studies on seed mycoflora of certain cereals · 2018. 1. 4. · heartfelt sense of gratitude to...

STUDIES ON SEED MYCOFLORA OF CERTAIN CEREALS

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF

Mn^itv of ^^J^iUn^p IN

BOTANY

Mohammacl Imran Khaa

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH (INDIA)

1987

OBEC

DS1098

"-^0-2002

STUDIES ON SEED MYCOFLORA OF CERTAIN CEREALS

Mohammad Imran Khaa

1987

* " D E D I C A T E D *

* * * T 0 * •X- *

* LATE DR.DHIRENDRA PRAKASH *

C O N T E N T S

PAGE NO,

1 o INTRODUCTION

REVIEW OF LITERATURE » 7

MATERIALS AND METHODS o 41

REFERENCES 47

I N T R O D U C T I O N

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

I t immensely grat i f ies me to extend my gra tefu l and

h e a r t f e l t sense of gra t i tude to Dr.S.K.Saxena, Professor,

Department of Botany, A.M.U., Aligarh for his able guidance,

p l e n t i f u l worthy suggestions made the work p o s s i b l e . During the

entire period of the pursu i t of my s tudies I had the good

fortune of enjoying his constant help, advice and a f fec t ion ,

without which th i s work would not have been possibleo

Thanks are a lso due to Profo Khalid Mahmood, Chairman,

Department of Botany, A.M.U., Aligarh for providing necessary

research f a c i l i t i e s .

I t i s pleasurable to render my s ince re s t thanks to

Dr. R.P.Singh, Dr.Shabbir Ashraf, Dr.Kusum Kumari, MrcS.B.I.Zaicii,

Mr. Rishi Kumar and p a r t i c u l a r l y to Mr. Mohdo Abul-F^zal for their

kind and valuable help, high sence of love and a f fec t ion vere

instrumental in the preparat ion of th i s manuscript.

My humble thanks are also due to my pa ren t s , brothers and

s i s t e r s who have kindled the flame of learning in me and whose

a f f e c t i o n s , encouragements and s a c r i f i c i a l devotions I ascribe

a l l my successesc

Thanks are a lso due to my fr iends and colleagues Messers

Nizam, Anwar, Sarwar, Mujeeb, Zaman, Samiullah, Zaki, Shahid,

Rais , Faslh, Gir i sh , Shamim, Tyagi and Akhtar for t h e i r unceasing

encouragement, moral support and rnultiferious co-operation during

trie e n t i r e period of rny studleSo

• ' o

(MOHAMMAD IMRAN KHAN)

1 INTRODUCTION

Cereals are important source of food to feed the world

populat ion, and are r i c h source of carbohydrate, p ro te in , f a t ,

vi tamin and minerals ( H i l l , 1979).

A g rea t proport ion of ce rea l s i s damaged by diseases

and pes t s e i t h e r in f i e ld or in storage (Dobromysloff, 1932;

De Ong, 1953; Christensen, 1957,1973; Cramer, 1967; Girard,

1969,1971,1973,1974 and Singh e t a l . , 1981). Amongst various

types of d iseases the importance of seed-borne diseases can

not be underestimated. Heald (1918) observed tha t bunt i s r e s

ponsible for 87 per cent losses of wheat in U.S.A. Similarly

losses due to bunts/smuts have been reported in other countries

(Gram and Rostrup, 1922; Klemm, 1940; Vukceric, 1954; Bamberg

£ t a l . , 1947; Foster & Macswan, 1949; Wagner, 1950; Chester,

1950a,1950b; Stauber, 1958; Joshi e t a l . , 1970). Besides smuts

Fusarium avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum and F. nivale

have been reported to cause pre-and post-emergence death of

seed l ing , foot r o t , head b l igh t and scab where losses to the

extent of 25 per cent have been reported in the U.S.A.

(Schroeder & Christensen, 1963) and 5 per cent in Finland

(Blomqvist, 1970a; Richardson & Z i l l i n sky , 1972).

T i l l e t i a indica fNeovossia indica (Mitra) MundkurJ f i r s t

reported from Karnal (ffeiryana) i s now a ser ious seed-borne

disease of wheat in the major wheat growing region of the country

2 particularly in Pun^Jab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,

Himachal Pradesh, Jamnuu and JOashmir (Agarwal e t a l . , 1976;

Aujla e t a l . , 1977; Singh e t a l . , 1978; Bedi & Dhiman, 1982).

I t i s a l so reported from some of the neighbouring countries

v i z . Iraq, Afghanistan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey and Swedan

(Lambat et a l . , 1983). From 1931-68 there have been sporadic

report ing of i t s occurrence in the northern p a r t of India .

However, during 1969-70 the disease appeared in ser ious propor

t i on and i t s incidence i s increasing gradual ly every year

(Agarwal e t a l . , 1976; Singh, e t a l . , 1978)« During 1970

infect ion of Karnal bunt upto 4 per cent has been reported from

NDrth-Western region (Swaminathan et^ a l . , 1971). The losses

l a t e r increased to 15-23 per cen t . The in fec t ion fur ther

increased to 39 per cent alone in Punjab during 1975-76 and to

76-89 per cent during 1977-78 (Singh e_t a l . , 1981). Therefore,

indica t ions are tha t disease seve r i ty i s increasing in northern

b e l t . Some of the high yielding wheat v a r i e t i e s have been found

to be susceptible to t h i s disease which could explain t h i s

increase in incidence (Singh £ t a J . , 1978; Singh £ t a l . , 1981).

S t i l l the incidence i s not widespread.

Leaf b l i g h t , caused by Al ternar ia t r i t i c i n a , Prasada and

Prabhu, i s another seed-borne disease reported to cause heavy

damage in wheat crops in India , p a r t i c u l a r l y in Eastern and

Central India in recent years (Prasada and Prabhu, 1963;

Prabhu and Prasada, 1966; Kumar and Arya, 1973; Sokhi, 1974).

Bhomick (1969) reported 2 per cent na tu ra l in fec t ion but in

3

field experiment Chenulu et al. (1970) observed 36 to 39 per cent

losses in yield depending upon the time of inoculation. He

observed highest losses when the infection took place at boot

stage and much less when infection followed ear emergence

(Chenulu and Singh, 1964), Losses upto 60 per cent were recorded

by Sokhi (1974), 24.2 per cent by Rama and Joshi (1979) and 2 to

10 per cent infection by Rama and Gupta (1982) from West Bengal

alone. However, the losses were 90 per cent when Alternaria

triticina and Helminthosporium sativum were present together

and 42.5 to 65.6 per cent losses in yield alone with Alternaria

triticina (Prabhu and Singh, 1975).

While inoculating one week and one month old plants of

wheat with the isolates of A. triticina, Prasada and Prabhu (1962)

observed that young seedlings were not infected but one month old

plants were heavily infected.

Various environmental, physio-chemical and internal

factors affected the establishment and development of disease. In

amongst the environmental factors, temperature, humidity, light

intensity, rainfall and type, composition and pH of soil etc.

have been profoundly influencing the disease development (Kumar

and Arya, 1978; Ram and Joshi, 1979). Amount of sugar, starch,

protein, aminoacid, phenol content are those internalfactors

which influence the disease development (Vijay Kumar and Rao,

1980; Rashid e_t al., 1985). The sporulation of A_. triticina on

wheat was completely inhibited by continuous darkness and to

4

lesser extent by alternate light and dark (Prasada and Prabhu,

1965). Kumar and Arya (1978) reported that highest growth and

sporulation was observed at 25•C, pH-6 and in continuous dark

ness. The spore suspension in soil lost their viability after

one month (Kumar and Arya, 1978) but remained viable upto 20

months in laboratory condition (Prabhu and Prasada, 1966). Prabhu

and Prakash (1973) pointed out that 10 hour leaf wetness for 4

consecutive days at 54'F vjas most conducive for blightdevelopment,

Maximum damage due to this pathogen was observed at 20*C than at

15 or 30*^ with 48 hour saturated atmosphere (Ram and Joshi,

1979). Increased doses of N and P were found to reduce the

incidence of A, triticina but in other studies 3 fertilizers

(Nitrogen, Phosphate and Gypsum) significantly favoured to deve

lopment of the disease (Rashid et al., 1985). As a result of

infection the amount of sugar and starch decreased in both

susceptible and resistant cultivars (Vijay Kumar and Rao, 1980).

The phenol content increased in resistant leaves and decreased

in susceptible ones. Free aminoacids especially, those involved

in aromatic metabolism, increased markedly in resistant plants.

The chlorophyll content decreased with the infection (Vijay

Kumar and Rao, 1980). The total sugar (pentoses and hexoses) N

and glumatic acid were lowest in the highly resistant Triticum

sphaerococcum and twice as much in the moderately resistant

varieties RS 31-1 but Sokhi and Joshi (1973) and Kulshrestha and

Rao (1977) could not find any correlation between sugar and

Phenol contents and the susceptibility of the crop.

5 It is evident from the above that A. triticina on wheat

has been gaining importance in recent years and that too with

the development of high yielding rust resistant varieties. Al

though some work has been carried out on pathogenicity and

control of this disease but still the information is scanty and

far from complete. Pathogens and particularly the members of

Deuteromycotina have been reported to be highly variable due to

the phenomenon of hetero-karyosis and parasexuality. Hrushovetz

(1956,1957) reported that the pathogenicity of certain members

of Deutromycotina with special reference to Helminthosporium

changes when grown on media with different aminoacids. It is

not known whether this phenomenon which has a great significance

on pathogenicity is operating in A. triticina. In view of these

fact it has been considered desirable to work out systematically

the pathogenicity aspect of Alternaria triticina on wheat,.The

following aspects will be studied.

1. Survey of incidence of A. triticina on wheat in the field

around Aligarh and adjoining districts.

2. Isolation of external and internal seed mycoflora of seeds

infected with A. triticina and healthy ones.

3. Location of pathogen in and on the seeds.

4. Growth characters of pathogen isolated from different

varieties of wheat and from different localities.

6

5c Testing the pathogenicity of different isolates on commonly

grown varieties of wheat.

6. Pathogenicity of virulent isolates of the pathogen grown

on media containing different aminoacids.

7. Effect of different fertilizers and organic amendments on

the pathogenicity.

8. Effect of certain fungicides & plant extracts on development

of diseaseo

R E V I E W O F L I T E R A T U R E

7 BEVIEW OF LITERATURE

The realization of importance of seed-borne diseases can

be dated back to pre-historic era where references have been made

in some of the religious books such as Bible, Jataka of Buddhism,

Books of Hindu mythology about rusts, smuts, mildews, Vraksha

Ayurveda, a book which was written by Surapal in Ancient India

was considered as the first book about plant diseases and their

control through seed treatment with ashes, cow milk, honey etc,

(Singh, 1978)o Shakespeare in his writings had mentioned ear

cockle disease of wheat (Stakman & Harrar, 1957), but without any

proof of pathogenicity. Early writings of Remnant (l637) and

Hellwig (1699) also indicated seed-borne nature of some of the

diseases such as Claviceps purpurea (Fr,) Tul, on rye. The

pioneer work of Micheli (1723) with Orbanche minor L. on beans;

Tillet (1755) on Tilletia spp. on wheat; Tozzetti (1767); Tull

(1773) and Tessier (1783) on rusts and smuts of wheat & Oat and

Prevost (1807) on smut and bunt of wheat,established that disease

causing agents were carried through seeds. Tulsane & Tulsane

(1861-1865) while confirming the findings of Prevost (1807) gave

illustrated descriptions of rust and smut fungi, which were seed-

borne, De Bary (1853), the father of modern plant Pathology while

revolutionizing the whole concept of plant diseases, proved that

smuts and rusts of cereals were caused by pathogenic fungi.

Realizing the importance of seed-borne diseases, laws

have been enacted to check their spread by various governments, the

8

f i r s t being the Switzerland in 18l6(Porter, 1949). First o f f i c ia l

seed test ing stat ion was established in Saxony in 1869 to deter

mine the seed purity and their germination capacity (Malone &

Muskett, 1964). Subsequently other countries followed by provid

ing laws for examination of seeds and establishment of seed t e s t

ing s t a t i o n (Ling, 1953).

Having rea l ized the importance of seed-borne nature of

d i seases extensive s tudies on seed mycoflora of ce rea l s have been

made in various pa r t s of the world (Hyde, 1950; Maude e_t a l . ,

1950; Cherewick, 1950; Gray, 1954). Muskett (1950) detected

several fungi associated with the seeds of c e r e a l s . Gordon

(1952,1954 & I960) determined the prevalence of Fusarium spp.

harboured in c e r e a l s . Mundkur & Thirumalachar (1952) made a

de t a i l ed monographic s tudies on Us t i lag ina les in India which are

seed-borne. Studies on ce r t a in seed-borne d i s e a s e s , espac ia l ly

ergot and loose smut in commercial samples have been made by

Marshall (1959 & I960). De-Tempe (1964a, 1964b) pointed out tha t

Fusarium spp. and Helminthosporium spp. in ce rea l s were seed-borne

in temperate coun t r i e s . Skou (1966) pointed out t ha t the conidial

stage of Cochliobolus sat ivus i s seed-borne in c e r e a l s . Cook

(1968) encountered the causal organism causing Fusarium r o t and

foot r o t frequently in seeds of c e r e a l s . Spores of Puccinia spp,

and Fusarium spp, were a lso found seed-borne on cerea l s

(Malalasekera & Colhoun, 1969; Millar & Colhoun, 1969; Colhoun,

1970 and Sanderson, 1970). Fatima e t a l . (1974) pointed out that

9

Drechslera maydls was a problem on crops other than maize crop

and was seed-borne. Cladwell (1959) suggested the possible path

of the entry of seed-borne fungi in the seeds along with its

entrance of chemical substances. Hampton (1979) pointed out that

seed-borne and soil-borne fungi adversely affected the germination,

emergence and seedling vigour of cereals in Newzealand. Kassim

(1985) also exhibited a relationship of seed-borne fungi with seed

quality and germination.

Amongst different cereals the seed mycoflora of wheat

have been studied for a long time. Flor e_t al. (1932) pointed

out that bunt of wheat was a seed-borne and adversely affected

the yield of the crop. Since then large number of pathogens on

wheat have been reported as seed-borne (Blair, 1937; Bamberg

£t al., 1947; Andersen,1948,1952; Anonymous, 1967; Prasada &

Prabhu, 1963; Chenulu e_t al., 1970; Babadoost & Hebert, 1984).

During the course of various investigations Pyrenophora sp.

Cephalosporium sp. (Bruehl, 1957); Podosporiella verticillata

(Wallace, 1959); Leptosphaeria nodorum & Griphosphaeria nivalis

(Hewett, 1965); Fusarium graminearum (Mcknight & Hart, 1966);

Alternaria triticina (Prasada & Prabhu, 1963); Fusarium spp.

(Hewett, 1967; Sirucek, 1973); Fusarium sp., Aspergillus sp.

Alternaria sp., Curvularia sp., Helminthosporium sp., Penicillium

sp., & Mucor spo (Mishra et al_., 1969); Drechslera siccans

(Carranze, 1979); Drechslera curvispora (Dawood, 1982); Neovossia

indica (Tilletia indica) (Munjal £t al., 1976); Helminthosporium

sativum (Reis, 1982); Fusarium monillforme (Naik e_t al.,1982);

10

Aspergillus nlger & Fusarliun sp. (Porta-Pugalia, 1983); Septoria

nodorum (Babadoost & Hebert, 1984; Luke et al., 1986);

Cochliobolus satlvxis (Sharma et al., 1986 & Gray et al., 1986)

have frequently been reported as seed-borne, Batts and Jeater

(1958a, 1958b) pointed out that the reaction of varieties of

wheat against loose smut could be tested by using embryo seedling

tests. Kendrick & Holton (1961) studied the effect of environmental

factors and temperature on the development and establishment of

wheat bunt (Tilletia caries and Tilletia foetida) and found that

the combination of ICC temperature & 13% moisture was the most

favourable for wheat bunt development in field condition.

Kendrick & Purdy (1962) successfully stored the spores of bunt of

wheat (T, foetida & T. caries) for 18 years to 22 years in 3%

water agar medium although the rate of germination of the old

spores was less though higher in some races than in others, Cooke

& Jones (1970) while studying the epidemiology of Septoria tritici

and S. nodorum noted that the infection resulted in shrivelled

grains but did not affect the yield of straw and the percentage

of crude proteins. Baker (1970) pointed out that a temperature

of 10-12*0 was more favourable for the development of Leptosphaeria

nodorum. Similarly the disease development was high in loam and

poor in Chalky soil. But high moisture condition was essential

for disease development in all the cases. Flannigan (1970)

reported that although there was no difference in the seed

mycoflora of the three cereals (wheat, Oat, Barley) but Alternaria

tenuis was detected in about 70% of samples.

11

Alternarla trlticlna Prasada & Prabhu, a seed-borne

pathogen has been reported to cause severe losses on durum,

mexlcan and hybrid wheats in different wheat growing area in India

(Prasada & Prabhu, 1963; Tandon et al,, 1967; Bhomick, 1969;

Kumar & Arya, 1973; Sokhi, 1974; OJha & Mehta, 1977; Kulkurni &

Hedge,1980)o The primary source of infection of Alternaria

triticina has been found to be seed-borne conidia (Kumar & Arya,

1976). The infected grains show dark brown to black discoloured

areas towards the embryonic end of the seed (Rama & Gupta, 1982).

The infection was reported to be partly internal and partly

external, the latter in the form of conidia (Prabhu & Prasada, 1967)

The internal borne conidia later established itself as dormant

mycelium inside the seed coat between the inner epidermal surface

and cross layer cells (Kumar & Arya, 1973). The embryo and

strachy endosperm region however, were neither invaded nor dis

coloured (Bhomick, 1969). The secondary infection takes place

through air-borne conidia probably by direct penetration (Kumar

& Arya, 1976) which usually entered through the leaves, but rarely

through stomata (Kumar & Rao, 1979).

The infection is seen on a susceptible cultivar as irre

gular elliptical or suboval spots on the basal, then middle and

finally on apical leaves (Frisullo, 1982), but on resistant

cultivar in the form of small specks. The susceptibility of plants

to infection, however, increased with the plant age (Kumar & Rao,

1979) which is also indicated by the fact that there has been a

reduction in the disease incidence from base to the top of the

12

plants. Sokhi & Joshi (1974) observed that in amongst the

different parts of the plant, the ear head and the top 2-3 leaves

were most susceptible but Chenulu and Singh (1954) reported that

the most susceptible stage of infection was when the plants were

2i months (boot stage) old. At tillering stage there was reduc

tion in yield and in the number of grains/ear but when infected

at flag leaf stage the losses extended upto 24.2% (Ram and Joshi,

1979). A»triticina survived only for two months in wheat debris

placed on the soil surface during the summer months, compared with

4 months in hurried debris (Kumar and Rao, 1979). Even after

three months it was reported to be present in the infected leaves.

The fungus was isolated after ten months of infection (Kumar and

Rao, 1979). Sokhi and Joshi (1972) however, concluded that inoculum

on wheat straw was the best source of infection of healthy plants,

Rama and Gupta (1982) reported kalyansona and sonalika

as susceptible cultivars but cultivars HP-1153, H.D. 1941 and

M-154 were found resistant (Ahmad and Singh, 1986). The disease

has been controlled by 4 sprays of Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb) or

Dithane Z-78 (2ineb) (Sharma ejb al,, 1980; OJha and Mehta, 1977

and Agarwal e_t al., 1977) or Fytolan (Copper oxychloride) (Rama

and Joshi, 1979) or Cuman (80% Ziram) or Dithane S-31 at 2/3 lb/

acre respectively at 14 days intervals (Tandon e_t al,, 1967).

Seed treatment with an Organo-mercury compound followed by a

prophylactic spray of parazate or Dithane at boot stage gave the

13

highest control of disease (Ekbote and More,1967). Swaminathan

(1968) observed that treatment of wheat with Maleic hydrazide

reduced the development of leaf blight but increased the suscep-

tiblility to black rust. Prabhu and Prasada (1967) used hot

water treatment (10 min, at 52-54 "C after 4 hour presoaked) for

control of the disease.

14

Seed myclofloi?a in general have been controlled by using

physical, chemical methods and by adopting biological control

(Agati, 1953; Luthra, 1941; Baker, 1969a; Neergard, 1977; Vyas and

Khare,1986). The sepration of fungal propagules and other debris

has been practiced for long time (Anonymous, 1966). De Tempe &

Crosier (1961) fecommended hand picking of impurities as the best

method for cleaning the seeds.

Hot water treatment and irradiation of seeds with

Ultraviolet, Gamma, X-rays have also been used as seed treatment

(Tyner, 1951)»

Subramoney & Abraham (1969) while controlling bacterial

leaf blight soaked the seeds in dilute nitric acid for 16-24 hours

and washed with water. Dwermick & Mikolajewicz (1970) suggested

that soaking the seeds in water at 16-18*'C for 72 to 95 hours was

sufficient for controlling the loose smut and covered smut of

barley, however, a single phase heat treatment at 47®C for 2 hours

was found the most effective for controlling loose smut of barley

(Vyvmaskin, 1970), while 11 minutes at 58**C for loose smut of

wheat (Agrios, 1969). There have been modifications of tempera

tures of water for seed treatments. Tyner (1953) & Leben e_t al.

(1958) suggested room temperatures, while Il'icheva (1973)

45 to 47*0; Jorgensen (1982), 80 hours at 90*0 for Cochliobolus

sativus, Puccinia graminis and Alternaria spp.. Fa him et_ al. (1970)

at 60"C for Fusarium moniliforme, Bhale and Khare (1984) at 50*0

for Gurvularia spp.

15 Irradiation of seeds with ultraviolet light for 30 or 60

sees has been used for controlling Erysiphe graminis f, sp,

tritici on wheat (Mount & Ellingboe,-1968), gamma rays (600K.rad.)

for fungal population other than Alternaria spp. & Helminthosporlum

spp. on wheat, rice and maize (ifesir & Ahmad, 1986). lizuka &

Ito (1968) pointed out that as a result of treatment with gamma

radiation found all the microorganism except Pseudomonas spp,

were killed.

Seed treatment with chemicals has long been used for

controlling seed-borne diseases. In 1660, salt brine was acci-

dentaly discovered, to be effective against the bunt of wheat

(Tull, 1733). At the end of 18th centuary Abb'e Tessier (1783) in

France tested many chemical compounds to improve wheat seed ger

mination, quality and productivity without affecting agricultural

practices (Woolman & Humphery, 1924). Copper sulphate although

discovered by Prevost (1807) as an effective fungicide, was not

very much used until Kuhn (1873) exhibited its effectiveness

against seed-borne pathogen. Formaldehyde was next major chemical

used. It was considered as a cheap fungicide against many seed-

borne fungi, particularly smuts (Geuther, 1895; Bolley, 1897).

Copper carbonate was the first dry treating material used for

control of wheat smut (Darnell-Smith, 1910; 1915; 1917). The

modern era of fungicide and seed treatment started with the intro

duction of organio-mercurial compounds. Riehm (1913, 1914, 1915)

and Wesenberg (1938) recommended treatment of wheat with mercury

chlorophenol. There has been considerable work on this aspect

16 which has been reviewed from time to time (Horsfall, 1932b, 1945»

1956; Horsfall and Diamond, 1951, 1957, I960; Erwin, 1970; Hene,

1971; Vyas & Khare, 1986). It is not within the reach of these

pages to record all the literature. However, some important

fungicides tested against seed-borne pathogens of wheat have been

tabulated.

In order to save the environment from being polluted, the

use of chemicals is being replaced by non-toxic/non hazardous

substances such as plant extract. Leaf extract of Anagallis

arvensis L. has been used against Colletotrichum papayae, C^.

lindemuthianum, £. falcatxjm (Glomerella tucumanensis), G. cigulata.

Alternaria solani, HeIminthosporium turcicum, Pythium aphanidermatum

and Rhizopus nigricans (R. stolonifer) (Nene & Thapliyal, 1965).

In another study Staron et al. (1969) reported that stem and leaves

of Anagallis arvensis var. phoenica was inhibitory against

Colletotrichum lindemuthinum and Pythium ultimum. Nene e_t al.(1968)

while testing extracts of 88 plants species against Helminthosporium

turcicum observed that most of them were highly inhibitory against

various pathogen, Beynon & Brown (1969) obtained complete inhibi

tion of the growth of Alternaria brassiclcola with, leaf extract

of wall flower. Kumar & Nene (1969) reported that growth of

Helminthosporium maydis and several fungi was inhibited by Cleome

isocandra L. Shukla (1973) in a test for 36 plants against six

pathogens found that fruit rind of pome-granate and root bark of

Pliombago zeylanica adversely affected the growth of several fungi.

17

Krivykh & Dmitrieva (1976) obtained increase in germination of

cereal seed and yield by dusting with bark and pine cones. At the

same time the incidence of root rot and smut was reduced.

Extracts of Azadirachta indica and Madhuca indica reduced the

growth of different pathogenic fungi, (Khan £t al., 1974). The

growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Udum (F. udum) Cumini &

Lycopersica spp. and Helminthosporium turcicum was reduced by

the fruits of temru (Piospyros cordifolia) (Prasada & Simlot,

1982). Gupta & Singh (1984) found that the extracts of Datura

stramonium, Calotropis procera, Thuja spp. and Cannabis sativa

inhibited the germination of teliospores of N. (Tilletia) indica

from bunted wheat grains, while citrus Juice exhibited partial

inhibition. Abul-Fazal et al, (1987) controlled some commonly

found fungi in wheat seeds with latex of Calotropis procera and

Khan £t al. (1987) in maize seed with extract of Argemone mex_icana<,

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M A T E R I A L S A N D M E T H O D S

39 MATERIALS AND METHODS

The seed samples of different varieties of wheat will be

collected from the farmers field around Aligarh and adjoining

districts and from various seed producing agencies in the north

India and will be stored in airtight containers of P.V.C. Jars.

The dry and soaked seeds will be examined with naked eye

and with sterobinocular as well for various types of contaminants

(like conidia, pycnidia, mycelial fragments) and any injury or

abnormalities to seeds.

Examination of Material removed from seeds by washing;

Seed washing technique will be used to study the seed

health conditions of the seed lots (Russell, 19^6). Seeds will

be transferred to 100 ml flasks containing 25 ml of sterilized

distilled water. The flasks will be shaken vigorously on a shaker

for 15-20 min. The washings so obtained will be centrifuged for

10 min. The clear supernant fluid of the washings will then be

discarded and residues will be collected in a small petridish.

Drops of the residues will be examined on clean slides under

compound microscope.

External seed mycoflora will be studied by using Blotter

and Agar plate methods (Anon. 1966).

40 Blotter •etbod j

Moistened sterilized blotting papers will be placed in

sterilized petridishes of 9 cm diameter. In each petriplates

equal number of seeds will be placed equidistantly. After incu

bation fungi developing on the seeds will be isolated and iden

tified.

Agar plate method :

The seeds will be placed in sterilized 9 cm diameter

petridishes containing agar medium. The fungi developing on the

seeds will be examined and identified.

For internal seed mycoflora both Blotter and Agar plate

methods will be used. The seeds will be surface sterilized in

O0I96 aquous mercuric chloride for 2-3 min. followed by repeated

washings with sterilized water. The seeds so treated will be

transferred to petriplates.

The mycoflora of structurally abnormal seeds will also be

studied by using Blotter and Agar plate methods.

Site of infection :

For detecting the site of infection in seed, the surface

sterilized (with 0.1% aq. mercuric chloride) seeds will be placed

in sterilized petridishes, containing agar medium and incubated.

The seeds showing infection will be boiled in KOH solution for

5-10 min. till they appear soft and translucent. Such seeds

41 after being given several washings with lactophenol will be

examined under the microscopeo

Throughout the studies the petriplates will be incubated

at 20+2•C with an alternate 12 hours darkness and 12 hours light

for 8 days unless stated otherwise.

Pathogenicity tests :

The pathogenicity of fungi, isolated from seeds will be

first tested under laboratory conditions in petriplates then in

pots. For pathogenicity test under laboratory condition 100

moistened surface sterilized seeds will be transferred over the

fungus culture of potential pathogens grown on potato dextrose

agar. Such seeds will be transferred to petriplates. Equal

number of uninnoculated seeds will also be kept to serve as control,

Germination percentage and the development of symptoms, if any,

will be observed. The pathogenicity test will be conducted at

seedling stage in the pots where promising results are observed.

The Seedlings will be inoculated by transferring 5g fungus grown

on Richards media near the root zone.

Richards medium

Potassium n i t r a t e - 10.0 gm Potassium monobasic phosphate - 5.0 gm Magnesium sulphate - 2.5 gm Fer r ic chloride - 0.02gm Sucrose - 50.0 gm D i s t i l l water - 1000 ml

42 Pathogenicity of virulent Isolates of the pathogen grown on media

containing different aminoacids :

For studying the effect of growing the fungus on different

aminoacids on the pathogenicity of virulent isolates of the it

pathogen, the fungus will be grown in the medium with different

amino acids. Different amino acids will be added by^keeping the

amount of nitrogen equivalent to 2g asparagine. The fungus will

be grov/n in 25 ml media contained in sterilized 150 ml Erlenmeyer

flasks. The flasks will be incubated at 25*C. The growth of the

fungus will be determined on the basis of dry weight of the

mycelium produced after 5» 10 and 15 days. Seedlings of suscepti

ble/resistant cultivar of wheat will be inoculated with 5g of the

fungus grown on different aminoacids separately.

Effect of different fertilizers and organic amendment on the

pathogenicity :

In order to determine the effect of fertilizers and organic

amendment on pathogenicity, soil contained in 15 cm pots will be

amended with different amount of inorganic fertilizers (viz. N, P,

K) and oil cakes of mahua (Madhuca indica), castor (Ricinus

communis) mustard (Brassica campestris), neem (Azadirachta indica)

and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) at the rate of 1:4:5::N:P:K gm

content/lb. The seedlings will be inoculated with different

inoculum levels i.e. 5» 10 and 15g of the fungus.

Carbon source 10.0 gm Magnese sulphate 0.01 gm Asparagine 2.0 gm Bio tin 0.05 gm Potassium phosphate 1 oO gm Thiamine OdO gm Magnessium sulphate 0.5 gm Distill water 1000 ml Ferric chloride 0.02 gm

43

Throughout the studies there will be five replicates for

each treatment. After every week the plants will be carefully

removed and washed with tap water for several times to remove

adhering soil particles. The growth of plant will be determined

by measuring fresh and dry weight of the plant. The degree of

disease incidence will be determined. The data will be analysed

statistically.

Attempts will be made to control the seed-mycoflora with

pesticides, antibiotics and plant extracts. The seeds will be

treated with different concentrations of pesticides, antibiotics

and plant extracts for different intervals. The seeds so treated

will be plated in sterilized petriplates and incubated. The

plates will be examined regularly for germination of the seed and

the development of fungi, if any. Untreated seeds will also be

kept for control. Frequency and relative abundance of fungi will

be calculated.

Since pesticides prove hazardous, extract of plant or the

parts known for antimicrobial properties such as neem, garlic,

ginger, bottle brush, Calotropis, Tagetes, Rannunculus spp. etc.

will be tested for controlling seed-borne fungi and the develop

ment of disease. The extracts of plant or their parts will be

obtained by grinding the parts in water and filtering through

cheese cloth.

Throughout the studies Internationalrules for seed testing

(Anon. 1966) will be followed. The data so obtained will be

44

analysed statistically. The frequency and relative abundance of

fungi will be calculated by the formulae:

Frequency = No. of seeds containing a particular fundus ^ ^ ^ Total no, of seeds used

Dz:»To + -i„« oi Ar^^r.^ = Total no, of colonies of a fungus ^ ., Relative abundance = m -t-a*! ^ Z^ ^^T^>.,-^., x 100

Total B©, of colonies of all the fungi

R E F E R E N C E S

REFERENCES 4§

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