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Appendix A
Table 1. Excluded Physical Exercise Articles by Rationale for Exclusion
Physical ExerciseReason for Exclusion Article
Age Khatri et al., 2001
Insufficient Information for Effect Size Calculation Baker et al., 2010
Baker et al., 2010aCassilhas et al., 2007Lochman, Neupert, Bertrand, & Jetter, 2006Lautenschlager et al., 2008Maillot, Perrot, & Hartley, 2012Nagamatsu, Handy, Hsu, Voss, & Liu-Ambrose, (2012).Pedroso et al., 2012Taylor-Piliae et al., 2010Voss et al., 2010
Ineligible/No Intervention Blumenthal et al., 1991Buman et al., 2011Fiatarone et al., 1993Hooghiemstra et al., 2012Jobe et al., 2001Liu-Ambrose et al., 2010Logsdon, McCurry, & Teri, 2005Nagamatsu, Hsu, Handy, & Liu-Ambrose 2011
No Control Condition Anderson-Hanley et al., 2012Palleschi et al., 1996Smiley-Oyen, Lowry, Francois, Kohut, & Ekkekakis, 2008Stevenson & Topp, 1990
No Executive Function Outcome Emery & Gatz, 1990Nelson et al., 2004Papandonados, et al., 2012Paw, de Jong, Schouten, Staveren, & Kok, 2002Roach, Tappen, Kirk-Sanchez, Williams, & Loewenstein, 2011Rosano et al., 2010Sims-Gould, Miran-Khan, Haggis, & Liu-Ambrose, 2012Sparrow, Gottlieb, Demolles, & Fielding, 2011Uemara et al., 2012Van de Winckel, Feys, De Weerdt, & Dom, 2004Weerdesteyn, Nienhuis, & Duysens, 2008Williams & Tappen, 2008Wolf et al., 2001
Excluded Physical Exercise Article References
Anderson-Hanley, C., Arciero, P. J., Brickman, A. M., Nimon, J. P., Okuma, N., Westen, S.
C., ... & Zimmerman, E. A. (2012). Exergaming and older adult cognition: A cluster
randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42(2), 109-119. doi:
10.1016/j.amepre.2011.10.016
Baker, L.D., Frank, L.L., Foster-Schubert, K., Green, P.S., Wilkinson, C.W., McTiernan, A.,
Plymate, S.T., & … Craft, S. (2010). Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Mild Cognitive
Impairment. Archives of Neurology, 67(1), 71-79.
Baker, L.D., Frank, L.L., Foster-Schubert, K., Green, P.S., Wilkinson, C.W., McTiernan, A.,
Plymate, S.T., & … Craft, S. (2010a). Aerobic exercise improves cognition for older
adults with glucose intolerance, a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of
Alzheimer’s Disease, 22(1), 569-579. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2010-100768
Blumenthal, J. A., Emery, C. F., Madden, D. J., Schniebolk, S., Walsh-Riddle, M., George, L.
K., ... & Coleman, R. E. (1991). Long-term effects of exercise on psychological
functioning in older men and women. Journal of Gerontology, 46(6), 352-361.
Buman, M. P., Giacobbi Jr, P. R., Dzierzewski, J. M., McCrae, C. S., Roberts, B. L., & Marsiske,
M. (2011). Peer volunteers improve long-term maintenance of physical activity with
older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Physical Activity & Health, 8(2),
257-266.
Cassilhas, R. C., Viana, V. A., Grassmann, V., Santos, R. T., Santos, R. F., Tufik, S., & Mello,
M. T. (2007). The impact of resistance exercise on the cognitive function of the elderly.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(8), 1401-1407.
doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e318060111f
Emery, C. F., & Gatz, M. (1990). Psychological and cognitive effects of an exercise program for
community-residing older adults. The Gerontologist, 30(2), 184-188.
Fiatarone, M. A., O'Neill, E. F., Doyle, N., Clements, K. M., Roberts, S. B., Kehayias, J. J., ... &
Evans, W. J. (1993). The Boston FICSIT study: the effects of resistance training and
nutritional supplementation on physical frailty in the oldest old. Journal of the American
Geriatrics Society, 41(3), 333-337.
Hooghiemstra, A., Eggermont, L., Scheltens, P., van der Flier, W., Bakker, J., de Greef, M., ... &
Scherder, E. (2012). Study protocol: Exercise and cognition in sedentary adults with
early-onset dementia (EXERCISE-ON). BMC Neurology, 12(75). doi:10.1186/1471-
2377-12-75
Jobe, J. B., Smith, D. M., Ball, K., Tennstedt, S. L., Marsiske, M., Willis, S. L., ... & Kleinman,
K. (2001). ACTIVE: A cognitive intervention trial to promote independence in older
adults. Controlled Clinical Trials, 22(4), 453-479.
Khatri, P., Blumenthal, J.A., Babyak, M.A., Craighead, E., Herman, S., Baldewicz, T., Madden,
D.J., Doraiswama, M., Waugh, R., & Krishnan, R. (2001). Effects of exercise training on
cognitive functioning among depressed older men and women. Journal of Aging and
Physical Activity, 9(1), 43-57.
Lachman, M. E., Neupert, S. D., Bertrand, R., & Jette, A. M. (2006). The effects of strength
training on memory in older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 14(1), 59-73.
Lautenschlager, N. T., Cox, K. L., Flicker, L., Foster, J. K., van Bockxmeer, F. M., Xiao, J., ... &
Almeida, O. P. (2008). Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at
risk for Alzheimer disease. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association,
300(9), 1027-1037. doi: 10.1001/jama.300.9.1027
Liu-Ambrose, T., Davis, J. C., Nagamatsu, L. S., Hsu, C. L., Katarynych, L. A., & Khan, K. M.
(2010). Changes in executive functions and self-efficacy are independently associated
with improved usual gait speed in older women. BMC Geriatrics, 10(25).
doi:10.1186/1471-2318-10-25
Logsdon, R. G., McCurry, S. M., & Teri, L. (2005). A home health care approach to exercise for
persons with Alzheimer's disease. Care Management Journals, 6(2), 90-97.
Maillot, P., Perrot, A., & Hartley, A. (2012). Effects of interactive physical-activity video-game
training on physical and cognitive function in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 27(3),
589-600. doi: 10.1037/a0026268
Nagamatsu, L. S., Handy, T. C., Hsu, C. L., Voss, M., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2012). Resistance
training promotes cognitive and functional brain plasticity in seniors with probable mild
cognitive impairment. Archives of Internal Medicine, 172(8), 666-668.
Nagamatsu, L. S., Hsu, C. L., Handy, T. C., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2011). Functional neural
correlates of reduced physiological falls risk. Behavioural and Brain Functions, 7(37).
doi:10.1186/1744-9081-7-37
Nelson, M. E., Layne, J. E., Bernstein, M. J., Nuernberger, A., Castaneda, C., Kaliton, D., ... &
Singh, M. A. F. (2004). The effects of multidimensional home-based exercise on
functional performance in elderly people. The Journals of Gerontology Series A:
Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 59(2), 154-160.
Palleschi, L., Vetta, F., De Gennaro, E., Idone, G., Sottosanti, G., Gianni, W., & Marigliano, V.
(1996). Effect of aerobic training on the cognitive performance of elderly patients with
senile dementia of Alzheimer type. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 22, 47-50
Papandonatos, G. D., Williams, D. M., Jennings, E. G., Napolitano, M. A., Bock, B. C.,
Dunsiger, S., & Marcus, B. H. (2012). Mediators of physical activity behavior change:
Findings from a 12-month randomized controlled trial. Health Psychology, 31(4), 512.
doi: 10.1037/a0026667
Paw, M. C. A., De Jong, N., Schouten, E. G., Van Staveren, W. A., & Kok, F. J. (2002). Physical
exercise or micronutrient supplementation for the wellbeing of the frail elderly? A
randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(2), 126-131.
Pedroso, R. V., Coelho, F. G. D. M., Santos-Galduróz, R. F., Costa, J. L. R., Gobbi, S., & Stella,
F. (2012). Balance, executive functions and falls in elderly with Alzheimer's disease
(AD): A longitudinal study. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54(2), 348-351. doi:
10.1016/j.archger.2011.05.029
Roach, K. E., Tappen, R. M., Kirk-Sanchez, N., Williams, C. L., & Loewenstein, D. (2011). A
randomized controlled trial of an activity specific exercise program for individuals with
Alzheimer disease in long-term care settings. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy,
34(2), 50. doi: 10.1519/JPT.0b013e31820aab9c
Rosano, C., Venkatraman, V. K., Guralnik, J., Newman, A. B., Glynn, N. W., Launer, L., ... &
Aizenstein, H. (2010). Psychomotor speed and functional brain MRI 2 years after
completing a physical activity treatment. The Journals of Gerontology Series A:
Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 65(6), 639-647. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glq038
Sims-Gould, J., Miran-Khan, K., Haggis, C., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2012). Timing, experience,
benefits, and barriers: Older women's uptake and adherence to an exercise program.
Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 36(4), 280-296. doi:10.1080/01924788.2012.729188
Smiley-Oyen, A. L., Lowry, K. A., Kohut, M. L., & Ekkekakis, P. (2008). Exercise, fitness, and
neurocognitive function in older adults: the “selective improvement” and “cardiovascular
fitness” hypotheses. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 36(3), 280-291.
doi:10.1007/s12160-008-9064-5
Sparrow, D., Gottlieb, D. J., DeMolles, D., & Fielding, R. A. (2011). Increases in muscle
strength and balance using a resistance training program administered via a
telecommunications system in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series A:
Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 66(11), 1251-1257.
doi:10.1093/gerona/glr138
Stevenson, J. S., & Topp, R. (1990). Effects of moderate and low intensity long-term exercise by
older adults. Research in Nursing & Health, 13(4), 209-218.
Taylor-Piliae, R. E., Newell, K. A., Cherin, R., Lee, M. J., King, A. C., & Haskell, W. L. (2010).
Effects of Tai Chi and Western exercise on physical and cognitive functioning in healthy
community-dwelling older adults. Journal of aging and physical activity, 18(3), 261-279.
Uemura, K., Yamada, M., Nagai, K., Tateuchi, H., Mori, S., Tanaka, B., & Ichihashi, N. (2012).
Effects of dual-task switch exercise on gait and gait initiation performance in older
adults: Preliminary results of a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Gerontology and
Geriatrics, 54(2), 167-171. doi:10.1016/j.archer.2012.01.002
Van de Winckel, A., Feys, H., De Weerdt, W., & Dom, R. (2004). Cognitive and behavioural
effects of music-based exercises in patients with dementia. Clinical Rehabilitation, 18(3),
253-260. doi:10.1191/0269215504cr750ca
van Stralen, M. M., de Vries, H., Bolman, C., Mudde, A. N., & Lechner, L. (2010). Exploring
the efficacy and moderators of two computer-tailored physical activity interventions for
older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 39(2), 139-
150. doi:10.1007/s12160-010-9166-8
Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Erickson, K. I., Basak, C., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., ... & Kramer,
A. F. (2010). Plasticity of brain networks in a randomized intervention trial of exercise
training in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2.
doi:10.3389/fnagi.2010.00032
Weerdesteyn, V., Nienhuis, B., & Duysens, J. (2008). Exercise training can improve spatial
characteristics of time-critical obstacle avoidance in elderly people. Human Movement
Science, 27(5), 738-748. doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2008.03.003
Williams, C. L., & Tappen, R. M. (2008). Exercise training for depressed older adults with
Alzheimer's disease. Aging and Mental Health, 12(1), 72-80.
doi:10.1080/13607860701529932
Wolf, B., Feys, H., De Weerdt, W., van der Meer, J., Noom, M., & Aufdemkampe, G. (2001).
Effect of a physical therapeutic intervention for balance problems in the elderly: a single-
blind, randomized, controlled multicentre trial. Clinical Rehabilitation, 15(6), 624-636.
Table 2. Excluded Cognitive Training Articles by Rationale for Exclusion
Cognitive TrainingReason for Exclusion Article
Age Hildebrandt, Bussmann-Mork, & Schwendemann, 2006)Londos et al., 2008van Hooren et al., 2007Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, David, & Goolkasian, 2010
Insufficient Information for Effect Size Calculation Ball et al., 2002
Barnes et al., 2009Carlson et al., 2008Cheng et al., 2012Clare, Wilson, Carter, Roth, & Hodges, 2004Eckroth-Bucher & Siberski, 2009Hampstead et al., 2012Lachman, Weaver, Bandura, Elliot, & Lewkowicz, 1992Optale et al., 2010Smith et al., 2009Tsolaki et al., 2010Winocur et al., 2007
Ineligible/No Intervention Deberdt, 1994Jobe et al., 2001Noice & Noice, 2009Rozzini et al., 2007Vidovich, Lautenschlager, Flicker, Clare, & Almeida, 2009Willis et al., 2006Wolinsky et al., 2009Wolinsky et al., 2010Zelinski et al., 2011
No Control Condition Boron, Willis, & Schaie, 2007Hawley, Cherry, Boudreaux, & Jackson, 2008Loewenstein, Acevedo, Czaja, & Duara, 2004Willis & Schaie, 1986
No Executive Function Outcome Beck, Heacock, Mercer, & Thatcher, 1988Bourgeois, Schulz, Burgio, & Beach, 2002Clare, Evans, Parkinson, Woods, & Linden, 2011Lam et al., 2010Levine et al., 2007Mozolic, Hayasaka, & Laurienti, 2010Pichierri, Coppe, Lorenzetti, Murer, & de Bruin, 2012Tsai, Yang, Lan, & Chen, 2008Verghese, Mahoney, Ambrose, Wang, & Holtzer, 2010Viola et al., 2011
Excluded Cognitive Training Article References
Ball, K., Berch, D., Helmers, K., Jobe, J., Leveck, M., Marsiske, M., & ... Willis, S. (2002).
Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: A randomized controlled
trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(18), 2271-2281.
doi:10.1001/jama.288.18.2271.
Barnes, D. E., Yaffe, K., Belfor, N., Jagust, W. J., DeCarli, C., Reed, B. R., & Kramer, J. H.
(2009). Computer-based cognitive training for mild cognitive impairment: results from a
pilot randomized, controlled trial. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 23(3),
205-210. doi:10.1097/WAD.0b013e31819c6137
Beck, C., Heacock, P., Mercer, S., & Thatcher, R. (1988). The impact of cognitive skills
remediation training on persons with Alzheimer's disease or mixed dementia. Journal of
Geriatric Psychiatry, 21(1), 73-88.
Bourgeois, M. S., Schulz, R., Burgio, L. D., & Beach, S. (2002). Skills training for spouses of
patients with Alzheimer's disease: Outcomes of an intervention study. Journal of Clinical
Geropsychology, 8(1), 53-73. doi:10.1023/A:1013098124765
Boron, J. B., Willis, S. L., & Schaie, K. W. (2007). Cognitive training gain as a predictor of
mental status. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social
Sciences, 62(1), 45-52.
Carlson, M. C., Saczynski, J. S., Rebok, G. W., Seeman, T., Glass, T. A., McGill, S., ... & Fried,
L. P. (2008). Exploring the effects of an “everyday” activity program on executive
function and memory in older adults: Experience Corps®. The Gerontologist, 48(6), 793-
801. doi:10.1093/geront/48.6.793
Cheng, Y., Wu, W., Feng, W., Wang, J., Chen, Y., Shen, Y., ... & Li, C. (2012). The effects of
multi-domain versus single-domain cognitive training in non-demented older people: a
randomized controlled trial. BMC Medicine, 10(30). doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-30
Clare, L., Evans, S., Parkinson, C., Woods, R., & Linden, D. (2011). Goal-setting in cognitive
rehabilitation for people with early-stage Alzheimer's disease. Clinical Gerontologist,
34(3), 220-236. doi:10.1080/07317115.2011.555937
Clare, L., Wilson, B. A., Carter, G., Roth, I., & Hodges, J. R. (2004). Awareness in early-stage
Alzheimer’s disease: relationship to outcome of cognitive rehabilitation. Journal of
Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26(2), 215-226.
doi:10.1076/jcen.26.2.215.28088
Deberdt, W. (1994). Interaction between psychological and pharmacological treatment in
cognitive impairment. Life Sciences, 55(25), 2057-2066. doi:10.1016/0024-
3205(94)00386-6
Eckroth-Bucher, M., & Siberski, J. (2009). Preserving cognition through an integrated cognitive
stimulation and training program. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other
Dementias, 24(3), 234-245. doi:10.1177/1533317509332624
Hampstead, B. M., Sathian, K., Phillips, P. A., Amaraneni, A., Delaune, W. R., & Stringer, A. Y.
(2012). Mnemonic strategy training improves memory for object location associations in
both healthy elderly and patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A
randomized, single-blind study. Neuropsychology, 26(3), 385-399.
doi:10.1037/a0027545
Hawley, K. S., Cherry, K. E., Boudreaux, E. O., & Jackson, E. M. (2008). A comparison of
adjusted spaced retrieval versus a uniform expanded retrieval schedule for learning a
name–face association in older adults with probable Alzheimer's disease. Journal of
Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30(6), 639-649.
doi:10.1080/13803390701595495
Hildebrandt, H., Bussmann-Mork, B., & Schwendemann, G. (2006). Group therapy for memory
impaired patients: a partial remediation is possible. Journal of Neurology, 253, 512-519.
doi:10.1007/s00415-006-0013-6
Jobe, J. B., Smith, D. M., Ball, K., Tennstedt, S. L., Marsiske, M., Willis, S. L., ... & Kleinman,
K. (2001). ACTIVE: A cognitive intervention trial to promote independence in older
adults. Controlled Clinical Trials, 22(4), 453-479. doi:10.1016/S0197-2456(01)00139-8
Lachman, M. E., Weaver, S. L., Bandura, M., Elliot, E., & Lewkowicz, C. J. (1992). Improving
memory and control beliefs through cognitive restructuring and self-generated strategies.
Journal of Gerontology, 47(5), 293-299. doi:10.1093/geronj/47.5.P293
Lam, L. C., Lui, V. W., Luk, D. N., Chau, R., So, C., Poon, V., ... & Ko, F. S. (2010).
Effectiveness of an individualized functional training program on affective disturbances
and functional skills in mild and moderate dementia—A randomized control trial.
International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 25(2), 133-141. doi:10.1002/gps.2309
Levine, B., Stuss, D. T., Winocur, G., Binns, M. A., Fahy, L., Mandic, M., ... & Robertson, I. H.
(2007). Cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly: effects on strategic behavior in relation to
goal management. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(1), 143-
152. doi:10.10170S1355617707070178
Loewenstein, D. A., Acevedo, A., Czaja, S. J., & Duara, R. (2004). Cognitive rehabilitation of
mildly impaired Alzheimer disease patients on cholinesterase inhibitors. American
Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12(4), 395-402.
Londos, E., Boschian, K., Lindén, A., Persson, C., Minthon, L., & Lexell, J. (2008). Effects of a
goal-oriented rehabilitation program in mild cognitive impairment: a pilot study.
American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, 23(2), 177-183.
doi:10.1177/1533317507312622
Mozolic, J. L., Hayasaka, S., & Laurienti, P. J. (2010). A cognitive training intervention
increases resting cerebral blood flow in healthy older adults. Frontiers in Human
Neuroscience, 4. doi:10.3389/neuro.09.016.2010
Noice, H., & Noice, T. (2008). An arts intervention for older adults living in subsidized
retirement homes. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 16(1), 56-79.
doi:10.1080/13825580802233400
Optale, G., Urgesi, C., Busato, V., Marin, S., Piron, L., Priftis, K., ... & Bordin, A. (2010).
Controlling memory impairment in elderly adults using virtual reality memory training: a
randomized controlled pilot study. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 24(4), 348-
357. doi:10.1177/1545968309353328
Pichierri, G., Coppe, A., Lorenzetti, S., Murer, K., & de Bruin, E. D. (2012). The effect of a
cognitive-motor intervention on voluntary step execution under single and dual task
conditions in older adults: a randomized controlled pilot study. Clinical Interventions in
Aging, 7, 175-184. doi:10.2147/CIA.S32558
Rozzini, L., Costardi, D., Chilovi, B. V., Franzoni, S., Trabucchi, M., & Padovani, A. (2007).
Efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation in patients with mild cognitive impairment treated
with cholinesterase inhibitors. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22(4), 356-
360. doi:10.1002/gps.1681
Smith, G., Housen, P., Yaffe, K., Ruff, R., Kennison, R., Mahncke, H., & Zelinski, E. (2009). A
cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: Results from the
Improvement in Memory with Plasticity-based Adaptive Cognitive Training (IMPACT)
study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57(4), 594-603. doi:10.1111/j.1532-
5415.2008.02167.x
Tsai, A. Y. J., Yang, M. J., Lan, C. F., & Chen, C. S. (2008). Evaluation of effect of cognitive
intervention programs for the community‐dwelling elderly with subjective memory
complaints. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(11), 1172-1174.
Tsolaki, M., Kounti, F., Agogiatou, C., Poptsi, E., Bakoglidou, E., Zafeiropoulou, M., ... &
Vasiloglou, M. (2010). Effectiveness of nonpharmacological approaches in patients with
mild cognitive impairment. Neurodegenerative Diseases, 8(3), 138-145.
doi:10.1159/000320575
van Hooren, S. A., Valentijn, S. A., Bosma, H., Ponds, R. W., van Boxtel, M. P., Levine, B., ...
& Jolles, J. (2007). Effect of a structured course involving goal management training in
older adults: A randomised controlled trial. Patient education and counseling, 65(2), 205-
213. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2006.07.010
Verghese, J., Mahoney, J., Ambrose, A. F., Wang, C., & Holtzer, R. (2010). Effect of cognitive
remediation on gait in sedentary seniors. The Journals of Gerontology Series A:
Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 65(12), 1338-1343.
doi:10.1093/gerona/glq127
Vidovich, M. R., Lautenschlager, N. T., Flicker, L., Clare, L., & Almeida, O. P. (2009). The
PACE Study: A randomised clinical trial of cognitive activity (CA) for older adults with
mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Trials, 10(114). doi:10.1186/1745-6215-10-114
Viola, L. F., Nunes, P. V., Yassuda, M. S., Aprahamian, I., Santos, F. S., Santos, G. D., ... &
Forlenza, O. V. (2011). Effects of a multidisciplinary cognitive rehabilitation program for
patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease. Clinics, 66(8), 1395-1400. doi:10.1590/S1807-
59322011000800015
Willis, S. L., & Schaie, K. W. (1986). Training the elderly on the ability factors of spatial
orientation and inductive reasoning. Psychology and Aging, 1(3), 239-247.
doi:10.1037/0882-7974.1.3.239
Willis, S. L., Tennstedt, S. L., Marsiske, M., Ball, K., Elias, J., Koepke, K. M., ... & Wright, E.
(2006). Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older
adults. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(23), 2805-2814.
doi:10.1001/jama.296.23.2805.
Winocur, G., Palmer, H., Dawson, D., Binns, M. A., Bridges, K., & Stuss, D. T. (2007).
Cognitive rehabilitation in the elderly: An evaluation of psychosocial factors. Journal of
the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(1), 153-165.
doi:10.10170S135561770707018X
Wolinsky, F. D., Mahncke, H. W., Kosinski, M., Unverzagt, F. W., Smith, D. M., Jones, R.
N., ... & Tennstedt, S. L. (2009). The ACTIVE cognitive training trial and predicted
medical expenditures. BMC Health Services Research, 9(109). doi:10.1186/1472-6963-9-
109
Wolinsky, F. D., Mahncke, H., Vander Weg, M. W., Martin, R., Unverzagt, F. W., Ball, K. K., ...
& Tennstedt, S. L. (2010). Speed of processing training protects self-rated health in older
adults: enduring effects observed in the multi-site ACTIVE randomized controlled trial.
International Psychogeriatrics, 22(3), 470-478. doi:10.1017/S1041610209991281
Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness
meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and
cognition, 19(2), 597-605. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014
Zelinski, E. M., Spina, L. M., Yaffe, K., Ruff, R., Kennison, R. F., Mahncke, H. W., & Smith, G.
E. (2011). Improvement in Memory with Plasticity‐Based Adaptive Cognitive Training:
Results of the 3‐Month Follow‐Up. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 59(2),
258-265. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03277.x
Appendix B
Table 1. Cognitive Tests by Executive Function Construct
Authors Executive Construct Test Name
Anderson-Hanley et al.2010
Working Memory Digit Span Backwards
Executive Attention Trails Colors 2
Inhibition Stroop Color-Word
Barry et al. 1966 Problem Solving Raven's Progressive Matrices
Blumenthal et al. & Madden et al.
1989Inhibition Stroop Interference
Fluency Verbal Fluency, Nonverbal Fluency
Executive Attention Trails B, Letter Search Primary Task RT Set Size 2 Tone Present, Letter Search Primary Task Error Set Size 2 Tone Present, Letter Search Primary Task RT Set Size 4 Tone Present, Letter Search Primary Task Error Set Size 4 Tone Present, Letter Search Primary Task RT Set Size 6 Tone Present, Letter Search Primary Task Error Set Size 6 Tone Present, Word Comparison Primary Task Synonym RT Tone Present, Word Comparison Primary Task Synonym Error Tone Present, Word Comparison Primary Task Unrelated RT Tone Present, Word Comparison Primary Task Unrelated Error Tone Present
Working Memory Digit Span Backward, Letter Search Primary Task Slope, Letter Search Primary Task Intercept, Letter Search Primary Task RT Set Size 2 Tone Absent, Letter Search Primary Task Error Set Size 2 Tone Absent, Letter Search Primary Task RT Set Size 4 Tone Absent, Letter Search Primary Task Error Set Size 4 Tone Absent, Letter Search Primary Task RT Set Size 6 Tone Absent, Letter Search Primary Task Error Set Size 6 Tone Absent
Borella et al.2010
Working Memory Categorization Working Memory Span Test, Dot Matrix Task, Backward Digit Span Task
Problem Solving Cattell Test
Inhibition Stroop Color Index on RTs, Stroop Color Incongruent RTs, Stroop Color Incongruent Errors
Bottini et al.2005
Working Memory Digit Span Backward
Executive Attention Trails Part B
Fluency Verbal Fluency
Brown et al.2008
Executive Attention Trails B
Inhibition Stroop Color-Word
Fluency Controlled Oral Word Association Task
Working Memory Digit Span Backward
Buiza et al.2008
Fluency Phonetic Fluency
Problem Solving Capacity for Abstraction
Cahn-Weiner et al.2003
Fluency Controlled Oral Word Association Test
Executive Attention Trails Part B
Calero & Navarro2007
Working Memory Working Memory Evaluation Test
Ceccato et al.2012
Working Memory Digit Span Backward
Clare et al.2010
Fluency Verbal Fluency
Executive Attention Test of Everyday Attention Map Search 1 & 2, Test of Everyday Attention Elevator Counting with Distraction
Davis et al.2001
Working Memory Digit Span Backward
Fluency Controlled Oral Word Association Test, Animals, Supermarket
Hawkins et al. 1992 Executive Attention Auditory Time-Sharing Task RT, Visual Time-Sharing Task RT, Auditory Attentional Flexibility Task RT, Visual Attentional Flexibility Task RT, Auditory Time-Sharing Task Percent Error, Visual Time-Sharing Task Percent Error, Auditory Attentional Flexibility Task Percent Error,
Visual Attentional Flexibility Task Percent Error, Auditory Time-Sharing Task Absolute Decrement, Visual Time-Sharing Task Absolute Decrement, Auditory Attentional Flexibility Task Absolute Decrement, Visual Attentional Flexibility Task Absolute Decrement, Auditory Time-Sharing Task Relative Decrement, Visual Time-Sharing Task Relative Decrement, Auditory Attentional Flexibility Task Relative Decrement, Visual Attentional Flexibility Task Relative Decrement
Kimura et al.2010
Executive Attention Task Switch (RT), Repeat Trials (RT), Task Switch (% Correct), Repeat Trials (% Correct)
Klusmann et al.2010
Inhibition Stroop Color-Word - Color
Executive Attention Trails B/A Quotient
Fluency Semantic Verbal Fluency
Legault et al.2011
Working Memory Self-Ordered Pointing Task (proportion correct), 1-Back (proportion hits - false alarms), 2-Back (proportion hits - false alarms)
Inhibition Flanker Task (incongruent - congruent hits)
Executive Attention Task Switching (switch - non-switch RTs), Trails B Time - Trails A Time
Liu-Ambrose et al.2010
Inhibition Stroop Color-Word - Color
Executive Attention Trails B - A
Working Memory Digit Span Forward-Backward
Liu-Ambrose et al.2012
Inhibition Eriksen flanker task (interference score)
Liu-Ambrose et al.2008
Executive Attention Trails B
Working Memory Digit Spand Backward
Inhibition Stroop Color-Word
Maki et al 2012 Executive Attention Dual Task Test, Trail Making Test BCategorical Word Fluency
Fluency
Problem Solving Abstract Reasoning
Margrett & Willis2006
Problem Solving Letter Series Test, Word Series Test
Molloy et al. 1988 Fluency Word Fluency (Catergories)
Moro et al.2012
Fluency Verbal fluency (category)
Problem Solving Tower of London, Analogies
Inhibition Stroop test (seconds)
Executive Attention Trail Making Test (B - A)
Moul et al. 1995 Problem Solving Problem Solving and Abstract Reasoning, Organization
Mozolic et al.2011
Executive Attention RT Divided Attention (Unisensory Auditory), RT Divided Attention (Unisensory Visual), RT Divided Attention (Multisensory), RT Selective Auditory Attention (Unisensory), RT Selective Auditory Attention (Multisensory), RT Selective Visual Attention (Unisensory), RT Selective Visual Attention (Multisensory), Percent Accuracy Selective Attention (set-size 2 interference; cross-modal distractors), RT Selective Attention (set-size 2 interference; cross-modal distractors), Percent Accuracy Selective Attention (set-size 8 interference; cross-modal distractors), RT Selective Attention (set-size 8 interference; cross-modal distractors), Percent Accuracy Selective Attention (set-size 2 cost; within-modality distractors), RT Selective Attention (set-size 2 cost within-modality distractors), Percent Accuracy Selective Attention (set-size 6 cost; within-modal distractors), RT Selective Attention (set-size 8 cost; cross-modal distractors), Multisensory Integration Divided Attention, Multisensory Integration Selective Auditory Attention, Multisensory Integration Selective Visual Attention, Trails (Percent Interference)
Working Memory 1-back, 2-back
Inhibition Stroop Color-Word (Percent Interference)
Nouchi et al.2012
Global Frontal assessment battery at bedside
Oken et al.2006
Inhibition Stroop Interference (sec)
Working Memory Letter-Number Sequencing
Executive Attention Set-shifting (Highest Shift)
Peretz et al.2011
Global NexAde Executive Function
Working Memory NexAde Visuospatial Working Memory
Powell 1974 Problem Solving Raven's Progressive Matrices A, Ab, B, Total
Quayhagen & Quayhagen1989
Problem Solving Dementia Rating Scale - Problem Solving
Quayhagen et al.1995
Fluency Fluency (FAS, Animals)
Problem Solving Problem Solving
Quayhagen et al.2000
Fluency Fluency
Problem Solving Problem Solving
Richmond et al.2011
Working Memory Digit Span Backward (number of correct trials)
Problem Solving Raven's Matrices
Scherder et al. 2005 Fluency Category Naming
Executive Attention Trails A + B
Schwenk et al. 2010 Executive Attention Dual-Task Cost Serial 2 Forward, Dual-Task Cost Serial 3 Backward
Smith et al.2009
Working Memory Digit Span Backwards, Letter-Number Sequencing
Stine-Morrow et al. 2008 Working Memory Letter-Number Sequencing
Problem Solving Everyday Problem Solving, Letter Sets, Figure Classification
Fluency FAS, Word Association, Ornamentation, Alternate Uses
2007 Working Memory Alpha Span
Stuss et al., Craik et al.
Suzuki et al. 2012 Fluency Letter Verbal Fluency Test, Category Verbal Fluency Test
Inhibition Stroop Color and Word Test 3
van Uffelen et al. 2008 Inhibition Stroop Incongruent
Fluency Verbal Fluency Test
Vance et al.2007
Executive Attention Trails B
Williams & Lord1997
Problem Solving Cattell's Matrices, Picture Arrangement
Williamson et al.2009
Inhibition Stroop (Color-Word - Color)
Yágüez et al. 2011 Working Memory Matching to Sample Simultaneous, Matching to Sample Delayed, Working Memory Number of Errors
Appendix C
Table 1. Median Effect Sizes (dppc), Standard Errors, and 95% Confidence Intervals
Physical Exercise Cognitive Training
Comparisons M Q.25 – Q.75 Comparisons M Q.25 – Q.75
Overall Average 0.13 -0.02 - 0.32 Overall Average 0.22 0.02 - 0.46
Healthy Sample 0.11 0.03 - 0.23 Healthy Sample 0.25 0.09 - 0.57Impaired 0.33 0.15 - 0.48 Impaired 0.11 -0.13 - 0.36
Individual 0.31 -0.07 - 0.40 Individual 0.38 0.09 - 0.81Group 0.13 0.01 - 0.29 Group 0.12 -0.01 - 0.30
Waitlist Control 0.23 0.02 – 0.34 Waitlist Control 0.12 -0.03 - 0.32Active Control 0.05 -0.04 - 0.13 Active Control 0.29 0.09 - 0.65
Construct M Q.25 – Q.75 Construct M Q.25 – Q.75
Executive Attention 0.09 -0.02 - 0.32 Executive Attention -0.12 -0.33 - 0.08Problem Solving 0.18 -0.03 - 0.32 Problem Solving 0.52 0.15 - 0.84Working Memory 0.10 -0.07 - 0.29 Working Memory 0.22 0.09 - 0.34Inhibition 0.10 -0.12 - 0.34 Inhibition 0.03 -0.09 - 0.64Fluency 0.18 -0.06 - 0.29 Fluency 0.14 -0.03 - 0.42
Table 2. Unweighted Mean Effect Sizes (dppc), Standard Errors, and 95% Confidence Intervals
Physical Exercise Cognitive Training
Comparisons x̄ 95% CI Comparisons x̄ 95% CI
Overall Average0.16
0.06 - 0.27 Overall Average 0.29 0.12 - 0.47
Healthy Sample0.14
-0.03 - 0.32 Healthy Sample0.32
0.09 - 0.55
Impaired0.30
0.08 - 0.52 Impaired0.24
-0.13 - 0.61
Individual0.21
-0.19 - 0.60 Individual0.43
0.11 - 0.75
Group0.17
0.06 - 0.29 Group0.16
-0.01 - 0.33
Waitlist Control0.24
-0.12 - 0.16 Waitlist Control0.21
0.09 - 0.60
Active Control0.02
0.09 - 0.39 Active Control0.35
-0.10 - 0.52
Construct x̄ 95% CI Construct x̄ 95% CI
Executive Attention0.17
0.04 - 0.30 Executive Attention-0.09
-0.27 - 0.15
Problem Solving0.14
-0.21 - 0.48 Problem Solving0.53
0.23 - 0.82
Working Memory0.13
-0.02 - 0.29 Working Memory0.29
0.09 - 0.72
Inhibition0.09
-0.15 - 0.33 Inhibition0.15
-0.24 - 0.52Fluency 0.13 -0.05 - 0.31 Fluency 0.17 -0.07 - 0.41
Note. Mean values represent unweighted means.
Table 3. Unweighted Correlations between Effect Sizes (dppc) and Study Characteristics
Physical Exercise Cognitive Training
Moderator rw df 95% CI Moderator rw df 95% CI
Study Features Year0.30 32
-0.05 - 0.59 Year-0.48 26
-0.73 - -0.12
PEDro-0.02 32
-0.37 - 0.33 PEDro-0.19 26
-0.54 - 0.21
Participant Features Age0.01 32
-0.34 - 0.36 Age-0.43 26
-0.70 - 0.05
% Male-0.21 32
-0.52 - 0.15 % Male0.26 23
-0.17 - 0.61
MMSE0.20 15
-0.35 - 0.65 MMSE0.37 13
-0.23 - 0.76
Treatment Features Session Frequency0.13 32
-0.23 - 0.46 Session Frequency0.28 26
-0.12 - 0.60
Session Length0.00 32
-0.35 - 0.35 Session Length-0.10 24
-0.48 - 0.32
Treatment Length0.08 32
-0.28 - 0.42 Treatment Length-0.03 26
-0.42 - 0.36
Note. Correlation values represent unweighted correlations.