supporting appropriate mangrove management · international newsletter of coastal management ......

I N T E R N A T I O N A L N E W S L E T T E R O F C O A S T A L M A N A G E M E N T

Narragansett, Rhode Island, U.S.A. • Special Edition # 1 • March, 1997

Highlights

4MangroveDecline in thePhilippines

6CoastalMonitoring in Nicaragua

13Options forAbandonedShrimp Ponds

15Aquaculture in Madagascar

20MangrovesAround the World

25The Role of Ramsar

MangroveManagement As

StewardshipBy Stephen B. Olsen, Editor

T he collection of reports and essays in this issue of

Intercoast Network demonstratethat there is increasing conver-gence among the diversity ofapproaches as to how mangrovewetlands should be managed. Themany voices and perspectives inthis special issue reinforce thatprogress is indeed being madetowards a stewardship ethic forthese important and threatenedfeatures of tropical coastlines.

The term stewardship presentsgreat difficulties for translators to many of the languages spokenwhere mangroves predominate. It is therefore often useful to

(continued page 43)

Supporting AppropriateMangrove ManagementBy Marta Vannucci

All cultures which border the sea in the tropical belt of the world

have connections with mangroves inone way or another. These range fromusing mangrove wood for fuel or formaking simple rafts (as the aboriginesof the Timor Sea in northern Australiado), to the planting of seeds, propag-ules and saplings for coastal protec-tion. In New Zealand, for example,there are remains of rows of mangrovebushes planted to stabilize the coast byearly generations of Maori people. Inother areas, such as Malaysia,Rhizophora was specifically plantedbecause of its resistance to rot andboring animals, which makes it goodfor building houses and jetties. Nypapalms were encouraged to grow fortheir fronds and sap, and later thisspecies was grown in plantations, forexample in Indonesia. The productivewaters surrounding mangroves haveprovided a range of fishery products,such as crustaceans and mollusks,which are harvested in a variety ofways. The waters are used for farmingfish and crabs, and even algae, for foodor chemicals. Taking one example,when the Portuguese first arrived inIndia, they learned from the indige-nous people how to use the mangrovesto create rice-fish-mangrove farms.Much of this traditional knowledgewas described in the letters of theViceroys to the King of Portugal, andwas later taken by Jesuit andFranciscan fathers to Angola andMozambique where the local people

were trained in the techniques. Inother parts of the world, mangroveswere considered to be sacred forests,to be used only for the disposal of thedead, as in the Solomon Islands, or forspecial rites. Elsewhere mangroveshave been valued for the beauty oftheir flowers or used to build impene-trable fences. The uses of this ecosys-tem would fill an encyclopedia.

Scientists were fascinated by theanatomy, histology, physiology andchemicals of the plants and animalsadapted to such a demanding environ-ment, and the noted Swedish botanistLinnaeus clearly appreciated the valueof mangroves, naming Avicennia offici-nalis after a famous Arab doctor andthe Latin word for medicinal: offici-nalis. However, most of the Europeanswho swarmed across the world follow-ing the Age of Discoveries failed torecognize the benefits of this ecosys-tem, other than for capture fisheries

(continued page 3)

2 Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition

Intercoast Network tries in eachissue to give a broad a range ofviewpoints, ideas and informationon coastal management issues aspossible. So one might ask, “Whydo a special edition that focusesonly on mangroves?”

By doing a special edition,Intercoast is able to go into depth on a critical issue that cannot beexplored as widely or as deeply in a regular issue. Mangroves are anessential component of estuarinesystems, filtering inland water as it flows to the sea, and serving as a nursery and primary habitat forabundant and diverse species. Theprincipal funders of this issue, theUnited States Agency for Inter-national Development (USAID)also took into account how a specialissue on mangroves could make thebridge to other key areas in theirdiverse portfolio of projects.

“Mangrove forests form a vitallink between terrestrial ecosystemsand coral reefs,” said Michael Benge,head of the USAID Center for theEnvironment’s Forestry/GlobalClimate team. “Mangroves are beingdestroyed very rapidly, mainly due tocutting for charcoal and buildingponds for shrimp mariculture–whichhas proven to be a very unsustainableuse. This shortsighted exploitationof mangroves endangers not only themangrove forests, but also the inter-acting environmental resources andlocal societies which rely upon theirexistence.”

By more closely examining thisresource within the entire coastalecosystem, we hope to be able tooffer valuable and usable informationfor those addressing complex man-grove management problems in thefield.

Intercoast also works to create

links to other coastal and non-coastal issues that affect coastalecosystems. By expanding ourscope and looking outside our traditional readership to a widerrange of experts, we hope to findcreative tools and techniques, andbegin to forge the all-encompassing,“big picture” linkages that are sovital to effective integrated coastalmanagement.

“USAID’s global environmentalprogram well understands the issueof coastal management, and alsoappreciates the value of mangrovesboth environmentally and economi-cally. It is essential to increase pub-lic awareness of their value and vul-nerability,” concludes Benge, “so abalance among the uses of man-groves can be achieved and the ben-efits they provide both environmen-tally and economically for futuregenerations can be sustained.“

This expanded special edition ofIntercoast Network is the result of aunique team effort among authors fromall parts of the globe, editors on twodifferent continents and financial sup-port from the United States Agency forInternation-al Development Forestry/Global Climate Change Initiative in itsBureau for Global Programs, FieldSupport, and Research’s Center forEnvironment.

This increased financial supportallowed us to expand the length of thisedition to more comprehensively coverthe topic of mangroves and to secure atechnical editor–Susan Wells–whocould help draw together leading prac-titioners with expertise involving man-grove eco-systems, and to share theirexperiences and viewpoints in these

pages. Wells, a coastal managementprofessional, worked with Intercoaststaff at the Coastal Resources Center(CRC) at the University of RhodeIsland as a guest editor. A native ofEngland, Wells is currently marineprogramme coordinator at WorldWildlife Fund International’s (WWF-International) office in Gland,Switzerland. She is active in a breadthof integrated coastal management ini-tiatives, though more often with afocus on coral reefs than mangroves.

Wells arrived at CRC in the sum-mer of 1996 to take on the challengeof putting out the biggest-ever issue ofIntercoast, with its focus solely on onetopic–mangroves. She remained atCRC for three months, working close-ly with editor Stephen Olsen and CRC

staff to identify key managers andexperts in the field of mangrove man-agement, and get them on board ascontributing writers. In November, sheleft the U.S. to take on her positionwith WWF-International. Despitestarting a new job, through the modernmiracles of E-mail and FAX machines,Sue managed to stay in constant touchwith Intercoast staff and the authors ofarticles, and helped guide the issuethrough to final publication. Herexpertise, extended network and hardwork help make this edition one whichwe believe will improve integratedcoastal management work with man-grove systems all over the world. Wethank all of those who contributed tothis inspiring effort.

– Chip Young, Managing Editor

WHY A SPECIAL ISSUE ON MANGROVES?

Mangrove Edition a Team Effort

Intercoast Network • Mangrove Edition 3

and fuel wood. Mangroves were usuallyconsidered to be wastelands, unhealthyfor navigation and humans alike. Sincethe very early 16th century, they weremarked on Portuguese charts, oftenusing special symbols to indicate dan-ger for any craft larger than dugoutcanoes, rafts and catamarans.

Apart from the management prac-tices used in India, the traditional tam-bak-sari system of Java, Indonesia andother scattered examples, large scaleintentional management of extensivemangrove areas started, as far as weknow, only in the 19th century. Theaims and goals varied with the needsand greed of the power game.

In the second half of the 19th centu-ry, the British applied practical knowl-edge accrued over centuries to themanagement of the Sundarbans, the“beautiful forests” of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, for timber. Watson,also from Britain, developed anotherforestry management system for themangroves of the west coast of penin-

sular Malaysia. These two differentsystems have by and large stood thetest of time and illustrate that there isno simple model for mangrove man-agement. The term “mangrove” covers

Mangrove Management(continued from page 1)

a range of habitat types that have littlein common other than the fact thatthey are inundated by the sea at regu-lar intervals. Mangroves include a vastrange of combinations of tidal regimes,climatic variations, species composition,and physical, chemical and microbio-logical composition of soils and water,resulting in widely varying growth,reproduction and productivity. Theymust therefore be used and managedaccording to these constraints, bearingin mind the socio-economic needs oflocal people.

Well into the 20th century, scientif-ic research focused mainly on taxono-my and description, while the “dreadedswamps” were treated with indiffer-ence or downright condemnation bydevelopers, engineers, politicians andthe military. Local people largely con-tinued their simple, ecologically safepractices. But, as an old saying goes,“There is no evil that lasts forever norgood that will not come to an end,”and there were major changes duringand after World War II. New technolo-gies and methodologies were introducedto achieve greater financial returns

from mangrove areas, providing quickgains at the cost of permanent wealth.

In many places mangroves havebeen overexploited for fuelwood, forexample in Africa and the small islands

of the Caribbean and Central and SouthAmerica, and for wood chips for therayon industry. Developers, guided byforeign investors, often totally disregardlegal obligations to replant or conservebuffer zones. The greatest numbers ofoffenders now are those who clear cutthe mangroves to establish intensiveshrimp farming. Intensive and semi-intensive methods have been used indis-criminately with total disregard for theirsuitability, resulting in major changes tothe ecology of the area. This, combinedwith the inten-sive inputs offeed and fertiliz-er, and aeration,and the spreadof epidemic dis-eases, has meantthat after a fewyears the area isso badly degrad-ed that shrimpproduction hasto be aban-doned. Newareas are thenclear cut. Thetropical belt ofthe globe nowlooks like apock-markedface, with muchof the landeroded away bythe encroaching sea. The long term sur-vival and needs of local populations arelargely ignored.

There are some encouraging signs,however. Tanzania, Pakistan, Bangladesh,India, Thailand, Venezuela and manyisland nations are among the numerouscountries actively engaged in long termprograms for sustainable managementand use of mangroves. Activities rangefrom the creation of protected areas andscientific studies of flora and fauna ofthe forests, waters and soil to reforesta-tion and afforestation of the intertidalbelt. Two countries–Bangladesh andPakistan–are mentioned here becausethey tackle apparently impossible tasks:

Save The Mangroves?

“Oh these mangroves. I neversaw one that looked as if it pos-sessed a decent conscience.Growing always in shallow stag-nant water, filthy black mud, or rank grass, gnarled, twisted,stunted and half bare of foliage,they seem like crowds of with-ered, trodden-down old crimi-nals, condemned to the punish-ment of everlasting life. I can’thelp it if this seems fanciful.Anyone who has seen a man-grove swamp will know what Imean”.

–An early New Zealand novelist

(continued on page 42)

Mud crab in a mangrove ecosystem.


By Roy Olsen D. De Leonand Alan T. White

M angrove forest cover in the Philippines has declined sub-

stantially during this century, fromabout 450,000 hectares (ha) in 1920 toless than 150,000 ha in the late 1980s,of which only 46 percent (68,000 ha)is located outside the islands of Palawanand Mindanao. The most rapid decreaseoccurred in the 1960s and 1970s whengovernment policies encouraged theexpansion of aquaculture during aperiod when real prices for fish andshrimp were steadily rising. Althoughnational laws prohibit the cutting ofany mangroves, and the most impor-tant mangrove forests are protectedin forest reserves, this ecosystem type

has continued to decline.Despite a 1980 government ban on

further conversion of mangroves tofish ponds, the reduction of mangrovearea since that year through 1991continued at a rate of about 3,700ha/year, in parallel with an increase of

fish pond area of approximately 4,100ha/year over the same period. Today,fish ponds cover about 289,000 ha,with 80-90 percent in areas once cov-ered with mangroves. Cutting of man-groves for charcoal-making, fuel woodand construction is probably the sec-ond most pervasive intrusion on theresource and conversion of mangroveareas to fish ponds has sometimes beenjust the final step in a process ofdestruction that began with over-har-vesting of mangroves for fuel wood,frequently by persons other than thosewho ultimately built the fish ponds.Degraded areas are more easily reclas-sified as disposable lands, which makesconversion more likely. The currentsituation has therefore prompted thegovernment to develop new policies

for reforestation of mangroves and therecovery of abandoned fish pond areas.

Fish Pond LicensingThe Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic

Resources (BFAR) is responsible forlicensing the development of fish ponds

on government land. About 95,000 hahas been allocated for this purpose ofwhich some 63,000 ha are under 25-year fisheries lease agreements (FLA).Under the Fishery Sector Program(FSP), initiated in 1991, an economicanalysis was carried out which revealedthat the fish pond lease fee of US$2 peryear per ha was far too low to eitherencourage efficiency in the use of landfor fish ponds or discourage conversionto aquaculture uses. The opportunitycost for the replacement of mangrovesystems was determined to be quitehigh and was consistent with studies inother countries. An 1989 study gaveestimates of US$500-1,550 a year forthe opportunity cost of one ha of com-plete mangrove ecosystem. The FSPstudy found that various researchershad determined a minimum economicrent of at least US$550 a year for onehectare of inter-tidal land in the

Philippines (Table 1). The study recommended

that FLA lease fees be raisedto between $360 and $800ha/year. It also recognizedthat the values attributed tomarine fishery productsdependent on mangrove sys-tem health were uncertainbecause of lack of informa-tion and so suggested thatthe basic wood value ofmangrove stands be used as the initial economic rent level. This is about$156/ha/year, and a sched-ule was therefore recom-mended to implement anincrease of lease fees overseveral years to this figure.Resistance from leasehold-ers, as well as political inter-

vention, has meant that this has not yetbeen implemented but it is thoughtthat it will eventually happen. Indeed,the renting of privately-owned fish andshrimp ponds is a flourishing market,deriving annual incomes of aboutUS$120-600 per ha.

Mangrove Resource Decline in the Philippines:Government and Community Look for New Solutions

Development of fish ponds has displaced much mangrove forest in recent years.


Mangrove ReforestationThe Department of Environment

and Natural Resources (DENR) isresponsible for mangrove management.Experiments in reforestation usingcontracts with local communities, giv-ing stewardship agreements andencouraging communities to protectand manage the resource in their ownway have been successfully carried outon Bohol and Panay. As early as 1964,small mangrove rehabilitation projectsbegan on Bohol Island, Visayas, whereharvesting for firewood and poles haslong been a practice and where it isunderstood that if mangroves arethinned, they will grow more effi-ciently. A community in Jetafe refor-ested 100 ha, and students and schoolofficials in Calape planted a 20-mwide band along 4.8 km of coast in1968 for protection against wind andstorm waves.

In 1984, an innovative program, theCentral Regional Project, using experi-ence from earlier community projects,began to experiment by providingsecure tenure over a mangrove area toan individual or family in return formaintaining it as healthy forest. Thisarrangement was called a StewardshipAgreement and was initially used topromote reforestation in open areas, as national policy at that time did notallow community management ofexisting mangroves. Mangrove plantingprogressed rapidly but long-term suc-cess rates were less than 50 percentbecause information on methods andsites was lacking. Planting outside nat-ural mangrove habitat predisposedefforts to failure and lack of land useplanning meant that ownership andtenure were unclear. Furthermore, lackof suitable planting material led to single species dominance in newlyplanted areas.

These initial experiments resulted in1990 in the first national policy onmangrove management that encouragedcommunity involvement by providinglong-term security of tenure throughthe issuance of Mangrove StewardshipAgreements. This was followed, howev-

er by a policy of contracting individu-als or groups to plant mangroves.When communities were directlyresponsible with stewardship agree-ments, the cost/ha was about US$80.The contracting of individuals withoutany community organization or volun-teer labor, increased the cost to morethan US$400/ha. Success was still lessthan 50 percent and the communitiesgenerally participated in the contract-ing exercise to make some additionalmoney without much concern forenhancement of the environment.

In 1991, management of an existingbut degraded mangrove forest atCogtong Bay, Bohol Island was startedusing a Mangrove StewardshipAgreement. Designated seed trees

were allowed to grow while otherswere harvested for fuel wood andpoles. Forest quality and the abun-dance of naturally occurring seedlingsincreased, and the need to stop fishpond development was highlightedthrough community opinion and resis-tance in the area. This success encour-aged the DENR to increase its focuson the rehabilitation and managementof existing forest in its programsthrough community involvement.The Buswang Mangrove ReforestationProject, started in 1990 in Kalibo,Panay Island, has been particularly suc-cessful. Here, the government con-tracted Kalibo Save the MangroveAssociation, an organization with 26family beneficiaries, to replant 50 ha.After four years, the organization was

able to harvest and earn from theNypa leaves on five ha of the area.DENR awarded the organization witha 25-year Forest Land ManagementAgreement in 1995.

In 1993, the DENR thereforestopped its straight contract reforesta-tion efforts and in 1994 endorsed theNGO-assisted Community-BasedMangrove Forest Managementapproach. Between 1991 and 1994,the FSP also assisted the DENR in thereforestation of about 6,900 ha ofmangrove. As with DENR, initiallylocal communities were contracted to plant seedlings and young trees butthis caused many problems, and wasreplaced by a more community-basedmanagement system with NGO assis-

tance. Although the target of 30,000ha was not achieved, the FSP has rec-ognized that involving the communitydirectly is a more sustainable approachto reforestation and maintenance ofexisting resources. Unfortunately, thereis now a conflict between the existinglegislation that bans mangrove cuttingand the new policies allowing limiteduse by community stewards. This dis-crepancy in national law and preferredpolicy will need to be resolved.

New Policies to SupportSustainable Use andManagement

The official government-approvedconversion of mangrove habitat to fishpond use has virtually stopped, an

(continued page 38)

Table 1: Estimated net annual economic value ($US) ofPhilippine mangrove areas for different levels of management

Wood Products Fish Products TotalLevel of management (value/ha) (value/ha) (value/ha)Mangrove plantation $156 $538 $ 6 9 4Managed naturally

regenerated $90 $538 $ 6 2 8Unmanaged under-stocked

stands $42 $538 $ 5 8 0

Note: Wood harvest value based on average price of about $12/cu. m. of wood; fishproducts based on average annual weight of fish and shrimp/ha associated with mangroveareas and an average price of $.80/kg; values based on Philippine peso amounts in 1991 andconverted at 25 pesos/1$US. Source: Schatz 1991

experiencing increasing control overthe process and are making a number ofdecisions and taking actions on theirown. For example, meetings have beenheld with local political leaders to dis-cuss natural resource managementissues and these leaders have respondedwith moral and material support.

CAMP is also conducting researchthat is resulting in valuableinformation about the par-ticipatory managementprocess itself. Through theuse of qualitative researchmethods, such as inter-views and participantobservation, CAMP staff are assessing thestrengths and limitationsof the project. This infor-mation is fed back to pro-ject participants for dis-cussion and project reori-entation. During inter-views, the majority ofpeople say that they preferthe participatory approachto the more centralizedapproaches

to research and development that theyhave experienced. They feel empoweredthrough the process and have noticedthat CAMP is raising the consciousnessof local people about the value of theirnatural resources. While participatoryresource management is increasinglycommon, a thorough longitudinal studyof this process is still relatively unique.The documentation of this case study ofparticipatory natural resource monitor-ing and management could be useful forother projects in Latin America.

For more information contact:Roberto Rigby and Patrick Christie,CAMP Co- Coordinators, Centre forthe Investigation and Documentation ofthe Atlantic Coast (CIDCA), P.O. Box42, Bluefields, Nicaragua; Phone/FAX:50-5-82-735; E-mail:<[email protected]>.


By Roberto Rigby andPatrick Christie

Natural resources are the eco-nomic base of 10 coastal com-

munities living around Pearl Lagoon,the largest coastal lagoon on theNicaraguan Caribbean coast. Thecommunities are small, most with less than 500 inhabitants. The culturaldiversity of the area is considerablewith distinct Miskitu, Garifuna andCreole groups, each of which exploitscoastal resources in a different way.The most common occupations arefishing and farming, depending on theseason.

The lagoon is surrounded by exten-sive mangrove forests, pine savannas(Pinus caribaea), and lowland rain for-est. While the lagoon ecosystem is stillin relatively good condition comparedto other systems in the region, a num-ber of environmental stresses are ofconcern to local people. Of greatestimportance are the potentially negativeeffects of large scale sedimentation ofthe lagoon as the watersheds of itstributaries are deforested by agricul-turalists and logging interests. Over-fishing is now possible with the intro-duction of modern fishing gears andprocessing plants for export of fish andshrimp to the United States. To date,62 fish species have been identified inthe lagoon. Crocodiles and caymans,once common in lagoon tributaries,have been heavily hunted. The harvest-ing of mangroves for fuel or tannins islimited but there has been recent dis-cussion of the introduction of largescale shrimp culturing into the area.

Since 1993, the Coastal AreaMonitoring Project (CAMP) hasemployed participatory environmentalmonitoring to document water quality,forest condition, and fish yield thatwill provide a foundation for the man-agement plan which will be developedby local people. CAMP proposes to

involve neighboring Pearl Lagooncommunities and extend researchefforts to include other terrestrial andaquatic environments. The develop-ment of local human resources is fun-damental to this process. Communalresource management groups will beestablished and the training of CAMP

staff and participants in environmentalmonitoring and management areimportant activities.

The project is based on a number of important principles. First, CAMPembraces the local perspective since itrelies on local knowledge and partici-pation which are critical for the suc-cess of such plans. Second, the man-agement plan considers the social,political, cultural context. Third, dataare collected on both terrestrial andaquatic ecosystems, a necessity if theplan is to ensure sustainable resourceuse. Finally, the concept of resourcemanagement as a potential economicand social benefit, rather than a threat,is being promoted through local par-ticipation, and this in turn is helping to develop local capacity for resourcemanagement. Already, local people are

The Coastal Area Monitoring Project at Pearl Lagoon, Nicaragua

Pearl Lagoon’s communities.


By Piyasena Ganewatte

S ri Lanka’s Coast Conservation Department (CCD) estimates that

there are about 12,000 ha of mangrovesforming a narrow intertidal belt usuallyaround the perimeter of coastal lagoons,with 14 species of true mangroves and12 species of mangrove associates.Mangrove research is coordinated bythe National Mangrove Committeewithin the Natural Resources, Energyand Science Authority (NARESA).Members include the National AquaticResources Agency (NARA), the ForestDepartment (responsible for the man-agement and conservation of the man-groves), CCD, other government agen-cies and several universities.

Rekawa Lagoon, lying on the south-east coast about 200km from Colombo,has been the site of an intensive partici-patory planning and management effortsince 1993, focused on the naturalshrimp fishery, mangroves, agriculturalland use and beach habitat for sea tur-tles.The Rekawa mangroves contributesubstantially to the health of the lagoonand its associated fisheries and tradi-tional uses, and support a number ofresident and migratory birds.The man-groves form a narrow fringe along theshoreline of both the channel and the

main basin of the 200 ha lagoon, ofteninterspersed with plants such asSoneratia acidia (Kirala) which is usedto make cork.Traditional uses for man-grove products are varied in Sri Lankaand typical of other developing coun-tries.There are also a few uses particu-lar to the Rekawa area: the wood isused as fuel for lime kilns, as raftersand poles in house construction and assticks to support vegetable plants.Theplaited fronds of the Nypa palm (Nypafruticans), are used as thatch in houseconstruction.

A Special Area Management Plan hasrecently been approved by the localcommunity and the concerned govern-ment and research organizations. Itfocuses on the development and imple-mentation of sustainable use strategiesfor the mangrove resources through thecollaboration of government, NGOsand community groups. The majorpartners are the Forest Department,NARA, CCD, Rekawa Special AreaManagement Coordinating Committee(RSAMCC), Hambantota IntegratedRural Development Project, RekawaLagoon Fishery Cooperative Society,the newly established Rekawa

Development Association and the pro-posed Coastal and LagoonEnvironment Education and Research(CLEER) Center.

The major objectives of the SpecialArea Management Plan in relation tomangrove management are to:

■ Establish a Mangrove ForestryUnit in the CLEER Center, supportedby the Presidential Task Force of theSouthern Development Authority.

■ Develop expertise in mangroveecology, mangrove ecosystems and sus-tainable use of mangroves at theCLEER Center.

■ Implement a comprehensive sur-vey of the mangroves of Rekawa andthe Southern Province of Sri Lankaand develop a national plan for theirsustainable use.

There is also the need to developand implement a zoning scheme andsustainable use plan for mangroveresources through the RSAMCC.The major activities involved in this are:

■ Map locations of prime mangrovestands designated for strict protection.

■ Designate areas of mixed man-grove vegetation where limited usewill be permitted.

■ Form an agreement between theForest Department and communitygroups on joint management of themangrove resources that stipulates

Collaborative Management at Rekawa Lagoon, Sri Lanka

(continued page 8)

Mangrove forests, coral reefs, beaches and sea turtle nesting sites found in the Rekawa area.


Rekawa(continued from page 7)

core areas of strict protection, areas oflimited and sustainable use, permitteduses, means of monitoring uses, anddesignated responsible persons orcommunity groups.

■ Formalize an agreement declaringthe area a sanctuary or forest reservewith limited use permits.

■ Develop a mangrove park of about50 ha for research and nature tourism,and commence new livelihood projectssuch as sale of allowable mangroveproducts.

■ Protect an area for migratorybirds that is close to the area of theproposed CLEER Center.

■ Conduct research in collaborationwith the universities of Colombo,Peradeniya, Moratuwa, Ruhuna andNARA.

■ Implement a community aware-ness, education and training programon the sustainable use of the mangroves.

The chief implementing agency forthe Rekawa Mangrove ManagementPlan will be the Forest Departmentassisted by the CCD, NARA and sever-al universities as needed. The RSAM-CC, consisting of divisional heads andfield officers of all developmentdepartments and representatives of theNGO sector, and chaired by theTangalla Divisional Secretary, willserve as the Coordinating Committee.Collaborative management by the

Forest Department and other govern-ment agencies, NGOs and communitygroups is a unique feature of the plan.An expected outcome is the genera-tion of income and employmentthrough sustainable use of mangroveproducts. Rekawa is in a good positionas the community is already well orga-nized, a community awareness pro-gram has been in operation for morethan two years, and community orga-nizations are taking action to minimizemangrove degradation.

For more information contact: Piyasena Ganewatte, Consultant,Coastal Resources ManagementProject, 1 Gower Street, Colombo 5,Sri Lanka. FAX: 941-500-207.

User Groups Play Key Role in St. LuciaBy Mathias Burt and Brett Hudson

S ince 1981, the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI),

the government of St. Lucia, and localresource usershave beeninvolved in a pro-ject aimed at theconservation of a60 hectare (ha)mangrove foreston the southeastcoast of this smallisland in theLesser Antilles.The principal useof the forest is forthe production ofcharcoal, which isa locally impor-tant fuel source.Already it was

clear that the prevailing harvest levelwas depleting the resource base.

The mangrove was declared amarine reserve in 1984, making it ille-

gal to harvest trees there. However,CANARI facilitated the establishmentof a resource user’s group which wasgranted tacit permission by the gov-ernment to continue to produce char-coal in the reserve, at the same timecollaborating with CANARI to moni-tor levels of production and trends inbiomass. The formation of the usergroup and the development of othereconomic activities in the regionreduced the number of people work-ing in the mangrove. Improved cuttingtechniques were adopted which allowfor better regeneration of harvestedareas, and clear cutting has been aban-doned. As a result, the mangrove hasbegun to recover. Surveys conductedin 1992 demonstrated that stem densi-ties have increased over previous years,while the volume of charcoal beingproduced also increased.

Despite these improvements, prob-lems remain. One of these is that thelegal status and resource managementresponsibilities of the user groupremain uncertain. This ambiguity andthe physical characteristics of theresource mean that the user group is

not always able to prevent others fromcutting illegally. The result is an insecu-rity of tenure which is a disincentive toconserve. Trees continue to be cut wellbefore they reach the age of maximumproductivity for fear that others willcut them down if they are left tomature. A second problem is that part-ly because of the insecurity of tenure,the group has not developed sufficientorganizational capacity to assume man-agement responsibility for the man-grove as originally planned, and theycontinue to rely heavily on CANARIand the government to perform thosefunctions.

To address both these concerns, theDepartment of Fisheries now plans toestablish a local management authorityfor the mangrove, which would involvethe user group in a co-managementagreement with government agencies,CANARI, and other interested parties.Hopefully, this will consolidate the char-coal producer’s legal rights to harvest,and provide the management expertiserequired to enhance the conservationof this important local resource.

For more information contact: BrettHudson and Mathias Burt, CaribbeanNatural Resources Institute, St. Lucia.E-mail: [email protected]


T he rich natural resources of the Mekong Delta are of vital

importance to Viet Nam. Covering anarea of 3,900,000 hectares (ha), thedelta supports major agriculture andaquaculture industries, with the man-grove forests providing a myriad of eco-logical functions and multiple uses,such as substantial small-scale fisheries,forest and non-timber forest productsand a buffer against frequent stormsurges. Excessive lumbering for timberand aerial spraying of defoliants duringthe Viet Nam War devastated largestretches of mangrove forest and causeda serious decline in biodiversity. Morerecently there has been widespreadconversion into low-production aqua-culture farms. Important fauna popula-tions in the remnant mangrove forestsare under great pressure due to habitatdestruction and poaching. Loss of man-groves has also led to changes in coastalmorphology, as the remnant forests nolonger provide adequate protection. Inthe western part of the Delta there isaccelerated accretion, whereas coastalabrasion is serious in the south-east,with up to 70 meters of land being lostper year, and frequent flooding and saltwater intrusion ensues.

In March 1996, the governmentestablished the Rehabilitation ofMangrove Forests (RMF) Project forthe Mekong Delta as a follow-up to the1990-1994 UNDP/World Bank-fundedMekong Delta Master Plan (MDMP)and the 1995-96 World Bank-fundedCoastal Wetlands Protection andDevelopment Project. The RMF projectaims to rehabilitate degraded mangroveforests along the south-eastern coast ofthe Mekong Delta in the provinces ofMinh Hai and Soc Trang.

Some 145,000 people in this regionare assumed to be directly or indirectlydependent on mangroves, and are main-ly engaged in shrimp farming, crash

crop production, salt mining, fuelwood collection and fishing. Before1960, Minh Hai was covered withsome 200,000 ha of mangrove, mainlyin the peninsular of Ca Mau, but dur-ing the war more than half of this wasdestroyed. At present less than 60,000ha is left and 340 kilometers (km) ofcoastline requires urgent protectionagainst abrasive wave action. In theprovince of Soc Trang 60 km of the 72km of shoreline are subject to seriouscoastal erosion.

From the outset, it was clear that inorder to acquire legitimacy for thelocal stakeholders, the project wouldhave to establish benefits for them andseek their active involvement. The pro-ject is therefore combining mangroveprotection with aquaculture develop-ment, the feasibility of this approachhaving been assessed during theMDMP. After rehabilitation, the man-grove forest will be managed throughcommunity participation, according toa model established by the ForestryDepartment which is based on a com-bination of mangrove reforestation andshrimp farming with a clearly outlinedresponsibility for joint management. Itinvolves providing 5-10 ha blocks ofdegraded mangrove area to individualfarmers/fishermen. Under a leasearrangement, governed by a contract,20-30 percent of this area may be usedfor aquaculture development, whilethe remainder must be reforested.

Phase I of RMF comprises detailedbiophysical and socio-economic sur-veys to map current land use and sitesin need of mangrove rehabilitation andreforestation. Workshops are beingheld to help communities understandthe need for management of theirsources of livelihood. Conservationeducation programs will focus on theimportance of mangroves.Appropriate reforestation techniques

will be tested including optional nurs-ery management, site preparation andmanagement, species selection andtending and management of seedlings.

During Phase II, 6,600 ha will be re-planted. Four management strategies willbe considered:

■ Reforestation of seriously degradedor cleared coastal areas.

■ Rehabilitation or additional planti-ng in partly degraded mangrove forests.

■ Natural regeneration in partlydegraded areas where abundant naturalseedlings are available.

■ Active management and protec-tion in areas with vigorous mangrovegrowth.

The project comes under theMinistry of Agriculture and RuralDevelopment and is implemented bythe provincial forestry departments.Technical assistance is provided by theForest Inventory and Planning Institute,the Research Institute for Aquacultureand the Netherlands consultancy firmsEuroconsult and Haskoning. While tech-nical knowledge is available within theformer Forestry Department, staff lackhands-on experience in mangroveforestry extension and working withlocal communities. The RMF project isseeking to strengthen the managerialand institutional capacity of the relevantagencies. It is focusing on pilot imple-mentation for a number of selected sitesand it is hoped it will have a positiveeffect on the income levels of familiesdirectly involved. A major componentwill be on-the-job training in silvicul-ture techniques, people’s participationand empowerment and conservationeducation techniques.

For more information contact: L.B.van Lavieren, Senior Forestry Specialist;or Wim J.M. Verheught, Director,Ecological Services Department,Euroconsult, P.O. Box 441, 6800 A KArnhem, The Netherlands. FAX: +31-26 3577 577. Wandert Benthem isTeam Leader, Rehabilitation ofMangrove Forests, Mekong Delta; Dr.Nguyen Duy Chuyen is DeputyDirector, Forest Inventory and PlanningInstitute.

Rehabitating the MangroveForests of the Mekong DeltaBy Wandert Benthem , Dr. Nguyen Duy Chuyen, L.B. van Lavieren and Wim J.M. Verheught


By Bill Streever

I n Australia, rehabilitation of both inland and coastal wetlands has

become increasingly common since1990, and new government policiesoffer additional impetus for suchactivities. The Kooragang WetlandRehabilitation Project (KWRP), whichoversees rehabilitation at three HunterRiver estuary sites, provides an exam-ple of effective interaction betweenresearchers from the Univer-sity ofNewcastle and a community-drivenwetland rehabilitation project.Scientists often lose sight of ecosystemmanagers’ needs, while managers maynot understand scientists’ methods andrationale. A research plan was there-fore drawn up that formalized the rela-tionship between rehabilitation man-agement and research and recognizedtwo distinct roles for research.Proactive research provides managerswith information before a managementdecision is taken, while reactiveresearch assesses the impact of man-agement decisions by monitoringecosystem change. This model–relatingmanagement, reactive research andproactive research–is being testedthrough a simple study and will helpto clarify the role of scientific investi-gation in rehabilitation.

Wetlands within the three rehabili-tation sites typically consist of saltmarsh and mangrove forests. Over thepast 200 years, the region’s estuarinewetlands have suffered from drainagefor agriculture, industrial developmentand waste disposal, cutting of man-grove, and dredge and fill operations.The study site described here is denud-ed shoreline along Kooragang Island’ssouthwestern shore and is bordered onboth sides by dense stands of graymangrove. Although the initial impactthat eliminated mangrove from the siteis unknown, re-establishment of man-grove appears to have been hindered

by cattle, which trample and eat man-grove propagules (already-germinatedseeds).

New experiments were designed to1) compare survival and growth ofmangroves transplanted from otherareas on Kooragang Island to survivaland growth of mangroves grown in ashadehouse for three months prior totransplanting, and 2) assess the effectof fertilizer on growth. Results strong-ly suggest that shadehouse-grownplants have a better chance of survivaland that highest mean growth rates canbe achieved through the use of fertil-ized shadehouse-grown transplants.Research was used to assess the impactof the decision by KWRP in December1995, to erect a fence to exclude cat-tle from the area. Although the studysuffers from an absence of true repli-cation, monitoring showed that overthe first six months, the total numberof mangrove plants had increased with-in an adjacent unfenced area by a fac-tor of about 2.5, while the total num-ber of mangrove plants in the adjacentunfenced area remained stable. Thissuggests that survival of mangrovepropagules following fencing wasabout 2.5 times higher than survival inthe unfenced area.

Conclusions from both studies arepresented to KWRP management staff,who then use the information in man-agement decisions. Ongoing researchexamines the change in assemblages of fish, plants, water birds and benthicinvertebrates following removal ofrestrictions to tidal flushing. Ongoingnew research is measuring plant pro-ductivity under different conditions,assessing methods of salt marsh cre-ation, investigating patterns of plantcommunity structure, and correlatingenvironmental variables to an abun-dance of various species.

Three aspects of this research pro-gram may be relevant to other rehabil-itation projects. First, the applicationof the scientific method may provide amore effective pathway to successful

rehabilitation than the trial-and-errormethods often adopted. Second, jointefforts by universities and community-driven projects such as KWRP can bemutually beneficial, providing funding,public exposure, and research opportu-nities for university staff and studentswhile giving rehabilitation projectsvaluable insight at a reasonable cost.Third, an improved understanding ofthe role of research in managementimproves cooperation between man-agers and researchers, ultimatelyincreasing the efficiency and reliabilityof rehabilitation efforts.

For more information contact: BillStreever, Kooragang WetlandRehabilitation Project and Departmentof Biological Sciences, University ofNewcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308,Australia. E-mail: <[email protected]>.

Research and Rehabilitation in Australia


By Colin Field

In recent years, there have been detailed studies of the fauna, flora,

ecology, hydrology, physiology andproductivity of many different man-grove ecosystems but the discretenature of these data makes the princi-pal factors controlling overall produc-tivity very difficult to identify. This sit-uation is, perhaps, not surprising giventhe heterogeneity of mangrove ecosys-tems and the lack of a single modelthat describes the way that they func-tion. Mangrove ecosystems are placeswhere tides and coastal currents bringconstant variation and where plantsand animals have to adapt to changingchemical, physical and biological char-acteristics. Even simple analysis is diffi-cult because of the lack ofcomparable measuringtechniques and a readilyaccessible data bank.

The question then arisesas to the meaning of“restoration.” Several termsare used to describe effortsto rebuild disturbed ecosys-tems, including reclamation,rehabilitation, eco-develop-ment and restoration, andthese are often used inter-changeably.

“Restoration” is used here as the actof bringing an ecosystem back, as closeas possible, to its original condition, orrenewing or bringing it back into use.In practice, restoration rarely meansreturning an ecosystem to its originalcondition.

Reasons for RestorationRestoring a mangrove ecosystem

implies that it has been altered ordegraded in a way that conflicts withmanagement or conservation objec-tives, leading to competition for landuse. At times, though, it can arise fromclimatic impacts that have destroyedthe natural vegetation. It is essential todefine restoration goals as a first step,

in order to identify the elements of themangrove ecosystem which must beincluded and to provide a clear frame-work for operation and implementa-tion (Table 1). There are two main rea-sons for restoring mangrove ecosys-tems, although the boundariesbetween these are frequently unclear–conservation for ecosystem preserva-tion and restoration for sustainable uti-lization and protection of coastal areas.

I. E cosystem P r eservationIf the aim is to conserve an example

of natural ecosystem, restoration willinvolve maintaining most ecologicalprocesses and preserving as muchgenetic diversity as possible. The bestapproach is probably to seek an undis-turbed area and to restrict utilization

and interference from external factors.If the area is truly pristine then it islikely that very little management willbe required. If a mangrove forest isdisturbed by logging, it is unlikely thatit will regenerate to anything like itsoriginal state, as the mix of species, soiltype, density of trees and numbers ofanimals will almost certainly change.

II. Sustainable Use and C oastalP r otection

In this case, the priority will be tomaximize sustainable productivity.Less attention can be paid to restoringas much of the ecosystem as possibleand more given to the cost benefit ofthe product. A critical question is how

much of the original mangrove ecosys-tem has to be restored to ensure sus-tained production. This demands fur-ther research on pristine and disturbedmangrove ecosystems. It has certainlynot been established that maximizingbiodiversity in restored mangroveecosystems leads to maximum, or evenoptimal, sustainable yields. Further-more, the concept of “purpose-built”ecosystems may take on real value andthere may be a goal of enhancing pro-ductivity without regard to how therestored system compares with theoriginal one.

Restoration ApproachesA common approach to restoration

is essentially that of classical land man-agement, with forestry or animal hus-

bandry of a specializedkind. Successful restorationrequires knowledge of theprocesses essential todeveloping and supportingthe productivity of the sys-tem as a whole, rather thanits parts. This is generallylacking for mangroves. Ifthere is to be intensive andselective use of mangroveforests, then specializedknowledge needs to beacquired for plants and

animals in areas such as genetics,nutrition, stocking procedures, diseasecontrol and harvesting. In turn, thisknowledge needs to be supported byappropriate technology and suitablelegislation.

Lugo (1988) describes four restora-tion activities, where the goal is sus-tainable use:

■ Reduction of environmental stress(fire, cutting, over-grazing).

■ Adding materials (plants, animals,water, fertilizer, soil).

■ Accelerating or deceleratingecosystem processes (encouraging nat-ural regeneration).

The Restoration of Mangrove Ecosystems

(continued page 12)

Table 1. Site characteristics to be consideredwhen restoring a mangrove ecosystem

Stability of site InsulationRate of siltation Exposure to windNature of soil Height of the water tableExposure to waves and Presence of pests

tidal currents (Acrostichum, barnacles, crabs)

Salinity of the soil water Availability of propagulesDepth of tidal inundation Signs of natural regenerationGradient of site Absence of debrisAvailability of fresh water Cooperation from local

(rain or run-off) communities


■ Changing site conditions (drain-age, shading).

Finally, restoration can be extremelyexpensive, not only because of thetechnical aspects, but also because landpurchase and litigation may be involved.

Measuring RestorationSuccess

Measuring the success of therestoration process is a challenge thatis rarely recognized. If restored man-grove ecosystems are to be comparedwith naturally occurring ones, thencomparative measurement of produc-tivity, movement of organic matter andorganization of the food chain willhave to be carried out. Additionalproblems are:

■ An inability to define long-term

or genetic changes in populations thatmay preclude restoration to a knownoriginal condition.

■ A lack of understanding of thenatural variability of an ecosystem andits recovery process.

■ The often high cost of restoringan ecosystem to something like itsoriginal state as opposed to the cre-ation of an alternative at substantiallyless cost.

Cairns and Buikema (1984) arguethat an ecosystem’s response to a dis-turbance depends on three characteris-tics–its ability to resist change, torecover and its resilience to repeateddisturbances. In the case of mangroves,there is only patchy information onthese characteristics.

ConclusionSustainable development implies

that an ecosystem can be manipulated,

exploited or disturbed without loss ofintegrity but there is often a reluctanceamong ecologists and conservationiststo approve of such manipulation eventhough it may lead to enhanced pro-ductivity. Consequently, mangroverestoration has tended to concentrateon preservation of animal and plantspecies threatened with habitat loss.Mangrove restoration projects them-selves could help to supply some of thescientific knowledge that is currentlylacking, if they are carried out withclear objectives under carefully con-trolled conditions and incorporatelong-term monitoring. A high priorityis to document the many restorationprojects underway around the worldand to make such information freelyavailable.

For more information contact:Colin Field, University of Technology,Sydney, Australia.

Mangrove Replantation Project in PakistanBy Najam Khurshid and Fayyaz Rasool

mangroves and getting them involvedin the project. An on-site project officerwas appointed who interacts directlywith the community and constantlypromotes the value of mangroves.Rapport with the local community hasbeen established, and acceptance hasbeen gained for the project.

In May 1995, in collaboration withthe Baluchistan Forest and WildlifeDepartment, two nurseries were estab-lished, as experimental work had shownthat of the three species found in thearea, only Avicennia marina grows suc-cessfully if sown directly into the wild.

Beds were prepared and pits dug,and seeds were held for germination.Ripe seeds which fall off the parenttree were collected and sown individu-ally in each bag in the nursery by thevillagers, with women and childrenactively participating.

Seedlings have to be cared for andprotected for 8-12 months until theyare sufficiently mature to be plantedout and subjected to tides and strongwinds. Transplanting of the seedlingswas completed and new seeds have beensown for transplantation next year.

If the pilot work goes well, a fullafforestation program will be developedfor Sonmiani, and as local communitiesincreasingly recognize the benefits ofsuch efforts, mangrove restoration pro-grams will be started elsewhere. Withthe development of this sense of “stew-ardship” for natural resources, WWF-Pakistan will then be able to expand theprogram to cover sustainable manage-ment of other marine and coastalresources.

For more information contact:Najam Khurshid, Conservation Direc-tor; or Fayyaz Rasool, ConservationOfficer, World Wildlife Fund Pakistan,12th Floor, Sidco Ave, Centre, 264,R.A. Lines, Karachi, Pakistan.

Restoration(continued from page 11)

S onmiani Bay on the Makran coastof Pakistan is surrounded by three

villages: Sonmiani, Damb and Bhira.The mangroves around the Bay havebeen severely degraded by cutting andovergrazing. WWF-Pakistan is sup-porting a replanting project atSonmiani where gaining the supportand participation of the local people isa high priority.

Sonmiani itself does not have truemangrove forest, but there is suitablehabitat. It was believed that if a man-grove plantation could be developedthere, the villagers could visibly bene-fit from it, and word of the mangrovemanagement there would quicklyspread to the other coastal communi-ties. An informal education and aware-ness program for local school childrenand villagers has been started, appris-ing villagers of the many benefits of


T he extent of mangrove defor-estation for shrimp farming is

unknown, but is thought to be substan-tial on a global scale. For example, inthe Philippines, an estimated 50 per-cent (approximately 141,000 hectares{ha}) of mangrove loss can be tracedto brackish water pond developmentand in Viet Nam over 102,000 ha ofshrimp ponds were constructed inmangroves between 1983 and 1987.Much of the mangrove conversion hasbeen rapid, unplanned and unmanaged,and many farms have proven to beunsustainable. Consequently manyponds have been left idle or abandoned,and farmers have developed new sitesin an effort to maintain production.This presents a major challenge forboth coastal resource managers andpond owners who have to address thequestion of what to do with unproduc-tive ponds.

An indication of the frequency ofabandonment can be gained from in-formation for Thailand. By 1989, about22 percent of the farms in SamutSakorn province had been abandoned,and a 1994 study noted that some4,000-4,500 ha of ponds south ofBangkok have ceased production dueto disease and are now largely derelict.An estimated 70-80 percent of pondshave been abandoned in Prachuap

Khiri Khan, withsimilar figures forthe provinces ofSongkhla and SiThammarat. TheBangkok Post ofFebruary 20, 1995reported that overallabout 24 percent ofshrimp farms inThailand are beingabandoned, and thateach 1,000 ha ofabandoned ponds

equates to an economic loss of 80 thou-sand pounds sterling each year.Similarly, it has been recently estimat-ed that in some areas only 20 percentof farms are currently operational, andin other small producing areas, 100percent of ponds may be inopera-tional.

Causes andConsequences ofAbandonment

Ponds are left idle for a variety ofreasons. For instance, declining envi-ronmental quality may cause anincreased incidence of disease and hasbeen widely cited as commonly caus-ing production failure. A variety ofdiseases have spread from one locationto another. In Thailand these includedMonodon baculovirus in 1988, theYellow Head baculovirus in 1992 and,more recently, White Spot disease whichis estimated to have been responsiblefor losses of 50-80 percent productionduring 1996. Other countries wheredisease has led to pond failure includeIndia, the Philippines, Taiwan andIndonesia.

Potential acid sulfate soils (P.A.S.S.)exist in many mangrove soils and, as aresult of the excavation and construc-tion of shrimp ponds, become oxidizedand form actual acid sulfate soils

(A.A.S.S.) which release large quanti-ties of acid and toxic levels of iron andaluminum upon wetting. Research inSoutheast Asia has revealed that acid,iron and aluminum are directly res-ponsible for fish and prawn losses andgeneral low productivity. Although it ispossible to culture shrimps in ponds inacid sulfate soils by adding lime andincreasing water exchange, the tech-nology is not always available, and inViet Nam the development of A.A.S.S.has led to pond abandonment. Othercauses of pond failure or abandonmentinclude improper site selection, poorconstruction methods, poor waterquality and circulation, poor farmingpractices, a lack of post-larvae and/orbroodstock, market constraints, andgovernment policy or intervention.

The environmental conditions leftafter abandonment may be more sig-nificant in impeding rehabilitation of apond than the original cause of failure.For instance, in Karnataka, India, hun-dreds of ponds are said to be aban-doned as a result of White Spot diseasebut the major obstacle to their rede-velopment is the prevalence of A.A.S.S.

which, if untreated, may persist formany years. The acidic water resultingfrom these soils can destroy foodresources, displace biota, release toxiclevels of aluminum, precipitate ironwhich smothers vegetation and micro-

Abandoned Shrimp Ponds: Options for Mangrove RehabilitationBy N. J. Stevenson and P. R. Burbridge

(continued page 14)

Disused shrimp pond in Kumta, Karnataka, India. (Photo courtesyof Jesmond Sammut, University of New South Wales, Sydney)

Table 1. Use of abandoned shrimp pondsin Samut Sakorn, Thailand

ha perent Converted to traditional system

shrimp culture 1,173 33Converted to salt farming 711 20Converted to coconut plantations 248 7 Top soil sold for construction

purposes 248 7 Left idle 213 6Unidentified 962 27Tota l 3 ,555 ha 1 0 0(Source: NACA 1994 translated from Thai by B. Srethasirote 1996 pers.comm)


habitat, and alter the physical andchemical properties of the water(Sammut et al. in press). Consequently,acid-tolerant species may dominate andfurther impede restoration attempts.

Mangrove clearance, shrimp cultiva-tion and the abandonment of pondsmay also alter soils in other waysincluding accelerating soil erosion byincreasing surface run-off and inter-flow; decreasing soil water storagecapacity; reducing biodiversity of soilfauna; altering the transport of sedi-ments, dissolved inorganic and organicconstituents and principal nutrients;increasing levels of toxic chemicals;and depleting organic matter throughleaching and mineralization.

Options for Rehabilitationand Restoration

There are three basic options fordealing with abandoned ponds:

1. Rehabilitation for shrimp pro-duction;

2. Rehabilitation for other sustain-

able uses such as salt production orintegrated aquaculture;

3. Restoration of the environmen-tal conditions within the ponds andsurrounding area to a productive man-grove ecosystem.

The suitability of these optionsdepends on the causes of failure of thepond operations and the conditionswhich remain in the pond after aban-donment. There are several successful

examples of the second option–con-version to other uses. In Thailand,large tracts of abandoned shrimpponds in Samut Sakhorn have beenconverted to housing estates andindustrial development (although suchactivities may not constitute “best use”options andmay have theirown specificecologicalimpacts).Some aban-doned shrimpfarms havebeen convertedto salt farms orfish cultureoperations forsea bass andtilapia, andshrimp farmslocated near main roads have sold topsoil for construction projects (Table1). The Department of Fisheries inThailand has promoted cage culture offish (including mullet and sea bass),blood cockles and mussels in aban-doned shrimp farms. However therehave been some major problems,including lack of seed for blood cock-les, lack of suitable fish species forcage culture in idle ponds, lack ofinvestment credit and the need fortechnology transfer related to aquacul-ture and mariculture.

There has been some success withusing abandoned shrimp ponds forgrouper culture in the Philippines andcrab culture in Thailand, and it has beensuggested that the abandoned pondscould be used for polychaete culture,integrated salt-artemia production orshrimp-salt production. Integratedshrimp culture may be the most attrac-tive option to farmers who have ceasedshrimp production but still own or havethe lease rights to the ponds. Aqua-sil-viculture could be used to facilitate therestoration of abandoned, unproduc-tive or denuded open areas to a pro-ductive condition, and might reducemangrove replanting costs by provid-ing a local supply of propagules andminimizing transport costs.

Constraints toRestoration andSustainable Use

The remediation of acid sulfate soilspresents many problems, not least ofwhich are the time required and the

costs involved. Onetreatment involves thedeliberate oxidation ofthe acid-producingmaterial (pyrite) andflushing out withbrackish or freshwater. This reducessoil acidity but doesnot take into accountthe ecological impactof the acid leachate.In addition, successfulreplanting of aban-doned shrimp ponds

may be severely constrained byincreased erosion, the activation ofacid sulfate soils, and the presence ofshrimp culture related chemicals.Variable success rates have beenachieved with different mangrovespecies in small scale experiments.

Additional constraints include thelack of technical expertise in generalhabitat restoration and an even greaterlack of experience in restoration ofunproductive shrimp ponds. Marketforces and the preferences of the pondoperators must also be consideredwhen identifying potential alternativeuses, and their economic feasibility.For example, a survey in Thailandshowed that the primary aim of farm-ers with unproductive ponds is to startshrimp culture again (Table 2).Options which meet both the manage-ment objectives of coastal resourcemanagers and those of the pond own-ers should be pursued.

Finally, there is the question of whobears the costs of redevelopment.Restoration of unproductive shrimpponds to a productive mangroveecosystem is very expensive, particu-larly if propagules are in short supplyand if it is necessary to create a

Abandoned ShrimpPonds(continued from page 13)

Table 2: Intentions of farmers who have abandoned their land

No. of farms percentReturn to shrimp culture 38 73.08Culture fish (Seabass) 1 1.92Make salt farm 4 7.69Sell land 3 5.77Leave the land 2 3.85Other (Agriculture land, housing

and land for rent) 4 7.69Total 52 100.00(Source: NACA 1994 translated from Thai by Buntoon Srethasirote 1996pers.comm.)

Excavation of shrimp pond in Potential AcidSulphate Soils (PASS) in Kumta, Karnatake,India (Photo courtesy of Jesmond Sammut,University of New South Wales, Sydney)

(continued page 16)


By M. Rasolofoharinoro,F. Blasco and J. Denis

A quaculture in Madagascar’s Malagasy mangroves has provid-

ed a boost to the local economy, butproblems in the form of mangrovedestruction and increasing pollutionthreaten the area. A bibliographic andphotographic analysis (aerial photosfrom 1992 and SPOT imagery from1993) and field studies, however, sug-gest some solutions.

National operators and foreigninvestors in Madagascar are increasing-ly exploiting the coast because of thedepletion of forest, agricultural andpastoral areas. The Malagasymangroves, covering some 400,000hectares (ha), provide optimal condi-tions for aquaculture, particularly inestuaries and embayments.

The western coast of Madagascarcould potentially produce 58,000 tonsof crustaceans per year, but aquacultureis a still recent development. It startedwith a pilot hatchery project in 1990 atNosy-Be, which was followed in 1993by a shrimp farming operation of over3,995 ha, established by a fishery com-pany in Mahajamba Bay. A number ofnatural, social and economic factors havecontributed to aquaculture’s success:

■ The extensive salt-flat areas, called“tannes,” which occupy the middle andupper courses of channels of theMasokoenja and Marovoaikely Rivers.These are formed by the high spring-tide range of 3.5 meters, and are pro-tected by a screen of mangrove trees.The permanent flow over the tannesprovides organic and mineral-enrichedsoft water, which helps to make thearea a good nursery for many aquaticspecies, particularly shrimps andprawns.

■ The clay-like texture of the tannesprovides an impermeable substrate,favorable to shrimp-pond construction.

■ The use of the bare tannes meansthat there is no need to clear vegeta-tion for ponds.

■ The Mahajamba mangroves havebeen protected for many years, as theyare considered inviolable and havebeen a factor in the social unity oflocal communities.

■ There is a plentiful workforce forthe aquaculture facility, though peoplehad been forced to emigrate when astarch factory closed down, and land

and agricultural opportunities becamescarcer.

■ Some employment opportunitieshave been created by the aquacultureoperation-cutting mangrove trees fortimber, transport of motor-fuel, toolrepairing and improvements to thelocal infrastructure.

■ There are business opportunitiesfor collaborative efforts by groupswhich specialize in oceanographic,marine and biochemical resources toproduce marine products which mustmeet the strict industrial standards ofthe international market.

■ The aquaculture facility providesforeign currency to the Malagasy econ-omy and permits the import of feed,disinfection products and other items.

From 1993 to 1995, 644 ha wereused for assay and exploitation ofponds, the shrimp processing plant andreception infrastructure. Eighty ponds

are situated in drytannes, previouslyoccupied bySalicornia pachys-tachia(Chenopodiaceae),and are being protect-ed from erosion byherringbone wood-stakes work until theplanted mangroves,Avicennia marina,have grown. It is anintensive aquaculturesystem. The ponds,which average over0.5 ha, are equippedwith water-pumps,filters and aerators,adapted to suit thediverse requirementsof each stage in thegrowth of the shrimps(e.g. artificial feeding,water quality moni-toring).The repro-duction rate is rela-tively high (above 80percent) and, since

1993, staggered crops have been pro-duced regularly. Methods in the process-ing plant are prepared, using perfectedfittings and a research laboratory.Thissuccess provides encouragement for thecontinuation of shrimp farming at othersites and for similar projects elsewhere

Aquaculture in Madagascar’s Mahajamba Bay

(continued page 16)

Shrimp farm facilities: Mahajamba Bay (1993-1995) Sources: Basemap (FTM) et AQUALMA - Shrimp Ponds Map


Madagascar(continued from page 15)

in the country. Nevertheless, several environmental

impacts are already being felt whichthreaten the facility:

1. Mangrove destruction is wide-spread, even in dense mangrove areas,as dikes and embankments have to beconstructed.

2. Sensitive sites, notably siltingzones, are being used which increasethe extent of tannes.

3. The safety measures taken are notsufficient to prevent risks from naturaldisasters or disrupting flows (e.g., fill-ing up of channels, inundation).

4. Dredging is increasing water tur-bidity, as the current patterns are nottaken into consideration; dredging onpotential acid sulfate soils acceleratestheir acidification, and salts are risingto the surface, rich in chlorides andsulfates, forming a whitish powder.

5. Pollutants (e.g., waste-water,wastes of farming and processing, dis-infection products, engine oil) aredegrading water-quality. Rising tem-peratures, oxygen saturation reducedto less than two percent, high salinity,weak flow of tides, abundance of whitishfroths and foul smells are emitted bywastewater even after decanting.

6. Noise caused by pumps and ship-ping, and turbulence movementsaround ships can disturb the flora andfauna (e.g., juvenile fishes, seedlingsgrowth, subsidence of banks).

7. The weak bearing capacity perunit of area of mangrove soils requiresthe widespread use of dikes and inten-sification of embankments to the detri-ment of the mangroves.

8. The aquaculture activity has

some flow-on effects endangering themangrove ecosystem: for example, per-manent occupation, more cutting fortimber, firewood, smoking of fish, col-lieries, more fishing and/or conversionof mangrove into rice fields.

Aquaculture may be a suitable landuse for some less productive parts ofthe mangrove ecosystem, but betterdata are required to assess aquaculturework and impact to control environ-ment effects. Otherwise, the inade-quate legislation and the lack of accessprevents effective control of the milieu.

At the national level, a policy forcoastal facilities, notably aquacultureoperations, is urgently needed. Newlegislation is also needed. The forestlegislation, dating from 1930, coversmangroves but was formulated for ter-restrial forests. The legislation for aqua-culture is recent (1985), but is mainlyconcerned with fishing. In addition,there needs to be more effectiveenforcement of the legislation and pro-vision of the necessary enforcementpersonnel and methods of transport, aswell as involvement of the local com-munities to avoid any conflict. Sensitivezones have to be defined and delineatedwith the collaboration of local commu-nities, and the number and types ofoccupation per site and the resort cal-endar must be respected. Replanting(particularly with Avicennia marina )must be done and controlled, to ensurethe regeneration of mangrove and theprotecting of its ecosystem. Planningmust include the treatment of pollu-tants (incineration and burial of wastes,complete treatment of waste-waterbefore discharging into channels orrivers). An improved database on themangrove ecosystem and the results ofimpact studies is needed, updated by

remote sensing.At the regional level, infrastructure must

be improved to reduce the occupation ofmangroves, for example by constructingand maintaining roads in other areas, par-ticularly in agricultural and pastoral areas.In the same way, social equipment and landreliability in traditional spaces must berehabilitated. Forestry should be encour-aged and the establishment of new opera-tions should be restricted to avoid increas-ing environmental impact. At the locallevel the topographic lines must be takeninto account by all facilities, particularlycreeks, channels favoring drainage, or forlaying out dikes or banks. Imperatives forprotecting mangroves include:

■ Respect for current patterns in dredgeworks.

■ Control and survey of all interventionin the mangrove (fishing, wood exploita-tion, salt extraction).

■ Removal of cutting licenses and clear-ing areas in the mangrove.

■ Control and survey of navigation andfuel transport.

Aquaculture is a good use of the tannesand promotes regional development by cre-ating local employment and improvinginfrastructure, but its future depends onbetter mitigation of the environmentalimpacts. The destruction of mangroves,falling banks, alteration of the quality ofwater, disorganization of the flow, and theacidification of the soils certainly endangershrimp farming. A database updated by remote sensing andan impact study will allow the mangrove ecosystem to be surveyed and controlled.

For more information contact: M.Rasolofoharinoro, F. Blasco and J. Denis,Laboratoire d’Ecologie Terrestre,CNRS/UPS, BP. 4403 - 31405 ToulouseCEDEX, France.

Abandoned ShrimpPonds (continued from page 14)seedling nursery. Although it may bepossible to create financial disincentivesto prevent or limit future habitat destruc-tion (by making the costs of destroying ordenuding a habitat match or exceed the

cost of keeping or replacing it), thiswould not speed the redevelopment ofunproductive ponds. Consequentlyother means of catalyzing and fundingrehabilitation or restoration activitiesmust be found.

For more information contact: Peter

Burbridge, Centre for Tropical CoastalManagement Studies, Department ofMarine Sciences and CoastalManagement, University of Newcastleupon Tyne, Newcastle NE1 7RU, UK.E-mail: P. R. [email protected]. or Nathalie Stevenson. E-mail:[email protected].


Majagual: The Tallest Mangrovesin the WorldBy Emilio Ochoa

M ajagual is an estate in the north of Esmeraldas, the northern-

most province of Ecuador. It lies inthe estuary of the Cayapas-Santiago-Mataje Rivers, on the border with

Colombia, an area which encompassesalmost 22,000 hectares (ha) of man-grove and some 50,000 inhabitants.Some of the tallest mangrove trees inthe world are found here, reachingover 60 meters in height. Several ofthese are on private property and couldbe felled at any moment. The forest ismature and very dense, with very littlelight penetrating the foliage of the can-opy. Some of the trees are about 100years old and, seen from the distance,appear as tall, thin columns.

The traditional uses of mangroves(charcoal, fuel wood, collection ofshellfish and shrimps) gave way inrecent years to the harvesting of largetrees for posts and to clearing forshrimp pond development. The growthof both traditional and modern pres-sures is damaging the structure of themangrove forest in such a way that its

fauna and flora is now declining at arate faster than it can naturally recover.Timber harvesting brings in a revenueof 400,000 sucres/hectares(ha)/yr(10-15 m3/ha/yr) and some 500,000crabs and mollusks are collected eachweek, with a value of about 5,000,000sucres (US$1,500 approx.).

Part of the estate was bought by acompany, Purocongo, and in 1993shrimp aquaculture ponds were con-structed amidst major protests, suspi-cion and initial concern by the localcommunity. Tension rose considerablywhen various NGOs and the pressreported that the company had cut themangroves to open a canal to bring inwater. The Programa de Manejo deRecursos Costeros and the FundacionMaldonado intervened and the compa-ny agreed to draw up an agreementwith the community and authorities todevelop its ponds and at the same timeprotect the mangroves. Majagual is nowthe site of a controversial experiment,so far successful, where shrimp farm-ers are learning to co-exist with man-groves. The Foundation was given themangroves byPurocongo in orderto ensure their pro-tection, and thecompany and thelocal communitynegotiated a dealwith the followingconditions:

■ All shrimpponds to be located 50 meters behindthe mangroves in order not to affectthe root systems.

■ No alteration of the mangrovecover.

■ No alteration of the natural waterflow with dams, walls or by divertingwater courses.

■ Traditional use of and access tothe mangrove area to be guaranteed tothe local population.

■ Ecotourism activities and researchto be encouraged.

The pressure to build shrimp farmsin Esmeraldas is intense and the needfor practical approaches to conservingmangroves and their traditional uses isurgent.

Since 1990, shrimp production in theGulf of Guayaquil has been unusuallylow: mortality of juvenile shrimp is high

and the adults have slow growth. Theseare both considered symptoms of the“Taura Syndrome.” The causes of thisand other production problems forshrimp farmers are much debated.

Some argue thatthe problems arerelated to the useof agrochemicalsby nearby bananagrowers, whileothers believe thatthe causes are dis-eases specific toshrimp. Whatever

it may be, many shrimp farmers arehaving to withdraw their investmentsand transfer them to areas that are envi-ronmentally healthy. Esmeraldas makesan inviting target.

For more information contact:Emilio Ochoa, Coordinator forCRC/URI in Latin America, P.O. Box09 01 11067 Guayaquil, Ecuador.Phone: 5934 830561 (H)/5934281144/284453(O); FAX: 5934285038; E-mail:<[email protected]>.


Market Opportunities for Addressing theEnvironmental and Social Impacts of Wild-Captured and Pond-Produced Shrimp By Jason W. Clay

T he Commodities Program of WWF-US is producing an

extensive report which analyzes theenvironmental and social impacts ofwild-caught and pond-raised shrimp,and the structure of the shrimp marketchain, shrimp consumption, and trade.The goal is to improve understandingof trade and environment linkages, andto formulate policy recommendationsfor improving the environmental sustain-ability of shrimp production systems.

Both shrimp mariculture and har-vest of wild shrimp pose different butequally troubling environmental im-pacts. Export-oriented shrimp farminghas led to large areas of coastal man-grove being cleared for the construc-tion of shrimp ponds with importantimpacts on estuary systems and the

coastal environment. In Bahia deCaraquez, a large bay in Ecuador, forexample, 95 percent of the mangroveshave been destroyed to make way forshrimp ponds. Other environmentalimpacts involve the by-catch from cap-ture of fry, and the use and dischargeof large volumes of water with heavychemical loads. The main environmen-tal impacts of wild-caught adult shrimpare the by-catch, the highest of anyfishing industry, and the routine andsystematic disturbance of the oceanfloor by nets and runners.

The social impacts of the two shrimpproduction systems are similar. In bothcases, destructive practices erode thelivelihoods of coastal residents causinghardship and further environmentaldegradation as they seek new ways tomake a living. In the Honduran portionof the Gulf of Fonseca, for example,

shrimp pond development has animportant impact on mangrove ecosys-tems and is creating conflict amongshrimp farmers and traditional coastalcommunities.

Analysis of the shrimp market chainwill give an indication of where, in thecurrent system, it might be possible tointercede in ways that could createmore sustainable shrimp production byaddressing both environmental andsocial impacts. The report will offer acomprehensive set of conclusions andrecommendations regarding both wild-caught and pond-raised shrimp produc-tion systems.

For more information contact: JasonW. Clay, Commodities Program,World Wildlife Fund, 1250 24thStreet, NW, Washington, DC 20037-1175. Tel: 202-778-9691. FAX: 202-293-9211. E-mail:<[email protected]>.

Visit Intercoast on the World Wide WebIf you’ve missed any recent issues of Intercoast Network, you can catch up on back information andopinions by visiting the University of Rhode Island’s Coastal Resources Center home page on theWorld Wide Web at <http://brooktrout.gso.uri.edu>. Past issues of Intercoast are available underCRC’s information services, along with other resources and publications, including:

■ A country-by-country global Data Base on coastal management initiatives worldwide.■ “Educating Coastal Managers,” the proceedings of a 1995 workshop held in Rhode Island,

which provides a call to action for new and improved ways of educating and training coastal practitioners and evolving the discipline into a professional career field with enhanced educational opportunities.

■ Opinion and editorial pieces by Intercoast’s co-editor Stephen Olsen, which have been appearing on a regular basis in the U.S. press.

We welcome suggestions or comments on CRC’s World Wide Web page that will help improve dis-semination of information and news on coastal management. Contact: Chip Young, Managing Editor,Intercoast Network, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, South Ferry Road,Narragansett, RI, 02882 USA. Phone: (401) 874-6630; FAX: (401) 789-4670; E-mail: <cyoung@gso-sun I.gso.uri.edu>.


A Comparative Assessment ofRemote Sensing for Mangrovesby E.P. Green, P.J. Mumby, A.J.Edwards and C.D. Clark

D ecision makers interested in adopting remote sensing are faced witha variety of satellite and airborne sys-tems. Choosing the most appropriatesystems will depend on the objectives ofthe study and size of the budget but few,if any, guidelines exists to facilitate thisprocess. A joint project between theUniversities of Newcastle and Sheffield(UK) seeks to critically evaluate theseissues for a suite of mangrove manage-ment objectives. Satellite (SPOT XS andLandsat TM) and airborne multispectral

(CASI, Compact AirborneSpectrographic Imager) data have beenacquired for mangroves in the Turks andCaicos Islands, British West Indies.These data cover a spectrum of resolu-tion and cost, and their ability toachieve different management objectiveshas been evaluated.

The western coast of the Caicos bankis inhabited by three species of man-grove. Stands were surveyed for speciescomposition, tree height and density.These variables, when classified, identi-fied six mangrove habitat categories.This habitat scheme was then used todirect a classification of the remotelysensed data by five different methods(visual interpretation; classification afterconversion to a vegetation index; unsu-pervised classification; supervised classi-fication; band-rationing and principalcomponent analysis). Supervised classi-fication of CASI data mapped the six

habitat categories to an overall accuracyof 78.2 percent but all classifications ofSPOT XS data failed to discriminate sat-isfactorily between mangrove and non-mangrove vegetation. Classification accu-racy of the Landsat TM data was depen-dent upon the method used. Only oneprocessing method (band-rationing andprincipal component analysis) accuratelydiscriminated between mangrove andterrestrial vegetation (92.3 percent) butjust two of the six mangrove classescould be distinguished. The superior spa-tial and spectral resolution of the CASIallows mangrove areas to be assessed to agreater level of detail and accuracy than

with satellite sensors.Field data have also been used to

model the relationship between theimagery-derived normalized differencevegetation index (NDVI) and leaf areaindex (LAI) of the mangrove canopy. Theimportance of measuring LAI stemsfrom its relationship with a range of bio-logical processes including rates of pho-tosynthesis, transpiration and evapotran-spiration, net primary production andrates of energy exchange. Measurementsof LAI have also been used to predictfuture growth and yield and to monitorchanges in canopy structure due to pol-lution and climate. The ability to esti-mate LAI is therefore a valuable tool inmodeling the ecological processes occur-ring within a forest and in predictingeco-system responses. NDVI was derivedfor Landsat TM and CASI bands andregresses against field measurement ofLAI which were obtained from in situ

measurement of light transmittancethrough the canopy. An independentdata set was then used to test the accu-racy of this prediction. Accuracy wasfound to be high for both Landsat TMand CASI (88 percent and 95 percentrespectively). In addition, the mean dif-ference between predicted and mea-sured LAI error was low (5 percent and13 percent respectively). These resultsshow that remote sensing is a powerfultool for estimating the spatial distribu-tion of LAI throughout large areas ofmangrove. The assessment of LAI can beconducted with minimal field datawhich is particularly desirable for densemangrove stands where logistical andsampling difficulties can be severe. Thecomparative approach to remote sensingfor mangrove management will be dis-

cussed in thebook PracticalRemoteSensing forTropicalCoastalManagementwhich is to becompleted inautumn 1997(similar chap-ters will

address remote sensing of coral reefs,seagrass beds and bathymetry). The costeffectiveness of different sensors in rela-tion to specific management applica-tions, such as habitat mapping and theprediction of ecological data acrosswhole ecosystems, will be presented ina manner which is designed to facilitateinformed choices by potential users ofremote sensing.

For more information contact: E.P.Green, Center for Tropical CoastalManagement Studies, Department of Marine Sciences and CoastalManagement, University of Newcastle,Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK;E-mail: <[email protected]>; or,P.J. Mumby, Sheffield Centre for EarthObservation Science, Department ofGeography, University of Sheffield,Sheffield S10 2TN, UK; E-mail:<p.j.mumby@sheffield. ac.uk>.

S ensor C overage of Im a ge R esolution C ost*S patial Spectral R a diom etr ic

Landsat TM 185 x 185km 30m 7 bands 8 bit 1SPOT XS 60 x 60km 20m 3 bands 8 bit 11CASI ** variable 3m 15 bands 12 bit 4630CASI** variable 1m 8 bands 12 bit 4630

* Costs are for imagery alone, and exclude costs of fieldwork, processing, accuracy assessment etc.** CASI can be configured with different spectral resolutions. Spatial resolution depends on aircraft altitude. Users define the area ofCASI coverage according to their needs - the width of a flight line of imagery depends on spatial resolution and therefore aircraft alti-tude.


The Global Distribution andStatus of Mangrove Ecosystemsby Mark D. Spalding

Where Are Mangroves Found?

Probably the earliest known refer-ence to mangroves is that of

Nearchus and Theophrastus whodescribed the mangroves of the ArabianGulf over 2,000 years ago. The firstknown use of the term mangrove is an early 16th century chart of Brazilwhich marks “manguez” along the coastof the Golfo de los Reyes, just south ofRio de Janeiro.Charts of the Moluccas(Indonesia) from the same period showforest areas marked as “alagados”

(“inundated”),which wereundoubtedlymangroves. Arecent world-wide reviewof the distrib-ution and sta-tus of man-grove forests,compiled bythe WorldConservationMonitoring

Centre and the Institut de la CarteInternationale de la Vegetation, to bepublished in 1996 by the InternationalSociety for Mangrove Ecosystems, withsupport from the International TropicalTimber Organization, provides what isprobably the most thorough survey ofmangrove distribution undertaken todate.

Mangroves occur in 112 countriesand territories and are largely confinedto the regions between 30’ north andsouth of the equator. Notable exten-sions beyond this are to the north inBermuda (32’20’N) and Japan(31’22’N), and to the south in Australia(38’45’S), New Zealand (38’03’S) andon the east coast of South Africa(32’59’S). Within these confines they

are widely distributed, although theirlatitudinal development is restrictedalong the western coasts of theAmericas and Africa compared to theequivalent eastern coasts. In the PacificOcean, natural mangrove communitiesare limited to western areas, and theyare absent from many of the more east-ern islands.

Modern distribution patterns ofmangroves are the result of a widerange of historical and contemporaryfactors. The most obvious distributionpatterns, the latitudinal limits, arelargely set by low sea surface and airtemperatures, and particularly by tem-perature extremes. Rainfall also has astrong influence through the reductionof salinity. Although mangroves areadapted to saline or brackish environ-ments, the high salinity of seawater, andthe sometimes higher salinities associat-ed with intertidal areas, particularly inarid countries, frequently restrictgrowth. In areas with low, irregular orlimited seasonal rainfall, the number ofmangrove species which can survive islimited and there is sparse mangrovedevelopment as on the coast of theArabian peninsula. Historical and tec-tonic factors are probably responsiblefor the easterly limit of mangrovedevelopment in the Pacific, althoughthe exact mechanisms are unclear. Atthe national and local level, many otherfactors influence the distribution ofmangroves, including soils, tides, geo-morphology, mineral availability, soilaeration, winds, currents and waveaction. Most significantly now, humanactivities are affecting mangrove distri-bution patterns at all scales.

How Much Mangrove Is There?

The amount of mangrove in anycountry or region, and the rate of itsloss or deterioration, is important forpolicy-making, planning and resourcemanagement. Unfortunately, generating

such figures is a difficult exercise, par-ticularly making them comparablebetween countries or regions. This isbecause there is wide variability both inthe spatial scale and accuracy of differ-ent studies, and in the way in whichpeople define mangroves. Some defini-tions of the ecosystem include areas ofsalt-flats and open water; others coveronly fully developed trees of specifieddensity or canopy height. The man-grove palm Nypa fruticans, found inmonospecific stands in many areas, isexcluded from some definitions but notothers. In some areas there may be fur-ther problems of misidentification. Forexample, figures for mangrove area inVenezuela (given as over 6000 squarekilometers {sq km}) may be overesti-mated by over 100 percent as they arebased on remotely-sensed images inwhich it is difficult to distinguish truemangroves from Symphonia globulifera,a swamp-forest species.

The best-available estimate of globalmangrove coverage, calculated for theWorld Mangrove Atlas, is just over180,000 sq km (Figure 1), a tiny areacompared with other forest types(Figure 2), or with coral reefs whichmay cover three times as much (basedon Smith’s 1978 estimate of 600,000 sqkm). Most mangrove is found in thesouth and southeast Asian regions, withIndonesia alone accounting for 23 per-cent of the world’s total. Just fourcountries (Indonesia, Brazil, Australia,Nigeria) have some 43 percent of theworld’s mangroves and each hasbetween 25 percent and 50 percent ofthe mangroves in their respectiveregions (Figure 3).

How Fast Are MangrovesDisappearing?

Accurate figures for total mangroveloss are unavailable for most countries,although there is a considerable wealthof anecdotal figures and “guesstimates”.Where data are available, majordeclines in mangrove coverage can beseen, as exemplified in southeast Asia:

• Philippines - 60 percent (from 4,000 sq km originally to 1,600 sq


km today)• T hailand - 55 percent over 25 years (from 5,500 sq km in 1961 to 2,470 sq km in 1986)• V iet N a m - 37 percent (from 4,000 sq km originally to 2,525sq km, today ).• M a laysia - 12 percent (540 sqkm lost between 1980 and 1990)These figures suggest a loss of some

7,445 sq km of mangroves in fourcountries alone, representing over fourpercent of the current global total.There are very few national accountswhich do not show similar declines.On a more positive note, the area ofmangrove re-planting has increased inseveral countries. Plantations inBangladesh, Viet Nam and Pakistannow cover over 1,700 sq km in total,while Cuba is reported to have plantedsome 257 sq km of mangroves.

How Much Mangrove IsProtected?

Worldwide, there are about 685protected areas containing mangroves,distributed between 73 countries andterritories (note that these figures referto the legal status of sites, and manymay be “paper parks” with no realmanagement). Compared with otherhabitat types, this is a large number:up to nine percent of the total man-grove area may lie within gazetted pro-tected areas. For example, there areonly about 350 marine protected areaswith coral reefs, despite the high pro-file of the latter habitat and the largertotal area of coral reefs in the world.

There are few figures for the area ofmangrove habitat within each protect-ed area, but it is possible to get a verygeneral picture, and more particularlyto draw attention to the obvious holesin the protected area network. Most ofthe countries with very large areas ofmangroves have a significant numberof protected areas, notably Australia(180), Indonesia (64) and Brazil (63).Conversely there are some, such asNigeria, with very large areas of man-groves which have no gazetted protect-ed areas containing this habitat. Legal

protection is, of course, only one toolfor the conservation and sustainableuse of mangroves and many other legal,industrial or traditional managementregimes are also used with consider-able effect. Australia, Indonesia, Braziland Nigeria clearly have a key role toplay in sustainable mangrove manage-ment, and political and managementdecisions relating to mangroves in each

of these countries will have a significanteffect on the global status of mangroveecosystems in the future.

For more information contact: MarkD. Spalding, Department of GeographyUniversity of Cambridge, DowningPlace, Cambridge, UK; World Conser-vation Monitoring Centre, 219 Hunt-ingdon Rd, Cambridge, UK. E-mail:<[email protected]>.

Figure 1: Areal coverage of mangrove forests

Region Mangrove Area (sq km) percent

South and Southeast Asia 75,172 41.4The Americas 49,096 27.1West Africa 27,995 15.4Australasia 18,788 10.4East Africa and the Middle East 10,348 5.7

T O T A L 1 8 1 ,3 9 9 1 0 0

Figure 2: The total global area of different forest-types Figures have been rounded to the nearest 100,000 sq km

(source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre)

Forest Type Area (million sq km)

Temperate needle-leaf forest 13.9Tropical moist forest 11.2Temperate broadleaf/mixed forest 7.2Tropical dry forest 0.8Mangrove 0.2

Figure 3. Area of mangrove in top eight countries

percent of sq km world total

Indonesia 42,550 23.5Brazil 13,400 7.3Australia 11,500 6.3Nigeria 10,515 5.8Cuba 7,848 4.3India 6,700 3.7Malaysia 6,424 3.5Bangladesh 5,767 3.2Other countries 76,697 42.3


Management of Resources inthe Sundarbans Mangroves ofBangladeshby Neaz Ahmad Siddiqi

T he Sundarbans is the largest con-tinuous mangrove forest in the

world, and covers an area of about10,000 square kilometers (sq km). Of this, 62 percent lies in Bangladeshat the southern end of the GangesRiver (see map) and comprises 44 percent of the productive forest of thecountry, contributing about one-half of forest-related revenue.Internationally, theSundarbans are renownedfor their abundant wild-life: 32 mammal species,at least 186 bird speciesand 43 reptile andamphibian species inhabitthe area. Several largespecies, such as the Javanrhinoceros and the waterbuffalo, have disappearedsince the beginning of thiscentury, but a number ofother endangered species,notably the tiger (with apopulation of about 350),survive. Over 120species of fish are caughtby commercial fisher-men, and the area is an importantnursery for both offshore andnearshore marine and brackish fishspecies, with crustaceans accountingfor the largest proportion of animalbiomass.

The flora is rich, with 69 species; anumber are commercially important.The mangrove trees Heritiera fomesand Excoecaria agallocha are the domi-nant species in the forest and providehigh quality timber for newsprint,match sticks and boxes. H. fomes aloneconstitutes 63.8 percent of the totalmarketable timber. Non-timber prod-ucts contribute significantly towardsthe overall productivity of theSundarbans. Leaves of Nypa fruticans

are traditionally used for roof thatchingand house walls. Trunks of Phoenixpaludosa are in great demand as houseposts. Ceriops decandra andCynometra ramiflora yield high qualityfuel wood. An estimated 185,000 kilo-grams (kg) of honey and 44,400 kg ofwax are harvested each year in thewestern part of the forest.

The entire area is flat and intersect-ed by a complex network of streamsand rivers, with the salinity increasingfrom east to west and towards the

south. Salinity plays an important rolein the growth, species distribution andproductivity of the forest, and vegeta-tion tends to be more luxuriant atlower salinity levels.

Management ProblemsThe Sundarbans has been managed

for over 120 years as a commerciallyexploited Reserved Forest. The originalintention was for a 20-year fellingcycle, with “improvement felling” con-sisting of removing dead, dying andunsound trees and thinning congestedareas. Different exploitable diameterlimits are enforced for different speciesin various quality classes, largely deter-mined by salinity. Diameter limits and

felling cycles have been adjusted over thistime, and improvement felling is nolonger carried out. Nypa fruticans leavesare harvested once a year, and the centralleaf and leaf next to it are retained. Fuelwood and pole species are harvested on a20-year cycle.

Management of the Sundarbans faced aprocess of continuous change, much ofwhich has been beyond the control of theForest Department. Salinity levels haveincreased, lowering productivity, as a result of diversion of fresh waterupstream. Silt is deposited in the north-east portion of the forest, causing the for-est floor to rise, which stresses mangrove

plants. Productivity hasdeclined significantly overthe last few decades and theaverage yield of wood is only1.12 cubicmeters/hectare/year (cum/ha/yr). The standingstock of H. fomes and E.agallocha was depleted by 40and 45 percent, respectively,between 1960 and 1985. Anumber of factors, includingover-exploitation, may havecontributed to this. Theremay be a need for revision ofthe current silvicultural sys-tem in order to maintain asustainable level of produc-tion.

At present, theSundarbans is entirely dependent on nat-ural regeneration. Seedlings are abundantthroughout most of the forest, averaging27,750/ha per year, but their survival is amajor problem for most species at all lev-els of salinity. An additional problem is“top-dying,” a phenomenon that causesdeath of trees from the top downwardsand that is increasingly affecting H.fomes; 17 percent of trees are moderately orseverely affected. The cause of this is not known, but it could be the result ofstress from a variety of factors such aschanges in salinity, reduction in floodinglevels, loss of canopy leaves in storms or siltation of the pneumatophores.

(continued page 23)

Figure 1. Map of Bangladesh showing the location of the Sundarbans, largestcontinuous mangrove forest in the world.


Mangroves ofBangladesh(continued from page 22)

Reforestation, or supplementing naturalregeneration by planting, may be neces-sary. Other species could be planted onelevated soils, and trials are underway.

The Forest Department also regu-lates fishing within the Sundarbans, butthere is no information on the status offishery resources. There is no regulationof the collection of shrimp fry, and theuse of set-bag nets destroys fish larvaeand depletes juvenile fish. Stock assess-

ments of commercially important fish,crustaceans and mollusks are urgentlyneeded for developing a managementplan. Similarly, although three wildlifesanctuaries covering 32,386 ha wereestablished in 1977 in the southern partof the Sundarbans, the research neces-sary to determine appropriate manage-ment actions for wildlife has not beencarried out.

Despite its international importanceand its long management history, thereare still outstanding needs for the long-term survival of the Sundarbans. Thetwo main ones are need to investigate

the potential for developing eco-tourism, as the Sundarbans could be amajor attraction; at present the lack ofaccommodation and transport meansthat tourism is not a feasible source ofrevenue for local people. Second, man-agement-oriented research is required,particularly on wildlife and threatenedspecies; on the causes of low mangroveproductivity, die-off and seedling fail-ure; and on the fisheries.

For more information contact: NeazAhmad Siddiqi, Bangladesh ForestResearch Institute, P.O. Box 273,Chittagong 4000, Bangladesh.

By N. Gopinath and P. Gabriel

T he Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve in Perak, Malaysia, is

valuable for its timber products, whichin 1992 amounted to 451,196 metrictons (mt) with a value of 17.7Malaysian rupees (MR). However, thereserve’s natural heritage also containsother socioeconomic and environmen-tal benefits, such as fisheries, tourismand wildlife that go far beyond the tra-ditional mangrove resource uses forcharcoal and poles. However, the pre-sent management strategies, with afocus on extraction of timber, do nottotally address management of thereserve’s resources.

The absence of a comprehensivestrategic plan is a serious shortcomingwhere forestry resources are con-cerned. The working plans have neverset quantitative productive targets forsustained forest production. Targetswere set on an area basis, or accordingto the size of the industry to be sup-ported, rather than in terms of theinherent productive capability of theforest. This has skewed the plan towardsimply setting area quotas (coupes),with less emphasis on improving forestproduction or evaluating industry skills

and potentials. The earlier plans didnot institute a standardized methodol-ogy for establishing yields. As such,yields were not seriously monitored asan indicator of management success,and though some authorities suggestthere is a decline in forest productivi-ty, data are inadequate for a rigorousassessment.

The financial sustainability of the pre-sent management regime is also doubt-ful. All indicators point to a decliningeconomic output, as well as decliningrevenues to the state. Such a declinewas, in fact, alluded to by several kilnowners, who maintained that whiledemand for charcoal was good, they hadmade “better” money in the 1960s.

The social value of mangrove-basedforestry is also declining. The need forcharcoal and firewood as domestic fuelhas all but ended. Charcoal is indemand for the manufacturers of bri-quettes and activated carbon. Whilethe former is for domestic use, it doesnot represent an indispensable part ofan average household’s energy require-ments. In the context of the currenteconomic growth of the country,which emphasizes manufacturing andservice-related industries, the labor-intensive nature of charcoal productionis untenable. Though both the people

that operate and those that work at thecharcoal kilns have been doing so fordecades, and the workers may beunable to find alternate work else-where, employment in itself would be

insufficient justification for maintainingthe kilns. If anecdotal information iscorrect and the kilns are seriouslybereft of young workers, then it maynot be too far in the future when thekilns will either have to close down or

Management of Living Resources in the MatangMangrove Reserve, Perak, Malaysia

(continued page 24)

An area of felled mangroves in the Matang Mangrove Reserve,Malaysia.


upgrade by mechanizing their manufac-turing operations. Mangrove productssuch as thatch are also of little use andof local importance only, having largelybeen replaced by galvanized iron,asbestos and tiles. The production ofpoles is still of major importance,though that market is also likely todecline in the future.

The development of alternativeforestry activities would slow thedecline of the charcoal and pole trade.A study discovered that the drylandforest in Matang had substantial woodresources that could be exploited.Another 1991 report recommendedthat the establishment of indigenousplantations of Oncosperma tigillarium,Xylocarpus ssp., Intsia bijuga and rat-tan in an unproductive dryland forest.While some of these are not commer-cially exploited at the present time,they have long-term potential in thefurniture and construction industries.The report also recommended apicul-ture in the Avicennia forest.

Fisheries is another industry thatrelies on the reserve for its sustenance.In 1993, the waters off the reserveyielded 50,073 mt of fish valued atMR117.1 million. The industry provid-ed direct employment to 1,954 peopleand at least twice that number wereinvolved in associated occupations.Though there has been a decline in thecoastal fishing population of the dis-trict, a move that is openly encouragedby the authorities, total landings ofmarine fish have not declined. The roleof the Matang mangrove ecosystem inmaintaining the coastal fishery has notbeen elucidated, but prudence dictatesthat management of the reserve takeinto account maintenance of this pro-ductive fishery.

Aquaculture, specifically the farmingof the blood clam, is probably the onlyactivity that does not face an uncertainfuture. In 1993, an estimated 34,183mt of blood clam, valued at MR13 mil-lion were produced in Matang. The

mudflats off the reserve are not open toany other kind of economic activity.Blood clam farming is not particularlylabor-intensive, and markets are notlimited. Under these circumstances,the long-term prospects of the industryappear bright.

Tourism is the latest development inMatang. Estimates from anecdotalinformation indicate that touristarrivals may contribute at least MR1.7million annually to the local economy.Tourist infrastructure must be upgrad-ed if this sector is to further develop.Tourism, if properly planned, wouldallow the reserve to be exploited on anonconsumptive basis, without eco-nomic loss to either the state or thereserve’s current users.

In regard to the socioeconomic valueof the forest, of an estimated MR 151million annual output during 1992-93,77 percent came from fisheries, ninepercent came from aquaculture and 12percent from forestry. (Fisheries andaquaculture figures consider the LarutMatang district, which should closelyapproximate those for the MatangReserve. The mangrove forest providesother benefits and services, whosevalue and social impact have not beenadequately documented). Even with thelimited information at hand, it is obvi-ous that forestry represents only a smallproportion of the economic value ofthe forest. Forestry output is far sur-passed by fisheries landings and almostmatched by aquaculture. Tourism is stillsmall, but has a promising future.

Management of the forest shouldgive increased attention to biodiversityconservation. The virgin junglereserves, the Avicennia-Sonneratia belt,has been set aside mainly because it isof no use from a forestry standpoint.Further research is required to establish its contribution to thenearshore marine environment anddetermine if the present extent is suffi-cient. More generally, it has not beenpossible to assess the environmentalimpact of the working plans and forestmanagement regime because of the lackof baseline data and the absence of

monitoring of key components of theMatang mangrove ecosystem in gener-al. The charcoal industry for whichMatang is being largely managed is atradition-bound industry that mayeventually be phased out. This wouldeffectively undermine the presentrationale for its management, and openit to other, more destructive options,such as pond-based shrimp farming.The full range of socio-economic bene-fits of the reserve must therefore beconsidered in setting management goals.

While the present managementregime has its weaknesses, it does notmean that it is ineffective. Nevertheless,a fundamental review of the plan andits objectives is needed so that manage-ment is relevant to contemporaryMalaysian needs.

Given the enormous significance of the Matang Mangrove Reserve forboth its biodiversity and diverse eco-nomic values, it may be worthwhile to revoke its status as a forest reserve,including some of the foreshore areas,and redeclare it a national park.Though Malaysia has several parks,administered both federally as well asby the states, none of them would fitthe profile of a mangrove environment.Matang could thus stand out as the first national mangrove park.Designation as a park would need toinclude provisions for resource use bylocal communities, and may need to be implemented incrementally in stepwith the declining needs of the char-coal industry. Such an approach wouldenable the holistic management ofMatang’s resources as well as facilitatethe gradual phasing out of economical-ly untenable activities. In this manner,the Matang Mangrove Reserve cancontinue to serve the nation, andindeed, the world, as a showcase ofmangrove wealth.

For further information contact:Nagaraj Gopinath , Syndel Asia Sdn.Bhd., 62, Jalan 1D, Subang NewVillage, 40150 Shah Alam, Malaysia.Tel: 603-746-8541; Fax: 603-746-8542; e-mail:<[email protected]>.

Malaysia(continued from page 23)


The Role of the RamsarConvention in MangroveManagementby Peter R. Bacon

M uch has been written about mangrove management but

there is still too little positive action.This results partly from the persis-tence of an approach which considersall mangrove ecosystems to be similarand thus subject to generic guidelinesfor mangrove management (for exam-ple, Hamilton and Snedaker, 1984),and partly from the lack of a rationalframework for management action,particularly one based on clearly iden-tified objectives.

In 1971, a conventionto protect “Wetlands ofInternational Importance”was adopted in Ramsar,Iran. It was unusualbecause it focused on spe-cific wetland sites whichwere considered to be ofimportance especially aswaterfowl habitat. Tobecome a signatory to theRamsar Convention, acountry had to designateat least one such site andguarantee its protection.Thus, even though it wasan international conven-tion, Ramsar stimulatednational action at speci-fied sites while providing an interna-tional framework against which localmanagement planning could beassessed. That Ramsar is an intergov-ernmental treaty is significant, becausesuccessful wetland managementrequires political commitment in orderfor appropriate land-use policies, legalinstruments and technical agency sup-port to be available.

By March 1996 (when the sixthmeeting of the contracting parties washeld in Brisbane, Australia), 93 coun-tries had become signatories. Some830 “Ramsar sites” had been designated

by these countries covering over 53million hectares (ha). About a third ofthese contain mangroves, so Ramsarand its partners have embarked on theprotection and wise use of over 15million ha of mangrove wetland. Siteswith mangroves include: 596,000 ha ofthe Sundarbans of Bangladesh which isone of the largest continuous blocks ofmangrove in the world; the 35,042 haManglares Churute site in Ecuador;Coppenamemonding in Suriname(12,000 ha) and 54,400 ha in theCaicos Islands.

In 1990, Ramsar adopted a number

of criteria for identifying wetlands ofinternational importance, based onrepresentative or unique wetlands,plants and animals, and waterfowl. Anappreciation of other wetland valuesled to the development of further cri-teria in 1996 on fish and fisheries val-ues. Spelling out criteria has not onlyhelped define international status, butprovided a means of prioritizing sitesnationally. It has underlined the needto work on a site by site basis, sincenot all sites will meet all criteria, andsome may not meet any. It has alsomeant that the reasons for mangrove

site management have to be madeexplicit. Ramsar sites are not “prohib-ited areas” and a wise-use policy isstressed at all sites. Guidelines havebeen prepared for wise use and man-agement planning of sites and attentionis being paid to community participa-tion in management.

Ramsar requires further steps indeveloping a scientific managementprocess for a designated site, as follows:

(a) The “ecological character” of themangrove must first be defined,because the type of management mostappropriate to that site will depend onthe nature of the system to be man-aged. The site-specific managementapproach has been supported by thegroundbreaking inventory work of theInternational Waterfowl and Wetlands

Research Bureau (IWRB)(now part of WetlandsInternational) and someregional projects, forexample in the BritishVirgin Islands. Althoughthis might seem obvious,far too little attention hasbeen paid to the ecologi-cal differences betweenmangrove areas. Despiteearlier attempts to distin-guish mangrove systemtypes, the tendency togeneralize about structureand functions has ham-pered conservationefforts in many countries.Coastal managers need to

understand that not all mangroveswamps serve as fishery nurseries, sup-port high biodiversity or protect coastsfrom storms. Not all are worth pre-serving where there is the possibilityof productive aquaculture develop-ment and only some have ecotourismpotential. As with other natural systems,their ecological and economic valuesare determined by their character.

(b) Secondly, procedures have beenput in place through Ramsar to identi-fy change in ecological character. Ifchange is taking place in a site, there

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A sign in Penang, Malaysia describes various fin fish, shellfish and crustaceanswhich inhabit mangroves for all or part of their life cycle.


Ramsar(continued from page 25)

are management implications. Formany Ramsar sites, the nature and rateof the change determine the type ofintervention required. The RamsarConvention Bureau has therefore setup a monitoring procedure to assessand make recommendations concern-ing changes which the host countrybelieves may be occurring, and it mayalso assist the host country in obtaininghelp to carry out this procedure. A hostcountry can benefit from the tremen-dous pool of expertise, and possiblyfunding, available by networking inter-

nationally through the convention. This approach has been very effec-

tive in defining objectives and strategiesfor mangrove and other wetland man-agement. It continues to evolve as aresult of feedback from governmentsand Ramsar Site managers and throughinputs from a Scientific and TechnicalReview Panel of internationally recog-nized wetland experts. Consultationsare in progress for the next meeting ofcontracting parties in Costa Rica in1999. These include follow-up to rec-ommendations from Brisbane for theuse of integrated coastal zone manage-ment principles for coastal wetlandsand the listing of more coral reefs and

Mangrove Management in Brazilby Christian von Dorrien

I n 1988, preliminary studies by the Conselho Interministerial dos

Recursos do Mar in Brazil led to legisla-tion for the development of a NationalManagement Plan for the 7,500 kilo-

meter coastline. This would provide forzoning of the entire coast with the aimof improving the living conditions of thecoastal population as well as protectingimportant natural resources. Mangroves

have been protectedsince 1965 underforestry legislation, butthis has been poorlyenforced.

The highly produc-tive and extensivemangroves in north-east Brazil (in thestates of Amapa, Paraand Maranhao) havebeen not as well stud-ied as the less produc-tive ones in the south.The “MangroveDynamics andManagement” projectis a cooperative initia-tive be-tween theUniversity of the Stateof Para and the GoeldiMuseum, both inBelem, Brazil, and theCenter for TropicalMarine Ecology in

Bremen, Germany, with financial sup-port from the German Ministry forResearch. The main objective is thesustainable development and protectionof mangroves near the city of Bragancain the state of Para, within the contextof integrated coastal zone management.The first stage of this long-term (10+years) project is research-oriented, butlocal agencies will subsequently beinvolved.

The research program involves astudy of abiotic factors, biodiversity,socio-economy, natural resources, pri-mary production, energy and nutrientflux. The investigations will includestudies on climate, soils, vegetation,resources, productivity, linkage withand exchange processes between neigh-boring ecosystems, and institutional,cultural, economic, social and politicalconditions. The data obtained will beused for modeling the ecosystem anddeveloping a management plan.

For more information contact:Kontakstelle fur TropischeKustenforschung (Contact Office forTropical Coastal Research), ZMT -Center for Tropical Marine Ecology,Fahrenheitstrasse 1, D-28359 Bremen,Germany, Tel: +49-421-2208 326,FAX: +49-421-2208 330; E-mail:<[email protected]>WWW Site: http://www.zmt. uni-bremen.de.

associated seagrass beds as Ramsar Sites.To benefit from 25 years of experiencegained since the convention was adopt-ed, mangrove managers are urged tofamiliarize themselves with the progressand methodologies of the RamsarWetlands Bureau.

For more information contact:Ramsar Wetlands Bureau, RueMauverney 28, CH-Gland, Switzerland.Tel:(+41)22/999 01 70; FAX:(+41)22/999 01 69; E-mail: <[email protected]>; or for informationon new Ramsar sites: Scott Frazier,Wetlands International, 11 Marijkeweg,P.O. Box 7002, 6700 ACWageningen, Netherlands. FAX: (31)317 474712; E-mail: <[email protected]>.


Ecuador Working Toward a National Strategy for Mangrove ManagementBy Alejandro Bodero and Donald Robadue, Jr.

E cuadorian law has created a legal regime in which the prolif-

eration of often contradictory rulesimpedes law enforcement and makesthe job of the agencies with jurisdiction[over mangroves] more difficult toimplement.” Workshop on MangroveManagement, July 1993, sponsored bythe Ecuador Armed Forces and theNational Forestry Institute.

The rate of illegal cutting of man-groves has begun to slow in Ecuador.

Between 1969 and 1996 Ecuadorlost 25 percent of its 204,000 hectaresof mangroves. In someestuaries, however, theloss has been nearly com-plete. In the same peri-od, more than 90 per-cent of Ecuador’s saltflats have become occu-pied or converted to other uses.

The destruction ofmangroves is not a recentphenomenon. Since thebeginning of the century,the largest mangrovetrees were used as pilingsfor constructing piersand buildings. Ecuadorians have longused mangroves for charcoal makingand to produce tannin for curingleather. These practices did not elimi-nate the mangrove ecosystem orreplace it with other uses. Starting inthe 1940s, the creation of coconutpalm plantations was the first widescale cause of mangrove wetland losses.Later on, many mangrove swampswere converted for cattle grazing andurban development. Since 1969, how-ever, it is the construction of shrimpfarms which has been the major factorin the continuing damage to mangroveecosystems. The rate of cutting contin-ued to increase until 1991. The mostrecent data suggest that the rate of con-

version is now declining.The importance of the goods and

services provided by mangrovesdemands that damage to the ecosystembe curtailed.

The most valuable service providedby Ecuador’s mangrove ecosystem isbelieved to be its role in the life cycleof shrimp, which is especially signifi-cant since shrimp mariculture is one ofthe country’s largest export industries.

The shrimp mariculture sector hasan installed production infrastructure of140,000 hectares of ponds with anannual production of 115,000 metrictons. This production depends on the

water quality of the estuaries the inwhich ponds are located as well as onthe supply of some 7,650 to 8,925 mil-lion shrimp post-larvae which are usedto seed the ponds.

Other uses of mangroves include:• Supplying mangrove pilings, which

continue to be important as a construc-tion material. They now are taken fromthe last remaining pristine mangrovesystem in the Santiago-Cayapas-Matajeriver system in northern Esmeraldasprovince, which borders Colombia.

• Providing wood for building theshacks in which the poorest people onthe margins of coastal cities ofGuayaquil and Machala (some 300,000families) live. This wood comes from

the mangrove fringe around these urbancenters.

• Providing the material for fire-wood, as well as charcoal and furniture,which people throughout the coast stillmake.

• Harvesting shellfish, crabs and finfish in estuaries, which appears to bemost abundant where mangroves arepresent.

The great challenge is to overcomethe weaknesses of the legal and adminis-trative systems of the country in orderto control the forces of mangrovedestruction.

Ecuador’s current legal regime andadministrative arrangements continue to

impede the creation ofan integrated approachto coastal managementand proper stewardship of the mangroveresource. For example,the Subsecretary ofFisheries has jurisdic-tion over the harvestingof bio-aquatic speciesand the operation ofshrimp farms. TheNavy controls con-struction in the narrow(eight-meter) beach

and bay zone, above mean high water.The National Water Resources Institutemanages the use of water where thefisheries exist; the National PublicWorks agency addresses contaminationproblems in fresh and coastal waters;and the National Forestry Institute isresponsible for tree harvest and man-agement. Individual municipalities alsomake decisions on these matters.

Ecuador’s public institutions continueto be constrained in their ability tomanage resources for sustainable useand conservation, since they are under-funded, understaffed and poorlyequipped. For example, during the1980s and early 1990s, when mangroveloss was increasing, the National

(continued page 28)

“

A general distribution scheme of Ecuador’s mangroves.


Forestry Institute had only 10 part-time inspectors to monitor and enforcemangrove protection laws covering162,000 hectares located along thecountry’s 2,800 km coast-line.

Mangrove policy has evolved inresponse to increased public awarenessand the growing pressure on theresource. In 1978, the NationalForestry Agency prohibited the use ofmangrove areas for shrimp farms anddeclared as well that shrimp pondscould not be built in lands suitable foragriculture. In 1981, power was givento the Ecuador Navy to control man-grove uses and confiscate the equip-ment, tools and wood of anyone caughtillegally cutting mangrove trees.

In June 1985, in response to morerapid cutting and greater national con-cern, the Government of Ecuadordeclared that it was in the nationalinterest to conserve, protect andrestore the mangrove forest. Shrimpfarmers were given the responsibilityof replanting mangroves on the bordersof their ponds. These measures failedto halt the increasing rate of cutting.

The Ecuador Coastal ResourcesManagement Program (PMRC) wascreated in 1989 to carry out pilot pro-jects in coastal management andimprove the enforcement of coastallaws through a new mechanism, theRanger Corps. The Rangers are inter-agency teams comprised of the differentunits with legal authority to enforcemangrove laws. These new coordina-tion units have not only carried outmore patrols but have experimentedwith innovative measures such as thenegotiation of formal agreementsamong resource users and the use ofconflict resolution techniques toresolve individual cases, for example,disputes between shrimp farmers andtraditional users.

The PMRC has subsequentlyworked with more than 200 usergroups throughout the coast in its fivespecial area management zones. These

groups have a total of 8,000 members,including shrimp larvae fishers, hotelowners, food vendors, shellfishers,crab fishers, charcoal makers, touristguides, artisans and ceramists. Byworking together they have become aforce for coastal management manytimes greater than the total staffing ofthe agencies charged with enforcingvarious coastal laws and implementingconservation measures.

The PMRC brought together theEcuadorian Armed Forces, the severalgovernment agencies responsible forparts of the mangrove managementproblem, researchers, professors, non-governmental organizations, communi-ties and user groups to workshops thatexamined the situation in the mid-1990s and to debate new, more effec-tive mangrove management strategies.Five policy proposals resulted fromthese meetings:

Policy 1: Conserve the mangroveecosystem and promote non-destruc-tive uses of these areas.

Three types of uses should be rec-ognized:

■ Uses which are always allowedand encouraged, such as honey pro-duction, passive recreation, flood haz-ard protection (buffer zones), subsis-tence fisheries and non-destructivetypes of aquaculture such as shellfishrepopulation

■ Uses which could be acceptedonly when permitted and carefullymonitored, such as ecotourism andeducation activities, and selective har-vest using acceptable cutting and rota-tion techniques

■ Uses which are permissible onlyif an overriding public benefit has beendemonstrated in a proposal to create acanal for water circulation to an aqua-culture project, piers, buildings or anon-renewable form of wood harvest

Policy 2: Every mangrove-domi-nated estuary needs its own manage-ment plan and special actions, devel-oped with the participation of localpeople.

Specific actions are required thatinclude:

■ A management plan for everydesignated protected area

■ Impact assessment studies wheninfrastructure must pass through amangrove

■ Special reviews as existing con-cessions for use of the beach and bayzone (including shrimp farms) arerenewed every 10 years

■ Municipal ordinances, user groupagreements and conflict resolutiontechniques applied where there areproblems with loss of fishing or pas-sage rights to mangroves or othermodifications to a mangrove area

■ Buffer zones to protect a man-grove ecosystem from damage by sur-rounding activities

Policy 3: Strengthening govern-ment capacity to enforce mangroveconservation laws through the RangerCorps and other mechanisms.

■ Increase the number of patrolsand inspections

■ Involve local authorities in per-mit reviews and in the preparation ofmangrove management plans

■ Carry out public education andtraining activities targeted to the mostcritical mangrove ecosystems

Policy 4: Promote transparency indecision making and a free flow ofinformation to the public and resourceusers.

■ Establish clear and fair rules forhow concessions, mangrove manage-ment plans and other management ini-tiatives will be approved

■ Target priority areas for prepar-ing detailed management plans

Policy 5: Ensure that managementdecisions are based on unique localconditions and the active involvementof local people.

The emphasis in these policy pro-posals on careful attention to localconditions and the vital role of localresource users in decision makingderives from the fact that the currentEcuador policy was based on twofaulty premises: 1) Mangroves cannever be used for any purpose and 2) that a centralized government

Ecuador’s Strategy(continued from page 25)

(continued page 30)


Mangrove Training Workshop in BelizeBy Dylan Gomez and Gail Bradley Miller

T his is the first workshop that Ihave ever attended where I feel asthough I have come away actuallylearning something.” This was theenthusiastic comment of one of theparticipants at the mangrove trainingworkshop held in Belize in July 1996,sponsored by University College of

Belize (UCB) and the SmithsonianInstitution and funded by the John D.and Catherine MacArthur Foundation.

This was the fourth workshop of itskind held in Belize. The lecturers camefrom several institutions in both Belizeand the US, including the FisheriesDepartment in Belize City, theSmithsonian Institution, St. Mary’sCollege of Maryland and LouisianaState University. The participants alsocame from a range of backgroundsincluding government agencies (theFisheries and the ForestryDepartments), non-governmentalorganizations, (Belize Center forEnvironmental Studies and Programfor Belize), teachers representing mostof the Districts in Belize, and a fewjunior college students. Despite theirvaried level of education (from highschool diplomas to post-graduatedegrees) and work experience (from afew months to several years) they wereunited in their common interest andinvolvement in mangrove educationand protection in Belize.

The aim was to provide information

and first-hand experience in mangroveecology and a thorough background inmangrove biology and conservation.The workshop stressed the importanceof mangroves as nurseries and feedinggrounds for commercially importantspecies and to human economic devel-opment in the coastal zone. The work-shop was held at UCB’s MarineResearch Centre (MRC) located onCalabash Caye, at Turneffe Atoll. Eachparticipant was provided with a train-ing manual, a variety of researchpapers related to Belizean coastalecosystems, a set of the Paul Humannreef identification educational guidesand a slide set with script to be usedfor future presentations on mangroves.

Each day began with a lecture, fol-lowed by a field activity, which notonly provided hands-on involvement,but also reinforced the lecture andprovided experience in the scientificcollection of data. The participantsthen met to review the day’s activitiesand discuss the notes gathered in thefield. This approach ensured thateveryone understood theconcepts being promot-ed-if not immediately inthe classroom, then out inthe field or through inter-action with the other par-ticipants. After dinner, itwas back to work again ina make-shift laboratory,using a variety of equip-ment including advancedtechnologies such as thespectrophotometer. Theparticipants also took partin an actual research pro-ject where they exercisedtheir knowledge of the scientificmethod, and helped to establish aCARICOMP site adjacent to the MRCto measure mangrove productivity.

The workshop sparked the forma-tion of a national network called theCoastal Marine Ecology ProgramNetwork (CMEP) consisting of mem-

bers from the participants. It is hopedthat CMEP will provide easy access toinformation; publish relevant materialson mangroves, seagrasses, and reefecosystems; assist in the developmentof curriculum guides based on themanual and the workshop; and assistnational agencies and NGOs involvedin coastal and marine activities. In addi-tion, there are plans for the translationof the manual into Spanish. Plans arebeing made to continue the workshopin Belize and possibly other interestedcountries, but constraints such as fund-ing and manpower need to beaddressed.

For more information contact: Dr.Ilke Feller, Smithsonian EnvironmentalResearch Center, Edgewater, MD.USA. E-mail: <[email protected]>.For more information on CMEP con-tact: Gail Miller, University College ofBelize, P.O. Box 990, Belize City,Belize, Central America.

“

Coastal development in a mangrove ecosys-tem in Belize.

Destruction ofmangroves inBacalar Chico,Belize.

Mangrove growthin Belize.


Ecuador’s Strategy(continued from page 28)

agency could exercise all the controlsnecessary to prevent any modificationto a mangrove ecosystem.

Such rigid, impractical premises havenot succeeded in any country. For ex-ample, the Philippines lost 50 percentof their mangrove forest while similarcentralized policies were applied.Puerto Rico lost 75 percent of its man-

groves before it began to develop a reg-ulatory and zoning regime to controluses such as construction, but it has notsolved its problems completely.

The Ecuador Coastal ManagementProgram has assimilated many of thelessons of international experience andunderstands that sustainable use of man-groves has to be based on the specialcharacteristics, both physical and social,of each site. To advance effective formsof management, it is necessary to

experiment and learn what will work ineach situation, and day by day assessthose which work and set aside manage-ment techniques which prove to be lesseffective.

For more information contact:Donald Robadue, Coastal ResourcesCenter, University of Rhode Island,South Ferry Road, Narragansett, RI02882, USA; Phone: (401) 874-6224;FAX: (401) 789-4670; E-mail:<[email protected]>.

The Status of Mangroves in the SeychellesBy Nirmal Jivan Shah

M angroves in the Seychelles, a group of 115 coral and granitic

islands in the southwestern IndianOcean, have been progressivelydestroyed since earliest human colo-nization. Mangrove wood was used inthe past for construction and, untilrecently, a stain derived from man-grove bark was used to polish woodenfloors. Some low-level harvesting ofmangrove crabs (Scylla serrata) stillcontinues.The main threat now israpid urbanization and development inthe granitic islands, particularly as thelack of flat land leads to much recla-mation for construction. In the pastsome mangals were drained for agri-culture, and now a development aidproject for agricultural improvement isproposing the drainage of many wet-land areas on Mahe, one of the graniticislands where 90 percent of the humanpopulation of the Seychelles is located.

Between seven and 10 mangrovespecies occur on the granitic islandsand 12 on the coralline islands wherethe largest stands now occur, in partic-ular Aldabra (which has 800 ha),Cosmoledo and Astove. On Mahe,some 120 ha still exist and recentcoastal reclamation has led to the re-invasion of five mangrove species onthe east coast.

There is no national management

plan or specific legislation for man-groves, but a proposal to the NationalEnvironment Advisory Council(NEAC) recommends the developmentof a full strategy for wetland manage-ment. Marshes and wetland habitatshave been classified as ecologically sen-sitive areas under the EnvironmentProtection (Impact Assessment)Regulations, 1996, and guidelines for

development of sensitive areas havebeen issued by the Division of Envi-ronment. Some mangals lie withinprotected areas, for example onCurieuse and Aldabra. A mangroveboardwalk was built on Curieuse as

part of a nature trail established bythe Conservation and National ParksService and has been recently refur-bished through a development aid pro-ject.Tourists visiting Aldabra also occa-sionally enter mangroves, in particularto view seabirds. Curiously, the LaPlaine mangal, the largest on Mahe, isnot included in the Port LaunayMarine National Park although it is

adjacent to it. The ForestryService has attempted to re-plant small pockets.

Educational programs havebeen sporadic.The Ministry ofEducation included a chapteron mangroves in a textbookand the local television stationproduced a 30-minute docu-mentary on the mangroves ofSeychelles in 1988. A non-government organization, thePartnership Foundation, re-leased a color poster on“Mangroves of Port Launay”in 1991. A major new project,expected to start by the endof 1996, under the regionalCommission de l’Ocean Indienwill use mangroves and their

associated ecosystems at Grand Anse,Mahe, as a pilot site for Coastal ZoneManagement planning.

For more information contact:Nirmal Jivan Shah, ENVI.R.O, P.O.Box 699, Seychelles.

Principal Wetlands Communities on the Coastal Zoneof Mahe. Source: ENVIRO DATABASE #10


The Diversity of Mangrove Wetlands and Ecosystem Management

By Robert R. Twilley

T he environmental and economic values of mangroves are well

known. Human use of mangrove wet-lands are linked to the goods and ser-vices that they provide, as modified bythe constraints of local cultures andeconomics. Thus the use and value ofmangroves are a combination of boththe environmental setting of theseecosystems and the patterns of humanexploitation. Any ecosystem manage-ment plan designed to provide for thesustainable utilization of these coastalwetlands has to consider both the eco-logical and social constraints of theregion. Ecosystem management there-fore requires policies that seek to con-trol the actions of society within limi-tations that are imposed by theprocesses of nature.

The use of mangrove resources byhumans can have negative effects onthe ecological processes of mangroveecosystems. These effects can be indi-rect. The diversion of freshwater, forexample, can cause changes in the pro-ductivity, litter export, and the biolog-ical and geological chemistry of man-groves. Direct impacts may includeinputs of excess nutrients or toxic sub-stances such as oil that limit the eco-logical processes in mangrove wet-lands, which compromises the value ofthese natural resources. Human use ofmangrove wetlands is inextricablylinked by the nature of these environ-mental effects to the sustainable goodsand services that these forested wet-lands can provide. Sustainable develop-ment of mangrove wetlands may beviewed as a balance between environ-mental and social constraints thataccommodates long-term use and val-ues of these natural resources inregional economic development.

The diversity of mangrove wetlandstructure and function is linked to thegeophysical and geomorphological

processes that can be classified throughwhat might be described as the eco-geomorphic description of coastalenvironments. Each mangrove ecosys-tem has its own unique eco-geomor-phic structure.

The landform characteristics of acoastal region together with its envi-ronmental processes control the basicpatterns in forest structure andgrowth. The two basic types of geo-morphological settings are those withinputs derived from the land and sedi-ments, and those in carbonate environ-ments (Figure 1). Within each of thesetwo categories, there are differenttypes of settings depending on thenature of circulation, sediment trans-port, regional topography and physicalprocesses. Carbonate systems includecontinental margins and islands thatdiffer depending on the soil type andamount of freshwater flow fromupland watersheds. Continentalregions include those with peat andmarl sediments, whereas islands canhave either large or small catchments(high and low islands). The thinkinginvolved in using this type of classifica-tion is that variations in the uniquegeophysical processes of a coastalregion will result in different energyflows and material cyclings of man-grove wetlands. This will be seen indifferent patterns of forest structure,biomass, productivity, bio-geochem-istry and exchange of nutrients andorganic matter with coastal waters.Thus both the structure and functionof mangrove ecosystems are linked tothe distinct geomorphology and geo-physical processes of a coastal environ-ment.

A combination of the physiographicand structural attributes of mangrovewetlands, together with local condi-tions of topography and hydrology,were used to formulate the classic eco-logical classification system by Lugoand Snedaker (Figure 1, midsection-

next page). This ecological schemeuses the dominant environmental fac-tors of the Caribbean Sea, such as soilresources and stressors, to classifymangrove forests into four types.These are riverine, fringe, basin anddwarf forests.

The formation and physiognomy ofthese forest types appear to be con-trolled strongly by local patterns oftides, surface drainage, soil characteris-tics and biological interactions. Alongan inland transect, tidal frequencychanges and changes in slope maycause an increase in salinity and othersoil-related factors that limit the devel-opment of mangrove forests. These areknown as mechanisms of mangrovezonation. Other ecological factors areassociated with the biology of thesesystems such as crab predation onpropagules and leaf litter consump-tion. The effect of these ecological fac-tors on forest structure are twofold: 1) they decrease the maximum devel-opment of mangrove forests allowedby the existing constraints of the geo-morphological subclass; and 2) theycontrol the relative zonation of man-grove species.

A combination of ecological typesof mangroves can occur within any oneof the settings described abovedepending on the distribution of soilresources and toxic stressors. Theseecological types are based on micro-topographic and biological factors thatcan influence the structure and func-tion of mangroves from shoreline tomore inland locations. Local patternsin tidal inundation have long beenrelated to the structure and speciescolonization of mangrove forests.

This eco-geomorphic classificationsystem of mangrove wetlands includestwo important identifying factors: (1)the location of the wetland within aspecific type of environmental setting;and (2) the location of the wetland

(continued page 32)

zone along a transect perpendicular toshore (topographic setting). Thus afringe, basin, or dwarf mangrove with-in a specific type of geomorphologicalsetting may have somewhat differentecological characteristics. In addition,the responseof these eco-geomorphictypes of man-groves toregional landuse manage-ment plansare specific tothe two land-scape parame-ters in this classifica-tion scheme.

The eco-geomor-phic classification ofcoastal environments helps todevelop proper ecosystem man-agement goals for the diversetypes of mangrove wetlandsaround the tropical and subtropi-cal coastlines of the world. The

exploitation of mangrove goods andservices depends on both the environ-mental and social constraints of aregion. Thus no single ecosystem man-agement goal applies to all mangrovewetlands. An understanding of howmangrove properties vary along gradi-ents is important when formulating amanagement plan. As we better under-stand the functional ecology of man-

grove wetlands in diverse environmentalsettings, the selection of proper ecosys-tem management goals can be refined.

For more information contact:Robert R. Twilley, Department ofBiology, P.O. Box 42451, Universityof Southwestern Louisiana, Lafayette,LA 70504. Phone: (318) 482-6146.FAX: 318-482-5834; E-mail: <[email protected]>.

Diversity of MangroveWetlands(continued from page 31)

The Global Environmental Facility Tropical Project

In 1991, the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) funding of one mil-

lion U.S. dollars was approved todevelop a regional investment projectproposal for the conservation of man-grove biodiversity in the tropicalAmericas in collaboration with theUnited Nations DevelopmentProgramme and the United NationsEducational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization. The concept for thisproject grew in part from a workshopheld in Niteori, Brazil in May 1992 aspart of the International TropicalTimber Organization/InternationalSociety for Mangrove EcosystemsProject on Conservation and Sustain-

able Utilization of Mangrove Forest inLatin America and Africa Regions.

The pre-investment project willinvolve two levels of activities. A seriesof case studies in Brazil (which has thelargest area of mangrove in the tropicalAmericas) and other countries in theregion will be developed to illustratemodels of sustainable mangrove man-agement. These will also strengthencommunity and non-governmentalorganization (NGO) participation inmangrove management, and identifytraining and institutional strengthe-ning needs. The second activity is theupdating of a series of regional assess-ments of mangrove status, relevant

policies and legislation, and institution-al capabilities and coordination whichwill provide information for determin-ing priorities for further activities. Inorder to identify the Brazilian casestudies, a temporary NationalMangrove Committee will be formedin Brazil, with governmental andNGO representation.

For further information on man-grove research and management activi-ties in Brazil, contact: Prof. LuizDrude de Lacerda, DepartamentoGeoquimica, Universidade FederalFluminense, Centro Niteroi, 24210 RJBrazil. Tel. 717-1313. FAX 717-4553.

Figure 1



Mangrove Forests in Koh KongProvince, Cambodiaby Oum Pisey

T he Province of Koh Kong lies in southwestern Cambodia, borderingthe Gulf of Thailand, and covers 9,260square kilometers (sq km). About 70percent is forest; the remainder iscomprised of farmland, estuaries,mudflats and islands.

The coastal forest includes 31,100hectares (ha) of mangrove, which playsa significant role in the coastal econo-my, although many activities involvingmangrove utilization are now havingmajor environmental impacts.

Forest areas are divided into coastalforest and upland mountainous forestareas. Coastal forests consist of 31,000ha of mangroves. This region is impact-ed by the Indian and Siberian mon-soons. The temperature varies from25.1 to 29.4Þ C, with an annual rainfallof 2,000-4,000 millimeters (mm).

The Importance of KohKong’s MangrovesEconomic Importance:

■ Fisheries: Mangrove ecosystemsare important to inshore and offshorefisheries. Organic matter and nutrientsare supplied to ecosystems by a varietyof flora species, while providing nurs-eries and shelters for important marinestocks. The value of mangrove forest asa food source as well as shelter andnurseries for both culture and capturefisheries along coastal areas of KohKong is not well understood, but iscertain to be very high.

■ Fuel: Mangrove species are valu-able as a direct source of fuel woodenergy, both as firewood and throughcharcoal production. In particular,mangrove species such as Rhizophoraapiculata and Rhizophora mucronataare especially valued for their highcaloric content and prolonged burningcapability.

■ Charcoal Production: The man-grove forest in Koh Kong covers 16,000ha. The charcoal export in 1994 was

10,000 tons, while the number of kilnsincreased from 224 in 1993 to 1,000 in1994. About 94 percent of charcoalexported went to Thailand, Malaysiaand Singapore.

■ Construction material: Mangroveforests are used for building houses,boats, fences and fish traps. Mangrovetrees are used for poles, roofing shin-gles, timber, beams and wood chips.Nypa fruticans is valuable for manypurposes. The leaves are used for shel-ter on the roofs of houses as well as

materials for crab traps. In addition,mats are made from Nypa palms.Nypa leaves are also used as a cover fornum chak (a local cake) or num an sam(a traditional cake).

■ Medicine: Coastal people havetraditionally used various resourcesextracted from mangroves for medici-

nal and other purposes. In Koh Kong,the species Exciecaria agallocha isused as an anti-diarrhea treatment. Afungus called sam bok sramoch(“Home of the Ant”) is dried and usedas a medicine for lung disease.

■ Other uses: In the past, man-grove barks from Rhizophora spp. andCeriops spp. were used in tannin pro-duction for dyeing of fish nets but thispractice has been replaced by the useof nylon fishing nets, which do notrequire dyeing.

Ecological Importance:■ Shoreline stabilization: A healthy

mangrove ecosystem helps to stabilizeshorelines and protect soil erosion.Mangroves help to trap and stabilize

sediments, thereby reducing riverbank and shoreline erosion. The stabil-ity of Koh Kong’s coastline, thatwould otherwise be subject to greaterosion, is dependent largely upon astable ecosystem.

■ Protection from wind and storms:

(continued page 34)

Mariculture in floating cages.


Cambodia(continued from page 33)

Mangrove trees serve as natural barriers against strong winds, tidal boresand waves. The buffer zone offered byshoreline mangroves in Koh Kong pro-tects the area from the damaging effectsof large storm and tidal surges.

■ Coastal ecosystem stability:Mangroves serve as a link betweenmarine and terrestrial ecosystems.They are of integral importance to thestability and maintenance of adjoiningecosystems such as seagrass and coralreefs. The organic matter that originatesfrom mangrove habitats is essential toinhabitants of lagoon and estuaries aswell as other near-shore environmentssuch as seagrass meadows and coralreefs.

■ Biodiversity: Mangroves are impor-tant habitats for biodiversity. They pro-vide physical habitats for a large varietyof coastal species, including birds, mon-keys, shellfish, fish and other animalsand invertebrates.

Current ThreatsKoh Kong coastal areas have been in

good condition until recent decades.However, due to political change andpopulation increase as well as the eco-nomic growth of the neighboring coun-tries, detriments to environmental eco-nomic recovery are imminent.

Logging, intensive shrimp culture,charcoal production and Klim Chanproduction are booming and result insignificant environmental impacts on

the ecosystem.■ Intensive shrimp farming: The con-

version of mangroves to shrimp farms isnow on the rise with the latest total areaof shrimp farm covering more than1,000 ha. This increase adversely affectsthe coastal people and coastal biodiversi-ty.

■ Charcoal production: The number ofcharcoal kilns is increasing even in thePeam Krasop wildlife sanctuary. Thisincrease in charcoal production isdestroying large areas of mangroveforests. Latest estimation showed thenumber of charcoal kilns increasing five-fold from1993-94.

Other illicit activities such as KlimChan production and logging are alsotaking place even inside the Koh Kongprotected areas.

The current threats to the mangroveshould be prioritized. Intensive shrimpfarming is one of the greatest threats. Ofthe 16,000 ha of mangrove forest in KohKong, 840 ha were devoted to intensiveshrimp farming in early 1994, with 105entrepreneurs taking part. By the end of1994, 63 entrepreneurs were applyingfor licenses, and a total of 1,240 ha hadbeen converted for shrimp farm use.Charcoal production, commercial fishing,family fishing and the export of illegalproducts (sandalwood) round out the topthreats to the mangroves of Koh Kong.

EnvironmentalConservation andManagement Promotion

Seeing the importance of the biodiver-sity of the coastal ecosystem and its

endangered situation, the Ministry ofEnvironment has proposed a RoyalDecree on the Designation andCreation of the Protection Area Systemwhich was signed by the King Sihanoukon November 1, 1993. The ProtectedArea System covers forests nationwide,totaling 3,402,200 ha (including KohKong), under three categories.Kirirom and Botum Sakor, totaling35,000 ha, some of which is sharedwith Kompong Speu province, have beendesignated as national parks. PeamKrasop (23,750 ha), Phnom Aural(253,750 ha shared with KompongChang and Pursat) and Phnom Samkos(333,750 ha) have been designatedwildlife sanctuaries. Dang Peng (27,700ha) has been designated a multiple-usearea.

Based on recent ground and aerialsurveys, the mangrove area in the KohKong vicinity is proposed for inclusionin the list of Wetlands of InternationalImportance as a waterfowl habitat underthe Ramsar Convention. This moveshould provide the visibility necessary toattract support for conservation fromthe international community.

Proposed Actions Againstthe Destruction ofCoastal Ecosystems

To ensure the sustainable develop-ment and conservation of the coastalecosystem, the Ministry of Environ-ment, calling for support from the RoyalGovernment, and in cooperation withthe relevant ministries, set up several

The Gulf of Guinea Project: Managing Mangrovesto Protect Biodiversity in West AfricaBy Peter Saenger, Yacouba Sankare, Marcel Baglo, Catherine Isebor, A.K. Armah and Martin Nganje

T he trading patterns around the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa

are such that nearly all major cities,harbors, airports, industries and plan-tations are located in the coastal zone–

the most densely settled in Africa.This illustrates the significance of thelagoons, estuaries, creeks and inshorewaters to the well-being of the popula-tion. But pollution from these various

sources has affected the waters of theGulf of Guinea, resulting in habitatdegradation, loss of biological diversityand productivity, and degeneratinghuman health.

The Global Environmental Facility’s(GEF) Gulf of Guinea project, “Water

(continued page 35)

(continued page 43)


The Gulf of Guinea(continued from page 34)

Pollution Control and BiodiversityConservation in the Gulf of GuineaLarge Marine Ecosystem”, is an initia-tive by Benin, Cameroon, Coted’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria, with Togoexpected to join in the near future.

The underlying rationale is thatmarine pollution and living marineresources respect no political bound-aries, and few geographical ones, andrequire a large scale, concerted andholistic approach for assessment andcontrol. Embedded within this largeintegrated project is a componentwhich is aimed at assessing the status,uses and values of existing mangroves.The potential for protecting particular-ly significant and representative areaswill be assessed as well, and the poten-tial for rehabilitation and sustainableuse for cleansing waste water dis-charges and for increased mangrovefuel wood production.

The mangroves of the Gulf ofGuinea are an important resource forthe coastal communities not only forfirewood but also for building materi-als, salt production, oysters and fish-eries. However, overuse and pollutionhave had adverse effects. For example,early accounts show that well-devel-oped mangrove communities wereassociated with, and largely confinedto, semi-enclosed coastal lagoons orembayments, generally with con-strained tidal exchange and limited(and markedly seasonal) freshwaterinput. Today, as a result of the develop-ment of large urban centers with sig-nif-icant industrialization, the extent ofthese lagoon mangroves has been muchreduced and several species that couldbe expected to occur are no longer to befound. In many instances, the mangroveshave been reduced to saline grasslandsof Paspalum vaginatum. Sewage treat-ment facilities are very limitedthroughout the region and raw sewageis discharged both into coastal lagoonsand the rivers flowing into them. Forexample, it is estimated that 186 m3 of

untreated sewage flow into Ebrielagoon from Abidjan each day. As a result of this and the limited tidalexchange of the lagoons, eutrophicationis widespread.

The mangroves of the Niger delta,estimated to cover approximately7,000km2 comprise a significantregional resource, with fishing being amajor activity. The pressure of a subsis-tence population has adversely affectedthese mangroves but the discovery ofhydrocarbon reserves in the mid-1950sin and around the delta may have beenthe final straw. Nigeria currently pro-duces around 1.6 million barrels perday from more than 4,000 oil wellsspread within the Niger delta and adja-cent coastal areas. Twenty-three out of62 oil fields are within the mangroves.Oil terminals are spread throughout thedelta while 8,000 km of seismic lines(20-30m wide) and oil pipelines criss-cross the mangroves. Oil spills are com-mon; according to the best figuresavailable, between 1970 and 1982alone, there were 1,581 oil spillsinvolving a total of two million barrels.While most of the spills have beensmall, they have tended to occur withinthe mangrove waterways. As a result,many of the surface waters are contam-inated and undrinkable, localized fish-eries production has declined and, inmany instances, the inhabitants havebeen forced to emigrate to other areas.

Cameroon, with its humid tropicalclimate, has luxuriant deltaic man-groves. However, the Douala portextension, urban expansion, sandextraction and industrial pollutionhave caused damage to the mangrovesof the Wouri estuary. More importantlyfrom a biodiversity perspective, themangrove palm (Nypa fruticans) hasrecently become distributed throughoutthis area, invading and replacing nativemangrove species. Although N. fruti-cans is known from the fossil recordfrom throughout the Niger delta, thecurrent present populations were intro-duced to Nigeria early this centuryfrom Singapore. Since then, it hasspread throughout the Niger, Imo,

Bonny and Cross Rivers and while thespread has been slow, it appears to beaccelerating, facilitated by local villagerswho value its thatching properties. Mostrecently, it has been reported to begrowing in and around the mouth of theVolta River in Ghana.

To restore the lagoon mangrove sys-tems, three separate initiatives need tobe addressed. Mangrove cutting needs tobe controlled and regulated, at least, insome areas of the lagoons. Pollutioninputs need to be reduced either bytreatment facilities or by deep ocean dis-charges. Thirdly, mangrove habitat con-version needs to be drastically reducedand active replanting programs initiatedin those areas where restoration is feasi-ble. At a recent workshop in Abidjan,government and NGO representativesidentified a number of immediate mea-sures. One of the first steps has been toestablish a pilot project to use mangrovesas a productive wetland to prduce woodon the one hand, while reducing theeffects of sewage pollution to thelagoons on the other. The Abidjan pro-ject will be the first. Similar projectshave already been identified in Ghanaand Cameroon. In Benin, a large scalereplanting program has been running forsome time and the local expertise devel-oped there will be used in other replant-ing programs in the region. Thus,although the problems of the region areim-mense, coordinated action betweengovernment and research institutions aswell as regional NGOs, provides someoptimism.

For more information contact: PeterSaenger, Consultant to the Gulf of GuineaProject, Centre for Coastal Management,Southern Cross Universi-ty, P.O. Box157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia.Phone: 61-66-203631. FAX: 61-66-212669. E-mail:<[email protected]>. YacoubaSankare is Project Officer for Coted’Ivoire; Marcel Baglo is Project Officerfor Benin; Catherine Isebor is ProjectOfficer for Nigeria; A.K. Armah is ProjectOfficer for Ghana; and Martin Nganje isProject Officer for Cameroon.


Who Does What in Mangrove Management?The International Society forMangrove Ecosystems (ISME)

ISME was inaugurated in Japan in1990, following a 1989 internationalmeeting held under the auspices of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organization (UNESCO),United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) and the Japanesegovernment, and aims to continue thework started by UNESCO. It promotesthe study of mangroves in order toencourage their conservation, rationalmanagement and sustainable utilization,ensures that mangroves are featured oninternational environmental agendas andensures that the public remains aware ofthis ecosystem. It works at regional andnational levels and worldwide, withfunding agencies and non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs), private concernsand individuals and has over 700 mem-bers in about 70 countries. In 1991,ISME adopted a “Charter forMangroves” which was presented atthe United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development(UNCED) in 1992. The 1996 GeneralAssembly was held in Thailand inAugust.

Regional reviews of mangroves havebeen produced for Asia, Africa and LatinAmerica and Caribbean. Three publica-tions are being funded by theInternational Tropical TimberOrganisation: Journey AmongMangroves, aimed at high school stu-dents and the educated lay person,which is regarded as one of the bestpopular accounts of mangrove manage-ment issues available; a technical manualon restoration (covering species andsite selection, site preparation, nurseryand planting techniques, husbandry,pests and diseases); and the WorldMangrove Atlas, due to be releasedshortly (see publications). ISME hassponsored the publication of practicalbooklets or manuals in local languagesand has produced a slide set for the edu-cation of children. A video on the man-groves of Fiji has been produced and a

second video project is underway inThailand. ISME has also carried out pro-jects in Vietnam, Pakistan, Japan,Ecuador, parts of Indonesia and someAfrican countries.

Membership costs US$20 for individ-uals and US$250 for institutions.Members receive the newsletter.Payment may be made by credit card,international postal money order orUNESCO coupon.

For more information contact: ISMESecretariat, c/o College of Agriculture,University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 903-01, Japan. FAX: (81) 98-895-6602. E-mail:<[email protected]>.

United Nations Educational,Scientific and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO)

In the 1980s, UNESCO took the leadin mangrove management under itsCoastal Marine (COMAR) program and,with UNDP, launched the “UNDP/UNESCO-COMAR Regional Project in Asia and the Pacific on MangroveEcosystems.” This was primarily aneffort to gather scientific informationfor management, focusing on training,field workshops and research. It stimu-lated much activity, particularly in Asia.Also, in several countries, it encouragedthe formation of national mangrovecommittees which lobby governmentsfor improved mangrove management,resulting in a significant increase in pub-lic awareness about mangroves. TheCOMAR program has been replacedwith UNESCO’s transdisciplinary andcross-sectoral Coastal Regions and SmallIslands (CSI) program, but a number ofmangrove activities are still underway,many in collaboration with ISME.

UNESCO projects have included: aCOMARAF program on ichthyoplank-ton of mangroves in West Africa, withUNDP; PROBIO - Sustaining Product-ivity of West and Central African Coastalareas; the CARICOMP productivitymonitoring program in the Caribbean;and a GEF/UNDP/UNESCO projecton preserving biodiversity and socio-

economic value of mangrove ecosystemsin the tropical Americas which is inpreparation. UNESCO has also beeninvolved in climate change workthrough the UNEP/UNESCO-COMAR Task Team on “Impact ofExpected Climate Change on Man-groves.” A 400-page volume of about 30papers on the status of mangroves andrelevant research in Latin America andAfrica will be published shortly.

For more information contact: GaryWright, UNESCO, Coastal and MarineScience Publications, 1 Rue Miollis, 75732Paris Cedex 15, France. Tel. (33)1 -4568-3971; FAX: (33) 1 4449-0014/ 4783-5940.E-mail: <[email protected]>.

IUCN-World ConservationUnion (IUCN) WetlandsProgramme

The IUCN-World Wetlands UnionProgramme coordinates and reinforcesIUCN’s activities relating to wetlandmanagement, in collaboration with itsmembers and partners, particularlyWetlands International and the RamsarConvention Bureau. The core of the pro-gram is a series of field projects whichare developing methodologies for wet-land management, largely in developingcountries. IUCN has long played animportant role in mangrove manage-ment, supporting many projects involv-ing protected area establishment andmanagement, monitoring, data gatheringetc. It has also published a number ofkey texts, particularly relating to man-agement of mangroves in Asia and Africa(see Publications) and produces anewsletter.

For more information contact: IUCNWetlands Programme, IUCN, RueMauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland.FAX:(41) 22 9990002. E-mail:<[email protected]>.

Wetlands InternationalThis organization was formed in

October 1995 through the merger ofthree existing organizations: the AsianWetlands Bureau (based in Malaysia),


the International Waterfowl andWetlands Research Bureau (based in theUK), and Wetlands for America (basedin Canada). The Asian Wetlands Bureauin particular has had a long involvementin mangrove management which is con-tinuing, with a particular focus on thewaterfowl associated with this ecosys-tem. Wetlands International has 47member countries.

For more information contact: WetlandsInternational, Institute of Advanced Studies,University of Malaysia, 59100 KualaLumpur, Malaysia. FAX: 60-3-7571225. E-mail: <[email protected]>.

The Mangrove Action Project (MAP)

Founded in 1992, MAP is dedicatedto reversing the degradation of man-grove forest ecosystems worldwide.One of MAP’s main objectives is to pro-mote local community land use rights,whereby local people are directlyinvolved in, and responsible for, sustain-able management of their own coastalresource base. MAP provides fouressential services to grassroots associa-tions and other proponents of mangroveconservation:

■ A unique international NGO net-work and information clearing house onmangrove forests;

■ Public awareness of mangrove for-est issues;

■ Technical and financial support forNGO projects; and

■ An outlet for public expression ofthe basic needs and struggles of ThirdWorld coastal fishing and farming com-munities affected by the consumerdemands of the wealthy nations.

MAP’s international network includesover 300 NGOs and 200 scientists andacademics from nearly 50 nations. It iscurrently expanding the effectiveness ofits coalition work by solidifying ties withother major environmental and activistgroups in both the southern and north-ern hemispheres. Through this wide net-work, it hopes to stimulate the exchangeof ideas and information for mangroveforest protection and restoration.

MAP will also work to promote

effective regulations and enforcement toensure sustainable shrimp aquaculturepractices which include participatorycoastal resource management, responsi-ble consumerchoices, andstrategies for theimplementationof these andother solutions.For example,MAP wishes tocreate a dialogueon certificationof shrimp prod-ucts.

Annual mem-bership is $25for individuals,$100 for organi-zations; mem-bers receive thequarterlynewsletter.

For more infor-mation contact:Alfredo Quarto,Kate Cissna, Co-Directors, Mangrove ActionProject, 4649 Sunnyside Ave N., Ste. 321,Seattle, WA 98103 USA. Tel./FAX: 206-545-1137. E-mail:<[email protected]>.

Caribbean Mangrove NetworkIn August 1996, over 25 mangrove

specialists attended the inaugural meet-ing of the Caribbean Mangrove Network(CMN), jointly sponsored by the Commonwealth Secretariat’sScience Council and the University ofWest Indies Centre for Environment andDevelopment. The network aims to pro-mote conservation and sustainable man-agement of Caribbean mangroves bypooling expertise and linking institu-tions and resource people. It will operate as a forum for dissemi-nating research results, broadcastingbest management practices, and sharingeducation, information and researchresources already available. Its intentionis to reach the widest regional audience,including countries such as Guyana andBelize, as well as non-commonwealth

countries.To avoid duplication, established

means of communication, such as theregional round-up sections of the

newsletters of the International Societyfor Mangrove Ecosystems and the IUCNWetlands Programme, will be used forinformation exchange. The mangroveInternet list, while of value, was not con-sidered accessible enough at this stage toplay more than a supplementary role.Mangrove specialists in the region areencouraged to ensure they have access toat least one of these communicationchannels (see listing under“Periodicals”).The inaugural meeting’soutcome was the identification of man-agement-oriented research for whichfunding could be immediately sought.Papers on the status of mangrove man-agement in several Caribbean countrieswere also prepared, forming a useful syn-thesis.

For more information contact: Prof. PeterBacon, Zoology Dept., University of WestIndies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.FAX: 809-625-4161 or Gerard Alleng,Institute of Marine Affairs, Hilltop Lane,Chaguaramas, P.O. Box 3160 Carenage,Trinidad and Tobago. Tel: 809-634-4291.FAX: 809-634-4433. E-mail: <[email protected] >.


Philippines(continued from page 5)

increased economic rent for leases is onthe verge of approval and, where com-munities have been organized and givenresponsibility for management, man-grove degradation has slowed orstopped. Stewardship agreements areproving to be a pri-mary tool for pro-tecting mangroveresources. It is alsointended that as inte-grated coastalresource manage-ment plans are devel-oped for particularareas, all mangrovesand their resourceswill be included andtargeted for sustain-able use in their orig-inal state. Nationaleconomic policiesmust also now beshaped to encourageimproved manage-ment.

These experienceshave led to recom-mendations for thefollowing new poli-cies to be adopted byDENR and otheragencies:

■ The basic bio-physical and environ-mental factors that support mangroveecosystem growth and sustenance mustbe considered in all project areas.

■ Priority must be given to saving andmanaging existing forest and habitat.

■ Communities must strengthentheir will and capacity to protect anduse the resource wisely. This requires alengthy process of community organiza-tion and training through government,NGO and other assisting organizationsupport using integrated approaches.

■ Assisting organizations in man-grove management efforts requires afull-time, live-in person to take respon-sibility for community organization andtraining.

resources and the immediate uses of land such as for fish ponds should be theresponsibility of the DENR and theBFAR.

■ The DENR should monitor eachstewardship area to determine the levelof compliance with the area managementplan.

■ Sanctuaries should be established

over mangrove areas as determined bylocal communities with guidance fromDENR or BFAR and legal support oflocal government.

For more information contact: Alan T.White, Coastal Resources ManagementProject, 5th Floor, CIFC Towers, NorthReclamation Area, Cebu, Philippines.FAX: 6332-232-1825; E-mail: <[email protected]>; or, Roy Olsen D. DeLeon, Marine Laboratory, Center ofExcellence in Coastal ResourcesManagement, Silliman University,Dumaguete City 6200, Negros Oriental,Philippines. FAX: 6335-225-4608

Acknowledgments: Contributions and assistance were provided by Dr. FredVande Vusse (USAID), Ms. Betty Dar(DENR), and Mr. Sonny Gendrano(DENR). The references of Dr. J. H. Primavera were helpful.

■ Mangrove StewardshipAgreements (MSAs) should be used topromote local responsibility for main-taining permanent mangrove forestedareas, replacing the previous DENRmangrove reforestation contracts.

■ MSAs should allow limited butsustainable use in some cases to pro-mote forest succession and provide eco-

nomic incentives to local communitymanagers.

■ Mangrove areas released for fishpond but not used for that purpose andthat meet certain criteria should revertto DENR for rehabilitation and man-agement.

■ All mangrove resources in anygiven area should be included in themanagement plans for that area regard-less of any previous classifications.

■ Local government units shouldlead or participate in community plan-ning and help to coordinate other gov-ernment services; the DENR and othergovernment personnel should providetechnical assistance but not lead thefield projects.

■ Accurate mapping of mangrove

Abandoned fishponds on old mangrove habitat are common in the Philippines.


PublicationsAssessment and monitoring of cli-matic change impacts on mangroveecosystems. 1994. UNEP Regional SeasReports and Studies no. 154.

Mangrove Ecology WorkshopManual. C. Feller (ed.). SmithsonianEnvironmental Research Center.

Mangrove Forest ManagementGuidelines. 1993. FAO, Rome.

The Mangroves of Zanzibar. 1996.J.P. Shanula and A. Whittick. Institute of Marine Sciences, USDM. 65 pages.Describes flora, ecosystem, uses for thenon-specialist. ISBN 0-88901-308.

An Overview of the World’s RamsarSites. 1996. S. Frazier. WetlandsInternational. 56 pages. Illustrated analysisof Ramsar sites by wetland type, humanuse, geographic distribution etc. Availablein English, French and Spanish. Contact:Natural History Book Service Ltd, 2-3Wills Road, Totnes, Devon TQ9 5XN, UK.Tel (44) 1803-865913. FAX (44) 1803-865280; E-mail: [email protected]. UKPounds 20.00.

Proceedings Gulf of Mexico andCaribbean Oil Spills in CoastalEcosystems: Assessing Effects,Natural Recovery and Progress inRemediation Research. C.E. Proffittand P.F. Roscigno (eds.). OCS Study/MMS95-0063. US Dept. Interior, GOMRegion, New Orleans, LA. 245 pages.Contact: US Dept of Interior, MineralsManagement Service, Gulf of Mexico OCSRegion, Mail Stop 5034, 1201 ElmwoodPark Blvd, New Orleans, LA 70123-2394.Tel: 1-800-200-GULF. US$7.00.

Societies and Mangroves in theSouthern Rivers. DUM programmebook, with proceedings of workshop. M-C.Cormier-Salem.

Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. 1992.D. Alongi and A. Robertson (eds.). 336pages. Available from the AmericanGeophysical Union, this book is founded

on the work done onHinchinbrook Islandand elsewhere in thetropics of NortheasternAustralia. Contact:AGU-Orders, 2000Florida Avenue NW,Washington, DC 20009

USA. Tel: 1-800-966-2481 (NorthAmerica) or 1-202-462-6900 (elsewhere).FAX: 1-202-328-0566. E-mail:[email protected]. Web Site:http://earth.agu.org/pubs/. List–$37.00; AGU member– $25.90.

Available from ISME:Conservation and SustainableUtilization of Mangrove Forests inthe Latin America and AfricaRegions. Part 1. Latin America. 1993.L.C. Lacerda. (ed.). Mangrove EcosystemsTechnical Reports, Vol.2, ISME/ITTO. 272pages. Out of print.

Conservation and SustainableUtlisation of Mangrove Forests inthe Latin America and AfricaRegions. Part 2. Africa. 1993.Mangrove Ecosystems Technical Reports,Vol.3, ISME/ITTO. 262 pages. Out ofprint.

The Economic and EnvironmentalValues of Mangrove Forests andTheir Present State of Conservationin the South-East Asia and PacificRegion. 1993. Mangrove EcosystemsTechnical Reports. Vol.1, ISME. 202 pages.

Journey Amongst Mangroves. 1995.C. Field. A handbook on mangroves, firstvolume. Fully illustrated text of 140 pagesdesigned for people with no prior knowl-edge of mangroves.

For ISME titles contact: ISME, c/o Collegeof Agriculture, University of the Ryukyus,Nishihara, Okinwa 903-01, Japan.FAX:(81) 98-895-6602.

Available from the IUCN:The Directory of Wetlands ofInternational Importance: AnUpdate. Ramsar, 1996. S. Frazier (ed.).236 pages. Provides data for the nearly 200Ramsar sties designated since publicationof the 4-volume directory published in1993. UK pounds 12.50; US$18.75.

Ecology and Management ofMangroves. 1993. Aksornkoae, IUCN,Bangkok, Thailand. 176 pages.

Mangrove Forests, Climate Changeand Sea Level Rise. [HydrologicalInfluences on Community Structure andSurvival, with examples from the Indo-West Pacific.] 1993. J.C. Pernetta. AMarine Conservation and DevelopmentReport. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Mangroves of the Sundarbans. 1994.Vol. 1 India. A.B. Chaudhuri and A.Choudhury. IUCN, Bangkok, Thailand.

Mangroves of the Sundarbans. 1994.Vol. 2. Bangladesh. Z. Hussain and G. Acharya. 257 pages. IUCN Publications.UK pounds 10.00; US$20.00.

Le Manuel de la Convention deRamsar. 1996. This is an updated Frenchtranslation of the English manual (T.J.David, ed. Ramsar, 1994). Both versionsare available and cost 21 pounds sterling orUS$32.25.

Manuel de Formation a la Gestiondes Zones Humides Tropicales. 1994.J. Skinner, N. Beaumond and J.Y. Pirot.272 pages. This book is a training manualfor wetland managers, based on WestAfrican experience. IUCN Publications.UK pounds 13.50; US$20.00.

Proceedings of the 6th Meeting ofthe Conference of the Parties,Brisbane, Australia. Ramsar, 1996. UKpounds 40.00; US$60.00

For IUCN titles contact: IUCNPublications Services Unit, 219cHuntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL,United Kingdom. Tel. 44 1223 277894.FAX. 44 1223 277175. E-mail: [email protected].

FORTHCOMING PUBLICATIONSWorld Mangrove Atlas. WorldConservation MonitoringCentre/ISME/ITTO.

Restoration of Mangroves. C. Field.ISME.

Economic Valuation of Wetlands. E. Barbier, M. Acreman, D. Knowler.

Guidelines for environmentallysound management of river basins inAsia - utilizing functions and maxi-mizing wetland benefits. T. Hollis.UNEP/Asian Wetland Bureau.

INTERCOASTSIDERFORMATION


Guidelines for Improved Conserva-tion and Sustainable Use of Tropicaland Sub-tropical Wetlands. OECD.Produced by IUCN Wetlands Programmeand FINNIDA. Aims to provide task man-agers in development assistance agencieswith information on improved screeningprocedures, project implementation prac-tices and mitigation measures.

Management of Living Resources inthe Matang Forest Reserve, Perak,Malaysia. G. Nagaraj and P. Gabriel.Case study to be included in WWF-USreport on sustainable use of wild species.

UNESCO/ISME 400 page compilationof 30 papers on status of mangrovesin Latin America and Africa. B.Kjerfve, L. Drude de Lacerda, and S. Diop(eds.). French and English.

Fish eggs and larvae from mangrovewaters. J. Prince Jayaseelan.UNESCO/ISME. Drawings and descrip-tions of developmental stages of about 70species.

PeriodicalsMAP Quarterly News.

IUCN Wetlands Newsletter. Contact:Cécile Thiéy, Librarian. Tel. 41 22 9990135. FAX. 41 22 999 0010. [email protected].

The Ramsar Newsletter. This is thenewsletter of the Convention on Wetlandsof International Importance, and is pub-lished by the Ramsar Bureau, RueMauverney 28, CH-1196 Gland,Switzerland. FAX: (41) 22-999-0169. Tel: (41) 22-999-0170. E-mail:[email protected].

Mangroves and Salt Marshes. A newinternational journal concerned with theinterdisciplinary science and managementof tidal wetlands; it will cover pure andapplied sciences and include studies on sil-tation, fisheries, forestry, aquaculture andthe sustainable use of mangroves and salt-marshes. Contact: Daniel Childers,Associate Editor, Southeast EnvironmentalResearch Program, OE 148 UniversityPark, Miami, Florida 33199. Tel. (1) 305-348-3095; FAX (1) 305-348-4096.

ConferencesApril 6-9. International Conferenceon the Biology of Coastal Environ-ments. Bahrain. Contact: Dr. JameelAbbas, Dept. of Biology, College ofScience, University of Bahrain. E-mail:[email protected]. One of the mainthemes is mangroves.

May 5-7. Annual Meeting, PacificNorthwest Chapter Society ofWetland Scientists. Corvallis, Oregon.Contact: Emily Roth, NRCS, Portland,Oregon. Tel: 503-235-6272.

May 15-16. 24th Annual Conferenceon Ecosystems Restoration andCreation. Tampa, Florida. Contact:Frederick J. Webb, Dean of EnvironmentalPrograms, Hillsborough CommunityCollege, Plant City Campus, 1206 N. ParkRd., Plant City, FL 33566 USA. Tel: 813-757-2104. E-mail: [email protected].

May 21-23. 1st International Confer-ence on Sustainable Tourism inVietnam. Hue, Vietnam. Russell ArthurSmith, Coordinator, Vietnam TourismDevelopment Program, Hanns SeidelFoundation & Nanyang TechnologicalUniversity. Tel: +65 799 4836. FAX: +65791 3697. E-mail: [email protected] Site: http://edge.tamu.edu/waves97/.

June 2-6. Coastlines ‘97: ConnectingEuropean and Mediterranean Coasts.6th EUCC International Conference.Naples, Italy. Contact: Dr GiovanniRandazzo, Instituto di Scienze della Terra,Université di Messina, Salita Sperone, 31-C.P.24, 98166 - S. Agata di Messina, Italy.Tel. +39 90 6765095. FAX: +39 90392333. E-mail:[email protected].

July 7-9. Air-Sea-Land InteractionProcesses in Estuaries. Melbourne,Australia. Contact: M. Cintia Piccolo andGerardo M. E. Perillo, Instituto Argentinode Oceanografia, Av. Alem 53, 8000 BahiaBlanca, Argentina. Tel: (54-91)23555/20254/558431. FAX (54-91) 88-3933/20254.

August 5-8. U.S.-China Conference onthe Environment. Beijing. Contact:Global Interactions Inc., 14 West Cheryl

Drive, Phoenix, AZ 85021-2481. Tel: 602-943-3922. FAX: 602-943-4458. E-mail:[email protected]. Web Site:http://www.goodnet.com/~global.

August 18-23. 1997 European MarineBiological Symposium. KristinebergMarine Research Station, Sweden.Contact: EMBS Secretariat, Drs. SusanneBaden, Lief Pihl and Rutger Rosenberg,Kristineberg Marine Research Station, S-450 34, Fiskebackskil - Sweden. FAX: +46(0) 523 18503. E-mail: [email protected].

September. VII Latin AmericanCongress of Marine Science(COLACMAR). San Paulo, Brazil.Contact: Dr. Alfredo Martins Palva Pihlo,Presidente de la Comision Organizadora,COLACMAR, Centro de Convencoes,SESC-Santosrua, Conselheiro Rivas, 136,CEP: 11.040-900 Santos, Sao Paulo, Brasil.This meeting will be held in English,Spanish, and Portuguese and has a themedevoted to mangroves.

September 16-19. Fifth Symposium onthe Biogeochemistry of Wetlands.Royal Holloway College, University ofLondon. Contact: Royal Holloway Institutefor Environmental Research, RoyalHolloway University of London,Huntersdale, Callow Hill, Virginia Water,Surrey, GU25 4LN, UK. Attn: Tony Weir.FAX 44(0)1784 477427. E-mail:[email protected].

September 18-20. Fourth UnderwaterScience Symposium. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Contact: Jean Pritchard, ConferenceOrganiser, Society for UnderwaterTechnology, Innovation Centre,Exploration Drive, Offshore TechnologyPark, Bridge of Don, Aberdeen, AB238GX, UK. Tel: 01224 823637. FAX: 01224 820236. Web Site: http://

www.soc.soton.ac.uk/OTHERS/SUT

September 22-24. InternationalCouncil for Exploration of the SeaInternational Symposium.Recruitment Dynamics of ExploitedMarine Populations: Physical-BiologicalInteractions. Baltimore, Maryland.Contact: ICES, Palægade 2-4, DK-1261Copenhagen K, Denmark. Tel: (+45) 33 1542 25. FAX: (+45) 33 93 42 15. E-mail:[email protected]. Web Site: http://www.ices.dk/symposia/rp_sym.htm.


September 22-27. International MarineBiotechnology Conference. Sorrento,Italy. Contact: Dr. Alan M. Kuzirian,Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole,MA 02543. Tel: 508-289-7480, -7368.FAX: 508-540-6902. E-mail:[email protected].

October 12-16. State of Our EstuariesERF ’97. Biennial Estuarine ResearchFederation, Providence, Rhode Island.Contact: Patricia Kremer, Scientific andTechnical Program Chair, Department of Marine Sciences, University ofConnecticut, Avery Point Campus, Groton,Connecticut 06340-6097 USA. Tel: 860-446-1020, ext. 266. E-mail: [email protected].

November 3-7. Waves 97: ThirdInternational Symposium on OceanWave Measurement and Analysis.Virginia Beach, Virginia. Contact: Dr. BillyL. Edge, Ocean Engineering Program,Department of Civil Engineering, TexasA&M University, College Station, TX77843-3136. Tel: 409-845-4515. FAX:409-862-1542. E-mail: [email protected].

1998. 26th International CoastalEngineering Conference. Copenhagen,Denmark. Contact: Dr. Billy L. Edge,Head, Ocean Engineering Program,Environmental, Ocean, and WaterResources Division, Department of CivilEngineering, Texas A&M University,College Station, TX 77843-3136. Tel: 409-847-8712. FAX: 409-862-1542. E-mail: [email protected].

May 22-September 30, 1998.Expo ‘98: The Oceans, aHeritage for the Future.Lisbon, Portugal. Contact:Parque Expo ‘98, S. A., Av.Marechal Gomes da Costa, 37,1800 Lisboa. Tel: 01-831-98-98.FAX: 01-837-00-22. E-mail:[email protected]. Web Site:http://www.expo98.pt.

July 19-25, 1998. INTECOL VIIInternational Congress of Ecology.Florence, Italy. Contact: Almo Farina -Vice-President INTECOL, Secretariat VIIInternational Congress of Ecology,Lunigiana Museum of Natural History,Fortezza della Brunella, 54011 Aulla, Italy.Tel. + 39 - 187- 400252. FAX + 39 - 187-420727. E-mail: [email protected]. WebSite: http://www.tamnet.it/intecol.98.

August 22-28, 1998. W orld DeltasS ymposium. New Orleans, Louisiana.Contact: James M. Coleman. Tel: 504-388-4028. E-mail:[email protected]

1998. International Workshop onEcology and Management ofMangroves. Colombia. Hosted by REDEstuarios/Univ. S. Carolina. Contact:Enrique J. Pena, Dept Biology, Universidaddel Valle, Cali, Colombia. E-mail:[email protected].

1998. Shrimp Farmers andMangroves. To be hosted by COD-DEFFAGOLF, Honduras. Goal: to devisestrategies to encourage shrimp businessesto avoid damaging mangroves in the Golfof Fonseca. Contact: Jorge Varela Marquez,Director Edificio Fiallos Soto,#204, P.O.Box 3663, Tegucigalpa M.D.C. Tel:(504)38-0415. FAX: (504)38-0415. E-mail: coddeffagolf%cgolf%[email protected].

Mangrove Electronic Resources

Cairns On-line Environment Guide-Mangroves. Detailed description of man-groves. Address: http://www.cairns.aust.com/Environ/mangroves.html.

Center for Tropical Marine Ecology(ZMT) and the Contact Office forTropical Coastal Research. Web Site:http://www.zmt.uni-bremen.de.

Coral Health Related Abstracts. WebSite: http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/bib/authors.html.

Coral Reefs and Mangroves:Modelling and Management -Australian Institute of MarineScience. This site describes a three-yearstudy sponsored by the Australian Instituteof Marine Science and the IBMInternational Foundation. Web Site:http://ibm590.aims.gov.au/.

Creating a mangrove tree–Grades K-8. This is a blueprint of a grammarschool project. Address: http://www.spti-mes.com/aquarium/FA.4.2.1.html.

Diversification of Gulf/CaribbeanMangrove Communities throughCenozoic Time. (Research paper.) Web Site: http://simon.kent.edu/Biology/Research/Alan_Graham/Mangrove.html.

The Florida Mangrove Forest.Describes mangroves and some of theirinhabitants for a lay audience. Web Site:http://www.sptimes.com/aquarium/FA.2.1.html.

Fundacíon Humedales/WetlandsFoundation. (in English and Spanish)Web Site: http://www.humedales.org/.

Inside the Mangrove Jungle(Florida). Describes mangroves for a layaudience. Web Site: http://www.flsun.com/wild _eco/mangrove.htm.

Sewri Mangrove Park. This sitedescribes the efforts by the Bombay PortTrust to protect 15 acres of mangrovesbetween Sewri and Trombay.Web Site:http://theory.tifr.res.in/bombay/leisure/travel/mangrove.html.

MANGROVE. Mangrove ResearchDiscussion List. Provides a global forumfor the discussion of all aspects of man-grove biology and the ecology and manage-ment of mangrove ecosystems. To sub-scribe, send a message to:[email protected] withthe line <subscribe mangrove> in thebody of the message.

Mangrove Action Project. Web Site:http://www.earthisland.org/ei/map/map.html.

Mangroves and Shrimp-Answers to the Most Important Questions.(On Contessa Farm Raised Shrimp Page.)Web Site: http://www.zbindustries.com/mangrove.html.

Mangrove Forest Management. Web Site: http://www.metla.fi/conf/iufro95abs/d1pap135.htm.

Mangrove Replenishment Initiative.This site details Florida’s programs todevelop self-sustaining, shoreline revegeta-tion in Florida’s intracoastal waters andlagoon system from Cape Canaveral to Bis-cayne Bay. Web Site:http://mangrove.org/.


The Mangrove Web. The aim of this siteis to provide information on techniques andother information relating to mangroveresearch. Includes links to MANGROVEdiscussion list, bibliography, and relatedsites. Web Site: http://possum.murdoch.edu.au/~mangrove/.

Online Coral Researchers Directory.Web Site: http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/lists/directory.html.

Ramsar Convention. This page containsa list of Ramsar sites. Web Site: http://iucn.org/themes/ramsar/.

Roots. Web Site: http://www.sptimes.com/aquarium/FA.2.1.4a.html.

Salt Marshes. Web Site: http://atlas.ksc.nasa.gov/./vegetation/saltmrsh.html

WCMC/ISME World Mangrove Atlas.Web Site: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/infoserv/marine/mc_mang.html.

TrainingMay 6-8. Introduction to ImageProcessing and GeographicInformation Systems (GIS). Athens,Georgia. Offered by the Center forRemote Sensing and Mapping Studies.Contact: Georgia Center for ContinuingEducation, The University of Georgia,Athens, GA 30602-3603. Tel: 706-542-2134 or 800-884-1381. FAX: 706-542-6596 or 800-884-1419. E-mail:[email protected].

June 16-July 18. MaritimeArchaeology Techniques course.Hawaii. Offered by The Marine OptionProgram at the University of Hawaii atManoa. This graduate-level course willinclude remote sensing and scuba-assistedsurveys. Contact: Marine Option Program,1000 Pope Rd. #229, Honolulu, Hawaii96822. Tel: 808-956-8433. FAX: 808-956-2417. E-mail: [email protected].

August 14-18. Management of man-grove systems workshop. Leon,Nicaragua. Contact: Taller manejo produc-tivo de manglares, Proyecto Manglares,7170 CATIE, Turrialba, COSTA RICA. E-mail: [email protected].

the greening of arid coasts and the fixa-tion of accretion areas.

In Bangladesh, a vast program hasbeen underway since the late 1970s to consolidate the mud banks and deltaic islands of the east coast of theSundarbans and to develop a protectivegreen belt against cyclones and tidalbores through accretion of new land.Hundreds of hectares have been turnedover to agriculture and many others are now managed as production forestsunder the auspices of the ForestResearch Institute and Forest Depart-ment of Bangladesh. These, with theChittagong Sundarbans of Bangladeshand the Sundarbans of West Bengal(India) are managed locally with occa-sional assistance from foreign experts.The Sundarbans of West Bengal havebecome particularly well known for theforestry techniques practiced there, aswell as the additional focus on biodiver-sity protection ranging from the TigerProject of WWF to the study of themicroflora and microfauna, includingfungi and plant diseases.

The Indus delta mangroves ofPakistan have been managed since the

early 1980s and the program of green-ing the arid coasts of the northernArabian Sea extends westward fromthe delta and the Karachi area, towardsMiani Hor. Rhizophora wood becauseof its high caloric value, had beenselectively harvested here for the boil-ers of the locomotives of the newlybuilt railways in Sindh, causing the con-version of the area to a monoculture ofAvicennia. Restoration of the originalmixed forest is now underway and tallAvicennia and Rhizophora forests andexperimental plantations of Ceriopsand other species now cover hundredsof hectares of the previously deserttidal belt, as a result of the efforts ofthe Forest Depart-ment of Sindh Province with UNESCO,ISME and IUCN support. UNESCO’smajor regional projects, planned in the1970s and implemented since the1980s in collaboration with UNDP,contributed greatly to rescuing man-groves from oblivion and neglect andhelped them find their rightful place intoday’s worldwide concern for theenvironment. Their importance hasbeen universally recognized, at longlast and their previously hidden bene-fits are now as well known as theirmore obvious ones. Many scientists,

Mangrove Management(continued from page 3)

managers and politicians have support-ed mangrove projects in Asia and thePacific, and work is now being extend-ed to Africa and Tropical American andCaribbean countries. Mangrove man-agers are now talking to NGOs andlocal people, and politicians are begin-ning to take interest. The UNESCOinitiative has taken root and developingcountries are receiving aid from severalcountries and international agencies tomanage their mangroves. TheInternational Society for MangroveEco-systems, founded in 1990, is play-ing a major role in this movement.

Much remains to be done, however,and there is no reason for complacen-cy. Unfortunately destruction is still farahead of conservation and managementfor long-term sustained production.Mangroves are varied and there is nosimple or single paradigm for theirmanagement. Scientists must learnfrom those for whom the mangrovesare home and who are thus true “ecol-ogists” (a word that comes from theGreek word for home: oikos).

For more information contact:Marta Vannucci, ISME Secretariat, c/oCollege of Agriculture, University ofthe Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa 903-01, Japan. FAX:(81) 98-895-6602.


conjure up an image to convey the ideaof stewardship. One image is of a per-son responsible for a piece of agricul-tural land and the families who workit. The steward knows each field, eachbit of woodland, even each fruit tree,and their individual strengths, weak-nesses and needs. The steward is noless knowledgeable of each family,their history and aspirations and theirindividual and collective skills and fail-ings. The steward’s responsibility,delight–and sometimes the price he orshe must bear–comes from how he orshe balances among the needs of theland, and the needs and desires of thepeople from one generation to another.

At the heart of stewardship is a pro-found, detailed and accurate knowl-edge of both nature and a society, ofthe many processes at work and thevalues that must be kept balanced.Stewardship is about creating the beautythat comes when such balance isachieved and maintained. Particularlyin poor countries, where many peopledepend upon the natural resources intheir immediate surroundings for theirlivelihoods and survival, a one-size-fits-all policy prohibiting for example, thecutting of mangroves or promoting thebuilding of shrimp ponds, seldom pro-

duces positive outcomes. Contributingwriters Alejandro Bodero and AlanWhite, in recounting the experiencesof Ecuador and the Philippines demon-strate the importance of assuming thatthe communities affected must assumethe lead in shaping a responsible andequitable relationship with “their”mangroves. This, in turn, requiresknowing how the local human societiesfunction and the nature of the forcesthat are shaping how they change.Robert Twilley and Colin Field rein-force from different perspectives theequal importance of understanding thecombination of factors that give anindividual mangrove wetland itsunique identity and therefore theinformed parameters for its effectivestewardship.

A second characteristic of steward-ship is careful attention to and clarityin the objectives of management. Whyare we managing, who are we manag-ing for, what values are important,what forces are we trying to keep inbalance and what are the time scales?

A third feature of stewardship isthat the greatest challenges lie withcontrolling and directing the power ofpeople which, at least over the shortterm, usually outweighs the forces ofnature in shaping ecosystem change.Population growth in the tropics com-bined with the power of the chain saw,

Stewardship(continued from page 1)

the bulldozer and world commoditymarkets can quickly destroy ordegrade mangroves that may haveexisted for millennia.

Finally, the steward is a local per-son. He or she is of the place, livesthere, applies their knowledge andconfronts those who threaten the hopefor balance. Such knowledge andresponsibility can be informed andencouraged from afar – but like thedeclarations of central government inmost developing nations – technicalknowledge and exhortations have littleeffect without sustained local commit-ment and action. This does not implythat the roles of advisors and the nat-ural scientists working to better under-stand the ecological process, valuesand trends in mangroves are sec-ondary. The point is that their workmust connect to stewardship practice.

These papers suggest that the re-search and technology is indeed beingbetter communicated and offered assupport to the individuals and groupswho are struggling to be more effec-tive stewards. These trends give reasonto hope that the drastic losses in man-groves often seen in the last fewdecades will not continue, and thatrestoration at significant scales mayeven occur.

actions to:■ Issue a moratorium against theincreasing development of shrimp farmsuntil further studies have been conduct-ed.■ Obligate existing shrimp farm entre-preneurs to renovate their infrastruc-ture.■ Develop a master plan for the coastalarea.■ Develop the coastal zone for tourism,and ecotourism in particular.

Control charcoal production by pro-hibiting illegal exports of charcoal.■ Stop the illegal trade of mangroveand marine products with neighboringcountries.■ Promote community awareness andcommunity-based management of localresources.■ Create a permanent office in eachwildlife sanctuary, patrolled by localenvironmental staff to curb illegal activ-ities.

Recommendations■ Carefully study the mangrove forest

in Koh Kapik in terms of aquatic floraand fauna protection and coastal com-munity stabilization.■ Build a research station and educa-tion center.■ Establish a master plan for sustain-able development, protection and con-servation of coastal ecosystems.■ Collect aquatic biodiversity, and cre-ate a management plan for the KohKapik Ramsar site.

For more information contact: OumPisey, Ministry of Environment, 48Samdech Preah Sihanous St., ChamkarmonKhan, Phnom Penh 3, Cambodia. FAX:(855) 23 427137. E-mail:[email protected].

Cambodia(continued from page 34)

Coastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett Bay CampusNarragansett, RI 02882 USA

Printed on recycled paper.

NonprofitOrganizationU.S. Postage

PAIDWakefield, RIPermit No. 19

Editors: Stephen Olsen & Luitzen BijlsmaSpecial Issue Editor: Susan WellsManaging Editor: Chip YoungAssistant Editor: Monica Allard

Intercoast Network, an internationalnewsletter of coastal management, is pub-lished quarterly by the Coastal ResourcesManagement Project of the University ofRhode Island’s Coastal Resources Center andthe U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment (USAID). Funding is providedby USAID’s Global Environment Center, andby the Coastal Zone Management Centre,which is located within the National Institutefor Coastal and Marine Management(RIKZ), a division of the NetherlandsMinistry of Transport, Public Works, andWater Management.

The objective of Intercoast Network is tofacilitate the exchange of information, expe-rience, and ideas on coastal management.Readers are encouraged to write to theCoastal Resources Center with comments onthe newsletter and its effectiveness as asource of information for coastal managers.

Intercoast NetworkCoastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett Bay CampusNarragansett, RI 02882 USATel: 401-874-6224Fax: 401-789-4670E-mail: [email protected] home page:http://brooktrout.gso.uri.edu

Coastal Zone Management CentreMinistry of Transport, Public Works, andWater ManagementNational Institute for Coastal and MarineManagement/RIKZP.O. Box 20907, 2500 ES The HagueThe NetherlandsTel: +31 70 3114 311Fax: +31 70 3114 380E-mail: [email protected]

Indicators for Learning andEvaluation will be the special focus ofthe Spring, 1997 edition of IntercoastNetwork (No. 29). Measuring realprogress in integrated coastal manage-ment (ICM) has become akey issue in thefield. Coastal prac-titionersworld-

widearelooking forreliablemethods toevaluate and learnfrom the work being done inICM, and turning that assessment intoproductive input for their work. EditorStephen Olsen has recently givenkeynote presentations in China and at

the World Conservation Union Congressin Canada, addressing the developmentof a common methodology for evaluating

the critical role ofgovernance in theICM process. Heand other notedcontributorswill exploremany of thevital ques-tions sur-roundingindicators,learningand eval-uationinICM

aroundthe world.

If you areinterested in

contributing,contact Intercoast

Managing Editor Chip Young atIntercoast Network, c/o CoastalResources Center, University of RhodeIsland, Bay Campus, South Ferry Road,Narragansett, RI, USA 02882. Phone:(401) 874-6630; FAX: (401) 789-4670;E-mail:<[email protected]>.

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