialization and urbanization is often resource-intensive, incurring tremendous costs to the local and global environment.

1.1 About this paper This paper surveys a selection of English-language publications on sustainable development in Asia by international think tanks and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and consultancies in the period January 2010 to October 2013. Sustainability in this context applies to a wide range of inter-related environmental, economic and social issues, as set out in Appendix 1.

The aim is to assess the coverage of issues of sustainable development in these reports, and to analyze the perspectives brought by international organizations to the sustainability debate in Asia as well as the nature and focus of global concerns about Asia’s economic, social and environmental track record. The review discusses the relative coverage of the three pillars of sustainability: economic, environmental and social, as well as key areas of overlap. It also maps the geographical scope of the literature, highlighting which countries in Asia receive most attention. It considers the extent to which sustainability literature on Asia is descriptive – designed to alert the audience to an issue and persuade them of the importance of action – or prescriptive – providing practical and detailed suggestions for different sets of decision-makers. Finally, the review considers the geographical provenance of the reports: where and by whom

1 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). 2 OECD, Perspectives on Global Development 2010: Shifting wealth, Executive Summary, p. 23 (OECD, 2010). 3 Deloitte, Global Manufacturing Competitiveness Index, p. 13-16 (Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu and US Council on Competitiveness, 2010).

they were written. Appendix 1 sets out the methodology of the survey, and Appendix 2 contains a full list of the reports surveyed.

2. The three pillars of sustainable development The survey finds little evidence for a strong bias towards any one pillar of sustainability: of the 215 reports surveyed, the social pillar is discussed in 114, the economic pillar in 175 and the environmental pillar in 176 (Figure 1). While the social pillar seems consistently to be less well-covered within the sustainability discourse, it is clear that the terminology is employed more or less equally when in discussing environmental and economic issues. It should of course be noted that, when it comes to social sustainability, similar issues may be covered by related terminology instead, and so are not captured by this survey (as discussed below).

Figure 1: Coverage of sustainability issues by category (number of reports)

The survey showed a very significant amount of overlap: only 30 reports confine themselves to considering just one of the three pillars of sustainable development, whereas the remaining 185 concern issues overlapping two or more pillars. The three pillars of sustainable development are integrated and indivisible – in theory as well as practice – so mapping the coverage of sustainability issues is a question of emphasis rather than absolutes. The subject of a report may suggest a focus on one pillar – climate change would fall in the environment pillar – but in reality the report and its recommendations may cover all three pillars (the use of market mechanisms, low carbon technology, or water efficiency measures to improve rural livelihoods). Moreover, the choice of ‘lens’ for a report, more often than not reflects decisions by the authors about the best way to make the case for change. Economic and resource security arguments are often deployed, for example, because they are seen as speaking the language of business and economic ministries, rather than revealing the bias of the organization responsible for the publication. Judgments are required about which choices are prioritized by the authors: while the sustainability literature often points to win-win solutions, there are sometimes difficult trade-offs to be made in the short term.

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2.1 Economy Of the reports surveyed, 175 out of the 215 reports cover economic dimensions of sustainable development. Their focus ranges from the traditional economic issues, such as the effect of wage increases on economic growth (and whether this makes the path of economic development unsustainable), to areas with pronounced environmental or social dimensions, such as low carbon industrialization and the emergence of the social enterprise sector.

Within the economic pillar, receiving most attention are issues related to future growth: competitiveness, viable development models, resources efficiency/productivity, organizational effectiveness, and technological development and innovation. Many of the reports make the case for liberalization through market development and integration. For example a report by the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) highlights the importance for Vietnam of moving up the value chain and cultivating new sources of competitive advantage by improving regulations for company start-ups and reducing tax rates in key areas, in order to increase productivity and sustain growth – with similar arguments made for other developing economies in Asia. 4 A Chatham House report points to the importance of regulatory change for China’s banking sector to ensure its long term competitiveness.5 In the surveyed literature, innovation capacity is widely regarded as key to sustaining economic growth, including the importance of establishing or enhancing institutional and legal structures to facilitate home-grown Asian innovation. 6 A significant narrative in the literature, particularly the part focusing on South Asia, also emphasizes the importance of local entrepreneurship and microfinance for sustainable economic growth in developing economies.7

A very popular discourse relates to how environment-friendly strategies or green products are critical to future growth and competitiveness for companies and governments alike, as will be discussed below in the section on the convergence of sustainability issues. There has also been growing interest related to the failure of classical economics in pricing ‘externalities’, for example incorporating payments for ecosystem services, particularly for natural resources in fast-developing economies, such as fresh water in China or natural forests in Indonesia.8 Others focus on avoiding perverse incentives, such as when private companies are paid to reforest land that they have deforested – a case raised by Greenpeace.9

4 Breu, M., R.Dobbs, J. Remes, D. Skilling and J. Kim, Sustaining Vietnam's Growth: The productivity challenge (McKinsey Global Institute, February 2012). 5 Subacchi, P. H, Huang. A. Molajoni, R. Varghese, Shifting Capital: The rise of financial centres in greater China (Chatham House, 2012). 6 Naghavi, A. and Y. Tsai, Cross-border intellectual property rights: Contract enforcement and absorptive capacities (FEEM, 2012). 7 See for example UNDP: Scaling up Islamic Microfinance in Bangladesh through the Private Sector: Experience of Islami Bank Bangladesh Limited (IBBL) (UNDP, November 2012); Oxfam and Centre for Social Markets, Made in Bangalore: How social enterprise is transforming business-as-usual (Oxfam and Centre for Social Markets, November 2011). 8 Brigden, K. M. Allsop and D. Santillo, Swimming in Chemicals - Perfluorinated chemicals, alkylphenols and metals in fish from the upper, middle and lower sections of the Yangtze River, China (Greenpeace, September 2010); Greenpeace, Bad Influence - How McKinsey-inspired plans lead to rainforest destruction (Greenpeace, April 2011). 9 Greenpeace, Protection Money - How industry expansion plans would use climate funds to bankroll deforestation and undermine President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s commitment to low-carbon development (Greenpeace, November 2010).

2.2 Environment Out of the 215 reports surveyed, 176 consider environmental aspects, often from the perspective that current development models have resulted in unsustainable environmental impacts both locally and globally. The emphasis within this group was on issues concerning climate change, carbon emissions and mitigation measures. Most of these reports – by Chatham House, Climate Strategies, Collaborating Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production (CSCP), Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei (FEEM), and others – emphasize the importance of minimizing emissions from Asia’s rapid industrialization and urbanization and necessity of departing from business-as-usual practices.

In the arena of low carbon or green industry, many organizations call for specific sectoral remedies – such as energy efficiency measures targeting key industries or buildings and public procurement of efficient products – but usually recognize that these must be underpinned by deeper systemic changes, such as market-based pricing, internalization of environmental costs, accelerating innovation, institutional reform, and building public awareness and support. A number of reports, for example, discuss emissions trading and other market-based mechanisms, such as renewable energy certificates, mainly as part of national schemes but also in some cases across jurisdictions. 10 Climate Strategies argue for a sectoral approach to reducing emissions by targeting the iron and steel industry, focusing on energy intensity targets, emissions trading, or technology development, depending on the national context.11 A China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED) Task Force report on China’s low carbon industrialization, prepared by Chatham House and the Development Research Centre of China’s State Council, argues for a mix of support for the emerging low carbon sectors and technologies, efficiency in heavy industry and accelerating structural change in the direction of less emissions-intensive sectors.12 These are presented as interlocking parts of the low carbon growth puzzle, necessitating a broad base of action on finance, investment, innovation and institutional dynamism.

Urbanization, and the associated environmental challenges and opportunities it presents, is a key theme in many reports. ClimateWorks and the Urban China initiative argue for investment in urban planning and infrastructure through prioritizing public transport and developing an integrated planning approach.13 A number of reports emphasize the importance of tackling the growing transport sector – developing public transport infrastructure and promoting electric vehicles to ensure its environmental sustainability - particularly in the context of rapid urbanization. 14 Climate Policy Initiative show that for some countries undergoing rapid

10 Mehling, M., S. Mielke, C. Fan, H Chien and W. Tsai: Case Study: Taiwan Trading Carbon across Jurisdictions (Climate Strategies working paper, January 2013); Moarif, S., Market-based Climate Mitigation Policies in Emerging Economies (Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, December 2012); Shrimali , G., S. Tirumalachetty and D. Nelson: Falling Short: An evaluation of the Indian renewable certificate market (Climate Policy Initiative, December 2012). 11 Roy, J. Iron and Steel Sectoral Approaches to the Mitigation of Climate Change: Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) in India (Climate Strategies, December 2010). 12 China Low Carbon Industrialisation Strategy (CCICED, November 2011). 13 The Climate Group, China Clean Revolution Report III: Low carbon development in cities (The Climate Group, December 2010); Climate Works and China Sustainable Energy Program , Planning Cities for People: A guide to prosperous, low-carbon urbanization (Climate Works and China Sustainable Energy Program). 14 Mani, A. M. Pai, R. Aggarwal, Sustainable Urban Transport in India Role of the Auto-rickshaw Sector (World Resources Institute, 2012); The Climate Group, Market Transformation of Low Carbon Technology: Electric Vehicles, Executive Summary (The Climate

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urbanization, the greatest potential for energy savings can be in ensuring high energy efficiency standards for new construction.15

Beyond climate change, the coverage of environmental issues is patchy. A number of reports focus on industrial water pollution in China. Greenpeace, for example, highlight an increase in the release of toxic chemicals as well as metals such as lead and mercury, making water unfit for drinking and leaving poisonous traces in fish and other wildlife.16 Air pollution also receives some coverage in the literature. The UNDP’s China National Development Report for 2013 shows that nearly 50 per cent of the country’s urban residents live in cities with lower air quality than recommended by the World Health Organization.17 However, the coverage is not perhaps as broad as might be expected from the recent public and media attention on this issue. This may partly reflect the lead-time involved in policy research, and research around the survey suggests that a number of reports are currently in the pipeline. Deforestation and illegal logging remains a prominent subject for Indonesia, but otherwise few reports focus on biodiversity and ecology. 18

2.3 Society As was noted above, social issues receive less attention than the other two pillars, being considered in 114 out of the 215 reports, many of which were published by NGOs. This may partly be a question of terminology. For example, terms such as ‘inclusive growth’ appear regularly in the surveyed literature, covering many of the same social concerns as the sustainability terminology.19

The most popular discourses in this part of the literature relate to social justice, poverty alleviation and food security. In particular, improving the productivity and resilience of agriculture to keep pace with increasing consumption is seen as a central challenge. Another is the protection of individuals and groups from potential harmful effects of urbanization and industrialization such as loss of land rights, economic exploitation and unhealthy living environments. Many reports highlight win-wins: arguing that addressing social challenges (including food insecurity, endemic health risks and lack of education) will accelerate economic growth.20

Group, May 2010); Climate Works and China Sustainable Energy Program, Planning Cities for People: A guide to prosperous, low-carbon urbanization (Climate Works and China Sustainable Energy Program).

15 Amecke, H., J. Deason, A. Hobbs, A. Novikova, X. Yang and S. Zhang. Buildings Energy Efficiency in China, Germany, and the United States (The Climate Policy Initiative, April 2013). 16 Cook, G. and J. van Horn, How dirty is your data? A Look at the Energy Choices That Power Cloud Computing (Greenpeace, April 2011); Greenpeace, Dirty Laundry 2: Hung Out to Dry - Unravelling the toxic trail from pipes to products (Greenpeace, August 2011); K. Brigden,M. Allsop and D. Santillo, Swimming in Chemicals - Perfluorinated chemicals, alkylphenols and metals in fish from the upper, middle and lower sections of the Yangtze River, China (Exeter: Greenpeace, September 2010). 17 UNDP, China National Human Development Report 2013 - Sustainable and Liveable Cities: Toward Ecological Civilization (UNDP and the Institute for Urban and Environmental Studies - Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, June 2013). 18 Greenpeace, Caught Red Handed (Greenpeace, March 2010); Greenpeace, Bad Influence - How McKinsey-inspired plans lead to rainforest destruction(Greenpeace, April 2011); Greenpeace, How KFC is junking the jungle by driving rainforest destruction in Indonesia (Greenpeace, May 2012); Greenpeace, Protection Money - How industry expansion plans would use climate funds to bankroll deforestation and undermine President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s commitment to low-carbon development (Greenpeace, November 2010); Greenpeace, How Sinar Mas is Pulping the Planet(Greenpeace, July 2010) . 19 See for example Actionaid, Who pays the price? hunger: the hidden cost of tax injustice (Actionaid, 2013); Oxfam, Sugar Rush: Land rights and the supply chains of the biggest food and beverage companies (Oxfam, 2013). 20 Chung, Y. B. and C. Billingsley, Climate Resilient Sustainable Agriculture: A real alternative to false solutions (Actionaid, June 2012); BSR , Protecting the Rights of Garment Factory Workers: A Train-the-Trainer Resource (BSR, July 2011); Morgan, G. and C.

The majority of these reports focus on improving livelihoods – often through the provision of water and energy, and via measures to prevent or address famine. In this context, the imperative of empowering individuals and small communities is emphasized by many. Actionaid, Business for Social Responsibility (BSR), and Oxfam, for example, argue that legal rights for groups or individuals – whether in employment or land tenure – are key to social sustainability. These would be delivered by national governments through legislation and awareness-raising, and protected by individuals and NGOs through transparency and accountability.21

Education and capacity-building, for both individuals and institutions, is regarded as a key enabler of social sustainability, both in its own right and through increasing productivity, especially in the agricultural sector. Reports from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Actionaid on countries such as Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Indonesia and Pakistan point to the importance of education for poverty reduction:22 education can enable individuals to make constructive use of their land, improving their ability to understand both their rights and the long-term impacts of the decisions they make.

The provision of clean water and energy are also seen as fundamental to social sustainability, particularly in poorer countries.23 With regard to energy, a number of approaches are suggested to cater for a number of national contexts: smart subsidy schemes, support to private developers through rural electrification funds, and local consumer-owned cooperatives.24 Key to sustainable agriculture is the maintenance of more complex and diverse agricultural systems, combined with a balanced approach to fertilizing and pest control, and characterized by autonomous smallholders and small-scale agriculture.25

For more developed economies or sectors, a combination of labour market flexibility with greater spending on active policies and higher short-term unemployment replacement benefits are seen as necessary to protect individuals from adverse economic effects caused by globalization.26

2.4 The convergence of sustainability issues As discussed above, economic, environmental and social sustainability cannot ultimately be treated as separate issues. This is recognized in the surveyed literature, most of which concerns more than one of the three pillars and much of which tackles all three.

Nolan, Step Up: Improving Recruitment of Migrant Workers in Indonesia, Findings from a Research Visit to Semarang, Indonesia, May 3-7 2011 (BSR, May 2011). 21 Kachika, T. Women's Land Rights (Actionaid, June 2012); Tandon, N. Climate Change: Beyond coping - Women smallholder farmers in Tajikistan (Oxfam, June 2011); BSR, Protecting the Rights of Garment Factory Workers: A Train-the-Trainer Resource (BSR, July 2011). 22 Raihan, S. M. Abu Eusuf, and A.B.M. Omor Faruque, Bangladesh: Riding the waves of globalization (UNDP, January 2010); Li, X. and S. Banihani, Public-Private Partnership: Equalizing Higher Education Opportunities Through Credit Insurance for Youth from Poor Households in China (UNDP, March 2012); Wijeratna, A. Fed Up: Now's the time to invest in agroecology (Actionaid, June 2012). 23 Gower, R., C. Pearce and K. Raworth, Left behind by the G20? How inequality and environmental degradation threaten to exclude poor people from the benefits of economic growth (Oxfam, July 2011); UNDP, IEA and OECD, Energy Poverty: How to make modern energy access universal? (UNDP, IEA and OECD, September 2010); Bairiganjan, S. et al., Power to the people: Investing in Clean Energy for the Base of the Pyramid in India (World Resources Institute, September 2010). 24 UNDP, IEA and OECD, Energy Poverty: How to make modern energy access universal? (UNDP, IEA and OECD, September 2010); Bairiganjan, S. et al., Power to the people: Investing in Clean Energy for the Base of the Pyramid in India (World Resources Institute, September 2010). 25 E.g. Curtis, M. Asia at the Crossroads: Prioritising Conventional Farming or Sustainable Agriculture? (Actionaid, February 2012); Wijeratna, A. Fed Up: Now's the time to invest in agroecology (Actionaid, June 2012). 26 Bacchetta, M. and M. Jansen, Making Globalization Socially Sustainable (WTO, September 2011).

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What emerges particularly strongly from the survey are the arguments for aligning economic and environmental priorities, not simply to avoid restraints imposed by environmental factors, but as a positive force driving economic growth end social development. Organizations as diverse as Chatham House, MGI, UNDP and the World Resources Institute (WRI) all make the case for environmentally sustainable economic development. Thus, think tanks have attempted to demonstrate the practicality of aligning low carbon and green strategies with existing national objectives (from poverty alleviation to competitiveness). For example, China’s desire to move its manufacturing industries up the value chain is a good fit with the potential for growth in low carbon technology sectors, as well as a shift away from traditional heavy industries, which offer less potential for long term growth and skilled employment. The potential solutions – such as accelerating innovation, upgrading industry with world-class equipment, availability of finance and market reform – are also compatible with existing strategies.

Failure to mainstream sustainable practices in Asia could seriously undermine the potential for economic growth in the medium term and will expose important business sectors to growing risks. For example, a WRI report suggests that current development models are leading to a range of environmental impacts – deforestation, water scarcity, climate change, food insecurity, energy insecurity, air, pollution – which already pose serious risks to business.27 Asia’s $40 billion food and beverage sector, for example, is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Decreased agricultural yields lead to higher input prices, increasing processing costs, food safety problems and conflicts with communities over pollution.28 Similar risks are posed to other sectors such as real estate and manufacturing.29

Many reports by humanitarian organizations emphasize the impact of rising temperatures and water scarcity on agriculture in some of the poorest regions of Asia, and the vulnerability of countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Philippines to natural disasters caused by climate change, such as droughts and floods. Christian Aid and Oxfam, for example, argue that necessary adaptation measures such as flexible modes of agriculture and pro-poor reconstruction projects offer not only increased resilience to climate change but also opportunities to develop sustainable social models.30

Access to water, food, fuel, building materials and other critical resources is increasingly seen as the nexus at which sustainability concerns converge. Reports by the Urban China Initiative, WRI and Greenpeace show the importance of available clean water to urban living, revenue from key industries and wildlife respectively, and something similar can be said for land and other primary resources.31

27 Krechowicz, D. and S. Venugopal. Analyzing Environmental Trends: Taking the pulse of Asia’s financial community (World Resources Institute, June 2010). 28 Krechowicz, D. and S. Venugopal. Amanda Sauer, Sandeep Somani and Shipra Pandey, Weeding Risk: Financial impacts of climate change and water scarcity on Asia’s food and beverage sector India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam (World Resources Institute, April 2010). 29 Venugopal, S., D. Krechowicz, C. Singh and R. Padamadan, Surveying Risk, Building Opportunity: Financial impacts of energy insecurity, water scarcity, and climate change on Asia’s commercial real estate sector (World Resources Institute, April 2010). 30 Chung, Y. B. and C. Billingsley, Climate Resilient Sustainable Agriculture: A real alternative to false solutions; Moss, S. N. Dale and M. Tinelli, Partnering for Resilience: Reducing disaster risks through effective partnerships (Christianaid 2011 ); Chughtai S. and H. McElhinney, Six months into the floods: Resetting Pakistan’s priorities through reconstruction (Oxfam, January 2011). 31 Xiao, G., L. Xue, J. Woetzel. The New Urban Sustainability Index: A new tool for measuring China's cities (The Urban China Initiative, November 2010); Sauer, A. Klop, P. Agrawal S Overheeating: Financial Risks from Water Constraints on Power Generation in Asia (World Resources Institute, April 2010); Venugopal, A. Krechowicz, D. Singh, C. Padamadan, R. Surveying Risk, Building Opportunity: Financial impacts of energy insecurity, water scarcity, and climate change on Asia’s commercial real estate sector (World Resources Institute, April 2010); Krechowicz, D. Venugopal, S. Sauer, A. Somani, A. Pandey, S. Weeding Risk:

There is also increasing effort to connect sustainability and resilience discussions, especially in the context of disaster-preparedness – for example, how to build resilient systems that can protect developing countries and poor communities from natural disasters that could increase in frequency and severity due to climate change. Referring to the humanitarian response to the Pakistan floods of 2010, Oxfam argue for a reconstruction program based on ‘pro-poor’ policies and sustainable development to ensure the resilience of local communities to future environmental disasters. 32 A large number of reports emphasize the importance of climate change resilience in agriculture, for sustainable development and poverty alleviation.33

Incentives for low carbon development will need to be structured in such a way that they support not only technology development, but also practical application at scale. 34 In countries that subsidize energy for the poor, such as kerosene in India, subsidies can be redirected to renewable energy or at least broadened to include such sources. Reliable investment frameworks are needed to attract sufficient financing to scale up renewable energy, for example from pension funds.35 In many countries, significant investment in the infrastructure is necessary to deliver the energy to consumers, meaning that finance, whether public or private, is key.

Renewable energy is seen as having great potential to contribute to all three pillars. The literature makes the case that these technologies can provide much of the energy needed for development, while at the same time being growth industries that can help drive economic progress.36 As developing industries they provide particular benefits for emerging economies, which can acquire significant markets shares and avoid lock-in to carbon-intensive energy sources. The expansion of access to sustainable energy has been identified by one UNDP report as a ‘triple-win’ strategy (i.e. one that furthers economic, environmental and social sustainability), as it can accelerate development particularly in rural areas, and reduce environmental pressure from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels.37 This can be done partly directly through government policy, such as subsidies and tax breaks, but also indirectly by promoting the sector as a priority for bank lending, to provide financing.

Finally, the survey suggests that sustainability concerns are increasingly mainstreamed within security and international relations debates. One recent Chatham House report illustrates how

financial impacts of climate change and water scarcity on Asia’s food and beverage sector India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam (World Resources Institute, April 2010); K. Brigden, Allsop, M. Santillo, D. Swimming in Chemicals (Greenpeace, September 2010). 32 Chughtai, S. and McElhinney, H. Six Months into the Floods: Resetting Pakistan’s priorities through reconstruction (Oxfam, January 2011). 33 See for example Chung, Y. and Billingsley, C. Climate Resilient Sustainable Agriculture: A real alternative to false solutions (Actionaid, June 2012). 34 Bairiganjan, S. et al., Power to the people: Investing in clean energy for the base of the pyramid in India (World Resources Institute, September 2010); Khan, N. More with Less: Scaling Sustainable Consumption and Resource Efficiency (World Economic Forum, January 2012); Hamilton, K. Scaling up Renewable Energy in Developing Countries: Finance and investment perspectives (Chatham House, April 2010); UNDP, Scaling Up Decentralized Energy Services in Nepal (UNDP, November 2011). 35 Hamilton, K. Scaling up Renewable Energy in Developing Countries: Finance and investment perspectives (Chatham House, April 2010); The Climate Group, Climate Change and Finance in India: Banking on the low carbon economy (The Climate Group, May 2010); Alexander Vasa and Karsten Neuhoff, Pricing for Low Carbon Investment Project (Climate Policy Initiative and DIW Berlin, January 2011); Kuhndt M. and J. Andrés Rozo Grisales, Enabling Asian SMEs the access 2 finance for energy & resource efficiency (CSCP, 2010). 36 Grau, T., M. Huo and K. Neuhoff, Survey of Photovoltaic Industry and Policy in Germany and China (Climate Policy Initiative Beijing, DIW Berlin, March 2011); Phadke, A., R. Bharvirkar and J. Khangura, Reassessing Wind Potential Estimates for India: Economic and Policy Implications (Lawrence Berkeley March 2012); Teske S., and G.Masson, Solar photovoltaic electricity empowering the world (Greenpeace, July 2005). 37 Slay, B. Triple wins for sustainable development (UNDP, June 2012).

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security and national political relations in East Asia are being influenced by China’s burgeoning demand for liquefied natural gas, driven partly by policies aimed at reducing dependence on coal and cutting greenhouse gas emissions.38 Other reports illustrate how the management of shared natural resources and the growing inequality in income and landownership can create significant political instability both within and between states.39

3. Priorities, strategies and approaches This section explores the key trends in Asia’s sustainable development literature, considering what they indicate about research strategies and priorities.

3.1 Geographical coverage While Asia is a focus of concerns over sustainable development, the coverage of sustainability literature within the continent varies considerably. Mapping the relative coverage of countries and region provides a picture of where the perceived challenges reside and where additional work is required, but may also suggest whether measures to address questions of sustainability are likely to be national, regional or sectoral in nature, and whether geographical and cultural factors may form part of the solution.

By far the most well-covered country in Asia was China, with 43% of the country-specific reports surveyed discussing China either exclusively or among other case studies. This tendency was fairly consistent across the range of sustainability issues, research disciplines and report authors. India was the second-best covered country by a clear margin, with 25%, though comparatively poorly covered relative to China. Other countries covered individually to a greater or lesser extent were Bangladesh, Indonesia, Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Tajikistan, South Korea, Taiwan Tajikistan, Thailand and Vietnam. Bhutan, Cambodia, East Timor, Hong Kong, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, North Korea, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka were covered among others case studies, but not given exclusive treatment.

Figure 2: Country coverage in surveyed literature (number of reports)

38 Paik, K., with G. Lahn and J. Hein , Through the Dragon Gate: A window of opportunity for North-east Asian gas security (Chatham House briefing paper, 2012). 39 See for example Alison Doig, The rich, the poor and the future of the earth: equity in a constrained world (Christianaid, April 2012) and Mochizuki, J. and Z. Zhang, Environmental Security and its Implications for China's International Relations (FEEM, April 2011).

Reports naturally tend to focus on topics of particular significance for the countries and regions concerned. A large number of reports, for example, considered the issues of urbanization and resource efficiency in countries such as China and India, whether from an economic or environmental point of view, whereas reports on Indonesia more often covered deforestation and migrant workers. One of only two reports looking specifically at Bangladesh concerned disaster management (the country being particularly prone to a range of environmental hazards).40 There are some areas for which the disparity in relative country coverage could indicate a possible gap in sustainability research: for example, China was well represented when it came to research on innovation and green investment, but India was underrepresented in this area. Japan might also be said to be underrepresented in the surveyed literature as a whole, relative to the size of the country’s economy and emissions.

Very few reports include Asia-wide solutions or focus on cooperation among Asian countries. While a number of reports deal with several Asian countries, these are almost invariably considered as separate, comparative case studies rather than as an entity. More often, case studies of Asian countries sit alongside studies of African and South American countries in a developing economy context rather than being grouped in a geographical or cultural region. Regional cooperation could be a rich area for further research, given the economic integration of Asia over the past decade and the increasing importance of south-south investment discussed below.

3.2 Systemic versus incremental change Many reports emphasize the importance of incremental change and practical solutions. ClimateWorks show that if sales in India of certain products such as light bulbs, refrigerators,

40 Luxbacher, K. Bangladesh’s Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (CDKN, December 2011).

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fans, air conditioners, televisions, agricultural pumps, and industrial motors were shifted to the most energy efficient options the country could eliminate its energy deficit in three years, increase its GDP by US$500 billion between 2009 and 2017, reduce local air pollution, and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 65 million tons by 2017. 41 Governments in emerging economies, however, aim to enhance domestic capacity in climate-friendly technology to capitalize on new markets.42

At the same time, the need for systemic approaches is clear across much of the literature. On the level of national economies, this manifests itself in the focus on economic restructuring as well as on public-private partnerships.43 At the company level, it can be seen in the emphasis on supply chains rather than individual products or productive units.44 Internationally, it can be seen in approaches to bilateral, multilateral or regional cooperation, reflecting the global nature of climate change and economic trends.

A number of reports consider how developed countries can act to support sustainable development in Asia. Even more significantly, perhaps, is the number of reports that emphasize the importance of south-south cooperation. UNDP in particular argues for the importance of south-south investment and knowledge sharing, both within Asia, and between Asian countries and Africa. Several reports, particularly those published towards the end of the period covered by the survey, consider the role of investment by Asian countries on sustainable development elsewhere, such as Chinese overseas investment in renewable energy, or Japanese development projects in the Middle East and North Africa.45

The critical role of the private sector in sustainable development, as well as how to integrate public and private sustainability efforts, is emphasized in many reports. BSR argues that private companies can simultaneously reduce costs and minimize their environmental impact by encouraging suppliers to adopt energy efficiency measures, through financial incentives and the provision of guidance on best practice.46 Asia’s private sector is increasingly recognizing the importance to businesses of sustainability. According to a 2010 Accenture report, 57 per cent of Asian CEOs surveyed considered sustainability ‘very important’ to the future success of their business. This was on a par with American CEOs (at 59 per cent).47

41 Paul S. and J. Sathaye, The Hundred Billion Dollar Bonus: Global energy efficiency lessons from India (Climate Works/Shakti Sustainable Energy, March 2011). 42 The Climate Group, India's Clean Revolution (The Climate Group, March 2011). 43 Li, X. and S. Banihani, Public-Private Partnership: Equalizing higher education opportunities through credit insurance for youth from poor households in China (UNDP, March 2012); China Low Carbon Industrialisation Strategy (CCICED, November 2011). 44 Ma, J,, R. Cheung, J. Wang. and Q. Ruan, Greening Supply Chains in China: Practical Lessons from China-based Suppliers in Achieving Environmental Performance (World Resource Institute, October 2010); Fargo, B. and D. MacAvoy, A Practical Approach to Greening the Electronics Supply Chain (BSR, June 2010); Laura Ediger and Jesse Nishinaga, Electronics Supply Networks and Water Pollution in China (BSR, November 2010). 45 World Resources Institute, China’s Overseas Investments in the Wind and Solar Industries: Trends and drivers (World Resources Institute, 2013); UNDP, Japan and the Arab states: Partners for development (UNDP, 2013). 46 Schuchard, R. and D. Gross, Unlocking Energy Efficiency in China: A guide to partnering with suppliers (BSR, May 2010). 47 Lacy, P, B. Berthon, L. Teo and Y. de Boer, A New Era of Sustainability: Perspectives from Asia Pacific CEOs (Accenture, 2010).

3.3 From national to local and global Most reports focus on national measures, although for climate change, international aspects such as the potential for regional or global carbon pricing have received some attention.48 This seems to be partly because government action through rules and standards on energy efficiency, or support for low carbon development such as funding and public procurement, is seen as the most viable option in the immediate term. In addition, Asia’s growing economies present opportunities for avoiding locking in unsustainable production options, making it practical to integrate mitigation measures with national development priorities upfront. In any event, these reports tend to focus on the technical aspects of national environment policies rather than global governance issues related to climate change.

At the sub-national level, Chatham House and partners propose the creation of low-carbon zones: areas characterized by ambitious energy-intensity targets and energy price levels, faster renewable energy deployment, and special support for low carbon manufacturing and technology development. Such zones can assist local and regional development while demonstrating the feasibility and advantages of low carbon development, allowing lessons to be learnt before measures are adopted more broadly. As an example, a roadmap has been developed for Jilin City in China, building on previous work on low carbon zones, with a methodology that can be applied to other cities.49 CSCP and partners argue for a city-level approach to improving the conditions for low carbon entrepreneurship, such as setting up service centres to provide advice on finance and technology, and integrating relevant sectors such as renewable energy in local planning to ensure market access.50

Building the capacity of local stakeholders, institutions and processes is widely seen as a critical enabling condition for sustainable development. One example is research by Actionaid on farming in Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and the Guangxi Autonomous Region of China. 51 It argues that sustainable agriculture based on smallholder self-reliance and agro-ecology is necessary to ensure the increased yield necessary to lift farmers out of poverty – and feed a growing population and underpin industrialization – without damaging the environment. However, such an approach requires significant investment in the smallholders themselves, through education, secure land rights, financing mechanisms and infrastructure. Similarly, a report by The Climate Group argues that India’s renewable energy sector will be instrumental in providing the clean energy needed for economic development while reducing carbon emissions, simultaneously helping to lift people out of poverty through manufacturing and other industries.52 A corollary of the focus on indigenous capacity is that sustainability practices and policies must build on and through local systems and stakeholders to be effective.

48 Zhongxiang Zhang, Who Should Bear the Cost of China's Carbon Emissions Embodied in Goods for Exports? (FEEM, September 2011). 49 Preston F. et. al., Low Carbon Development Roadmap for Jilin City (London: Chatham House, E3G, Jilin University, CASS and ERI, March 2010); Preston, F., B. Lee and A. Froggatt, Chongqing’s Global Future: Towards a low carbon economy (Chatham House 2009; Lee B., A. Froggatt et. Al, Changing Climates: Interdependencies on climate and energy security for China and Europe (Chatham House, 2007). 50 Philipps, S., F. Grossi and N.Coles, Leverage Points for Low Carbon Entrepreneurship in Wuxi (Wuppertal, 2012). 51 Curtis, M. Asia at the Crossroads: Prioritising Conventional Farming or Sustainable Agriculture? (Actionaid, February 2012). 52The Climate Group, India's Clean Revolution (The Climate Group, March 2011).

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There is also a strong emphasis on critical bilateral relations that could help foster more sustainability outcomes in a win-win situation. In February 2010, the UK-India Business Leaders Climate Group was launched with the aim of providing recommendations to the governments of the UK and India on how to accelerate collaborative, climate-friendly economic growth, in order to ‘put business at the heart of a prosperous, climate-friendly economy’.53 NGOs such as Oxfam argue that small-scale private enterprise highlight the potential of ‘social enterprise’ business models to address inequality.54 Others focus on how inefficiencies deriving from difficulties in recruitment, a high turnover of staff and low line management quality can be overcome by addressing the employee situation, such as through training and development as well as improvements in working and living conditions.55

The potential for enhanced regional cooperation in the sustainability arena is less well covered. Chatham House explore the challenges and opportunities for cooperation on low carbon development and climate change adaptation in the Mekong region, using Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos as case studies to identify opportunities and strategies for regional collaboration.56 Among the possible areas for cooperation suggested are: regional energy generation, joint research networks and coordination of national responses to migration, disease and natural disasters. In another example, Actionaid calls on ASEAN to assist national governments in supporting sustainable agriculture and assist smallholders in the process of climate change. Among the reports surveyed, this is the only instance in which ASEAN is proposed as a vehicle through which to pursue policies of sustainable development.

3.4 Identifying practical solutions A central challenge of sustainable development is linking research and analysis of sustainable development issues to realistic and implementable change on the ground. Some reports focus on building the narrative of sustainability – defining and analyzing problems, whether local/sectoral problems or looking at overall trends – while others go into detail on specific measures designed to implement sustainable practices. Both of these approaches play an important role in policy discussions, with the higher level narrative-building often helping to lay the ground for more detailed assessments.

The sustainability literature on Asia has moved beyond the discussion of whether or not a crisis exists: only a relatively small proportion of the reports surveyed concern themselves in a significant way with demonstrating the existence or extent of sustainability problems, and in relatively few of the reports (48) is this the chief object of research or analysis. Roughly two thirds of the reports (137) went on to set out recommendations in greater or lesser detail. For the purposes of this review, reports were assessed according to whether the recommendations could be seen to have been made on the basis of the evidence put forward; were specific and practical; were tailored to the particular conditions and processes of the country in question; and whether they were broken down and targeted to the relevant decision-makers in each case.

53 UK-India Business Leaders Climate Group, UK-India Collaboration for a Prosperous Low Carbon Economy: Opportunities, challenges and recommendations (The UK-India Business Leaders Climate Group, November 2010). 54 Oxfam and Centre for Social Markets, Made in Bangalore: How social enterprise is transforming business-as-usual (Oxfam and Centre for Social Markets, November 2011). 55 BSR, Summary of Research on the Labor Situation in the Beijing Development Area (BSR, April 2011). 56 Baumüller, H., Aligning Climate and Development Agendas in The Mekong Region: Options for regional collaboration between Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos (Chatham House, February 2010).

Figure 3: Criteria for recommendations

Overall, the evidence base for the recommendations in the surveyed reports is of a high quality. In most cases, recommendations were made based on detailed research and wide-ranging engagement with stakeholders. Of the reports surveyed, about 86 per cent were assessed as having recommendations of this quality. The picture was more mixed when it comes to making recommendations specific or practical. 81 per cent of the reports surveyed were considered to contain general recommendations, i.e. lacking specific steps to implementation. With regard to tailoring recommendations to local decision-making processes and identifying the solutions that best work in the local political economy, relatively few reports break down recommendations to aim these at the relevant actors and decision-makers, such as national governments or the private sector.

There is some evidence of a disparity between the quality of research and analysis, and the practical quality of the recommendations themselves. While most of the reports identified specific solutions to the problems discussed, many could have done more to connect their findings with practical steps and concrete timelines, or to situate the solutions in their local context with regard to stakeholders, processes and the political economy. An important qualification to this finding is that there may be a good strategic reason that detailed or prescriptive recommendations are not included.

Forty-two of the reports surveyed are ‘solution-focused’, having specific sustainability measures or strategies, rather than problems, as the main topic of their research and analysis. Many of these concern low carbon industrialization, for which a large number of reports set out technical and structural approaches to improving the sustainability of rapid industrial development, and for agriculture, for which a number of reports propose approaches based on diversified smallholder models. Solution-focused reports were also found for issues such as sustainable agriculture,

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urbanization, factory working conditions, financing for renewable energy and others. UNDP in particular has produced a number of solution-focused reports.

3.5 Working with local partners Knowledge of local conditions is clearly important in identifying suitable responses to sustainability challenges, especially where there is a need for detailed solutions. Furthermore, developing country governments have often been concerned that researchers and governments from developed countries make recommendations based on generic or western sustainability models, without incorporating local needs – or that they use sustainability as a tool to impinge on national sovereignty or as a cover for protectionism.

Of the reports surveyed, nearly all were published by a think tank or other organization based in the US or Europe, though many of these have local offices in Asian countries (The figures here must be considered in view of the fact that the survey only included English language publications). However, of the reports published by non-Asian think tanks, at least 40 per cent were co-written with one or more local experts, or prepared/published in cooperation with a local partner organization. In a number of cases, the survey illustrates partnerships in which international think tanks publish research carried out mainly, or entirely, by universities or other research institutes in Asian countries.57 About half of the reports (51 per cent) were written by non-Asian think tanks with no local partner or country office explicitly mentioned.

This reveals a more nuanced picture of the international sustainable development policy debates in Asia – one in which international organizations often depend on local partners for their knowledge of local political and cultural contexts, and Asian researchers leverage the specialist knowledge and international perspective of foreign experts as appropriate, often using these research projects to build long-term domestic research capacity (and, at times, as levers to make the case for domestic change). It also likely reflects an improvement in research funding structures, as many donors and host governments now require local partnerships. All in all, the provenance of the surveyed literature suggests a high degree of international cooperation in sustainable development research on Asia. In relation the literature produced without a local partner, it should be noted that in many cases foreign organizations will themselves have strong expertise in Asia, and it will not make sense to collaborate with a local partner in every publication.

4. Conclusions That Asia’s sustainable development is an issue of global concern is evident from the sheer number of reports published on various aspects of the matter in the last four years. While this review has attempted an analysis of only a limited part of this output, a number of illustrative conclusions as to the state of policy thinking can be extrapolated.

The literature reflects a growing awareness of interlinkages between economic, environmental and social sustainability questions. Addressing climate change and pollution are often presented as the key determinants of future economic growth and social development, and unfettered economic growth puts pressure on the environment and can give rise to unsustainable modes of living and working. While all three pillars of sustainability are well-covered, the social pillar is

57 See for example The Climate Group, Shaping China’s Climate Finance Policy (The Climate Group and the Research Center for Climate and Energy Finance, at the Central University of Finance and Economics, China, March 2013); Li, P., D. Yang, P. Li, Z. Ye and Z. Deng, A Study on Industrial Green Transformation in China (FEEM, 2013); Government of Nepal Ministry of the Environment, Adaptation to climate change: NAPA to LAPA (CDKN and the Nepalese Ministry of the Environment).

less prominent than the others in the output of policy think tanks, though not for humanitarian organizations.

Concerns about whether and under what conditions the growth of economies such as China and India can be sustained continue to receive significant attention in the policy literature. For rapidly industrializing countries such as China, solutions tend to focus on promoting low carbon development to align economic and environmental priorities, mitigating climate change through economic restructuring and energy efficiency. For less developed countries exposed to the harmful effects of climate change, attention is concentrated on adaptation, sustainable modes of agriculture to provide food security. In both cases, sustainable use of increasingly scarce resources is seen as being of critical importance, and resource efficiency and waste management are given commensurate weight, with innovation in technology and management among the solutions.

The critical role of the private sector is reflected in many reports, though at the same time the literature makes a strong case for the necessity of strong and clear government policy frameworks. The survey indicates that the private sector is increasingly receptive to the economic case for sustainability: the case for the mutual dependence of sustainable development and private enterprise are now being made by organizations as different as Accenture and Oxfam. Within the private sector discussion, a rising theme is the improvement of local capacities, which is necessary to build resilience for individuals and communities and bring them into the global market as both producers and consumers.

With the deepening economic ties between Asian countries in recent years, the opportunities for regional collaboration on sustainable development, as well as collaboration between Asian and non-Asian countries, would benefit from additional research. Few reports draw conclusions for Asia as a region, or consider Asia-focused solutions such as intergovernmental cooperation, bilateral agreements, or regional institutions. Of Asian countries, China is by far the most covered, with India a rather distant second, indicating that Chinese sustainable development is seen as the major challenge, or possibly the challenge where policy research is most needed or will have the greatest impact.

The prevalence of international research cooperation suggests that international think tanks and organizations understand not only the importance of local expertise, but also realize that research and recommendations are more likely to be accepted by governments if domestic organizations have played a genuine partnership or leadership role in a research exercise. While most the reports surveyed were published by non-Asian think tanks, roughly half were written either by authors in Asia or in cooperation with Asian research institutions.

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Appendix 1: Methodology This survey covers the reports and similar publications concerning sustainable development in Asia, published by the following organizations during the period January 2010 to October 2013: Accenture, Actionaid, Business for Social Responsibility (BSR), Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (C2ES), Collaborating Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production (CSCP), Chatham House, Christian Aid, Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN), The Climate Group, Climate Strategies, The Climate Policy Initiative, ClimateWorks, Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei (FEEM), Greenpeace, McKinsey Global Institute, Oxfam, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Economic Forum (WEF), and the World Resources Institute (WRI).

Reports were chosen for inclusion in the survey on the basis of their coverage of sustainability issues in Asia as a whole or in individual countries in the region. In terms of geographical coverage, reports were included when they concerned an Asian country or region exclusively, or where an Asian country or region formed a substantial part of the content or argument of the report. In terms of terminology, reports were included when using the terms ‘sustainability’ or ‘sustainable’. A full list of the reports surveyed can be found in Appendix 2.

To map the coverage of the three pillars of sustainable development, and of issues within each pillar the survey was structured around key issues and related terminology in the sustainability literature (as set out in figure 1 below), especially major recent reports such as The UN Secretary General’s High Level Panel on Sustainable Development.58

Figure 1: Sustainability issues

58 Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A Future Worth Choosing (The UN Secretary General’s High Level Panel on Sustainable Development, 2012) http://www.un.org/gsp/sites/default/files/attachments/GSP_Report_web_final.pdf

Environmental • Carbon emissions and

climate change • Ecosystem Resilience • Ecological Balance • Resource availability

Economic • Growth &

Prosperity • Innovation • Efficiency &

Productivity

Social • Distributional

equity • Poverty and

famine alleviation • Human rights • Social capital

Environmental + Social • Green jobs • Health issues (mental and

physical) • Urban environment • Physical infrastructure

Social + Economic • Labour productivity • Consumption/consumer-

based economy • Employment structure • Social organization

Environmental + Economic • Resource efficiency • Agriculture • Profitable sustainability-

related strategies • Resource pricing • Green investment • Emissions trading/offset • Waste management

http://www.un.org/gsp/sites/default/files/attachments/GSP_Report_web_final.pdf

The survey also mapped the geographical coverage of reports; whether they concerned individual Asian countries, Asia as a whole, or where global in scope with Asian case studies or a significant Asian dimension. Furthermore, the survey mapped whether reports where descriptive, prescriptive or solution-focused. Finally, the survey considered the geographical origin of the reports, as well as whether reports written by Non-Asian think tanks were written with local partners or locally based experts.

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Appendix 2: Survey Literature Accenture, New Wealth, New Opportunities: Building an Efficient and Profitable Operating Model for Success in Asia’s Booming Wealth Market (Accenture, 2012)

Actionaid, Climate Resilient Sustainable Agriculture (Actionaid, December 2011)

Actionaid, Disaster Risk Reduction in Pakistan: The Contribution of DEC Member Agencies, 2010-2012 (Actionaid, July 2012)

Actionaid, Governance in Action: ActionAid in Myanmar (Actionaid, November 2012)

Amecke, H., J. Deason, A. Hobbs, A. Novikova, X. Yang and S. Zhang, Buildings Energy Efficiency in China, Germany, and the United States (The Climate Policy Initiative, April 2013)

Austin, K., S. Sheppard, and F. Stolle, Indonesia's Moratorium on New Forest Concessions: Key Findings and Next Steps (World Resources Institute, February 2010)

Avory, B. and A. Lane, Catalyzing Social Investment in China (BSR, November 2011)

Bacchetta, M. and M. Jansen, Making Globalization Socially Sustainable (WTO, September 2011)

Bacchetta, M. et al., World Trade Report 2010: Trade in Natural Resources (WTO, 2010)

Bailey, R. Growing a Better Future: Food Justice in a Resource-constrained World (Oxfam, July 2011)

Bairiganjan, S. et al., Power to the People: Investing in clean Energy for the Base of the Pyramid in India (World Resources Institute, September 2010)

Baumüller, H., Aligning Climate and Development Agendas in the Mekong Region: Options for Regional Collaboration between Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos (Chatham House, June 2010)

Baumüller, H., Building a Low Carbon Future for Vietnam: Technological and Other Needs for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation (Chatham House, February 2010)

Beresnev, N., L. Cotula, L. Emerton and P. Steele, Managing Private Investment in Natural Resources: A Primer for Pro-Poor Growth and Environmental Sustainability (UNDP/UNEP, 2011)

Bin, P., Building Strategic Philanthropy in China (BSR, September 2010)

Bosetti, V. and D. Victor, Politics and Economics of Second-Best Regulation of Greenhouse Gases: The Importance of Regulatory Credibility (FEEM, April 2010)

Bours, H., J. Han, W. Hanaoka , S. King, O. Knowles, E. Partridge, K, Thomas, S. Tolvanen, C. Trenor, Out of Line: The Failure of the Global Tuna Longline Fisheries (Greenpeace, November 2013)

Boys, J. and D. McNair, Mapping Future Trends in Global Economic and Political Power (Christianaid, March 2010)

Brack, D., Controlling Illegal Logging: Consumer-country Measures (Chatham House, January 2010)

Breu, M., R. Dobbs, J. Remes, D. Skilling and J. Kim, Sustaining Vietnam's growth: The Productivity Challenge (McKinsey Global Institute, February 2012)

Brigden, K., M. Allsop and D. Santillo, Swimming in Chemicals: Perfluorinated Chemicals, Alkylphenols and Metals in Fish from the Upper, Middle and Lower Sections of the Yangtze River, China (Greenpeace, September 2010)

Brown, K., J. Hempson-Jones and J.Pennisi, Investment Across the Taiwan Strait How Taiwan’s Relationship with China Affects its Position in the Global Economy (Chatham House, November 2010)

Brown, K. The New Leadership in Beijing: Political and Economic Implications (Chatham House March 2013).

BSR, Between the Lines: Listening to Female Factory Workers in China (BSR, March 2013)

BSR, Protecting the Rights of Garment Factory Workers: A Train-the-Trainer Resource (BSR, July 2011)

BSR, A Study on the Labor Shortage and Employment Guidelines for Manufacturers in China (BSR, September 2010)

BSR, Summary of Research on the Labor Situation in the Beijing Development Area (BSR, April 2011)

Burnley, J., A New Dawn for Equitable Growth in Myanmar? (Oxfam, June 2013)

Cameron, C., G. Norrington-Davies and V. te Velde, Managing Climate Extremes and Disasters in Asia: Lessons from the IPCC SREX Report (CDKN, 2012)

Carley, S., S. Desai and M. Bazilian, Energy-Based Economic Development: Mapping the Developing Country Context (FEEM, 2012)

Carraro, C. and E. Massetti, Energy and Climate Change in China (FEEM, February 2011)

CCICED, China Low Carbon Industrialization Strategy (CCICED, November 2011)

Choi, W., R. Dobbs, D.Suh, J. Mischke, E. Chon, H. Cho, B.Kim and H. Kim, Beyond Korean Style: Shaping a New Growth Formula (MGI, April 2013)

Chor, H., R. Dobbs, D. Nguyen Hansen, F. Thompson, N. Shah, L. Streiff, Myanmar’s Moment: Unique Opportunities, Major Challenges (MGI, June 2013).

Chughtai, S. and H. McElhinney, Six Months into the Floods: Resetting Pakistan’s Priorities through Reconstruction (Oxfam, January 2011)

Chung, Y. B. and C. Billingsley, Climate Resilient Sustainable Agriculture: A Real Alternative to False Solutions (Actionaid, June 2012)

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The Climate Group, Institutional Arrangements for Climate Finance Governance in China (The Climate Group, November 2012)

The Climate Group, Shaping China’s Climate Finance Policy (The Climate Group, March 2013)

The Climate Group, Financing China's Low Carbon Growth: Hong Kong (The Climate Group, December 2011)

The Climate Group, India's Clean Revolution (The Climate Group, March 2011)

The Climate Group, China Clean Revolution Report III: Low Carbon Development in Cities (The Climate Group, December 2010)

The Climate Group, CCS: Towards Market Transformation in China (The Climate Group, July 2010)

The Climate Group, A Low Carbon Vision for Hong Kong (The Climate Group, July 2010)

The Climate Group, Market Transformation of Low Carbon Technology: Electric Vehicles (The Climate Group, May 2010)

The Climate Group, Climate Change and Finance in India: Banking on the low carbon economy (The Climate Group, May 2010)

Climate Policy Initiative, Annual Review of Low-Carbon, Development in China (2011-2012) (Climate Policy Initiative, January 2012)

Climate Policy Initiative, Review of Low Carbon Development in China: 2010 Report (Climate Policy Initiative, February 2011)

Climate Works and China Sustainable Energy Program, Planning Cities for People: A Guide to Prosperous, Low-Carbon Urbanization (Climate Works and China Sustainable Energy Program)

Cobham, A. We're all in this together (Christianaid, September 2010)

Comune, M., A. Naghavi and G. Prarolo, Intellectual Property Rights and South-North Formation of Global Innovation Networks (FEEM, August 2011)

Cook, G. and J. van Horn, How Dirty is your Data? A Look at The Energy Choices that Power Cloud Computing (Greenpeace, April 2011)

Crabtree-Condor, I. and L. Casey, Lay of the Land: Improving Land Governance to Stop Land Grabs (Actionaid, October 2012)

Craeynest, L. The Political Economy of Climate Change (Christianaid, September 2011)

CSCP, Multi-stakeholder Workstudio: Innovation for Competitiveness towards Sustainable Lifestyles (March 2013)

Curtis, M. Asia at the Crossroads: Prioritising Conventional Farming or Sustainable Agriculture? (Actionaid, February 2012)

Curtis, M., C. Marcatto and S.Narayan, Success in Reducing Hunger: Lessons from India, Malawi and Brazil (Actionaid, February 2011)

Dallos, G. and L. Myllyvirta, Toxic Assets: Nuclear Reactors in the 21st Century - Financing Reactors and the Fukushima Nuclear Disaster (Greenpeace, April 2012)

Dobbs, R., A. Madgavkar, D. Barton, E. Labaye, C. Roxburgh, S. Lund and S. Madhav, The World at Work: Jobs, Pay and Skills for 3.5 Billion People (McKinsey Global Institute, June 2012)

Dobbs, R., J. Remes, J. Manyika, C. Roxburgh, S. Smit and F. Schaer, Urban world: Cities and the Rise of The Consuming Class (McKinsey Global Institute, June 2012)

Dobbs, R., J. Oppenheim, F. Thompson, M. Brinkman and M. Zornes, Resource Revolution: Meeting the World's Energy, Materials, Food and Water Needs (McKinsey Global Institute, November 2011)

Doig, A., The Rich, the Poor and the Future of the Earth: Equity in a Constrained World (Christianaid, April 2012)

Dong, B. and B. Torgler, Democracy, Property Rights, Income Equality and Corruption (FEEM, February 2011)

Dong, B. and B. Torgler, The Causes of Corruption: Evidence from China (FEEM, June 2010)

Dong, B. and B. Torgler, The Consequences of Corruption: The Evidence from China (FEEM, March 2010)

Downs, A., K. Thomas and L. Toribau, Defending Our Pacific (Greenpeace, March 2012)

Dudley, N. et al., Natural Solutions: Protected Areas Helping People Cope with Climate Change (IUCN-WCPA, TNC, UNDP, WCS, The World Bank and WWF, 2010)

Ediger, L. and J. Nishinaga, Electronics Supply Networks and Water Pollution in China (BSR, November 2010)

Ediger, L., Seeding Positive Impacts: How Business and Civil Society Can Contribute to the Sustainability of Chinese Agriculture (BSR, May 2010)

Eichhorst, U. et al., Sustainable Public Procurement in Urban China: How the Government as Consumer Can Drive Sustainable Consumption and Production (CSCP, 2011)

Eichhorst, U., S. Philipps and V. Espert, Advancing Sustainable Public Procurement in Urban China (CSCP, October 2011)

Ervin, J., N. Sekhran, A. Dinu. S. Gidda, M. Vergeichik and J. Mee, Protected Areas for the 21st Century: Lessons from UNDP/GEF's portfolio (UNDP/GEF, October 2010)

Farah, P. and Tremolada, R., A Comparison between Shale Gas in China and Unconventional Fuel Development in the United States: Health Water and Environmental Risks (FEEM, 2013)

Fargo, B. and D. MacAvoy, A Practical Approach to Greening the Electronics Supply Chain (BSR, June 2010)

Geiger, T., The Indonesia Competitiveness Report 2011 Sustaining the Growth Momentum (World Economic Forum, June 2011)

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Gingold, B. et al., How to Identify Degraded Land for Sustainable Palm Oil in Indonesia (World Resource Institute, April 2012)

Gower, R., C. Pearce and K. Raworth, Left behind by the G20? How Inequality and Environmental Degradation Threaten to Exclude Poor People from the Benefits of Economic Growth (Oxfam, July 2011)

Government of Nepal Ministry of the Environment, Adaptation to Climate Change: NAPA to LAPA (CDKN and the Nepalese Government of Nepal Ministry of the Environment)

Grau, T. M. Huo and K. Neuhoff, Survey of Photovoltaic Industry and Policy in Germany and China (Climate Policy Initiative Beijing, DIW Berlin, Tsinghua University, March 2011)

Greenpeace, A Dirty Business (Greenpeace, April 2013)

Greenpeace, APP’s Forest Conservation Policy: Progress Review October 2013 (Greenpeace, October 2013)

Greenpeace, Certifying Destruction (Greenpeace, September 2013)

Greenpeace, License to Kill (Greenpeace, October 2013)

Greenpeace, Toxic Threads: Polluting Paradise (Greenpeace, April 2013)

Greenpeace, How KFC is Junking the Jungle by Driving Rainforest Destruction in Indonesia (Greenpeace, May 2012)

Greenpeace, Dirty Laundry: Reloaded - How Big Brands Are Making Consumers Unwitting Accomplices in the Toxic Water Cycle (Greenpeace, March 2012)

Greenpeace, Dirty Laundry 2: Hung Out to Dry - Unraveling the Toxic Trail from Pipes to Products (Greenpeace, August 2011)

Greenpeace, Hidden consequences: The Costs of Industrial Water Pollution on People, Planet and Profit (Greenpeace, May 2011)

Greenpeace, Bad Influence - How McKinsey-inspired Plans Lead to Rainforest Destruction (Greenpeace, April 2011)

Greenpeace, How Sinar Mas is Pulping the Planet (Greenpeace, July 2010)

Greenpeace, Protection Money: How Industry Expansion Plans Would Use Climate Funds to Bankroll Deforestation and Undermine President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s Commitment to Low-Carbon Development (Greenpeace, November 2010)

Greenpeace, Thai Rice Industry at Risk: The costs of a possible GE contamination of Thai rice (Greenpeace, October 2010)

Greenpeace, Caught Red Handed (Greenpeace, March 2010)

Grossi, F., S. Philipps, N. Coles, How Entrepreneurship Can Drive Low Carbon Development (CSCP, 2013)

Hamilton, K. Scaling up Renewable Energy in Developing Countries: Finance and Investment Perspectives (London: Chatham House, April 2010)

Hammond, E. Counting the Cost of Genetic Engineering (Greenpeace, July 2005)

Hannon, A., Y. Liu, J. Walker and C. Wu, Delivering Low Carbon Growth: A Guide to China's 12th Five Year Plan (The Climate Group, March 2011)

Hobbs, B. and S. Powell, Healthy Harvests: The Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture in Africa and Asia (Christianaid, September 2011)

Hogan, P., A. Falconer, V. Micale, A. Vasa, Y. Yu and X. Zhao, Tracking Emissions and Mitigation Actions: Current Practice in China, Germany, Italy, and the United States (Climate Policy Initiative, February 2012)

Hu, X. and Q. Liu, Potential Role of Sectoral Approach (SA) for Carbon Emission Reduction in International Climate Mechanism: Case Sudy on the Iron and Steel Sector in China (Climate Strategies, February 2011)

Jiang, L., H. Dongquan, H. Ping, H. Min and L. Hong, The Race is On: China Kick-starts its Clean Economy (Climate Works and China Sustainable Energy Program, October 2011)

Jun, M., R. Cheung, W. Jingjing and R. Qingyuan, Greening Supply Chains in China: Practical lessons fom China-Based Suppliers in Achieving Environmental Performance (World Resource Institute, October 2010)

Kachika, T., Women's Land Rights (Actionaid, June 2012)

Khan, M. F., A. Kumar and K. V. Lakshmi, Applying Information for Adapting the Agriculture Sector in Bundelkhand, India (World Resources Institute, 2012)

Khan, N., More with Less: Scaling Sustainable Consumption and Resource Efficiency (World Economic Forum, January 2012)

King, A., M. Rautner and G. Tyler, Golden Rice's Lack of Lustre: Addressing Vitamin A Deficiency without Genetic Engineering (Greenpeace, November 2010)

Krechowicz, D. and S. Venugopal, Analyzing Environmental Trends: Taking the Pulse of Asia’s Financial Community (World Resources Institute, June 2010)

Krechowicz, D., S. Venugopal, A. Sauer, S. Somani and S. Pandey, Weeding Risk: Financial Impacts of Climate Change and Water Scarcity on Asia’s Food and Beverage Sector India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam (World Resources Institute, April 2010)

Krishnaswamy, S. Shifting of goal posts - Rural Electrification in India: A Progress Report (Christianaid, March 2010)

Kuhndt, M. and J.A.R. Grisales, Enabling Asian SMEs the Access to Finance for Energy & Resource Efficiency (CSCP, 2010)

Lacy, P., B. Berthon, L.L.Teo and Y. de Boer, A New Era of Sustainability: Perspectives from Asia Pacific CEOs (Accenture, 2010)

29


Sustainability

Lee, B., F. Preston, J. Kooroshy, R. Bailey and G. Lahn, Resources Futures (Chatham House, December 2012)

Lee, Bernice., ‘The EU and China: Time for a strategic renewal?’ in Hot Issues, Cold Shoulders, Lukewarm Partners: EU Strategic Partnerships and Climate Change (FRIDE, November 2012)

Li, P., D. Yang, P. Li, Z. Ye, and Z, Deng, A Study on Green Industrial Transformation in China (FEEM, 2013)

Li, X. and S. Banihani, Public-Private Partnership: Equalizing Higher Education Opportunities Through Credit Insurance for Youth from Poor Households in China (UNDP, March 2012)

Li, X.W.J and Y. Zhang, Can China Afford to Commit to Effective Carbon Pricing Policies? (Climate Strategies, August 2011)

Luxbacher, K., Bangladesh’s Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (CDKN, December 2011)

Maerten, B. and L. N. Minh, Growing a Better Future: Expanding Rghts, Voices and Choices for Small-scale Farmers in Viet Nam (Oxfam, October 2012)

Mani, A., M. Pai and R. Aggarwal, Sustainable Urban Transport in India: Role of the Auto-rickshaw Sector (World Resources Institute, 2012)

Massetti, E., A Tale of Two Countries: Emissions Scenarios for China and India (FEEM, March 2011)

Mehling, M., Impacts of Emissions Trading on Energy Intensive Industries (EII) and Industrial Restructuring: Lessons Learned from EU ETS for South Korea (Climate Strategies, November 2013)

Mehling, M., S. Mielke, C. Fan, H Chien and W. Tsai, Case Study: Taiwan Trading Carbon Across Jurisdictions (Climate Strategies working paper, January 2013)

Middleton, N., L. Stringer, A. Goudie and D. Thomas, The Forgotten Billion: MDG Achievement in the Drylands (UNDP, August 2011)

Mitchell, J. More for Asia: Rebalancing world oil and gas (London: Chatham House, November 2010)

Moarif, S., Market-based Climate Mitigation Policies in Emerging Economies (Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, December 2012)

Mochizuki, J. and Z. Zhang, Environmental Security and its Implications for China's International Relations (FEEM, April 2011)

Monjon, S. Implementation of an Emission Trading Scheme in Japan: Some Food for Thought (Climate Strategies October 2011)

Morgan, G. and C. Nolan, Step Up: Improving Recruitment of Migrant Workers in Indonesia, Findings from a Research Visit to Semarang, Indonesia, May 3-7 2011 (BSR, May 2011)

Morris-Suzuki, T., D. Boilley, D. McNeill and A. Gundersen, Lessons from Fukushima (Greenpeace, February 2012)

Moss, S., N. Dale and M. Tinelli, Partnering for Resilience: Reducing Disaster Risks through Effective Partnerships (Christianaid)

Naghavi, A. and Y. Tsai, Cross-border Intellectual Property Rights: Contract Enforcement and Absorptive Capacities (FEEM, April 2012)

Nair, S. et al., Communicating Modeled Information for Adaptation Decision Making (World Resources institute, 2012)

Nelson, D., G. Shrimali, S. Goel, C. Konda and R. Kumar, Meeting India’s Renewable Energy Targets: The Financing Challenge (CDKN, December 2012)

Nightingale, K. Building the Future of Humanitarian Aid: Local Capacity and Partnerships In Emergency Assistance (Christianaid, March 2012)

Oberman, R., R. Dobbs, A. Budiman, F. Thompson and M. Rosse, The Archipelago Economy: Unleashing Indonesia's Full Potential (MGI, September 2012)

Optiz Stapleton, S., Da Nang’s extreme rainfall and climate change by the 2020s & 2050s (Institute for Social and Environmental Transition – International, April 2013)

Oxfam and the Centre for Social Markets, Made in Bangalore: How Social Enterprise is Transforming Business-As-Usual (Oxfam and Centre for Social Markets, November 2011)

Paik, K., with G. Lahn and J. Hein, Through the Dragon Gate: A Window Of Opportunity for North-east Asian Gas Security (Chatham House, December 2012)

Paul, S. and J. Sathaye, The Hundred Billion Dollar Bonus: Global Energy Efficiency Lessons from India (Climate Works/Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundation, March 2011)

Phadke, A., R. Bharvirkar and J. Khangura, Reassessing Wind Potential Estimates for India: Economic and Policy Implications (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, March 2012)

Philipps, S., F. Grossi and N. Coles, Leverage Points for Low Carbon Entrepreneurship in Wuxi (Wuppertal, 2012)

Prats, A., Who Pays the Price? – Hunger: The Hidden Cost of Tax Injustice (Actionaid, March 2013)

Preston F. et. al., Low Carbon Development Roadmap for Jilin City (London: Chatham House, E3G, CASS, ERI, March 2010)

Price, G., For the Global Good: India’s Developing International Role (London: Chatham House, May 2011)

Raihan, S., M. Abu Eusuf, A.B.M. Omar Faruque, Bangladesh: Riding the Waves of Globalization (UNDP, January 2010)

Rajivan, A. et al., One Planet to Share: Sustaining Human Progress in Changing Climate (UNDP, April 2012)

31


Sustainability

Rastogi, N.P., Winds of Change: India's Emerging Climate Strategy (Pew Center on Global Climate Change, June 2011)

Rosenbarger, A. et. al., How to Change Legal Land Use Classifications to Support More Sustainable Palm Oil in Indonesia (World Resources Institute, 2013)

Roy, J., D. Ghosh and S. Ghosh, Leakage Risks in South Korea: Potential Impacts on Global Emissions (Climate Strategies, November 2013)

Roy, J., Iron and Steel Sectoral Approaches to the Mitigation of Climate Change: Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) in India (Climate Strategies, December 2010)

Sagar, A., Climate Innovation Centers: Advancing Innovation to Meet Climate and Development Challenges (Climate Strategies, March 2011)

Sankhe, S. et al., India's urban awakening: Building Inclusive Cities, Sustaining Economic Growth (McKinsey Global Institute, April 2010)

Sauer, A., P. Klop and S. Agrawal, Over heating: Financial Risks from Water Constraints on Power Generation In Asia (World Resources Institute, April 2010)

Schroeder, P. and B. Tuncer, The Switch-Asia Programme Impact Assessment Framework: Case Study ‘Electric Motor Systems Energy-Saving Challenge in China’ with a Focus on the Impact Area Climate Change Mitigation (CSCP, October 2010)

Schuchard, R. and D. Gross, Unlocking Energy Efficiency in China: A Guide to Partnering with Suppliers (BSR, May 2010)

Shrimali , G., S. Tirumalachetty and D. Nelson, Falling Short: An Evaluation of the Indian Renewable Certificate Market (Climate Policy Initiative, December 2012).

Slay, B., Triple Wins for Sustainable Development (UNDP, June 2012)

Sterrett, C., Review of Climate Change Adaptation Practices in South Asia (Oxfam, November 2011)

Subacchi, P., H. Huang, A.Molajoni and R. Varghese, Shifting Capital: The Rise of Financial Centres in Greater China (Chatham House, May 2012)

Talafré, J. et al., Mainstreaming Drought Risk Management: A Primer (UNDP, February 2011)

Tan X., Y. Zhao, C. Polycarp and J. Bai. China’s Overseas Investments in the Wind and Solar Industries: Trends and Drivers (World Resources Institute, 2013)

Tan, X., D. Seligsohn et al., Scaling Up Low-carbon Technology Deployment: Lessons from China (World Resources Institute, 2010)

Tandon, N., Climate Change: Beyond coping - Women Smallholder Farmers in Tajikistan (Oxfam, June 2011)

Teske, S., Energy Revolution: A Sustainable World Energy Outlook (Greenpeace, June 2012)

Teske, S. and G. Masson, Solar Photovoltaic Electricity Empowering the World (Greenpeace, July 2011)

Thorpe, J., Sugar Rush: Land rights and the Supply Chains of The Biggest Food and Beverage Companies (Oxfam, October 2013)

Tirado, R., Picking Cotton: The Choice between Organic and Genetically-engineered Cotton for Farmers in South India (Greenpeace, June 2010)

Tirado, R. and J. Cotter, Ecological Farming: Agriculture Drought-resistant Agriculture (Greenpeace, February 2010)

Tolvanen, S., M. Gotje, D. Guio Torres and C. Yuen Ping, The Inconvenient Truth of Taiwan's Flags of Convenience (Greenpeace, September 2010)

Tran, T. A., P. Tran, T. H. Tran and K. Hawley, Review of Housing Vulnerability Implications for Climate Resilient Houses (Institute for Social and Environmental Transition – International, 2012)

Tripathi, R. et al., What Works for Women: Proven Approaches for Empowering Women Smallholders and Achieving Food Security (Actionaid and others, March 2012)

The UK-India Business Leaders Climate Group, UK-India Collaboration for a Prosperous Low Carbon Economy: Opportunities, Challenges and Recommendations (The UK-India Business Leaders Climate Group, November 2010)

UNDP, China National Human Development Report 2013: Sustainable and Livable Cities: Toward Ecological Civilization (UNDP China and Institute for Urban and Environmental Studies - Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 2013)

UNDP, Ecosystem Management of Coastal and Marine Areas in South Asia (UNDP, October 2012)

UNDP, Japan and the Arab States: Partners for Development (UNDP, October 2013).

UNDP, Leveraging Change for Better Lives: UNDP in Asia and the Pacific (UNDP, September 2013)

UNDP, Scaling up Islamic Microfinance in Bangladesh Through the Private Sector: Experience of Islami Bank Bangladesh Limited (IBBL), (UNDP, November 2012).

UNDP, Social Protection, Growth and Employment Evidence from India, Kenya, Malawi, Mexico and Tajikistan (UNDP, May 2013)

UNDP, Comparative Experience: Examples of Inclusive Green Economy Approaches in UNDP's Support to Countries (UNDP, June 2012)

UNDP, Scaling Up Decentralized Energy Services in Nepal (UNDP, November 2011)

UNDP Asia-Pacific Regional Centre, Towards an 'Energy Plus' Approach for the Poor: A Review of Good Practices and Lessons Learned from Asia and The Pacific (UNDP, September 2011)

UNDP, Institutional Transformation: Story of XacBank of Mongolia (UNDP, February 2011)

33


Sustainability

UNDP, IEA and OECD, Energy Poverty: How to Make Modern Energy Access Universal? (UNDP, IEA and OECD, September 2010)

UNDP, Unlocking progress: MDG acceleration on the road to 2015 (UNDP, September 2010)

Unternaehrer, C., Development Finance and Inequality: Good Practice in Ecuador, Rwanda and Thailand (Oxfam, August 2013)

Vasa, A. and K. Neuhoff, Pricing for Low Carbon Investment Project (Climate Policy Initiative and DIW Berlin, January 2011)

Venton, P. Drought Risk Management: Practitioner's Perspective from Africa and Asia (UNDP, January 2012)

Venugopal, S., D. Krechowicz, C. Singh and R. Padamadan. Surveying Risk, Building Opportunity: Financial Impacts of Energy Insecurity, Water Scarcity, and Climate Change on Asia’s Commercial Real Estate Sector (World Resources Institute, April 2010)

Vorley, B., L. Cotula and M. Chan, Tipping the Balance: Policies to Shape Agricultural Investments and Markets in Favour of Small-Scale Farmers (Oxfam, December 2012)

Wang, X. G. China Agriculture Extension Special Task Force (AESTF) (UNDP, November 2011)

Watkins, K. Building on the Inheritance: The UK’s Role in Global Poverty Reduction (Chatham House, August 2010)

Wijeratna, A. Fed Up: Now's the Time to Invest in Agroecology (Actionaid, June 2012)

Wilshaw, R., L Unger, D. Q. Chi and P. T. Thuy, Labour Rights in Unilever’s Supply Chain: From ComplianceTowards Good Practice (Oxfam, January 2013)

Wooders, P., C. Beaton and D. McDaniels, A Sectoral Approach Mechanism and Sectoral Agreement (SAAM) for the Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Japan's Iron and Steel Industry (Climate Strategies, February 2011)

World Economic Forum, India Economic Summit 2010: Implementing India (World Economic Forum, November 2011)

World Economic Forum, India Economic Summit 2011: Linking Leadership with Livelihood (World Economic Forum, November 2011)

World Economic Forum, New Energy Architecture: Thailand (World Economic Forum, October 2012)

World Economic Forum, World Economic Forum on East Asia 2010: Rethinking Asia’s Leadership Agenda (World Economic Forum, June 2010).

World Economic Forum, World Economic Forum on East Asia 2011: Responding to the New Globalism (World Economic Forum, June 2011)

World Economic Forum, World Economic Forum on East Asia 2012: Shaping the Region’s Future Through Connectivity (World Economic Forum, June 2012)

World Economic Forum, World Economic Forum on East Asia 2013: Courageous Transformation for Inclusion and Integration (World Economic Forum, June 2013)

World Economic Forum, World Economic Forum on India 2012: From Deliberation to Transformation (World Economic Forum, November 2011)

World Economic Forum, World Economic Forum Strategic Dialogue on the Future of the South Caucasus and Central Asia: At the Confluence of Change (World Economic Forum, April 2013)

Wright, J., M. Sahni and R. Zamora, Wage Increases in China: Should Multinationals Rethink Their Manufacturing and Sourcing Strategies? (Accenture, February 2011)

Wu, L., C. Li, H. Chan, Z. Zhang, Understanding the Consumption Behaviours on Electric Vehicles in China: A Stated Preference Analysis (FEEM, 2013)

Xiao, G., L. Xue and J. Woetzel, The New Urban Sustainability Index: A New Tool for Measuring China's Cities (The Urban China Initiative, November 2010)

Yang, A. How China Built the World’s Largest Wind Power Market (CDKN, November 2011)

Zapeda, E., S. McDonald, M. Panda, and G. Kumar with C. Sapkota, Employing India: Guaranteeing Jobs for the Rural Poor (UNDP and Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2013)

Zhang, Z., Energy and Environmental Issues and Policy in China (FEEM, February 2013)

Zhang, Z. Assessing China's Carbon Pledge for 2020: Stringency and Credibility Issues and Their Implications (FEEM, October 2010)

Zhang, Z. Trade in Environmental Goods, with Focus on Climate-friendly Goods and Technologies (FEEM, October 2011)

Zhang, Z. Who Should Bear the Cost of China's Carbon Emissions Embodied in Goods for Exports? (FEEM, September 2011)

Zhang, Z. Assessing China's Energy Conservation and Carbon Intensity (FEEM, May 2010)

Zhang, Z. China in the Transition to a Low-carbon Economy (FEEM, February 2010)

Zhang, Z. Climate Change Meets Trade in Promoting Green Growth: Synergies and Conflict (FEEM, 2010)

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Sustainability

Acknowledgements Comments on earlier drafts were very gratefully received from Bernice Lee and Pamela Mar.

This report reflects work in progress and the views expressed therein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Fung Global Institute or Chatham House. The authors are solely responsible for any errors or omissions.

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