Summary Writing

November 2013

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"Your manuscript is both good and original; but the part that is good is not original, and the part that is original is not good." (Samuel Johnson)

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I. The Task

II. Strategy

A. Deconstruction and Reconstruction: The Cornell method

B. Writing your summary

III. The Elements

A. Vocabulary

1. Idioms

2. Gerunds

3. Close calls and false friends

4. Synonyms

5. Social register

B. Paraphrasing and Transformation

C. Grammar

IV. Style

A. Desubstantivate!

B. More style considerations

C. Writing Mechanics

1. Punctuation

2. Articles

3. Linking words

4. British and American spelling

V. Practice

A. News report

B. Factual text

C. Opinion text

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I. The Task

The goal of writing a summary is to convey as accurately as possible the full sense of a given

text in a condensed form. In essence, you want to say the same thing in fewer words.

In order to accomplish this task, you must fearlessly reduce clutter, judiciously select the most

important parts of the original, and compose a new text. You must remain objective. You must

be thorough. You must be efficient. And your English has to be good. That’s a lot to ask, but with

the right tools it can be done.

You need to demonstrate proficiency on two fronts:

1. Language and expression

o Grammatical accuracy

o Correct and appropriate usage

o Sensible punctuation

o Variety of sentence structures

o Range of vocabulary

o Fluent, confident, accurate and appropriate use of expression and idiom

2. Content and style

o Accurate presentation and coherent organization

o Correct layout and logical structure

o Effective use of paragraphs

o Effective use of linking devices

o Appropriate length

o Consistent and appropriate social register and tone

o Variety of repertoire

Objectivity

You must remain impartial at all times. It is customary to refer to the author two or three times (at

the beginning, somewhere in the middle, and again at the end) to emphasize your objectivity.

You may want to comment on the author’s style as well. There are several ways to do this. You

can write according to the author or use one of the following verbs. The author:

notes gives

points out emphasizes

describes outlines

maintains argues

is convinced believes

portrays offers

cites states

concludes asserts

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Getting started

In order to firmly establish your impartiality, you can begin your summary with a phrase such as

“The text is about …”.

Other alternatives:

The present article addresses the issue of…

In the passage, a new type of … is introduced and evaluated.

The piece of writing at hand reflects the opinion of … concerning …

The author of the article wishes to persuade his/her readers that …

The main message of this passage is that …

The subject of the text is …

The author of the passage intends to …

You are unlikely to need reported speech as you will be reporting in the present tense:

The author maintains that nuclear energy is safe.

II. Strategy

Start with an active reading of the text. Make notes in the margin using annotations, exclamation

points(!), asterisks(*), numbers or other symbols. Write “main idea” / “main argument”/ “first

argument” / “evidence” / “proof” / “support”.

A. Deconstruction and Reconstruction

Next, begin to deconstruct the original text. You can read the text all the way through once

before writing anything down or you can start taking notes right away. In either case, there is a

simple tool you can use to keep everything organized. It is called the Cornell method:

Main point Explanations

1. 2. 3. etc.

1. 2. 3. etc.

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The main points include:

The thesis or main idea.

The primary assertions, arguments or findings.

The primary means of support for each finding.

Explanations include

reasons

facts

examples

descriptions

numerical information: statistics, years, dates, figures

Work through the text and break it down into main ideas and explanations. Write them down in

the order of the original. All the main points should be covered in your summary. For each main

idea, you may have to select and condense the supporting arguments.

As you are doing this, you may come up with some good ideas. In effect, you are already in

“summarizing” mode. When this happens, don’t lose sight of your good ideas. Write them down

somewhere and then find a place to fit them in. Start paraphrasing the text right away.

Write clearly and leave space between each note. Do not cram too much on one page. Keeping

the items separate will make them easier to recall. Laying out the information in this way will help

you to assess the importance of each detail.

Write on only one side of each page. Number the pages.

What to leave out

Obviously, some details are going to have to be left out. You can’t keep everything. Things to

leave out include:

statistics

figures

proper names of people, places, institutions, etc.

direct quotations

But be sure to keep two or three important facts or names to include in your final version. You

want to keep the reader on the hook; if you offer too little substance, your summary will be vague

and hard to follow.

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B. Writing your summary

Now you are ready to reconstruct your summary from your notes. Write a first draft of your

summary, introducing the topic and the author in the first paragraph. In the body of your

summary, clearly explain the important content of the reading. Finally, choose a pithy ending.

Check the rough draft of your summary against the source text. As you review your work, make

sure that your summary is

Comprehensive: You have included in your summary all of the author’s major ideas,

assertions and findings.

Accurate: In your choice of words and paraphrasing you did not misrepresent the

author’s ideas.

Neutral: You tried to be objective and fair and did not include your own evaluation or

comments.

Independent: A person who has not read the source text can understand what you have

written.

Then concentrate only on your English text:

Is your writing grammatically and structurally accurate?

Have you chosen appropriate words, phrases and idioms (correct register)?

Is your spelling correct?

Is your summary fluent? Do your arguments follow on logically?

Have you organized your writing in cohesive paragraphs?

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III. The Elements

Your summary is going to consist of words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs, all working

together to form a logical, organic whole. Finding the right words is the first challenge; organizing

them in accordance with the rules of syntax and usage is the second. The third challenge is to

make your text “flow” in a cohesive, pleasant way. This is called style.

Let’s tackle these three challenges one at a time.

A. Vocabulary

Strong verbs are most important. If you have limited time to prepare, consider brushing up on

your verbs. Phrasal verbs are also worthwhile studying (make up, take over, beat around the

bush). Always learn verbs together with their dependent prepositions (get away with, apply for)

so that you can use them correctly. Equally important is your command of idiomatic expressions.

1. Idioms

Here are some idioms with definitions. Can you match them up?

Idiom Definition

1. under the weather a) for a reason, deliberately

2. for good b) impossible, not feasible

3. on purpose c) from the beginning

4. so far d) not feeling well, ill

5. first-rate e) punctually

6. right away f) excellent, superb

7. every other g) until now

8. out of the question h) uncomfortable, worried

9. all along i) very soon, immediately

10. on time j) modern, current

11. ill at ease k) alternate

12. up to date l) permanently, forever

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2. Gerunds

Verbs with dependent prepositions followed by gerunds

1. accuse someone of

The guard accused him of smuggling prohibited materials into the prison.

2. apologize for

The vendor apologized for giving the customer the wrong change.

3. approve of

The principal does not approve of teachers taking the students out in the rain.

4. benefit from

The training institute would benefit from having the ministry located nearby.

5. blame someone for

Don't blame Alex for leaving the lights on; he was the first one to leave!

6. boast about / of

Mr Sanders boasted about having invented the best chicken recipe ever.

7. charge someone for / with

Seven lieutenants were charged with conspiring to disobey direct orders.

8. To be committed to

NATO is committed to maintaining a presence in the region for as long as necessary

9. compliment someone on

My professor complimented me on running the seminar so smoothly.

10. confess to

If you confess to stealing the bike, the judge will probably give you probation.

11. congratulate someone on

Sven's boss congratulated him on resolving the conflict on his own.

12. consent to

A consular officer may never consent to accepting a gift worth more than €1.50.

13. disapprove of

I must say that I disapprove of your taking this decision without consulting me.

14. discourage someone from

The manager discouraged Sam from applying for a promotion this year.

15. excuse someone for / from

Please excuse me for arriving so late; I missed my train.

16. to express an interest in

The students expressed an interest in meeting with the teacher for a drink in the evening.

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17. fool someone into

Maria fooled her boyfriend into thinking she was a model.

18. force someone into

The circumstances forced the couple into marrying.

19. forgive someone for

I simply cannot forgive him for lying to me.

20. guard against

The security features are intended to guard against forging the new currency.

21. insist on

Mr Geoffries insisted on Helen taking a day off to recover.

22. interfere in / with

The military is unlikely to interfere with the diplomats' handling of the situation.

23. involve someone / yourself in

We were unwittingly involved in concealing the plan.

24. mean something by

Ann certainly did not mean anything by mentioning your salary.

25. object to

My government objects to making such important decisions unilaterally.

26. plead guilty to

The men pleaded guilty to conspiring to break into the president's office.

27. prevent someone / something from

Some things simply cannot be prevented from happening.

28. profit from

This applicant has certainly profited from having worked in human resources.

29. resort to

Rebels often resort to kidnapping prominent figures to secure their demands.

30. result from / in

The rise of quiz shows has resulted in people's regaining interest in trivia.

31. speak of

Kim and Mark spoke of hosting a dinner party on a boat on the Rhine.

32. succeed in

I must admit that I have not quite succeeded in convincing the board yet.

33. suspect someone of

He was suspected of trafficking in both drugs and arms.

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3. Close calls and false friends

Do you know the difference between like and such as? Or between besides and furthermore?

Take a look at the following words:

Close calls

1. prove / proof 2. bring / take 3. proceedings / procedure

4. lend / borrow 5. some / any 6. must / have to

7. while / during 8. say / tell 9. remember / remind

10. as / than 11. for / since 12. critic / criticism

13. much / many 14. receive / obtain / acquire /

get

15. prosecute / persecute

16. when / if / in case 17. hard / hardly 18. request / require

19. advise / advice 20. from / of 21. relations / relationship

22. assure / ensure 23. until / by 24. appropriate / adequate

25. actual / current 26. lose / loose 27. according to / in

accordance with

28. control / check, inspect,

examine

29. if / whether

30. note / notify

31. permission / permit

32. of / by 33. reimburse / refund

34. costs / expenses 35. besides / in addition 36. article / section / act

37. perspective / prospect 38. economic /

economical

39. historic / historical

40. submit / present 41. effect / affect 42. like / such as

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Then there is the issue of so-called “false friends”. Consider these words:

FALSE FRIENDS ENGLISH GERMAN actual: authentic, real aktuell: current

affair Affäre

anxious ängstlich

to blame blamieren

to concur konkurrieren

to control kontrollieren

consequently konsequent

contingency Kontingent

contingent Kontingent

critic Kritik

eventually eventuell

false falsch

genial genial

human human

to implicate implizieren

irritate irritieren

isolated isoliert

meaning Meinung

menu Menü

notice Notiz

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outlook Aussicht

perspective Perspektive

protocol Protokoll

receipt Rezept

sanction sanktionieren

self-conscious selbstbewusst

sensible sensibel

to spare sparen

to spend spenden

sympathetic sympathisch

technique Technik

Can you keep the English and the German separate? Can you translate these words in both

directions?

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4. Synonyms

In order to express the author’s ideas using different words, you will need to find synonyms. Can

you think of a synonym for each of the following words?

surplus (n):

______________________________________________________________________

promise (v):

______________________________________________________________________

disaster (n):

______________________________________________________________________

luck (n):

______________________________________________________________________

smart (adj):

______________________________________________________________________

show (v):

______________________________________________________________________

5. Social register

Bear in mind that social register also plays a role. High social register is academic and often

Latinate in nature, whereas mid-register language can be much more varied and often more

verbal in nature. Finally, low-register language can be out of place in a formal text, so you must

be careful to avoid excessively low-register expressions. Your choice of register partially

determines the style of your writing.

Each register has its advantages. Mid-register and low-register language tends to be dynamic

and active. On the other hand, high-register vocabulary is often more precise. Summary writing

calls for a blend of high-register and mid-register language. By tapping into the whole range of

register, you can make your writing simple and powerful at the same time.

Consider the following table:

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SOCIAL REGISTER Verbs

Low register (informal)

Medium register (neutral)

High register (formal)

give it a go give it a try give it a whirl run it up the flagpole (and see if someone salutes)

try make an effort do one’s best

attempt endeavor spare no effort make a concerted effort apply oneself

get one’s hands on get a hold of

get obtain (active) acquire (active) receive (passive) procure secure gain possession of

be full of have in it

contain include

comprise involve

have to be made up of consist of

get (passive use) (to get invited)

be (passive use) (to be invited)

be (passive use) (to be invited)

own possess dispose of

be in possession of have at one’s disposal

talk over have a talk about have a chat

talk about discuss converse

shoot the breeze chew the fat

chat talk

converse

be on the lookout for keep an eye out for

pay attention for watch for

remain observant

have a look at give a look-over zoom in on

turn to turn one’s attention to focus on concentrate on

attend to direct one’s attention to dwell on

keep an eye on keep a bead on keep tabs on

watch observe

monitor

sort out work out fix a problem

find a solution resolve

let someone know put someone in the picture let someone in on a secret give someone the scoop

tell inform share something with someone advise notify

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think over sleep on it

think about mull over give it some thought

consider

get back to answer respond reply

get in touch reach contact establish contact

go along with agree be in agreement

give in concede concede cede to demands

look into check into shed some light on

investigate conduct an investigation examine analyze

throw in the towel give up capitulate concede defeat

push for something insist on demand

fix the problem patch up a mess

solve the problem resolve the issue remedy the situation ameliorate the problem

provide details tell someone exactly what (has) happened

explain expand on expound on expatiate on provide an explanation

get a handle on get to grips with

tackle deal with take care of

address

to have the job of (doing something)

be responsible for be in charge of

be tasked with be charged with

tell someone to do something give someone instruct someone to do something order charge someone with doing something

happen occur transpire

work together cooperate collaborate tap into synergies

help assist support

be of assistance

give it a second thought reconsider reassess one’s options re-examine one’s plans

beat around the bush beat about the bush

avoid an issue skirt an issue

put something off push something back

postpone delay

prevaricate procrastinate

stop keep something from happening

prevent avert

make sure guarantee ensure

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find out acquire information on / regarding

ascertain

hear learn to come to one’s attention to be brought to one’s attention

say once more

repeat reiterate

to bend the truth to be economical with the truth

to lie to prevaricate to equivocate

Nouns

luck fortune serendipity

chance opportunity opportunity

dangerous situation emergency contingency

lie untruth fabrication obfuscation subterfuge prevarication equivocation

truthfulness honesty sincerity

integrity

problem difficulty dilemma issue

hot potato sticky wicket a bone of contention

touchy subject sensitive issue delicate matter

Adjectives and Adverbs

tough hard a tough nut to crack

difficult complex challenging intricate multifaceted

tough-going difficult taxing laborious strenuous

doable can be done

manageable practicable achievable viable feasible

easy a piece of cake

straightforward simple

facile

run-of-the-mill nothing to write home about much of a muchness

uninteresting uninsipiring mediocre

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slow-going a drag a sleeping pill worn-out

boring tedious laborious prosaic hackneyed clichéd

lucky fortunate fortuitous

secret(ly) under cover

covert(ly) surreptitious(ly)

untruthful dishonest disingenuous

angry, peeved furious, miffed mad, fuming

disturbed annoyed concerned

perturbed dismayed disconcerted

easy to see anyone can see everyone knows

obvious apparent

flagrant

friendly personable warm

cordial amiable obliging

stuck in a deadlock locking horns at loggerheads

making little progress at an impasse an intractable situation

best “does the job”

most effective most practical

most expedient

okay

all right acceptable

open to accepting of willing to

amenable to

sure convinced have no doubt

certain positive

wholly totally

completely absolutely

categorically

bad(ly)

negative(ly) adverse(ly)

For further vocabulary building, the following book is recommendable: The Student Phrase Book Vocabulary for Writing at University By Jeanne Godfrey Palgrave Macmillan, 2013 ISBN 978-0-230-28933-8

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B. Paraphrasing and Transformation

How you reconstruct the source text will depend largely on your English level. You may want to

restrict yourself to paraphrasing the text. This can be done at the word level or at the sentence

level. Paraphrasing is an important part of the summarizing process.

Let’s paraphrase a sentence.

The temperature in many parts of the earth is gradually rising.

If we paraphrase at the word level, we might get something like this:

A. The temperature in lots of places around the world is slowly increasing.

Or we can change the whole sentence around:

B. Many parts of the world are steadily getting hotter.

C. Much of our planet is becoming warmer and warmer.

D. Vast swathes of the planet are witnessing incremental temperature rises.

E. A large part of the earth is experiencing a gradual rise in average temperatures.

F. All over the world, the temperature is increasing year by year.

G. Temperature increases are continually registered across much of the planet.

H. Temperatures continue to increase in many regions of the world.

I. Temperatures are on the rise around the globe.

Each of these sentences reflects the sense of the original text with a unique flavor. Sentences B

to H above require a good command of English syntax, vocabulary and usage. Tricks of the

trade include

Changing the subject of the sentence. The possible subjects in this case include

temperatures and many parts of the world.

Changing active voice to passive voice or vice versa. (G)

Using different verbs (B,C, E, F, G, H, I)

Employing adjectives and adverbs (incremental, steadily).

Transformation

Using these and other tricks, you can also transform the original into a completely new text. This

is what native speakers tend to do.

For example, take the following introductory sentence from the 2009 exam:

A tree fungus could provide green fuel that can be pumped directly into tanks, scientists

say.

If you paraphrase the sentence, you might get something like this:

A. Scientists have announced that they have found a fungus that grows in trees and

produces an ecological combustible that can be burned in regular automobile engines.

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Alternatively, you could transform the sentence into something like this:

B. Scientists have discovered a tree fungus called Gliocladium roseum that could provide

an ecological replacement for fossil fuels in the future.

What has happened here? The author of Version A rewrote the sentence in their own words.

(Notice that the result in this case is actually longer than the original.)

The author of Version B, in contrast, took liberties with the original: (S)he included information

that is not found in the original sentence; and (s)he completely left out the part about “pumping

the new fuel directly into tanks”.

Which version is better? Version A is true to the original but very wordy. If this author continues

like this, the resulting summary will be longer than the original. In addition, Version A is focused

only on one sentence without taking into account the rest of the text – the context.

The author of Version B cuts, shuffles, and transforms the text. (S)he takes a holistic approach

to the text. As a result, the sentence includes information found further down in the original (the

name of the fungus) and omits the part about “pumping the new fuel directly into tanks”. That

idea will go into a later sentence or be dropped altogether.

While this approach is more flexible and creative, it is also more complex. Reorganizing the text

in this way requires you to keep track of all the important points and then find creative ways to

squeeze them in here and there. It also requires a solid command of vocabulary and syntax.

Be honest with yourself. If you prefer to keep it simple, you may wish to stick to paraphrasing.

The downside is that you may not be able to pack in as much. It’s a trade-off between quantity

and quality.

Whichever approach you choose, you will need to make extensive use of both synonyms and

paraphrasing.

C. Grammar

The most common problems for speakers of German are:

When to use the present continuous tense (-ing).

When to use the present simple tense.

Differentiating between past and present perfect.

These tenses should be reviewed and used strictly according to the rules.

Pay close attention to sentence structure and word order. Try to keep your sentences clear and

to the point using Subject-Verb-Object word order. If you can get to a “that” in your sentence, the

rest of your sentence will work itself out. This is a better strategy than getting mired down in

obscure gerund and infinitive phrases that you do not really know how to use. Research shows

that this how native speakers prefer to speak. It is clearer and easier and sounds more

conversational.

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Example:

A. In the event of fire, priority must be given to ensuring the safety of the kitchen

staff.

B. If there is a fire, first make sure that the kitchen staff is safe.

Version A is complex; version B is a pleasure to read. Notice that the sentence pivots on the

word “that”. This word can even be left out, but it is still in the deep structure of the sentence:

If there is a fire, first make sure the kitchen staff is safe.

Singular and Plural

Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs.

Noun-verb concordance

Make sure each noun can actually “do” the verb you are asking it to do. An abstract noun and a

concrete verb do not make a good couple. For example, take the sentence

Intelligent solutions fix problems.

Can “solutions” fix problems? Not really.

Intelligent solutions can help to fix problems.

Now the sentence is a little better. The verb is less dynamic and thus more acceptable.

By applying intelligent solutions, management has managed to fix many problems.

Much better: concrete actor; concrete actions; takes place in the real world.

Parallel constructions

Be careful when writing long sentences that the structure does not fall apart. Rigid logic helps to

maintain coherence. Compare the following phrases.

A. not only in the school corridors but also when playing tennis

B. not only in the school corridors but also on the tennis court

B is more logical.

A. in terms of instruction as well as in terms of assessing students

B. in terms of instruction as well as in terms of assessment

B reads better because of the parallel construction.

A. both in Germany and whenever they travel abroad

B. both in Germany and abroad

C. both when they are in Germany and when they travel abroad

B and C are preferable to A due to their parallel nature.

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IV. Style

In Politics and the English Language, George Orwell railed against the abstract nature of

modern writing. Consider George Orwell’s “translation” of this famous verse from Ecclesiastes

(King James Bible):

I returned and I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the

battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding,

nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all.

Here is Orwell’s version:

Objective considerations of contemporary phenomena compel the conclusion that

success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with

innate capacity, but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must invariably be

taken into account.

Orwell explains the contrast as follows: “This is a parody, but not a very gross one. (…) It will be

seen that I have not made a full translation. The beginning and ending of the sentence follow the

original meaning fairly closely, but in the middle the concrete illustrations — race, battle, bread

— dissolve into the vague phrases ‘success or failure in competitive activities’. This had to be

so, because no modern writer of the kind I am discussing (…) would ever tabulate his thoughts

in that precise and detailed way. The whole tendency of modern prose is away from

concreteness. Now analyze these two sentences a little more closely. The first contains forty-

nine words but only sixty syllables, and all its words are those of everyday life. The second

contains thirty-eight words of ninety syllables: eighteen of those words are from Latin roots, and

one from Greek. The first sentence contains six vivid images, and only one phrase (‘time and

chance’) that could be called vague. The second contains not a single fresh, arresting phrase,

and in spite of its ninety syllables it gives only a shortened version of the meaning contained in

the first. Yet without a doubt it is the second kind of sentence that is gaining ground in modern

English. (…)”

Be concrete in your writing. Specifically, use verbs and concrete nouns instead of abstract

nouns, adjectives and adverbs.

Try the exercise on the next page. Look for ways to bring clarity to the sentences. Make them

more concrete.

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A. Desubstantivate! Convert the following noun-laden sentences into verbal masterpieces. 1. The repairs made to the infrastructure of the country are not the solution to the problem. 2. The consolidation of the fight against international terrorism must be achieved through the

intensified cooperation of national intelligence agencies. 3. It is not only the identification of suspects which is severely lacking, but also the methodical

assessment of probability concerning the appearance of future criminal agents. 4. The aims of the program include the collection of weapons as well as the dismantling of

paramilitary groups and the forfeiture of property illegally appropriated by such groups. 5. Electoral fraud constitutes an obstacle to the development of democratic structures. The

result is widespread disillusionment with the democratic process.

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B. More style considerations

Logical connectors

When you are finished writing your summary, add logical connectors where appropriate. Logical

connectors are like sign posts, directing the reader through your text.

Brevity of phrasing

Check each sentence and ask yourself how you could remove words from it and shorten some

phrases by using different words. Your summary should be as economical as possible.

Smooth flow

Summaries tend to be too choppy, and with good (if unfortunate) reason: they are artificial

constructs built up sentence by sentence. There is a tendency to make each sentence short, and

to make most of the sentences about the same length. Unfortunately, this makes the sentences

sound choppy. Read your summary aloud. As you read, mark the places that seem choppy.

Then change this choppiness by joining some sentences together so that you have a good

mixture of short, medium and long sentences.

Strong endings

Whenever possible, save the best for last. If there is a strong message in your sentence, it is

best placed at the very end, where it packs a punch:

A. They took everything but the kitchen sink, although they had only three hours to

vacate the apartment.

B. Although they had only three hours to vacate the apartment, they took everything

but the kitchen sink.

Version A fires its ammunition too early and fizzles out. Sentence B, in contrast, has a nice turn

of a phrase at the end that rewards the reader for having finished the sentence.

Apostrophes and contractions

Form possessives with apostrophes only for people:

John’s rifle but not the club’s rifle. Correct is the rifle of the club or a rifle belonging to the

club. Not the experiment’s aim, but the aim of the experiment.

Do not use contractions. Write would not instead of wouldn’t.

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Writing mechanics

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Punctuation marks

full stop (UK) / period (US) . decimal point, dot . Comma , Colon : semi-colon ; Hyphen - Dash – exclamation point ! question mark ? Apostrophe ' Ellipsis ... single quotes ' ' double quotes / quotation marks / inverted commas

" "

stroke / oblique (UK) / slash (US) / brackets (UK) / parentheses (US) ( ) square brackets (UK) / brackets (US) [ ]

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The Comma Conundrum

1. Commas must be used in the following circumstances:

a.) Initial subordinate adverbial clauses

Although she owes me a lot of money, I always lend her more.

Whenever I see him, I am reminded of our school days together.

Before you say any more, remember what you promised.

b.) Subordinate participial phrases

The horse, seeing how high the fence was, refused to jump.

Encouraged by his exam results, he signed up for the next course.

She made her way to the door, carefully feeling along the wall.

c.) Parenthesis

I hope, as I said once before, that it will all turn out well.

When he did that, however, there was a ghastly silence.

There are, too, many mothers who work in part-time jobs.

(cf. There are too many mothers who work in part-time jobs.)

d.) Apposition

Kamal Kharrazi, Iran's foreign minister, did not agree.

(cf. Kamal Kharrazi, who is Iran's foreign minister, did not agree.)

Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, is in much need of repair.

(cf. Kabul, which is the capital of Afghanistan, is in much need of repair.)

e.) Non-defining relative clauses with who, whom and which

Compare:

1. The students, who knew all the answers, stared out of the window.

2. The students who knew all the answers stared out of the window.

In the first sentence, all the students knew all the answers and all the students stared out of

the window. The phrase who knew all the answers is a non-defining relative clause. It does not

define the preceding noun but merely adds information. The students (who knew all the answers)

stared out of the window. In the second sentence, only some of the students stared out of the

window, namely those who knew the answers. Here, who knew all the answers is a defining

relative clause. A defining relative clause can never be omitted, since doing so would change the

meaning of the sentence.

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Compare:

1. The report, which took me two months to write, is already outdated.

2. The report that I wrote for the director is already outdated.

In the first sentence, which took me two months to write is a non-defining relative clause that

provides supplementary information; it therefore begins with which. In the second sentence, that I

wrote for the director is a defining relative clause. The defining relative clause usually begins with

that. but can also begin with which. It is not set off by a comma and is absolutely necessary for

the meaning of the sentence.

f.) Connective relative clauses

He passed the test with flying colors, which was a relief to his mother.

We had to sleep in our wet clothes, which wasn't very comfortable.

(Which modifies the whole independent clause, as does "was" in German.

g.) Independent clauses with different subjects

She went to the movies, and I went home.

The duchess slowly raised her arm, but the prince did not kiss her hand.

h.) Initial adverbials and prepositional phrases

Actually, I don't know where it is.

In theory, the new design should achieve a top speed of 300 km/h.

i.) Initial "if" clauses

If you compile a list of telephone numbers, I will make the calls.

(cf. I will make the calls if you compile a list of telephone numbers.)

j.) Lists

The waiter brought coffee, cream, sugar, and biscuits.

k.) Direct speech

"Yes," she said, "I'll come as soon as I can."

l.) Tags

It's a nice day, isn't it ?

You know what I'm talking about, don't you ?

m.) Numbers

1,000 17,234 534,210 1,000,000 23,482,988 (cf. 2.75%)

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2. Commas must not be used: a.) Before the conjunction that

I hope that your mother will get better soon.

It is possible that he spent the night in a hotel.

b.) Before an infinitive with to

Don't forget to call me.

The problem is too complicated to resolve in one single meeting.

c.) Before an object clause

I do not know what size he wears. (I do not know that.)

I cannot imagine who could have done that! (I cannot imagine the person.)

d.) Between independent clauses. (Use a semicolon instead.)

I am not quite clear on this point; we should discuss it in more detail.

The minister spoke cautiously; he was afraid of offending his guests.

e.) In indirect speech

He says you must repeat the exam.

I think I'll go and have a cup of coffee.

I wonder why he said that.

Often a semicolon does the job better than a comma:

"Some cause happiness wherever they go; others, whenever they go." - Oscar Wilde

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Punctuation Exercise

1. She loves him:

Dear John

I want a man who knows what love is all about you are generous kind

thoughtful people who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior

you have ruined me for other men I yearn for you I have no feelings

whatsoever when we're apart I can be forever happy

Yours Gloria

2. She loves him not:

Dear John

I want a man who knows what love is all about you are generous kind

thoughtful people who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior

you have ruined me for other men I yearn for you I have no feelings

whatsoever when we're apart I can be forever happy

Yours Gloria

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COMMAS: To punctuate or not to punctuate; that is the question.

Put commas into each sentence (if necessary) and identify the rule you have applied.

1. Although I arrived here a week ago I still can't find my way to the embassy without

a map.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

2. We expect as I said before at the press conference to reach an agreement

tomorrow.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

3. If you take her word for it you'll regret it.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

4. Have you got the coffee tea milk and sugar?

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

5. I have heard that you want to be posted to Brussels.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

6. I've no idea what made him change his mind.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

7. "Don't stand there grinning" she shouted angrily.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

8. Even the pond was dry the ducks looked totally lost in the dust.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

9. The ambassador seeing that he was making no progress adjourned the meeting.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

10. William Hague Britain's foreign secretary gave a convincing speech on the

problems of asylum seekers.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

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11. The woman who shared my prison cell was released after serving ten years.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

12. Even the Australians who don't have a treaty with Thailand support prisoner

transfers.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

13. Much to my amazement the train was on time.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

14. The motorcade left for the airport and I went back to my office.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

15. The kidnapped boy was returned to his parents unharmed which was a great

relief to all concerned.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

16. Hoping to avoid the waiting journalists John left through the side entrance.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

17. I was told I would probably have to serve half my sentence before being eligible

for parole.

Rule: .......................................................................................................................

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The and A

Add articles where necessary:

1. Twenty years after reunification, Germany is still made up of two parts.

2. The role Germany has assumed in European integration is a major one.

3. The emergence of the G20 as new, influential economic arena.

4. This has mainly happened because of global warming.

5. Yet what are ____ alternative options?

6. In day-to-day business, it is hard to recognise much change.

7. It is widely considered common sense that coming decades will

bring a power shift in international relations.

8. This is difficult to achieve in times of strong competition.

9. Germany's foreign policy is in dire need of reorientation.

10. Germany has adopted a foreign policy based on peace, understanding and the values of

human rights.

11. According to German law …

12. German position on the reform of the UN Security Council is exemplary.

13. It is impossible to shrug off domestic problems: failing immigration policy,

long-term unemployment, declining birth-rate.

14. The article discusses the need for _________ more intelligent immigration policy.

15. We should learn from previous mistakes regarding ________ integration of foreigners in

Germany.

16. Long-term investments in _________ schooling and education of immigrants’ children

should be made.

17. They should take part in further training in order to find ________ employment. This

would ease recognition of foreign qualifications.

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LIST OF 'LINK WORDS' FOR WRITTEN ENGLISH

1. Words expressing result: therefore (result) accordingly consequently / in consequence

thus

2. Words which add new furthermore information: (amplification) in addition moreover

also

3. Words which are used for instance to make the meaning for example clearer: (clarification) namely such as

4. Words which help at the same time to balance evidence: in spite of / despite (concession) even then /even so for all that nevertheless nonetheless however in any case

although / though / even though

5. Words which introduce in fact a contradiction of and yet the facts: (opposition) on the contrary nevertheless whereas having said this

in contrast but

6. Words which offer a on the one hand / on the other hand balanced view: (contrast) or rather similarly likewise/in the same way

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7. Words which introduce by the way a new aspect: (digression) incidentally

8. Words which introduce structure: (enumeration)

firstly / first of all

first and foremost secondly / thirdly then finally / last of all

9. Words which introduce a it is as if suggestion or idea: supposing that (hypothesis)

10. Words which relate to in other words previous statements: that being so (inference) in that case

11. Words which express at least a restriction: at any rate (limitation) admittedly up to a point as far as

12. Words which express broadly speaking uncertainty: more or less (modification) by and large on the whole

13. Words which focus a case in point attention on a in point of fact particular point: as regards / with regard to (reference) as for

in terms of when it comes to apropos

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14. Words which introduce if a condition: (condition) provided that in the event that

should were it not for / had it not been for

15. Words which show purpose: in order (to) (intention) so that with the aim of 16. Words which end an all in all argument /explanation: to sum up (summing up) in brief / briefly (to put it) in a nutshell

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British and American Spelling Preferences

Based on: Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, The Concise Oxford Dictionary and Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary. Updated 2005. British American

ae, oe anaemia anaesthetic encyclopaedia /-pedia orthopaedic palaeontology

anemia anesthetic encyclopedia orthopedic paleontology

em-, en-; im-, in- enquire / inquire encase encrust / incrust enfold

inquire / enquire incase incrust infold

-ise, -ize * apologise /-ize criticise /-ize dramatise /-ize memorise /-ize organise /-ize realise /-ize visualise /-ize etc.

apologize criticize dramatize memorize organize realize visualize

-our, -or armour clamour colour endeavour favour honour humour labour odour vapour vigour

armor clamor color endeavor favor honor humor labor odor vapor vigor

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-re, -er calibre centre centring /-treing /-tering fibre lustre metre mitre sabre sceptre sombre spectre theatre

caliber center centering fiber luster meter miter saber scepter somber specter theater / theatre

-ou, -o mould moult plough smoulder

mold molt plow smolder

-ce, -se

but:

Defence licence (license, vb) offence pretence practice (practise, vb)

defense license offense pretense practice

-sion, -ction deflexion / deflection inflexion / inflection reflection / reflexion

deflection inflection reflection

Doubling and retaining final "l"

Appareled councillor jewellery / jewelry levelled libelled medallist quarrelled totalled travelled woollen dulness enrol

enrolment

enrols enthral fulfil fulness/fullness instalment

appareled councilor jewelry leveled libeled medalist quarreled totaled traveled woolen dullness enroll

enrollment

enrolls enthrall fulfill fullness installment

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but:

instil skilful thraldom wilful annulled enrolled

enrolling paralleled

instill skillful thralldom willful annulled enrolled

enrolling paralleled

Silent "e" retained abridgement acknowledgement fledgeling / fledgling judgement lodgement

abridgment acknowledgment fledgling judgment lodgment

In British printing the forms in –ise have in the past been more common, but the trend of usage, influenced by the Oxford English Dictionary and the practice of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the London Times, is to adopt more generally the –ize forms and their derivatives in –ization, –izer, –izable.

In Canadian official and literary usage –ize has been adopted; Indian, South African, and Australian usage favors –ise. The following verbs and corresponding nouns borrowed from Old French or French always end in –ise, with rare instances of variant forms in –ize:

advertise advise chastise circumcise comprise compromise demise despise devise disguise

Enterprise exercise excise exorcise franchise

affranchise

disenfranchise

disfranchise

enfranchise improvise

merchandise revise supervise surmise

** In their derivatives, the British spell with "s" before suffixes beginning with a vowel, as in -ive or -ion

41

The Golden Rules of Writing

by Dr. A.P. Singer-Carter, Ph.D.

1. Verbs HAS to agree with their subjects.

2. Prepositions are not words to end sentences with.

3. And don’t start a sentence with a conjunction.

4. It is wrong ever to split an infinitive.

5. Avoid clichés like the plague. (They’re old hat.)

6. Also, always avoid annoying alliteration.

7. Be more or less specific.

8. Parenthetical remarks (however relevant) are (usually) unnecessary.

9. Also, too, never, ever use repetitive redundancies.

10. No sentence fragments.

11. Contractions aren’t necessary and shouldn’t be used.

12. Foreign words and phrases are not a propos.

13. Do not be redundant; do not use more words than necessary; it’s highly superfluous.

14. One should NEVER generalize.

15. Comparisons are as bad as clichés.

16. Don’t use no double negatives.

17. Eschew ampersands & abbreviations, etc.

18. One-word sentences? Eliminate.

19. Analogies in writing are like feathers on a snake.

20. The passive voice is to be ignored.

21. Eliminate commas, that are, not necessary. Parenthetical words however should be

enclosed in commas.

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22. Never use a big word when a diminutive one would suffice.

23. Kill all exclamation points!!!

24. Use words correctly, irregardless of how others use them.

25. Understatement is always the absolute best way to put forth earth shaking ideas.

26. Use the apostrophe in it’s proper place and omit it when its not needed.

27. Eliminate quotations. As I keep saying: “I am not in the slightest bit interested in

what other people say: what do you think?

28. If you’ve heard it once you’ve heard it a thousand times: Resist hyperbole; not one

writer in a thousand can use it properly.

29. Puns are for children, not for groan adults.

30. Go around the barn at high noon to avoid colloquialisms.

31. Even IF a mixed metaphor sings, it should be derailed.

32. Who needs rhetorical questions?

33. Exaggeration is a billion times worse than the understatement.

34. Proofread carefully to see if you any words out.

35. Check your speling, otherwise you mai seam uneduckated.

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V. Practice

A. Identify the linking words in the following summary.

It’s time to overhaul Germany’s immigration policy

The jury is still out on the long-term effects of Germany’s 1960s “guestworker” policy,

under which 2.6 million foreign workers and their families settled in Germany. As

Germany gears up to recruit a new batch of qualified workers to fill its current labor gap,

immigration is once again at the top of Germany’s domestic agenda. But are policy-

makers on the right track?

Germany’s lack of some 100,000 highly qualified workers costs its economy billions

every year. Nevertheless, conservative politicians such as CSU party leader Horst

Seehofer are on a misguided crusade to protect the German labor market against the

threat of foreign workers. Looking after the unemployed is indeed a worthy cause, but

improving childcare, job training and employment policies is not going to transform the

jobless into the specialized staff Germany needs.

In fact, immigration is advantageous for everyone. Qualified immigrants can help

businesses expand and subsequently take on new workers – a win-win outcome. The

demand for labor that persisted throughout the recent financial crisis is certain to

intensify as the economy grows. Prompt action is therefore required. First, foreign

credentials must be honored in order to tap immigrants’ full potential. Second,

companies must be prevented from driving down wages by exploiting foreigners who are

willing to work for less. And finally, Germany must avoid alienating newcomers by

treating them as temporary visitors and instead give them the prospect of permanent

residence from the outset. Making immigration procedures more user-friendly would be

a first step in the right direction. Let the overhaul begin.

256 words

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B. Add linking words and adverbs to the following text to make it flow better.

Russia to the rescue?

_________________ diplomatic efforts in the United Nations seem to be doing Syria more harm

than good. __________________ if Bashar al-Assad surrenders all his chemical weapons, the

Syrian people stand to gain precious little from the _______________________ posturing

between Moscow and Washington. _______________________ before talks in Geneva were

concluded, Syrian air strikes resumed, killing a thousand people.

President Obama is right to draw a red line when chemical weapons are deployed.

_______________ UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon is also right: chemical weapons are

__________________ the tip of the iceberg. It is naïve to think Syria can be purged of chemical

weapons in nine months. President Putin’s diplomatic overtures to the regime are more effective

than missiles, ________________ the Kremlin’s foot-dragging attests to its cynicism.

___________________ ________________, the U.S. has agreed to a plan that neither

punishes nor weakens Assad but _______________________ rehabilitates him as a negotiating

partner.

As Syria’s opposition parties are increasingly left out in the cold, radical Islamists infiltrating Syria

are becoming the winners in this war. Weapons of mass destruction constitute a threat to the

West, _______________________ so do jihadists. Putin’s assertion that the Islamists are being

kept at bay with Russian arms must be roundly rejected. ______________________________

that millions of Syrian refugees feel abandoned by the West.

_______________________________ going to great lengths to keep the United States out of

the Middle East, does President Obama ___________________________ expect Americans to

_____________________________ stand up and fight for the victims of Assad’s chemical

attacks? What about the hundreds of thousands killed by conventional means?

_________________________ since when is Putin Obama’s savior?

263 words

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C. Add linking words to the following text to make it flow better.

In Britain, a skeptical nod to Germany’s success

As chancellor of a prospering Germany, Angela Merkel wields significant power in the European

Union. Her singular popularity makes her a tough act to follow. Germany is confidently pursuing

its interests. German leadership is perceived as sound.

The UK and Germany seem to be drifting apart. Relations between the two nations cooled when

Mr. Cameron questioned Germany’s purist views on the role of the European Central Bank; went

from cool to cold when he vetoed the EU fiscal pact; are downright icy due to the EU budget

dispute. German-British relations have never been as strong as those between Germany and

France. The former were an improvised reaction to Charles de Gaulle’s European ideas:

Germany and the UK grew closer whenever France needed to be kept in check.

Germany is strong enough to take decisions on its own, flexing its muscles if necessary. The

reason for the estrangement between Germany and the UK goes beyond a shift in the European

balance of power. The British Tories and the German CDU shared key post-war values; British

conservatives see the EU as a burden on the free market. The British admire the German

economic miracle; by imitating it they hope to become the “ultimate global player”. The British

have trouble understanding why the Germans are bending over backwards to save the euro, to

the detriment of their own economy. Angela Merkel would do well to take British anti-EU

sentiment into account in her dealings with Mr. Cameron.

275 words

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D. Summarize the following article in 150 to 200 words.

Dolphin May Get A Prosthetic Tail

By PHIL DAVIS, Associated Press Writer , September 25, 2006.

CLEARWATER, Fla. - The news from Indian River Lagoon was too familiar: another dolphin gravely injured because of human action.

But marine scientist Steve McCulloch immediately saw this rescue was unique. The baby bottlenose dolphin lost her tail, but perhaps her life could be saved.

McCulloch, director of dolphin and whale research at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, decided to channel his anger into a solution.

The solution for the dolphin — dubbed Winter — may be a prosthetic tail. If the logistics can be worked out, Winter's prosthesis would be the first for a dolphin who lost its tail and the key joint that allows it to move in powerful up-and-down strokes.

"There's never been a dolphin like her," said Dana Zucker, chief operating officer of the Clearwater Marine Aquarium, which is now Winter's home.

A dolphin in Japan has a prosthesis, the first in the world, to replace a missing part of its tail.

Winter was a frail, dehydrated 3-month-old when she came to the animal rescue center in December. A fisherman found her tangled in the buoy line of a crab trap in Indian River Lagoon near Cape Canaveral. The line tightened around her tail as she tried to swim away, strangling the blood supply to her tail flukes.

"It looked like paper," Zucker said of Winter's tail. "Bit by bit over the weeks it just fell off."

Winter was left with a rounded stump.

A team of more than 150 volunteers and veterinarians spent months nursing Winter back to health. Zucker and her family cuddled with Winter and fed her a special mix of infant formula and pureed fish in the aquarium's rescue pool.

Winter learned how to swim without her tail, amazing her handlers with a combination of moves that resemble an alligator's undulations and a shark's side-to-side tail swipes. She uses her flippers, normally employed for steering and braking, to get moving.

Winter can't keep up with wild dolphins that can swim up to 25 mph with strokes of their tail flukes. She will be a permanent resident at the aquarium, even if she gets a prosthetic tail.

In the tank, she swims and plays with another dolphin, rolling and diving and surfacing to demand belly rubs and fish from her caretakers.

47

Zucker has formed a team to discuss the prospects of designing a tail for Winter. It has been consulting with a diving gear manufacturer, a tire company and the Navy, which has experience attaching items to dolphins for military research.

It's uncharted territory. Fuji, an elderly dolphin who lives at an aquarium in Okinawa, Japan, had part of his tail remaining on which to attach a prosthesis.

Winter doesn't. Both her tail flukes and peduncle, a wrist-like joint that allows a dolphin's tail to move up and down, were lost to necrosis. It is not clear how the prosthetic tail would be attached to her stump, but it would need to be tough.

"The dolphin's tail fin is the most powerful swimming mechanism Mother Nature ever designed," McCulloch said. "When you see how much pressure they put on their flukes, the prosthesis is going to take a marvel of modern engineering."

Veterinarians are unsure if a prosthesis will be beneficial or harmful in the long term. Swimming without a tail may ultimately wear on Winter's spine.

She would need at least three tails as she grows. She is now about 4 feet long and weighs 110 pounds. When she is full grown at age 15, Winter will be twice as long and four times as heavy.

The cost of the prosthetic tail is unknown.

"All I know is Fuji's tail cost $100,000 — and that was in 2004," McCulloch said.

That's equal to the entire monthly operating budget of the Clearwater Marine Aquarium, Zucker said. The small animal hospital relies mostly on volunteer workers; its roof leaks in heavy rains.

"We're a mom and pop shop," Zucker said. "It's a labor of love."

She expects the design cost of the tail will be underwritten by the company that creates it. It's the cost of the long-term care of Winter — and the other injured animals in her care — that worry her.

Winter is a living reminder for humans to be careful about what they leave in the water.

"The kids get it right away. It's the adults, more creatures of habit, who take more persuasion," McCulloch said. "You can't outlaw fishing line, but you can educate a fisherman not to use careless techniques such as tossing out line."

750 words

48

EXAMINATION SAMPLES GENERAL PAPER 2009

Summary

Summarize the following report in your own words. The report should be reduced to approximately one third of its original length; the summary should have between 200 and 300 words. Failure to meet these guidelines will result in point loss.

TEXT

A tree fungus could provide green fuel that can be pumped directly into tanks, scientists

say. The organism, found in the Patagonian rainforest, naturally produces a mixture of

chemicals that is remarkably similar to diesel. "This is the only organism that has ever

been shown to produce such an important combination of fuel substances," said the

plant scientist from Montana State University who led the work. "We were totally

surprised to learn that it was making a plethora of hydrocarbons." In principle, biofuels

are attractive replacements for liquid fossil fuels used in transport that generate

greenhouse gases. The European Union has set biofuel targets of 5.75% by 2010 and

10% by 2020. But critics say current biofuels scarcely reduce greenhouse gas emissions

and cause food price rises and deforestation. Producing biofuels sustainably is now a

target and this latest work has been greeted by experts as an encouraging step. The

fungus, called Gliocladium roseum and discovered growing inside the ulmo tree

(Eucryphia cordifolia) in northern Patagonia, produces a range of long-chain

hydrocarbon molecules that are virtually identical to the fuel-grade compounds in

existing fossil fuels. Details of the concoction, which the scientist calls "mycodiesel", will

be published in the next issue of the journal Microbiology. "The results were totally

unexpected and very exciting and almost every hair on my arms stood on end," said the

researcher. Many simple organisms, such as algae, are already known to make

chemicals that are similar to the long-chain hydrocarbons present in transport fuel but

none produce the explosive hydrocarbons with the high energy density of those in

mycodiesel. The researcher in charge of this project said that the chemical mixture

produced by his fungus could be used in a modern diesel engine without any

modification. Another advantage of the G. roseum fungus is its ability to eat up cellulose.

This is a compound that, along with lignin, makes up the cell walls in plants and is

indigestible by most animals. As such, it makes up much of the organic waste currently

49

discarded, such as stalks and sawdust. Converting this plant waste into useful fuels is a

major goal for the biofuel industry, which currently uses food crops such as corn and has

been blamed for high food prices. Normally, cellulosic materials are treated with

enzymes that first convert it to sugar, with microbes then used to ferment the sugar into

ethanol fuel. In contrast, G. roseum consumes cellulose directly to produce mycodiesel.

Although the fungus makes less mycodiesel when it feeds on cellulose compared to

sugars, new developments in fermentation technology and genetic manipulation could

help improve the yield. In fact, the genes of the fungus are just as useful as the fungus

itself in the development of new biofuels. "Fungi are very important but we often

overlook these organisms," a fungus expert at Swansea University, said: "This is the first

time that a fungus has been shown to produce hydrocarbons that could potentially be

exploited as a source of fuel in the future. Concept-wise, the discovery and its potential

applications are fantastic. However, more research is needed, as well as a pilot study to

determine the costs and benefits. Even so, another potential supply of renewable fuel

allows us to diversify our energy sources and is certainly an exciting discovery." The

executive director of the National Energy Research Centre also welcomed the discovery

but noted it is at its earliest stage of development. "This appears another encouraging

discovery that natural processes are more capable of producing materials of real value

to mankind than we had previously known. It's another piece of evidence that there is

real potential to adapt such processes to provide energy sources that can help reduce

our need for, and dependence on, fossil fuels." The next stage for this breakthrough

research will be to refine the extraction of mycodiesel from the fungus. This requires

more laboratory work to identify the most efficient ways to grow the organism and,

perhaps, genetic modification of the fungus to improve yields. If successful, this new

technology will then need to be tested in a largescale demonstration plant to solve any

problems in scaling up to commercial production. This discovery also raises questions

about how fossil fuels were made in the first place. The accepted theory is that crude oil,

which is used to make diesel, is formed from the remains of dead plants and animals

that have been exposed to heat and pressure for millions of years. But if fungi like this

are producing mycodiesel all over the rainforest, they may have contributed to the

formation of fossil fuels.

765 words

50

EXAMINATION SAMPLES GENERAL PAPER 2010

Summary

Summarize the following report in your own words. The report should be reduced to approximately one third of its original length; the summary should have between 200 and 300 words. Failure to meet these guidelines will result in point loss. TEXT

Ecology and economics should push in the same direction. After all, the “eco” part of

each word derives from the Greek word for “home”, and the protagonists of both claim to

have humanity's welfare as their goal. Yet environmentalists and economists are often at

loggerheads. For economists, the world seems to be getting better. For many

environmentalists, it seems to be getting worse. These environmentalists have

developed a sort of “litany” of three big environmental fears: natural resources are

running out; the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat and the planet's

air and water are becoming ever more polluted. Human activity is thus defiling the earth,

and humanity may end up killing itself in the process. The trouble is, the evidence does

not back up this litany. The early environmental movement worried that the mineral

resources on which modern industry depends would run out. Clearly, there must be

some limit to the amount of fossil fuels and metal ores that can be extracted from the

earth: the planet, after all, has a finite mass. But that limit is far greater than many

environmentalists would have people believe. Reserves of natural resources have to be

located, a process that costs money. That, not natural scarcity, is the main limit on their

availability. However, known reserves of all fossil fuels, and of most commercially

important metals, are now larger than were believed to be. In the case of oil, for

example, reserves that could be extracted at reasonably competitive prices would keep

the world economy running for about 150 years at present consumption rates. Add to

that the fact that the price of solar energy has fallen by half in every decade for the past

30 years, and appears likely to continue to do so into the future, and energy shortages

do not look like a serious threat either to the economy or to the environment. The

population explosion is also turning out to be a bugaboo. As far back as the end of the

18th Century Thomas Malthus claimed that, if unchecked, human population would

expand exponentially, while food production could increase only linearly, by bringing

new land into cultivation. He was wrong. Population growth has turned out to have an

51

internal check: as people grow richer and healthier, they have smaller families. Indeed,

the growth rate of the human population reached its peak, of more than 2% a year, in

the early 1960s. The rate of increase has been declining ever since. It is now 1.26%,

and is expected to fall to 0.46% in 2050. The United Nations estimates that most of the

world's population growth will be over by 2100, with the population stabilising at just

below 11 billion. Granted, the threat of pollution is real, but exaggerated. Many analyses

show that air pollution diminishes when a society becomes rich enough to be able to

afford to be concerned about the environment. For London, the city for which the best

data are available, air pollution peaked around 1890. Today, the air is cleaner than it has

been since 1585. There is good reason to believe that this general picture holds true for

all developed countries. And, although air pollution is increasing in many developing

countries, they are merely replicating the development of the industrialized countries.

When they grow sufficiently rich they, too, will start to reduce their air pollution. All this

contradicts the litany. Yet opinion polls suggest that many people, in the rich world, at

least, nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining. Scientific funding

goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy, but it will also create

an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case. The attitude of

the media is also a factor in the distortion. People are clearly more curious about bad

news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public

wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. To replace the

litany with facts is crucial if people want to make the best possible decisions for the

future.

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