Prof. Csilla Bartha

Research Centre for Multilingualism

Research Institute for Linguistics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Hungary

&

Eötvös Loránd University

Institute for Hungarian and Finno-Ugric Studies

LEARNMe workshop 2, Stockholm, 8-9 May

Stockholm University

SUPERDIVERSITY, MONOLINGUAL

IDEOLOGIES AND MULTILINGUAL

PRACTICES OF LINGUISTIC OTHERS

Controversies of Sociolinguistic Research and

Policy in Contemporary Hungary

„Bilingualism is for me the

fundamental problem of linguistics...”

(In: Jakobson, R. 1953. Results of a

joint conference of anthropologists

and linguists.

IJAL Supplement, Memoire No. 8, 19-22.)

2

“The terms bilingualism and multilingualism have been used

interchangeably in the literature to refer to the knowledge

or use of more than one language by an individual or a

community… Bilingualism is a worldwide phenomenon.

Most nations have speakers of more than one language.

Hundreds of millions of people the world over routinely

make use of two or three or four languages in their daily

lives. Furthermore, even so-called monoliguals also

routinely switch from one language variety – a regional

dialect, the standard language, a specialised register, a

formal or informal style, and so on – to another in the

course of their daily interactions.”

(Sridhar 1996: 47, emphasis in original)

„Multilingualism and linguistic diversity are

sometimes conflicting policy agendas. Language

learning policy has tended to be influenced by

„harder‟ priorities like economic competitiveness and

labour market mobility, and linguistic diversity

policies by „softer‟ issues like inclusion and human

rights. Multilingualism policy has been more highly

prioritized than linguistic diversity policy in terms of

concrete actions.” Cullen, J., et al. 2008. Multilingualism: Between Policy Objectives and

Implementation. Brussels: European Parliament.

PRELIMINARIES

Multiplicity of the key concepts of linguistic

diversity, multilingualism, mother tongue, linguistic

rights per se etc. in different legal instruments, in EU

documents and in everyday discourses

Besides some positive developments both in the

Western and Eastern regions of Europe actual

protection of regional and minority languages often

encounters difficulties

Legal instruments are not sufficient per se, they do

not guarantee long-term maintenance and

development of these languages.

Historical, ideological, geo-political specificity of the

ECE region.

Post-Soviet countries can be characterized by an

ethnically-based nationalism which

since “1991 resulted in the discursive

“reinterpretation of the history of the Soviet Union”

(Blommaert 2006: 151)

efforts of un-doing Russification”

a new national awakening

re-negotiation of identities

definition of the re-newed role of national languages

and new titular and minority groups

CONCEPTUAL CONTROVERSIES BETWEEN

EAST AND WEST

‘Minorities’

Monolingual/standardized/institutionalized ideologies

and misconceptions are still existent in scientific

discourse, influencing the education system, language

learning policies and actions, media and business, as

well as individual and family decisions regarding

language choice and school preference.

Eastern Europe has had a negative balance of

migration since the transition. Migration to the west

has touched the minorities first, beginning with e.g.

Germans in Eastern Europe around 1990, but due to

the permanent economic crisis and the changing

political climate in some ECE countries, we have to

face with a dramatic increase of new forms of Eastern

European migration in terms of its motivation and

socio-economic composition.

AFRICA

2092 languages

30%

AMERICA

1002 languages

14%

ASIA

2269 languages

34%

EUROPE

239 languages

3%

OCEANIA

1310 languages

19%

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WORLD

LANGUAGES IN 2005

4

17

4

1 1

10

0

8

12

4

1

15

1

15

4

2

4

13

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Au

str

ia

Bo

s.

& H

erz

.

Bu

lgari

a

Den

mark

Esto

nia

Fra

nce

Gre

ece

Hu

ng

ary

Italy

Lit

hu

an

ia

Neth

erl

an

ds

Po

lan

d

Po

rtu

gal

Ro

man

ia

Sp

ain

Sw

itzerl

an

d

UK

Ukra

ine

N of R/M languages officially provided in

education in 18 countries (LRE)

MULTILINGUALISM AND GLOBALIZATION

sociolinguistics of globalisation ‘will need to explain the various

forms of interconnectedness between levels and scales of

sociolinguistic phenomena’ in order to understand properly

‘what language achieves in people’s lives’.

((((Blommaert 2003

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION, NEW WAYS OF LEARNING AND

THE INCREASING SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNITY MEDIA IN

THE SUSTAINABILITY OF LANGUAGES

11

INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF NET AND IT (See Hicks 2012)

Youth (the future of language) switch off TV and mobile and use net.

In 2011, more young people say they would prefer to give up watching television than doing without their mobiles phones or the internet.

Only 23% of 16- to 24-year-olds say they would struggle without TV.

28% said they would miss their mobile phone.

26% the internet.

Questioning the validity of descrete categories

The effect analysis of language policies

The combination of various research methods,

comparative studies

Bottom-up, empirical language policies are needed

(cf. structure vs. agency)

RE-THINKING LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND

MULTILINGUALISM IN HUNGARY

The member states of Western Europe are mainly interested

in the concepts of a linguistic diversity and a multilingualism

that differ from those understood in Central/Eastern Europe

and in the sustention of support system that is connected to

their understanding of these terms.

FORMER CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF HUNGARY, ARTICLE 68

(1) The national and ethnic minorities living in the Republic of Hungary

participate in the sovereign power of the people: they represent a

constituent part of the State.

(2) The Republic of Hungary shall provide for the protection of national

and ethnic minorities and ensure their collective participation in public

affairs, the fostering of their cultures, the use of their native languages,

education in their native languages and the use of names in their native

languages.

(3) The laws of the Republic of Hungary shall ensure representation for the

national and ethnic minorities living within the country.

(4) National and ethnic minorities shall have the right to form local and

national bodies for selfgovernment.

(5) A majority of twothirds of the votes of the Members of Parliament

present is required to pass the law on the rights of national and ethnic

minorities. 15

ACT LXXVII OF 1993 ON THE RIGHTS OF NATIONAL AND ETHNIC MINORITIES

Article 1 (2) For the purposes of the present Act a national or

ethnic minority (hereinafter 'minority') is any ethnic group

with a history of at least one century of living in the Republic

of Hungary, which represents a numerical minority among the

citizens of the state, the members of which are Hungarian

citizens, and are distinguished from the rest of the citizens by

their own language, culture and traditions, and at the same

time demonstrate a sense of belonging together, which is

aimed at the preservation of all these, and the expression and

protection of the interests of their communities, which have

been formed in the course of history.

Article 2: This Act does not apply to refugees, immigrants,

foreign citizens settled in Hungary, or to persons of no fixed

abode.

16

LANGUAGE EDUCATION POLICY PROFILE – HUNGARY

„This self-evaluation is an opportunity for critical reflection in a process of dialogue

involving different partners in government and civil society, within a debate on the

questions of language education policies. This process includes all languages in

education: Hungarian, languages of minorities and migrants as well as foreign

languages. (…) The decision to carry out this Profile, supported by both the previous

and the present governments, reflects a consensus on the significance of language

education at the highest and a desire to undertake self-evaluation in the light of Council

of Europe Policy and principles. In this context Hungary accords particular priority to

policies for plurilingualism and pluriculturalism (sic!), diversification and choice of

languages in the curriculum, language education for minorities, and also for migrant

communities. The particular importance attached to language education is further

reflected in the preparation by the Ministry of Education of a national strategy for

foreign languages (World–Language Strategy), which was being developed

simultaneously with the visits by Council of Europe experts and which will be presented

in detail at appropriate points throughout this report. (…) The Profile has a second

purpose of presenting Hungarian language education to readers in other countries.”

(Council of Europe/Ministry of Education 2002–2003:5)

MULTILINGUAL EUROPE vs. MONOLINGUAL

HUNGARY?

National strategy, Hungarian-Hungarian identity policy, the re-

contextualization of the nation state;

The actual practice in the education of the minorities, the lack of

instruction in Romani/Boyash, education of immigrant children and the

new language instruction politial strategy;

The Hungarian-Minority Language bilingualism is temporary

Stability is relative even in the case of speakers living in homogenous

blocks

In some settlements, bilingualism often means a stage of language

shift

The languages of minorities residing in Hungary are endangered

Instruction in these languages as secondary languages and in foreign

languages (especially content-based language learning) is supported

with restrictions

18

FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF

HUNGARY - 2011

In the Fundamental Law of 2011, Hungarian is recognized as the official

language of the state and is protected – together with the Hungarian

Sign Language – as a part of Hungarian culture.

According to Article XXIX, „nationalities living in Hungary shall be

constituent parts of the State. Every Hungarian citizen belonging to any

nationality shall have the right to freely express and preserve his or her

identity. Nationalities living in Hungary shall have the right to use their

native languages and to the individual and collective use of names in their

own languages, to promote their own cultures, and to be educated in their

native languages.” The new Constitution expressly prohibites any

discrimination on the bases of language and national origin.

Act CLXXIX of 2011

on the Rights of Minorities

Educational Self-Governance of Minorities

22. § (1) For the purposes of this Act, the following

languages shall qualify as languages used by

minorities: Bulgarian, Greek, Croatian, Polish,

German, Armenian, Roma/Gypsy (Romani and Beás)

(hereinafter collective referred to as “Roma”),

Romanian, Ruthenian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene and

Ukrainian, and further, also the Hungarian language

in the case of the Roma and Armenian minorities.

CHAPTER V

Educational, Cultural and Media Rights of Minorities

20

ACT CXXV OF 2009 ON HUNGARIAN SIGN LANGUAGE AND THE USE OF HUNGARIAN SIGN LANGUAGE

The Deaf Community is defined as a language

minority. Hungarian Sign Language (hereinafter:

HSL) is recognized as an independent natural

language.

It is regarded as the most advanced sign language law

in Europe.

From 1 September 2017, the instruction of HSL will

be compulsory at schools established for Deaf

children. In integrating institutions, education of HSL

will be compulsory provided that at least one parent

of a Deaf child requests so.

LINGUISTIC OTHERS IN HUNGARY

1) National and ethnic minorities (since 2012)

• „historical”/”traditional”/”biggest” minorities:

Germans, Croats, Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenians, Serbians

• „smaller” minorities:

Armenians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Poles, Ruthenes, Ukrainians

• Gypsy/Roma:

Romani, Boyash, Hungarian speaking groups

2) Immigrants (from 136 countries)

3) Deaf community (Hungarian Sign Language; with a majority of prelingual Deaf community members)

MINORITIES/

NATIONALITIES

CENSUS 1990

(NATIONALITY)

CENSUS 2001

(NATIONALITY)

CENSUS 2011

(NATIONALITY)

CENSUS 1990

(MOTHER

TONGUE)

CENSUS

2001

(MOTHER

TONGUE)

CENSUS 2011

(MOTHER

TONGUE)

ESTIMATED NUMBER

Gypsy/Roma 142 683 189 984 308 957 48 072 48 685 54 339 600 000-800 000

German 30 824 62 233 131 951 37 511 33 792 38 248 200 000-220 000

Croatian 13 570 15 620 23 561 17 577 14 345 13 716 80 000-90 000

Slovak 10 459 17 693 29 647 12 745 11 817 9 888 100 000-110 000

Romanian 10 740 7 995 26 345 8 730 8 482 13 886 25 000

Serbian 2 905 3 816 7 210 2 953 3 388 3 708 5 000-10 000

Armenian -- 620 3 293 37 294 444 3 500-10 000

Polish -- 2 962 5 730 3 788 2 580 3 049 10 000

Slovenian 1 930 3 040 2 385 2 627 3 187 1 723 5 000

Ruthenian -- 1 098 3323 674 1 113 999 6 000

Greek -- 2 509 3916 1 640 1 921 1 872 4 000-4 500

Bulgarian -- 1 358 3556 1 370 1 299 2 899 3 000-3 500

Ukrainian -- 5 070 5633 -- 4 885 3 384 2 000

Total 213 111 314 060 555 507 137 724 135 788

(-1,41)

148 155 835 000-1 083 955 23

MI

POPULATION IN HUNGARY MINORITY

(Census 1990, 2001, 2011

Source: Central Statistical Office 1990 and 2001 Censuses, Nationality Affiliation

GYPSY/ROMA LINGUISTIC GROUPS IN HUNGARY

MONOLINGUALS BILINGUALS

Linguistically assimilated Romani – Hungarian Boyash – Hungarian Hungarian monolinguals

Vlach Romani Central Romani Nothern Romani

variants variants variants

Lovar Romungr/ Sinto Argelan Munchan Tichan

Kelderash Hungarian Gypsy

Masar Vend Romani

Colár

Churar stb.

Cerhar*

Gurvar*

* indicates transitional variants

Source:: Szalai 2007

In 2008, the Parliament adopted the act (XLIII/2008) which

included Gypsy languages (Romani and Boyash) under the

scope of the commitments of the European Charter for

Regional or Minority Languages. The act contains

commitments specific to the current social and language

situation of the Hungarian Gypsy communities as opposed to

other minorities. The commitments mean an increased

protection and greater role for the two languages in education,

culture, jurisdiction, administration, mass media and the

various areas of economic and social life. After the ratification

of the Charter, however, no actions have been taken to actually

fulfil the above-mentioned commitments.”(Forray és

Pálmainé 2010: 84)

INVISIBLE BILINGUALISM

→ This minority of approx. 150-200 000 people is practically invisible for most of the majority population

→ Gypsy languages and Hungarian-Gypsy bilingualism does come up in linguistic research but not in the mainstream, only marginally.

Reasons: → most of the speakers also speak Hungarian

(this can also be claimed of the other national minorities…)

→ the public opinion of Gypsy languages: worthless, not a separate, not an equal language

→ diversity of Gypsy languages and dialects (not standardized, not uniform)

→ institutional enforcement of interests is poor (though now improving, see Gypsy Minority Councils)

→ categorization uncertainties

26

DO YOU SPEAK ENGLISH? NO, I’M HUNGARIAN!

do-you-speak-english-no-im-hungarian.htm

English vs German?

„Is the intellectual development a more vital objective of language acquisition than the actual communication? Can the used language be exchanged in the battle against globalization?– A choice in itself is no problem; what the trouble is when the state make the choice instead of us.”

(Ádám Nádasdy; http://www.vasarnapihirek.hu/fokusz/oktatasugy_mintha_a_vesztuket_ereznek

„I have an educational principle. It is forbidden to learn English as the first foreign language. I don’t want my children to end up like me: You learn English as well as you can, get along in the world with it, but you miss a lot of other cultures.„ /Viktor Orbán/

“In today’s international life English is the language in which we can get in touch with one another. German is, with the exception of Germany, not a language which people understand.” /József Pálinkás – President of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences/

The education state secretariat plans to make German the main foreign language to be taught in schools, rather than English, news website Origo reports. “From the point of view of language pedagogy it is proposed that pupils first encounter the German language, which has a more complex grammar structure than English.” according to the strategy. The strategy would require pupils to take German-language exams every other year and could only sit higher entrance examinations from 2017 after passing language tests.

27

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LANGUAGE STRATEGIC, IDENTITY

POLITICAL AND EDUCATIONAL CONCEPTS OF HUNGARY – WHICH IS TO

AFFECT OTHER HUNGARIAN SPEAKING COMMUNITIES BEYOND THE

BORDERS

• Bilingualism regarded as harmful in language policy discourse

• Unfounded emphasis on the negative effects of early language teaching re-shapes the

recently established good practice.

• The planning of foreign language acquisition is governed from the ‘top’ sometimes in

an unreasonable manner (e.g. backing the instruction of German as the first foreign

language as opposed to English - see the arguements related to this decision)

• No comprenehsive social linguistic viewpoint is represented in the instruction of the first

language, the minority and foreign languages.

• Several misconceptions, language ideologies are formulated and re-produced in the

various areas of education regarding the new multilingualism, the diversity of languages

and the degree of standardization.

• Professionally rather unfounded arguments hinder the establishment of a state-funded

primary, secondary, higher education and teacher training in Romani and Boyash.

• The actual practice often contradicts international research trends and the related EC

recommendations

• „standardized linguistic diversity”. (Cf. Gal)

CONTRADICTORY CONCEPTS HARDLY SUPPORTING LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND

MULTILINGUALISM IN PRACTICE

30

DILING-HU

DIMENSIONS OF LINGUISTIC OTHERNESS:

PROSPECTS OF MINORITY LANGUAGE

MAINTENANCE IN HUNGARY

Comparative analysis of language shift in six linguistic

minorities (2001-2004)

National Research & Development Programme

Contract number: 5/126/2001

MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

to develop powerful multidisciplinary comparative research methodology and tools, which has predictive power with respect to future linguistic assimilation processes

to give a detailed analysis of the dynamics and local models of language shift and maintenance focussing on the process

to study the architecture of “ethnic identity” and the role of the minority languages in construction and negotiation of identities

Practical aims: Developing professional auxiliary materials with the help of which the results of our research may be used in practice, especially in minority education and in community-building activities

SOCIOLINGUISTIC OBJECTIVES

To study

the functional division of labor of the languages in contact;

the distribution of language choice patterns between age groups, education groups, sexes and religious denominations depending on communication partner, situation, topic and formality;

the subjective linguistic self-evaluation of interviewees;

the attitudes towards own language and majority language (language variants) and their speakers;

the stated language awareness of interviewees (about the own verbal repertoire in an implicit way)

THEORIES AND METHODS II.

THE SAMPLE (6 X 70; N=420)

defined sample (according to age, gender and educational background)

the informants were German / Romanian / Slovakian etc adults, living in the studied settlement, who were also born in the given village

between 20-40 years of age: 10 men (5 with primary school, 5 with secondary school education) 10 women (5 with primary school, 5 with sec. school education)

between 41-60 years of age: 15 men (5 with primary school, 5 with secondary school, 5 with higher education)

15 women (5 with primary school, 5 with secondary school, 5 with higher education)

between 61-80 years of age: 10 men (5 with primary school, 5 with secondary school education) 10 women (5 with primary school, 5 with secondary school education)

THEORIES AND METHODS I.

FIELDWORK

Tape-recorded data collection with the help of questionnaires, recording (dialogues) / conversations, commentaries

Participant observation

Additional data collection

The questionnaires were administered in the local minority dialect of the settlement. Their completion was carried out by a field worker belonging to the community, also using the same variant of the minority language.

QUESTIONNAIRES

Studying language shift

in apparent time

Accountability

Validity

Comparable data

Patterns of LS and LM in Hungary

Lm pattern: Serb, Roma communities

Ls pattern: German, Boyash, Slovak, Romanian communities

Stabil Bilingualism

pattern: -

1

3

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

19

Roma

1

3

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

19

German

Stages of Ls by Six minority groups

in one country

Initial stage: Serb, Roma communities

Advanced stage: Romanian, Slovak communities

Close to the final stage: German, Boyash,

communities

The role of language and ancestry in identity

construction (N = 420) (Q23)

58,1

41,9

45,9

54,1

41,6

58,3

27,5

72,5

26,9

73,2

8,5

91,4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Romanian Slovakian Boyash German Serbian Romani

Ancestry

Language

DILING-EU

Dimensions of Linguistic Otherness:

Prospects of Maintenance and

Revitalization of Minority Languages

SIXTH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME

PRIORITY 7

Citizens and governance in a Knowledge-based society

SPECIFIC SUPPORT ACTION

Contract number: 029124

http://diling.nytud.hu/

PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES

Czech Republic

Moldavia

Romania

Serbia

Slovakia

Slovenia

Ukraine

Hungary

Coordinator Institution: Research Institute for Linguistics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences

Project Coordinator: Csilla Bartha (bartha@nytud.hu)

Scientific Assistant: Andrea Szőnyi (szonyi@nytud.hu)

LANGUAGE IDEOLOGIES IN ACTION

MISCONCEPTIONS

41

„...in the constant contact with each other, two language systems easily intertwine and mix in the consciousness of an individual, the sense of languages sometimes becomes uncertain, the categories of one language adapt to those of the other, characteristic features become less frequent and there is a hazard of language systems „decomposing”. Though not the intellibility, but the establishment of the conceptual system, the penetration into the logic of things and creative thinking are jeopardized by it. By the „decomposition” of the language system, thinking itself becomes incoherent, disintegrated and vague in the individual.” (Language Cultivation Handbook I: 1291)

?

42

„learning a non-mother tongue before

the age of 18 has great disadvantages

and personality wrecking effects.” (Zalabai Zsigmond in Erdélyi és Nobel 1999)

43

The countdown has started! Language ecological ideas

ÉDES ANYANYELVÜNK 2003/1. 3

„Values tested by humanity which are thought to be constant are being questioned –

Language tradition is being eliminated

Noise creates turbulance, communication in noise can only be shouting.

Development and consumption are accelerating. – Speaking rate is becoming

faster.

Greenery is diminishing - The same way, language colours are also disappearing

(expressions, styles, genres and successful communication techniques)

Rubbish spreads allover– Language use is becoming simpler, rougher and

ragged.

Biological diversity is being eliminated– The diversity of cultures and languages

are rapidly disappearing. According to the prediction of the UNESCO, the

approx. 3000 languages of the world around 2800 will disappear this century [sic!]

Consumer society is dominating the world– Only one world language is being

born.”

READING: A PUNISHMENT?

„One of the little boys was bullying the others. What can you do in such a case? It can only be resolved in a private conversation. There are ways that cannot be found out. For example, I asked this little boy to come to my office, more than once, and I told him to read out the journal Public Education. And then, the other children asked where Zolika was. ... And so it was big punishment. And I said something else to the children. But I’m not allowed touch him, not matter what he does. And if I slap him, what’s gonna happen? But I didn’t do anything like that. I made him read. And I told him he didn’t even deserve it…your disabled mates are so clever, valuable. He really suffered. He is still afraid I would call him in and make him read. I even told my colleagues that I had made Zolika read.”

http://www.oki.hu/oldal.php?tipus=cikk&kod=integracio_gyakorlatban-07_csokoly

Present situation

There are no fully reliable data concerning the number of D/deaf

people living in Hungary. According to the 2011 census data, there

are 8,571 D/deaf and 63,014 hard of hearing persons living in the

country. Moderate estimates however figure about 30–60,000

D/deaf people. This population constitutes the third largest

linguistic and cultural minority in Hungary.

IMPLEMENTATION

Sign Language Act

Sign Language Research

Steps of HSL Plannning

Full Access to HSL in Public and Private domains

STEPS OF IMPLEMENTATION Sign Language Act

Sign Language Researches

Standardization Improving interpretation

Developing methods and

teaching materials for bilingual Deaf

education

Trainings in higher

education (teachers,

interpreters, researchers

etc.)

Promoting availability in

the media and public domains

Awareness raising

ORALIST ARGUMENTS

• „We share the rightful need having been articulated in several international forums when we state that early development has to be initiated on the auditive-oral way. We consider it a major mistake to limitate hearing development at this age and use manual methods too early. This can only take place after observation for sufficient time, having sufficient pedagogical experiences and in a way specially adjusted to the needs of the child and only in the case when responsibility can be taken thatthey will bring better results.”

(Csányi 1993: 39) • „It is an unfortunate fact that bilingualism only facilitates separatedness as

it denounces the development of the sounding speech, the real connecting link, this strengthening otherness with the emphatic use of the own language.”

(Csányi 1993: 38) • „The major objective of the oralist procedure is to make the person with

hard of hearing able to acquire the language and speaking on the highest possible level and to make them able to communicate independently with hearing people without the help of anyone, to make them able to directly exchange ideas with them, to communicate, read and write independently.” (i.m.: 35)

DEAF BILINGUAL EDUCATION

Quality

Efficiency

Equity

Choice

LINGUISTIC STATUS OF A DEAF CHILD

HSL MONOLINGUAL

HSL-H BILINGUAL

H MONOLINGUAL

HSL – XSL BILINGUAL (?)

+

ADDITIONAL

LANGUAGES

POSSIBLE SOLUTION

Sstudents enrolled in Hungarian deaf schools constitute a rather heterogeneous group in terms of their actual rate of hearing loss, their mental state and cognitive capacity, potential results of auditory-verbal training as well as achievable speech-language skills etc.

However, for at least 25-30% of children with profound hearing loss oral communication methods yield definitely no results (cf. Csányi 1994: 118).

The only effective education option for these children would be a sign language based bilingual program that is entirely lacking from deaf schools in Hungary.

Equalization of opportunities in education for hearing impaired students will only have been achieved when the group of children with profound hearing loss (D/deaf) is fully included.

LEVELS OF RESEARCH

Language policy and planning, linguistic right, de jure bilingualism

Linguistic practices in different sociolinguistic domains, attitudes, education etc.

Language acquisition,

INDIVIDUAL

COMMUNITY

SOCIETAL

• LANGUAGE TRANSMISSION Why? What? How? Symbolic versus market value of languages • THE CONCEPT OF „LANGUAGE” sociolinguistic considerations (linguistic diversity; linguistic and social change; factors and the process

of language maintenance; sociolingusitic status: standardized/vernacular/unwritten etc.)

conceptual problems and myths mother tongue native speaker home language vs school language language proficiency (divergence of ideologies and norms)

• DIFFERENT VIEWS AND MISCONCEPTIONS OF BILINGUALISM the role of attitudes and ideologies; monolingual views and norms;

language testing „regime”; A paradox: new meanings of linguistic diversity and multilingualism: the role of CoE, EU initiatives

? SIGN LANGUAGES

The Discussion Paper (part of a more complex expert material prepared by the

Linguistics Research Institute for the language strategy of the Minsitry of Human

Resources) ‘THE HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE AND DISADVANTAGED

GROUPS’ and its Evaluation by the Ministry of Human Resources

„Bilingualism alone does not result in poor school performance, on the contrary:

the command and the regular use of two or more languages can be beneficial. In

an appropriate educational setting, the linguistic diversity of Gypsy children may

be a valuable source of further skills and competences. As a conclusion, the native

language education of Gypsy children may mean something completely different

for the practice of Hungarian primary and secondary education and for the

various groups affected.”

Remark 20: In the third paragraph of page 66 of the Discussion Paper – while

sustaining my viewpoint on bilingualism – I suggest the author should define the

community in question in a more precise way. Should the Hungarian speaking Roma

communities be meant here, this would require a different approach and a more

detailed discussion.” (The referred viewpoint regarding bilingualism is based on

the document „Hungarian National Strategy – a the framework of the national

policy strategy”, I disagree with any kind of suggestion of bilingualism.

Bilingualism cannot be interpreted from a national political perspective, is not

applicable in practice, and concerning its consequences, it is downrights harmful.

Bilingualism means langage loss and leads to assimilation.”

54

The Discussion Paper (part of a more complex expert material prepared by the

Linguistics Research Institute for the language strategy of the Minsitry of Human

Resources) ‘THE HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE AND DISADVANTAGED

GROUPS’ and its Evaluation by the Ministry of Human Resources

„4.3. HUNGARIAN COMMUNITIES IN THE CARPATHIAN BASIN AND EDCUATION

The poor school performance of children belonging to language minorities has its roots in

languages. While developing efficient school programmes, the efficient management of the

concepts of bilingualism, double semilingualism, minority education, bilingual education and the

native language and the body of knowledge connected to these cannot be ignorned. (…) The

interpretation, evaluation and shaping of the beliefs and misconceptions related to the

inherent diversity of the concept, advantages and possible social disadvantages of bilingualism

are the tasks and social responsibility of linguists. The varied ethno-demographic

arrangements of the Hungarian regions of the Carpathian Basin require a more refined

approach to the concept of the first/native language and an education dominated by the

native language. As a consequence, in the case of children living in non-homogenous groups,

ethnically mixed regions or in mixed families, the enforcement of the Hungarian language,

identity and Hungarian language competencies may be carried our successfully even in

various models. What could work optimally in most of Transylvania does not work in Slovenia,

let alone the special language planning tasks which affect Csango communities or the education

of children of the Roma population which increasingly profess themselves Hungarian. Thus, in

practice we need differentiated strategies.”

· remark: „21. I suggest omitting Point 4.3. on page 66 based on the notions on

bilingualism formulated in the General Remarks. Questioning education in the first language

contradicts the nataional political approach and practice in its fundamentals.”

55

LANGUAGE DISADVANTAGE – LANGUAGE

DIVERSITY?

The reason for „language disadvantage”: the lacking command of a language/ differing language socialization (not the same)

Language disadvantage= actually language diversity

A different language socialization can only be considered a disadvantage from the viewpoint of the school performance. Outside school, the same language skill combination can play a positive role. (Réger 1990, Derdák-Varga 1996).

Language diversity: - in the case of children with Gypsy languages as first language, the lacking or insufficient command of Hungarian) e.g. Alsószentmárton

In the case of children with Hungarian as first language, the difference between the language variety used at home and that used at school

The language of the school is a difficulty even for children with a „good” social background, but they cope with it more easily,. For children of a depraved social background, this difficulty is much harder to overcome.

„ The Hungarian spoken by the monolingual Hungarian-speaking Gypsy children in the East of Hungary and the Hungarian required by the school seem to be two separate languages..” (Derdák-Varga 1996)

Missing concepts(e.g. Christmas tree, prince)

Differing concepts (frequently used concepts vs concepts used at school)

Differing discourse patterns(e.g different question patterns, test questions, conversational norms related to „truth”,)

Differing speech genres (e.g. narratives, image discription vs. Dialoguies, tales)

Differing degree of emotionality

56

A POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION OF LANGUAGE

DISADVANTAGE

From a linguistic perspective, disadvantage is nothing

but language diversity: the language use of a speaker or

group of speakers differs to a greater or lesser extent

from the standard language norms and expected use of

the social group with a symbolic power. In the public

arena of language use, this comes up as a problem or

conflict restricting not only the life chances but also the

rights to freely profess themselves to their identities. (Bartha 2001)

57

„More educated, more

learned.”

„They are speaking

like gentlement.”

„ They are more

cultured, more

educated.”

„Young people are

more educated- they

speak a professional

language.”

„Young people are

moder and more

educated.”

58

„We do speak fluently but not as they do, as the language officially was.”

„Older people use the old words.”

„Old Gypsies speak better.”

„The young people already translate it.”

„The young people don’t speak Gypsy anymore.”

„Everyone speaks it fluently, but the youth doesn’t know the Gypsy equivalent of some workds (e.g. key).”

„The olda people speak the old Gypsy, we already mix it.”

„Out generation already mixes it with Hungarian, but our children do it even more.”

„ If she is old, she will speak Gypse, but if she is young, she will obviously speak Hungarian or Gypsy.”

Romani or Lovari?

Not a fully fledged language?

„requirement for a university degree:) They promptly passed their Gypsy language exam because it was so easy to learn…unfortunately, it is not accepted anymore because of this…when I was 14, learned to speak it at a basic level in 2-3 weeks thanks to a little Gypsy friend of mine...and most of their words are really just puzzled together from already existing languages perhaps with very little change…for example: sukár = sudár, which is the same as beautiful...they changed only one letter :D, or tu=te (you) or so as not to mention a word stolen from Hungarian: mé= in English: me:)”

(3/17/ 2007.. 18:26)

59

DEFICIT-IDEOLOGY „Actual upbringing, meaning making children adapt to proper behaviour and the development of thinking…is unknown in Gypsy families leading a traditional life. (Vekerdi–Mészáros 1978: 35);

„Gypsy children are affected by language harm in two ways in a traditional Gypsy environment. First, they miss out on being socialized to have conversations (the so-called lack dialogue situations). Parents living in a camp with a traditional worldview don’t normally talk with their children who are just learning to speak. So, the one-two year old Gypsy child learns they language by hearing it without the refining/correcting help. (Hungarian or Gypsy ).” (Várnagy–Vekerdi 1979: 24);

„Gypsy mothers in camps rarely speak or play with their children, so their play instinct is under-developed and stops at the level of fighting.” (Vekerdi–Mészáros 1978: 23);

„The mother as primiary mediator has not command of the objectivated system (natural language) which evolved on a socio-historical basis. So, her children cannot acquire the social experiences and knowledge fixed in the language….The requirement system applied in a Gypsy family, if there is one at all, does not provide the children with the assets of learning different modes of conduct.” (Tomai 1979: 95).

60

„The linguistic disadvantage of Gypsy children is mainly rooted in the fact that written language, a contact with written culture are missing from the language pattern used at home. […] At the same time, the modes of language use specific to the traditional and native culture in which a Gypsy child grows up are completely irrelevant from the perspective of school requirements. (According to our research, the oral-language skills of children growing up in a traditional Gypsy family are not even known at the school or ignore it. (Réger 2001: 89 1974 1978)

HOW IS SCHOOL SEEN?

Views of non-Gypsy parents

School is a result of a social

consensus

It prepares children for life

School is in possession of the

knowledge which is to be

acquired

Views of Gypsy parents

School works on a legal basis

Real life is at home and in the

community

The job of the school is to teach:

To basic cultural skills

To speak properly

To behave properly among

Hungarians

1 state – 1 language (perhaps 2)

The „immigrant languages” are not listed among the languages of the „host

country”.

„It must emphasized that the protection of indiginous/traditional minorities must be

separated from the protection of the legal protection of immigrants. Furthermore,

we must sensitize the European public to the protection of the rights and the

cultural and language reproduction of the indiginous minorities.” (Hungarian

National Policy: Framework for a National Political Strategy)

The uneven evalualtion of multilingual competences

Native language + 2 other languages = official state languages

Citizens are identified with the state languages

Diversity within a language exists at an individual and at a community level.

Monolingual habitus in the multilingual states of Europe (I. Gogolin)

The growing power of standardizing, national regimes – often at regional level –

because of the supranational organizations or despite them. (S. Gal)

Recent developments:

The Austrian Applied Linguistics Society on the

Hungarian Language Strategy Institute:

"As many of you already know, the Hungarian government has just decided to found a

new institute for Hungarian language strategy. This is an action analogous to the

founding of new "government" institutes for the research into Hungarian history,

ignoring the already existing scholarly institutions, the position, traditions and

international connections of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the relevant

university institutes.

The new Language Strategy Institute will be directly subject to the Prime Minister,

(Viktor Orbán) and obviously the director (who is currently the only employee) and

other employees of the new institute will be politically appointed, without any normal

application procedures based on scholarly expertise. However, the tasks of the new

institute, according to its founding decree, will include not just consulting and advising

policy-makers but also conducting independent research in practically all aspects of

Hungarian linguistics and even Finno-Ugric studies˙˙˙(…)

Practically all these functions - research into diverse aspects of Hungarian linguistics,

creation of databases and dictionaries, language planning and Finno-Ugric studies - are

already covered by existing academic institutions; even for the "language strategy"

there exists, since 2000, a "research group for Hungarian language strategy" at the

ELTE university.” 64

CONCLUDING REMARKS

More attention should have been given to the geo-political and ideological

determination of linguistic concepts and terminology as social and political

constructs and their complex relationship with re-contextualised European

political, economic, linguistic arrangements and especially to the asymmetry

between power-generated and actual communicative practice-based linguistic

boundaries.

Importance of the interplay between the local, regional, national and

European levels in the forming of language policies is inevitable aspect of any

application.

Since developing a standard for a minoritised language is not a neutral process

with strong consequences for the status of the language and its users relation

to the new standard, and because standardisation which was supposed to

empower minority language speakers may create a new form of stigma for

those who feel that they cannot live up to the codified standard, there is an

urgent need for systematic analysis of these processes

THE IDEAL ROLE OF EDUCATION

Education – ideally – should provide a chance for

everyone against hegemonistic, assimilative

ambitions with the hidden objective to hinder the

“infiltration” of less preferred language variants, i.e.

dialects, minority languages into the institutional

system of the society.

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF BOTTOM-UP

AND SOCIALLY COMMITTED

LINGUISTIC RESEARCH

Research in Linguistics and Language Use

More effective education

Access to information; social participation

Better job opportunities

Real social integration

THANK YOU

FOR YOUR

ATTENTION!