math teacher is doing, and so on. Ques tions of how educational experiences fit together and how they lead to students' overall development do not receive much attention. Moving away from the traditional, highly segmented school would be difficult. A Z company focuses its concern on its long-term business success. Such a focus of concern in the schools is easy to identify the learner.

Implementing Theory ZOuchi has suggested a series of steps for implementing Theory Z as a manage ment scheme. These steps, reformulat ed to fit the school situation, are pre sented in Figure 2. While they are to be carried out by administrators and faculty members working together, the chief administrator is the key to success. Im plementation of Theory Z must begin at the top and work its way down through the organization. The entire implemen tation process is slow, taking several years to complete.

pommitment to Theory Z, while ab solutely necessary, will not be enough for successful implementation. Admin istrators and teachers alike will need to learn the skills of participative decision making. These skills cannot be assumed to exist; definitive activities for their development must be undertaken. Fur thermore, strategies for collecting feed back on the attempts to change the management style need to be identified and established to guide the Theory Z implementation. These strategies may be similar to those used later to evaluate the effectiveness of decisions made in the participative process.

Should Theory Z Be Applied in Schools?Ouchi's conclusions about what makes for effective management are not with out their critics. Bruce-Briggs (1982) has charged that Ouchi has totally misinter preted the Japanese situation. To him, the essential ingredient in Japanese eco nomic success is the discipline of the work force, which is a product of Japa nese traditions. Bruce-Briggs states that not only would it be silly, but also dangerous to try to apply Japanese meth ods out of the context of a "labor force disciplined by a social hierarchy con trolled by an oligarchy."

Many would probably agree with Bruce-Briggs that Theory Z is simply a "new brand name to peddle an old ideological package," fit only for a Uto pian situation. Some will undoubtedly

view the Z ideas as too "soft" and not authority-oriented enough to be effec tive. If these ideas really have been effective for major corporations, howev er, perhaps they do have some power to produce results. A decision about whether these concepts are useful for management in education, moreover, should depend on an analysis of the school situation.

The Theory Z ideas may have poten tial for addressing two long time prob lems in American education. Lortie's excellent analysis describes the weakness of teaching as a subculture. Prominent among the factors contributing to this condition are the lack of a common language among teachers, the failure of teachers to establish adequate support ing relationships with each other, and the stagelessness of teaching as a career, which depresses teacher motivation. The emphasis in Z on the development of the worker-teacher through broader participation and work experiences and on the exercising of collective responsi bility for decision making and imple mentation may have promise for dealing with this weakness.

The second problem is that of the segmented nature of the school. Indi vidual teacher entrepreneurship may provide the basis for much of what teachers enjoy about their jobs, but it is inconsistent with the development of the student. Learning is a long-term, multifaceted process. According to Lor tie's study, teachers desire to "reach" every student, develop a positive attitude to learning on the part of their students, and produce moral students. These ends will not be accomplished through a group of isolated efforts. Again Theory Z may provide a basis for coordinating the efforts of the school.

Would it be worth our while to study the application of Theory Z manage ment to schools? I'll think about that some more as I drive home from work in my Honda. CH

References

Bowen, W "Lessons from Behind the Kimono." Fortune 103 (June 15, 1981): 247-250.

Bruce-Briggs, B "The Dangerous Folly Called Theory Z." Fortune 1 05 (May 17, 1982)-. 41-53.

Dreeben, R. The Nature of Teaching. Glenview. 111.. Scott, Foresman, 1970.

Lortie, C. Schoolteacher. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1975.

Ouchi, W. Theory Z . Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1981.

Successful in Japan anc involve staff members in

I f educators are to have some leverage in increasing productivity and quali ty in America's schools in the next

few years, we must focus our energies on the most potent and expensive re sources under our control the people who work in our schools.

There are many methods school ad ministrators can use to accomplish this goal. One possible approach the qual ity circle has been credited by observ ers of Japanese industry as being a key component in increasing employee pro ductivity. In the United States, the con cept has already moved from industrial settings to banks, hospitals, govern ment, and service organizations. By spring 1983 over 4,000 organizations will be implementing quality circles.

The quality circle is a participative management tool designed to systemati cally harness the brain power of employ ees to solve an organization's problems of productivity and quality. While there are certainly many differences in the ways industry and education operate, they do share one attribute: the public distrusts the quality of their products. Whether it is American cars or Ameri can high school graduates, both arc perceived as not as good as they used to be.

As yet, few school systems have used the quality circle concept. However, a growing number of school administra tors are tentatively examining its tech-

Larry Chase is Executive Director, North west Educational Cooperative, Arlington Heights, Illinois.

18 EDUCATIONAL LEADKRSHIP

in American industry, quality circles are a specific way to solving organization problems.

LARRY CHASE

D U I O Nniques and values to discover if it can he used to reduce the costs of education and improve the morale and productivi ty of teachers, administrators, and oth ers involved with the school enterprise.

Whether or not the quality' circle will have the kind of success in public school settings that it is producing in a large section of the American business estab lishment remains to be seen. That the technique is worth investigation and study is beyond question.

How Quality Circles FunctionA quality circle is a small group of employees (5 12) who voluntarily meet on a regular basis to identify, analyze, and solve various problems. Ideally, members of each circle should be from the same work area, do similar work, or interact closely to get a particular job done so that the problems they select will be familiar and important to all of them. There is no limit to the number of circles that can be created within an organization. Typically, circles meet for an hour a week, but this may be changed based on local circumstances. Once trained, circle members go through specific steps to accomplish the goal of the circle. Kigurc 1 reflects this process.

In conducting quality circle work shops for school administrators. I'm sometimes confronted with skepticism that the concept is really anything new or better than the participative manage ment processes that schools arc current ly using. Kor instance: some administra tors say, "Perhaps this technique has some value on the assembly line where managers have never asked anybody's opinion before, but 1 ottcn involve my staff in planning and decision making."

Figure 1. How a Quality Circle Operates.

2 Problem selettron —Member* onK

) Data r-athennp to verm and scope ill problem —Members

Problem analvs.s to determine causes—Members— Others invited b\ I

Data gathering analysis and den-ion as to true cause—Members—Others invited by members

Management Decision Not Required

. Management presentattc- lo review solutions Members- Invited Ruests

b Solutions generated torrecommendation to management

Management Decision Required

FEBRUARY

Methods

Figure 2. Fishbone Diagram.

. • - ' ;-V Personal Power

Unclear instructioi

. No objectives x\ Poor Pining skills —————————>————\ Teachers dislike kids

ins \^ Kids ill

Kids sleep through mathNo practice X

Little wait time

Kids don't do homework

Teachers/kids overworked N. NO mathbackground

\

Machines

My response to this legitimate defense is to challenge the skeptic to understand the integrity of the quality circle tool and to consider the effects of the disci plined, almost ritualistic, principles that make it a quality circle. Regardless of what a school administrator calls the process, if it is consistent with all of those principles it will function like a quality circle.

Quality Circle TechniquesQuality circles are very different from the task forces and committees typically used in education. Quality circle leaders and members are trained in the specific language and procedures of the circle process. These techniques are used at each step of the quality circle process to achieve the results of that step. There are eight separate techniques.

1. Round Robin Brainstorm/rig. Most educators are familiar with brainstorm- ing. When managed properly, a brain- storming session produces the maxi mum number of alternative ideas on a given topic. It increases the originality as well as the quality of ideas. The rules for brainstorming are very specific and are designed to eliminate ego involve ment and negative feelings that might interfere with the generation of many

ideas. Brainstorming allows participants to break out of their normal conceptual limits to think of possibilities they would not normally consider. The round robin structure also guarantees increased par ticipation of all of the members in the group rather than domination by a few individuals.

The purpose of the brainstorming session, which is used in every step of problem solving, is to produce a large quantity of ideas before narrowing to the best ideas.

2. Voting to Achieve Group Consen sus. Educators know the value of achieving consensus, and they know it is a time-consuming process, which is why it's rarely used in schools. The circle voting technique to achieve con sensus is an efficient procedure that works well in any consensus-seeking situation, not only in quality circles.

There are two levels of voting in this process. During the first vote, circle members raise their hands to indicate which ideas generated in the brain- storming session warrant further consid eration. Individuals are allowed to vote for as many ideas as they wish. The number of votes for each idea are tallied and those ideas receiving no votes are eliminated from further consideration.

The remaining ideas are reorganized according to priority; those getting the most votes are ranked highest.

Next, group members discuss the ideas to clarify their interpretation of them. Individuals who feel strongly about the importance of promoting one particular idea are given an opportunity to convince other members of its worth. The group is reminded that the consen sus model requires the participation of all members equally rather than allow ing a few verbal or articulate people to dominate the decision process. When this discussion phase is completed, the group votes again. During this step the number of times an individual can vote is limited by the number of ideas. Typi cally, if five ideas remain, each member gets one vote. If ten ideas remain, each member gets two votes. This process forces group members to choose from among alternatives to determine which ideas have maximum support. Through this process the ideas are reordered and the ones at the top of the list are now accepted for further consideration. Oth er ideas are kept for later consideration. Typically, brainstorming and voting are used at steps 2, 4, and 6 of the problem- solving process.

3. Cause and Effect Analysis. There

20 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

are many cause-and-effect analysis sys tems. Each system provides a rational structure through which data are ma nipulated to determine the "true" cause of a particular problem. The method most often used in quality control cir cles is the fishbone technique. Circle members fill in a fishbone diagram, beginning with a statement of the prob lem the effect in a box on the right side of the diagram. Possible causes of the problem usually fall into one of four categories: methods, machines, materi als, and people power. As group mem bers think of what might have caused the problem, their ideas arc added to the diagram in the appropriate categories. The fishbone diagram in Figure 2 gives a sense of the way data are organized by this structure.

Other cause-and-cffcct formats in clude work flow analvsis, force field

analysis, process cause-and-effect analy sis, job target analysis, and so forth. Before a cause-and-effect analysis tool is adopted by a circle, group members must be thoroughly trained in the exact application of the model.

4. Data Collection. I n certain stages of the quality circle process data collec tion and verification become very im portant. At these times circle members call on any and all data gathering tools and techniques that can serve the pur pose at hand. Which tools and tech niques are chosen depend on the data that arc needed to analyze a particular problem. Typically data gathering in volves the use of check sheets, check lists, surveys, sampling techniques, graphs, and simple statistical techniques like mean, median range, frequency distribution, inferential data analysis, and so on.

A. B.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

A B.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Examples of Check Sheets ..'-' ' . . : Casel - -' _'Problem Identified: Teachers feel threatened by clinical supervision program. Major Causes Analyzed : 1. Teachers fear supervision is really 4. Conference time is insufficient,

evaluation.

2. Teachers don't understand the new 5. Inservice program lacks practice teaching methods. time.

3. Principals lack communication 6. Other. skills.

.' Elem. Elem. Elem. Jr. Hi. Hi. Sch. Bldg.1 Bldg.2 Bldg.3 Bldg. Bldg. Total

Principal's supervision xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxxx xxxxxx is evaluation xxx xx x xxx xxxxxx 38

Don't understand meth ods X

Principals lack communi- xx cation skills

Conference time is insuffi cient

Inservice program lacks x practice time

Other x

Cue 2Problem Identified: Student reading levels Major Causes Analyzed : 1. Entry skills are lower with more tran

sient population.

2. Less time spent on reading skills in content area.

Lower entry skills

Less time spent on reading skills

Lack of coordination

Lower teacher expectations

XX XXX XXXX 10

X X XXX XXXXX 12

xx x 3

x xx x 5

xx x x 5

deteriorated in 8th grade. -

3. Lack on coordination among staff on remedial methods.

4. Teacher expectations are lower. (1) (2) (3) (4) Total

xx x xx 5

xxxx xxx xxx xxx xx x x xxx 20

x x 2

xx x xxx x 7

While most educators have taken a course in statistics as part of their gradu ate preparation, few are truly trained at the routine application of statistical analysis techniques within their own jobs. One of the spin-off benefits of quality circle involvement is the oppor tunity to releam useful statistical analy sis, data analysis, and data gathering methods at a practical level.

5. Decision Analysis. Cause-and-ef fect analysis provides the data necessary to determine the most likely causes of a problem and the direction for data gath ering and verification. Decision analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing the results of data gathering and verifica tion in order to determine if the hypo thetical culprit or cause is the actual cause before solutions arc considered. The decision analysis method used most often by quality circles is the Parcto Decision Analysis Technique, often re ferred to as the 80-20 method.

The Parcto method named after the Italian economist and sociologist who created it assumes that certain varia bles in any situation determine 80 per cent of the results or nonrcsults, while all other variables combined account for only 20 percent of the results or nonre- sults. In time management workshops, this is often illustrated with the example that typical school administrators ac complish 80+ percent of their results in 20 percent of their time at work, while spending 80 percent of their time on activities that rarely produce significant results. Good time management re aligns time spent with activities that will produce results. The Pareto chart is a bar graph arranged in such a way that the most likely cause of a problem appears significantly larger than all oth er possible causes. It can be an emotion al moment in the quality circle process when the Parcto chart is finally com pleted and displayed for all to see. It is as if we had been on a hunting expedition for the one variable that is most impor tant to alter. The Pareto chart visually verifies if the suspected culprit is the one in fact.

The following example illustrates the use of the Pareto decision analysis tech nique. A quality circle composed of intermediate grade teachers had identi fied the need to increase students' en gaged learning time as the problem to be solved. During the data analysis process, they created a check sheet to identify' various categories of interruptions of the learning process during prime morning

FEBRUARY 1983 21

Figure 3. Barriers to Student Engaged Time.

P.A. System

Learning activity transitions

Classroom management interaction

Giving directions

Nonproductive student behavior

One tally mark equals one minute of nonengagement

Mon. 9-11:45

///u*Z4tirt/iJUT 1W

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Tues. 9-11:45

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Thurs. Fri. 9-11:45 9-11:45 TOTAL

// Off / 1 8

*£%•*# "jOSSf"* 1 12

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120

110

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1= 30-

20

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Figure 4. Pareto Bar Graph.

transitionNonproductive student behavior

' - ':.>' v v

Classroom man-

actionsGiving direct ions

CAUSE OF NONENGAGEMENT

•.'••/ ••{•.-•'-

P.A. system

gets the most leverage possible out of it. The tone of the presentation is usually formal. The presenter acknowledges anyone who helped the circle achieve its result and circle members themselves are acknowledged by management for their efforts in tackling the problem. Figure 5 is an example of a checklist one quality circle used to ensure a smooth management presentation.

8. E valuation. L ike any self-renew ing organizational process, the manage ment presentation is followed by self- evaluation so that circle members can critique the way they functioned during the previous weeks or months. Upon completion of this phase the process begins again, with the group using prob lem identification techniques to deter mine what they'll tackle next.

These procedural steps are followed ritualistically, which ensures disciplined

hours. After tabulating the number of minutes that students were off-task be cause of each category of interruption (shown in Figure 3), the data were arranged using the Pareto bar graph (Figure 4). This visual presentation of the data clearly showed that one type of interruption, "learning activity transi tions," was by far the most significant barrier to increasing student academic learning time. From this analysis, circle members decided to generate solutions that would significantly reduce the loss of engaged time due to learning activity transitions.

6. Generating Solutions. A ll the quality circle procedures discussed so far are appropriate to use at the solution generation stage. In addition, a cost/ benefit analysis is performed at this time. Cost/benefit analysis is a decision- making tool that helps the quality circle systematically determine cost and bene fits of each proposed solution as well as the likely effect of each alternative. Through this process, a specific list of

recommendations and an implementa tion plan emerge, which the group will present to managers of the organization.

7. Management Presentation. The purpose of the management presenta tion is to formally present the findings of the quality circle to the individual re sponsible for rejecting or accepting rec ommendations. Guests may also be in vited. Much care goes into planning this presentation to ensure that the group

Figure 5. Sample Checklist for Manage ment Presentations.

10 Essential Points

1. Make Positive Statements2. U se the Personal Viewpoint3. Have a Leader4. Use an Appropriate Meeting Area5. Follow an Agenda6. Follow the Chain of Command7. Have a Theme8. Keep It Short and Simple9. Use Instructional Aids

10. Cover All Achievement, Progress, and Accomplishments

guidance for members during each step of the process. Time is used efficiently and groups are often surprised at how much they're able to accomplish in a short time compared to other forms of participative problem solving or deci sion making.

Examples of School Problems Appropriate for Quality Circle ProcessesA broad range of problem areas could be addressed by a quality circle. Remember that while any member of the organiza tion can suggest a problem to a quality circle group for consideration, the circle itself, through its normal process, deter mines what problems will be analyzed and solved. Administrators may not ap prove of the choices of a particular circle. Circle members may perceive that a problem affecting them in a mi nor but nagging way on a daily basis is more important than a problem critical

22 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

to the school district as a whole, espe cially in the beginning. Often, such decisions are made by circle groups to test the administrators' integrity and commitment. The group seeks assur ance that it will be allowed to make its own decisions.

It is fundamentally important that groups be supportive in these decisions. A danger in the area of problem selec tion arises when administrators encour age circles to select only problems im portant to administrators. While those problems with the potential to save money for the organization a re impor tant to solve, solving problems that in terfere with job satisfaction, employee morale, and general working conditions may be more important in the long run. Quality circles arc a long-term change effort to increase the quality and produc tivity of the organization. They are not a quick fix nor a substitute for hiring effective managers, negotiating carefully with bargaining units, or supervising staff appropriately.

Typical Problems for Quality Circle ConsiderationTeachers

• Improving student discipline• Improving the use of materials, au

diovisual equipment, or other school resources

• Scheduling of school activities that interfere with the learning process

• Increasing time on task with stu dents

• Teaching certain difficult-to-teach students

• Relative amount of emphasis of different curricular areas

• Expectations regarding student per formance

• Appropriate use of tests and other student evaluation methods

• Teaching skills and the need for staff development to upgrade teaching skills

• School community relationships• Parent/teacher conferences• Assemblies• Articulation between grade levels,

between elementary and junior high, between junior high and high school

• Orienting new teachers• Coordinating regular teachers and

substitute teachers• Establishing schoolwidc norms and

rules for student behaviors• Reducing accidents in gym• Reducing stress

• Increasing job satisfaction• Managing student records• Reducing employee and student

absenteeism• Handling school closing or staff

consolidation• Improving supervisory practices• Reducing vandalism• Curtailing waste• Increasing affiliation among staff• Meeting special needs of students

School Principals• Finding more time to conduct in

structional improvement activities• Reducing paperwork flow• Motivating teaching staff• Improving communication verti

cally between the school and central office

• Reducing stress and pressure• Time management problems of be

ing a principal• Improving delegation to school sec

retaries and other support staff at the school level to get more done

• Handling communication with parents and other citizens at the school level

• Managing committees, task groups, and other decision-making activities of teachers and other staff

• Scheduling problems• Managing time to include all nec

essary staffings for various purposes• Maintaining a school climate ap

propriate for learning• Ensuring the teaching staff contin

ue to update their skills• Developing and maintaining high

expectations of teaching staff about stu dent learning disabilities

Library Aides• Books coming back damaged• Books that are overused by teachers

and students and aren't there when needed

• Patterns of student traffic in the libraries and learning centers to avoid confusion

• Discipline problems in the library• Library organization• Scheduling problems with various

classes using the library• Student management skills of li

brary aides who aren't trained as teach ers

Central Office Secretarial Staff• Managing telephone calls to the

district and among the schools

• Improving communication among all the schools and the central office

• Managing personnel data appropri ately

• Duplication and information pro cessing problems

• Keeping track of district capital equipment for inventory purposes

• Handling irate citizens in a positive manner

• Assisting school secretaries in han dling excess work load

• Improving job satisfaction and re ducing stress

• Considering more efficient techno logical methods for managing various forms of district dataCustodians

• Graffiti on lockers and bathroom walls

• More efficient ways to clean a building in less time

• Overload on demand to use clean ing equipment throughout the district

• Safety' problems regarding cleaning and maintenance equipment

• Monitoring major heating and maintenance functions to save costs; energy saving programs

• Developing long-range plans for scheduling building maintenance

• Handling interpersonal conflicts within the custodial staff and between custodians and teachers

• Dealing with communication problems of limited-English proficient custodians in an English-speaking school.

Bus Drivers• Student discipline on the buses• Defensive driving techniques dur

ing winter months• Orienting and training new drivers.

Food Service Workers• Reducing student waste of school

food• Improving the appearance and

quality of food to compete with fast food alternatives

• Interpersonal problems between food service workers and students

• Managing the time problems asso ciated with serving lunches to a large school population

• Keeping the lunchroom clean• Handling special food orders for

medical problems, special clubs, and the like

• Maintaining and reducing costs as sociated with food sen-ice equipment

FEBRUARY 1983

• Creating and maintaining a posi tive environment for eating.

Implementation: The Politics of Quality CirclesThe politics of quality circles are no different from the politics of any innova tion. Those of us who have participated in educational improvement programs in public schools during the past ten years have learned that unless innova tors give careful attention to "political" factors, any innovation, no matter ho* well thought out, will fail to be adopted. Successful implementation, therefore, includes a systematic plan for addressing these issues.

Following is a step-by-step plan for implementing quality circles to ensure proper involvement of the appropriate power groups. While modifications in these steps can be made, the administra tor wishing to implement successfully should not deviate far from the basic structure.

1. Obtaining top administration sup port for the program. A commitment to quality circles must be perceived as a long-range attempt to enroll more brain power and employee creativity in solv ing critical organizational problems. In private settings, it is generally accepted that it will take 18 months before the initial financial investment in the quali ty circle is recovered. This implies the need to invest organizational resources, primarily staff time and some financial resources, to set up, train, and supply quality circle leaders and participants.

No matter how positive your organi zation is, there will always be foot drag- gers, nay savers, and negative thinkers. No process of essential human change can predict in advance all the intricacies and dynamics that will emerge as the process moves along. We know prob lems will be encountered and mistakes will be made.

For all these reasons, active commit ment and support from the top adminis trator and the board is essential. While it is not necessary that the top adminis trator participate directly as a quality' circle member, the idea makes good sense. For example, the Illinois State Board of Education expressed its com mitment by installing quality circles in its 900-employee bureaucracy, and cre ated a pilot circle among the superinten dent's cabinet. The circle leader for this group is the state superintendent of edu cation and circle members include the deputy and assistant superintendents for the various administrative departments.

2. Establishing a steering committee. The steering committee is responsible for monitoring the installation and eval uation of the quality circle program. It is composed of representatives from vari ous organizational power groups. The steering committee:

a. Establishes policy for the initiation and operation of quality circles within the organization

b. Plans implementationc. Selects a facilitator to supervise the

implementationd. Monitors progress of the circle-

program and recommends changes to keep it on target

e. Suggests ways to improve and ex pand the quality circle program

f. Periodically informs top manage ment and other employees of results being achieved.

In a school environment, the steering committee should include minimally the following representatives: (1) the su perintendent or the superintendent's designee who clearly represents the su perintendent's authority on the steering committee; (2) a representative of the principals' organization; (3) a high level representative from the teachers collec tive bargaining unit; (4) the business manager or other business-oriented offi cial; and (5) representatives of support staff groups including custodial/mainte nance personnel, school secretaries, and food service employees. Any other groups in the organization to be consid ered as areas for pilot circles should be represented on the steering committee. Other representatives could include community participants, board mem bers, students, or individuals with spe cific technical abilities that may be use ful to the success of the circle program.

While the steering committee need not devote a lot of time to meeting as a steering committee, certain key respon sibilities must be handled by this group. The most important of these is the identification of a facilitator.

3. Appointing the quality circle facili tator. The facilitator is the key individ ual who is the most knowledgeable and resourceful regarding the quality circle concept. The facilitator:

1. Sets up a circle system within the organization

a Sits as an active member of the steering committee

b. Serves as quality circle program coordinator

c. Trains members, leaders, and management as appropriate2. Maintains circles on a regular basis

a. Coordinates different circles b. Maintains circle records c. Arranges meetings with outsiders

to visit circlesd. Attends circle meetings e. Searches for new members f. Encourages idea sharing among

circle members about circlesg. Publicizes the circle program to

all employeesh. Is an advocate within and out

side the organization for the quality circle concept

i. Does background detail work to make sure circle groups have re sources needed and to make sure management presentations arc han dled appropriately

j. Prepares training materials and develops orientation and training pro gram as the circle concept expands

k. Maintains records of all circle activities and gives periodic reports to the steering committee on circle re sults

Whether or not to hire the facilitator on a full-time basis is an important and difficult decision. It is not mandatory that the facilitator be assigned full-time to quality circle activities. On the other hand, the position should not simply be added to the job description of a central office administrator, principal, or de partment chairperson who already has many responsibilities. While it is diffi cult to estimate the amount of time needed by the facilitator to adequately manage the quality circle program, some companies have found that a full- time facilitator is required if six or more circles arc established during the pilot

4. The management presentation. The management presentation provides the appropriate celebration for the com pleted ritual of the quality circle pro cess. It is a powerful opportunity for accomplishing goals. Most important, it is the management presentation where the quality circle members present their recommendations and supporting data in a convincing fashion to their assigned supervisor. In a school setting, this may be a building principal, a central office administrator, or the superintendent. The individual receiving the manage ment presentation must be open and willing to go along with the recommen-

24 EDUCATIONAL LEADKRSHIP

dations of the circle. This is not to say that the circle process requires that every proposed recommendation be imple mented. In industry, an average of 95 percent of circle recommendations arc implemented. It is important, however, that the administrator make a decision following the management presentation and communicate it as quickly as possi ble to the circle members If the deci sion is not to implement the circle's recommendations, clear and concise reasons should be given. The supervisor needs to interact with the circle group for as long as necessary until they under stand and accept the reasons for the rejection. If the quality circle process has proceeded appropriately, all-out re jection of a recommendation is very unlikely. One of the key responsibilities of the facilitator throughout the process is to inform the individual who will ultimately make the decision of the direction being taken by the quality circle so that the management presenta tion does not come as a negative sur prise.

5. E valuating the effectiveness of the quality circle program. Establishing cri teria for evaluating and monitoring the effectiveness of the program is one of the responsibilities of the steering commit tee. At the beginning of the pilot pro cess, criteria on which the program will be evaluated arc articulated and shared widely in the organization. 'These crite ria often include not only actual cost savings to the organization but partici pant perceptions of the worth of the project and benefits to morale, job satis faction, and work climate Whether these measures arc based on standard ized devices or subjective report is less important than the fact that they arc clearly established at the beginning of the process.

6. Quality circle expansion. The built-in training process of the quality circle program makes its eventual ex pansion to more groups natural and inevitable. Typically, about six months into the program the facilitator and group leaders in the pilot circles will identify a circle member in each group with the capability and willingness to become a new circle leader. These indi viduals can be given extra training and allowed to set up new circles as the demand for participation increases. You know the program is developing proper ly if there are always some individuals not participating in circles who arc pressing for the opportunity.

Quality circles, like any innovation, must eventually become integrated into the ethos of the local organization. If implementation is going well, the integ rity and ritual aspects of the circle, which are its power, will be maintained even as the circle process takes on the characteristics of the specific organiza tion.

What Circles Don't Deal WithQuality circles are not an alternative management system to the system exist ing in an organization. They are a management tool designed to increase the leverage of the organization at solv ing problems efficiently. The decision to establish a quality circle program is a management decision, even though participation in quality circles must be voluntary. Since we are human, certain areas must be identified up front as off limits for circle problem solving. Any problems that relate to the collective bargaining agreement that exists be tween the various employee associations and the board are to be handled within the structures delineated in the agree ment, not in the quality circle. Any issues that relate to the legitimate pre rogatives of management, such as hiring and firing employees, assigning employ ees, and establishing policy arc not the prerogative of the quality circle. Any issues that focus on individual personal ity problems or characteristics of indi vidual employees are off limits as well. Other locally determined, sensitive is sues unique to an organization may also be identified in the beginning as off limits. This need not inhibit circle de velopment or threaten the integrity of the circle process. It is important that these areas are articulated in the begin ning, and that the facilitator and group leader ensure that groups comply with these rules of conduct.

The Quality Circle Is Not a ConI make this assertion because many administrators have implemented what I call pseudo-participation programs in which the hidden agenda was to manip ulate staff into feeling involved in the dccision-making/problem-solving pro cesses of the organization when, in fact, the leader was not sincere. The sincere commitment of the top administration will be tested early in the quality circle program. For instance, a quality circle may request sensitive and closely guard ed information only available to a few administrators, but which is needed for problem analysis. The willingness of the

administration to share openly any and all information that is requested within legal and ethical limits is a critical test of the whole system.

Some managers fear empowering their employees. They believe that if their employees understand their power, they will lose control, look bad, or be fired. Research, however, clearly shows this is not true. In any hierarchical organization, the results achieved by employees are recorded against the ac count of the manager in charge. The more responsibility employees are will ing to take, the more participation they have in problem solving, the more ener gy they devote to improving the organi zation, the better it will be for the manager in the eyes of those higher up. Yet, make no mistake. It is scary to give up power to employees knowing that you will be hard pressed to go against their recommendations. Few things worth doing are without their risks.

There is no way to know whether or not quality circles will work in a particu lar public school setting. That the con cept is working in a variety of organiza tions is well documented. Final responsibility for examining this partic ular tool rests with the individual school administrator who may have a lot to gain or a lot to lose by considering quality circles.

As a final note. I'm reminded of one of the more positive contributions of the former Director of the Office of Man agement and Budget, Bert Lance, who said, "If it's not broke, don t fix it." So if your school's not "broke," you may see no purpose in investing the resources necessary to implement quality- circles. On the other hand. if it's "broke." . . . D

Resources for Information on Quality Circles

Training Sources

Northwest Educational Cooperative 500 S. DwyerArlington Heights. III. 60004 (312)870-4100Contact person: Lawrence G. Chase.

Executive Director

Educational Improvement Center,N.E.

2 Babcock Place West Orange. N.J. 07052 (201)731-8400 Contact person: James Lewis, Executive

Director

FEBRUARY 198?

Material Resources: Training Materials

Quality Circle Institute 1425 Vista Way Airport Industrial Park P.O. Box Q Red Bluff, Calif. 96080 (916) 527-6970Contact person: Donald Dewar, Presi

dent

International Association of Quality Circles

P.O. Box 30635Midwest City, Okla. 73140(405) 737-6450Contact person: Robert D. Collier, Ex

ecutive Director

Monographs on Implementing QualityCircles in Educational Settings

San Mateo County Office of Education 33? Main Street Redwood City, Calif. 94063 (415) 363-5400

Quality Circle Training Materials forEducational Applications

Educational Improvement Center,N.E.

2 Babcock Place West Orange, N.J. 07052 (201)731-8400 Contact person: Jarnes Lewis, Executive

Director

Quality Circle Digest Published monthly by Quality Circle Institute (address above).

Ingle, Sud.Quality Circle Master Guide. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,

Inc., 1982.

Amsden, D., and Amsden, R., eds. Q.C. C ircles: Applications, Tools, and

Theory. Milwaukee: ASQC, 1976.

Case, K., and Jones, LProfit Through Quality: Quality Assur

ance Programs for Manufacturers.Atlanta: American Institute of Industrial

Engineering, 1978.

Cole, R.Work, Mobility and Participation: A

Comparative Study of American and Japanese Industry.

Berkeley, Calif.: University of Califor nia, 1979.

Crosby, P. B.Quality If Free.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979.

Dewar, D.The Quality Circle Handbook. Red Bluff, Calif.: Quality Circle Insti

tute, 1980.

Drucker, Peter F.Management.New York: Harper and Row, 1954.

Hersey, P., and Blanchard, K.Management of Organizational Behav

ior: Utilizing Human Resources (?rd ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977.

Herzberg, Frederick.Work and the Nature of Man.New York: World Publishing, 1966.

Ishikawa, Kaoru. Japan Quality Control. Tokyo: (USE, 1972

Likert, Rensis.New Patterns of Management.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.

Likert, Rensis.The Human Organization: Its Manage

ment and Value. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Maslow, A. H.Motivation and Personality.New York: Harper and Row, 1954.

McGregor, Douglas.The Human Side of Enterprise.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960

McGregor, Douglas. Leadership and Motivation. Boston: Massachusetts Institute of Tech

nology Press, 1966.

Ouchi, William G.Theory Z: How American Business Can

Meet the Japanese Challenge. New York: Avon Books, 1981.

The following materials may be ordered from the IAQC Executive Office, P.O. Box 30635, Midwest City, Okla. 73140 (405) 737-6450.

Quality Circles by Donald Dewar and Jefferson F. Beardsley. Describes train ing, implementation, and operation of quality circles, 1977 (186 pages).

J979 Transactions. The transcripts of papers presented at the First Annual Conference of the International Associ ation of Quality Circles (119 pages).

1980 Transactions. The transcripts of papers presented at the Second Annual Conference of the International Associ ation of Quality Circles (119 pages).

198J Transactions. The transactions of workshops presented at the Third Annu al Conference of the International Asso ciation of Quality Circles (191 pages).

(982 Transactions. The transcripts of workshops and presentations made at the Fourth Annual Conference of the International Association of Quality Circles (564 pages).

Introduction to Quality Circles. Audio visual slide and cassette presentation consists of 80 slides and cassette tape.

Quality Circle Leader Manual by Don ald Dewar (250 pages).

Quality Circle Member Manual by Donald Dewar (160 pages).

Basic Quality Circle Techniques. E ight audiovisual modules by Donald Dewar.

Quality Circles: Answers to 100 Fre quently Asked Questions by Donald Dewar, 1979 (48 pages).

Audio-Visuals (Set of 3 Advanced Training Techniques) by Donald Dewar: (1) Histograms, ( 2) X R Control Charts, (3) Np Control Charts

Hewlett-Packard Video Tape. V ideotape on quality circles in action at Hewlett- Packard.

Suggested BibliographyBellanca, J. A. "Quality Circles:

Making Schools Productive.' Voc Ed 57 (May 1982): 31-33.

Bonner, James. "Japanese Quality Circles: Can They Work in Education? Phi Delta Kappan 6 3 (June 1982): 681.

"Caution: Quality Circles Ahead." Training and Development Journal 3 5 (August 1981): 71-76.

Lorenz, John. "Japanese Manage ment: Implications for American Edu cation." Educational Technology 2 1 (December 1981): 23, 24

Romine, L. "Quality Circles That Enhance Productivity." Community and Junior College 5 2 (November 1981): 30-31.

Torrancc, E. P. "Education for Quality Circles in Japanese Schools." Journal of Research and Development in Education 1 5 (Winter 1982): 11-15.

"Verteam Circle." Training and De velopment Journal 3 5 (December 1981): 78-85.

26 EDUCATIONAL LF.ADF.RSHIP

Copyright © 1983 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved.