Relative clauses are joined by relative pronouns.

Relative sentences can be:- DEFINING CLAUSES- NON-DEFINING CLAUSES

Defining clauses give information which cannot be left out because it gives important information about the subject.

Ex.: The doctor who treated me told me not to

worry.Ex.: The restaurant where I had lunch

yesterday is famous for good fish.

Non-defining clauses give extra information about a person, thing or place. This is separated from the main sentence by commas.

Ex: Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor.

• WHICH/THAT: Which and that refer to things. That is

less formal than which, and some speakers prefer to use which.

Ex.: The bus which goes to Cairo leaves from here.

Ex.: The road that we took led to an ancient temple.

That is also used to refer to people in speech and informal writing in defining clauses.

Ex.: The woman that we spoke to gave us some information about the incident.

In Non-defining clauses that can not be used. You should use which to talk about things and who to talk about people.

Ex.: John, who is Peter’s brother, is an actor. (who refers to a person)

Ex.: The film, which was also shown in the USA, is extremely funny. (which refers to a thing)

- WHO AND WHOM: Who and whom refer to people. We use

whom in formal speech and writing to introduce an object clause

Ex.: The doctor that/who/whom I spoke to told me not to worry.

In informal language people use who instead of whom.

Some more examples:• It was the same boy whom I met

yesterday (formal)• No one knows by whom the victim was

shot (formal)• No one knows who the victim was shot

by.• (informal)

- WHOSE:Whose means `of whom´. It refers to

possessions.

Ex.: The girl whose case had been stolen went to the police station.

_WHERE:It refers to a place.Ex.: London is a city. You can see the Big

Ben there.London is a city where you can see the

Big Ben.

WHEN:It refers to time expressions.

Ex.: Friday is the day when I’m usually free.

• We cannot leave out the relative pronoun in non- defining clauses.

Ex.: Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor.

We cannot leave out the relative pronoun in defining clauses which are subject clauses.

Ex.: The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.

-We can leave out the relative pronoun in defining clauses which are object clauses.

Ex.: The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry.

- We can also leave out the relative pronoun after a superlative.

Ex.: That was the best meal I’ve ever eaten.

The linkers that should be used are :• TO + INFINITIVE• SO AS TO + INFINITIVE• SO AS NOT TO + INFINITIVE• SO THAT + INFINITIVE• FOR + GERUND (It is used to talk about

the purpose or function of a thing)

Some examples:1. I am studying a lot. I want to pass my

exams. Sub.: I am studying a lot to pass my

examsOr I am studying so as to pass my exams..

2. I am studying a lot. I don’t want to fail my

examsSub.: I am studying a lot so as not to

fail my exams.

Example: I turned off the TV. I wanted my roommate to study in peace and quiet.

Sub.: I turned off the TV so that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.

SO THAT CAN BE USED WHEN THE TWO SUBJECTS ARE THE SAME OR DIFFERENT.

IT CAN BE FOLLOWED BY CAN (Present or future purposes) AND BY COULD ( Past purposes)

Example with for: We use the knife for cutting bread.

With these clauses we have to use the following linkers:

• BECAUSE• SINCE• AS

Example: I want to travel to France. That’s why I’m learning French

Subordinate: I am learning French because/since I

want to travel to France. Since I want to travel to France, I am

learning French.

OR As I want to travel to France, I am

Subordinate sentence

learning French.Main sentence

These are the linkers used :• SO• SO + ADJECTIVE/ADVERB+ THAT• THEREFORE• SUCH…THATSome examples: The weather was nice. We went to the beach.Subordinate: The weather was nice so/therefore , we went

to the beach.The weather was so nice that we went to the

beach. adj.

Some other examples:There were so many people that we

couldn’t get a place.

He had so much money that he could buy anything.

With the linker such (a/an)+ adj+ noun+ that the

article is just used if the noun is countable and sigular

Ex.: Mary is such a popular person that everybody wants to speak to her.

If you have an uncountable or plural noun you don’ t need the article.

Ex.: They are such nice children that I love looking after them.

Linkers used: • ALTHOUGH• THOUGH• EVEN THOUGH• IN SPITE OF • DESPITESome examples:It was raining heavily. We went to the

beach.

Subordinate:Although/Even though it was raining

heavily, we went to the beach.

We went to the beach although/though it was raining heavily.

Or …

OR In spite of/Despite having been raining

heavily, we went to the beach.ORIn spite of the fact that it was raining

heavily, we went to the beach.ORDespite the fact that it was raining

heavily, we went to the beach.

We use the following linkers:

-WHILE-AFTER/BEFORE-AS SOON AS- WHEN

a) WHILE Example: I was cooking. At the same

time, my sister was writing letters.Subordinate:I was cooking while my sister was

writing letters = My sister was writing letters while I

was cooking

• AS SOON AS: Example: I get up, I have a shower.

Subordinate: As soon as I get up, I have a shower

= I have a shower as soon as I get up.

A) If the subject of the main clause= subject of the subordinate clause, then:

AFTER/BEFORE + V-ing

Example: I get up. Then I have breakfast.After getting up, I have breakfast=I have

breakfast after getting up.

Before having breakfast, I get up= I get up before having breakfast.

B) If the subject of the main clause ≠ the subject of the subordinate clause, then:

AFTER/BEFORE + SUBJECT + VERB…

Example: My mother arrived. Later, I left.

After my mother arrived, I left = I left after my mother arrived.

Before I left, my mother arrived= My mother arrived before I left.

WHENWhen is used when two short events

happen atthe same time. Example:I heard you when you opened

the door.