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40 PAPER CODE: STUIJT20160003 Vol 1 Issue 1 -April, 2016 PUBLISHED BY: WWW.STU.EDU.GH

STU INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY (STUIJT) Vol 1 Issue 1 -April, 2016 (ISSN 2508-0997, Online) PUBLISHED BY; WWW.STU.EDU.GH

DEALING WITH HAND-PUMP MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS

FOR SUSTAINABLE RURAL WATER SYSTEMS IN AHAFO

ANO SOUTH DISTRICT

Bernard Aboagye, Lecturer *

Frimpong Opoku, Lecturer *

Edmund Peter Yankson *

* Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sunyani Polytechnic, Sunyani-Ghana.

Abstract

The paper sought to deal with problems associated with maintenance of hand pumps to minimise

the frequent hand-pump breakdown in Ahafo-Ano South District. It identified major problems and

bottlenecks associated with hand pumps maintenance, assessed maintenance strategies in place,

the extent of hand-pumps breakdown, and identified the most problematic hand-pump components

and suggested measures to reduce the frequent hand-pump breakdown for sustainable rural water

systems. The study assessed 54 hand-pumps in 40 selected communities in the District and relied

on inspection of hand-pumps, interviews with Area Mechanics and District Water and Sanitation

Team, data from operation and maintenance records from year 2010 to 2014, and questionnaires

administered to 42 community caretakers responsible for maintenance of the hand-pumps. The

study revealed that inadequate funds, improper operation of hand-pumps and lack of preventive

maintenance practices are major hindrance to effective hand-pump maintenance in the district. U-

seal, bobbin and bush bearings break down earlier than manufactures’ recommended replacement

interval and were identified as the most problematic hand-pump components. It was recommended

for hand-pump manufacturers to modify the most problematic components while Government of

Ghana provides funds for Community Water and Sanitation Agency to implement strategies that

ensure effective maintenance practices to reduce frequent hand-pump breakdown for sustainable

water supply in the District.



Introduction

Effective maintenance is a key factor for sustainable rural water supply systems but it has been

neglected in rural water systems. In the developing world, many people gain access to water for

drinking, hygiene, and cooking by using groundwater. Because the water is located underground,

the water must be lifted from the ground to the surface, and a hand-pump is often the technology

of choice to accomplish this task (WaterAid, 2006). Likewise, the use of boreholes fitted with hand-

pumps has been the major means of getting water to over 47 % of rural communities in Ghana

(CWSA, 2012). In Ghana, there are four standardised hand-pumps namely; Afridev, Nira, Ghana

Modified India Mk II and Vergnet to reduce the number of hand pump models to ensure quality

and availability of spare parts to ensure sustainability of rural water supply systems (CWSA, 2005).

Maintenance is obviously an inevitable requirement of any system that depends on mechanica l

equipment however small that equipment may be (Olatunji, 2003). Hand-pump consists of many

components working together to ensure efficient and reliable water supply system. It is expected

that every hand-pump should be available for work all the time and this cannot be achieved by only

responding to breakdowns but by putting measures in place to ensure effective operation and

maintenance of the pump to reduce the frequency of breakdown. According to WaterAid (2006),

the most successful hand-pump operations include a locally chosen manager in charge of

overseeing pump use and operation. Thus, hand-pumps are designed to have most of the

maintenance work to be done at the community level, and require few tools and interchangeab le

wearing parts. The Village Level Operating Maintenance (VLOM) hand-pumps are generally

understood to possess attributes of robustness, high-discharge at relatively shallow depths, and ease

of maintenance as well as cost-effectiveness (Nyako et al., 2007). Regular maintenance ensures

that all equipment required for production is operating at 100 % efficiency at all times. Through

short daily inspections, cleaning, lubricating, and making minor adjustments, a minor problem can

be detected and corrected before it becomes a major problem that can shut down a production line

(Dale, 2008). Many hand-pumps fail because they are overburdened and inadequately maintained.

This is often due to the absence of a sustainable system of maintenance and repair (Morgan, 1989).

Governments and External Support Agencies, as well as local communities, are more and more

concerned about the importance of integrating operation and maintenance components in the



planning, implementation, management and monitoring of project activities, since operation and

maintenance is a key factor of sustainability.

It was against this background that the study sought to minimise problems associated with

maintenance of hand-pumps in rural water systems and suggested range of measures to reduce the

frequency of pump. When breakdown are less frequent, fewer repairs and spare parts are needed

and operation and maintenance become cheaper leading to sustainability of hand-pumps.

Problem statement

According to Riekel (2002), in many projects, less than 50 % of the pumps were still working

properly after 3 – 5 years of operation. A worldwide hand-pump conference (Accra, Ghana,

December, 2006) conclude that the overall situation was still the same. A study by UNICEF in

2007 indicated that about 40 % (about 150,000 of the 350,000 installed) of the hand-pumps in

Africa were not working anymore (FairWater, 2013). It also became clear that most hand-pump

have a limited functional life of 3 to 5 years. Therefore, it was estimated that by the end of the year

2013 over 50 % would be broken down and that within 10 years most hand-pumps in Africa will

be abandoned. In Africa 40% to 70 % hand-pumps were not functional (Beers, 2011 & FairWater,

2013) and in areas with deep groundwater hand-pump failure rates were often over 80 % (Beers,

2011). It was estimated that there were 50,000 dysfunctional water supply infrastructures across

Africa representing a failed investment of anything from US$215-360 million (Skinner, 2009).

Approaches and policies such as standardization, bottom up, demand responsive, decentralization,

privatized maintenance, etc. were tried with the hope that handpump Operation and Maintenance

(O&M) could be made more sustainable but with little results (Beers, 2011). Yet, rural communit ie s

continue to face unacceptable problems with hand-pumps that breakdown frequently, leading to

failed investments and unfulfilled expectations. Morgan (1989) attributed it to the absence of a

sustainable system of maintenance and repair.

When the hand-pumps fail, women and children walking several hours to collect water each day

and often collect water that carries dangerous pathogens. The lower volumes carried mean less

family hygiene, the energy dissipated to carry water further than usual weakens strength and health,



and the longer time spent walking diverts time from economically productive alternatives for

women, and often from school participation for girls (Skinner, 2009).

The frequent hand-pump breakdowns, with accompanied lack of safe drinking water poses serious

problems to health and productivity with widespread poverty and accompanied socioeconomic

consequences for the rural populace.

Objective of study

The main objective of this research was to minimise problems associated with maintenance of

hand-pumps in rural water systems to reduce frequency of hand-pumps breakdown.

The specific Objectives are to:

• Identify the major problems and bottlenecks associated with hand-pumps maintenance

and assess the maintenance strategies in place for effective maintenance of hand-pumps

in rural water systems in the Ahafo Ano South District.

• Assess the extent of hand-pumps breakdown and identify the most problematic

handpump components

• Suggest a range of measures to reduce the frequency of hand-pump breakdown in Ahafo

Ano South District.

Research questions

• What are the major problems and bottlenecks associated with hand-pump maintenance

and what maintenance strategies are there in place for effective maintenance of hand-

pumps in rural water systems in the Ahafo Ano South District?

• What is the extent of hand-pump breakdown and what are the most problematic

handpump components in Ahafo Ano South District?



• What are the measures that should be implemented to reduce the frequent hand-pump

breakdown in Ahafo Ano South District?

Profile of Study Area

Fig. 1: District map of Ahafo Ano South

Source: Town and Country Planning, Ahafo Ano South, 2010

The Ahafo Ano South District Assembly (AASDA) was carved out of the then Ahafo Ano District

Council in pursuance of the decentralisation programme in 1988 and has since become one of the

administrative districts of the Ashanti Region. The AASDA which lies within the forest belt of

Ghana covers a total surface area of about 1190.7 km², representing 4.9% of the

Ashanti Region‘s total surface area. It is located on Latitude 6°42" N, 7°10" N and Longitude 1°45"

N and 2°20" W and situated on the North-Western part of Ashanti Region. It shares boundary with

Tano South District of the Brong Ahafo Region in the north, Atwima Nwabiagya District in the

south, Ahafo Ano North District in the west and Offinso District in the east; all in the Ashanti

Region (Ghana Statistical Service, 2005).

The District Capital, Mankranso, is located 34 km North-West of Kumasi on the KumasiSunyani

Highway. The District is predominantly rural with over 160 organised settlements out of which



48.2 % live in the 20 larger settlements. Out of the over 160 settlements, only three namely,

Sabronum, Adugyama, and Mankranso have reached urban status with population of over 5000.

The district is divided into10 Area Councils and sub divided into 42 Electoral areas. The population

of the district in 2010, according to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, is 121,659. Males

constitute 50.8 % and females represent 49.2 % (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014).

Though the Assembly was committed to increasing access to potable water in the district, good

drinking water still remains a felt need in most communities. Available statistics (2003 CWIQ

report) indicate that about 78 % of inhabitants of the district relied on boreholes for good drinkin g

water (Ghana Statistical Service, 2005).

Strategic operational guidelines of CWSA

As part of the National Strategy for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation, the Community Water and

Sanitation Agency (CWSA) was set up as an independent body alongside the Ghana Water

Company Limited (GWCL), replacing what was previously known as the Ghana Water and

Sewerage Corporation (GoG, 1998).

According to CWSA (2005), the design standards for community water supply and sanitation

ensure that each spout of a borehole hand-pump serves not more than 300 persons and the facility

provides all year round potable water to the community. The operation and maintenance

requirements ensure that a Facilities Management Plan (FMP), which meets the national standards,

is prepared for each community with the active participation of the community. Every District

Assembly prepares a District Water and Sanitation Plan for the district. The District

Assemblies, through the District Water and Sanitation Teams (DWSTs) and with the support of

CWSA Regional Offices, ensure that all communities are duly sensitised and made aware of

eligibility criteria, procurement procedures and the various activities to be undertaken at the

community level to enable the community have access to potable drinking water.

A small community water system may be considered to be sustainable if it provides reliable and

good quality water in sufficient quantity over the design period of the system. To ensure

sustainability, the basic design criteria and the operation and maintenance arrangements indicated



in the FMP are strictly adhered to. Communities ensure the setting and payment of adequate tariffs

with transparent accounting and management practices.

Stakeholders, especially District Assemblies (DAs) and the CWSA regional offices ensure

effective community management by monitoring and advising on the administrative, technical and

financial performances of the Water and Sanitation Committees (WATSANs). Periodic audits are

carried out in each community. Training is provided to all key stakeholders at the local, regional

and national levels on a continuous basis. The CWSA is supported by the private sector to provide

relevant training to various categories of personnel to upgrade skills and capabilities. Accredited

academic institutions provide specialised training courses to consolidate the sector training efforts

made by the CWSA.

Communities are required to meet the full cost of normal operation and maintenance and minor

repairs through tariffs. A national spare parts distribution network for hand pumps has been

established in each regional capital. Effort is being made to establish distribution outlets at the

district level to ensure spare parts are available on hand for repair of broken down hand pumps.

Area Mechanics are trained to undertake preventive maintenance and repair of hand pumps, to

promote effective operation and maintenance and ensure sustainability. Refresher courses and

training of new Mechanics are organised periodically as part of the National Community Water

and Sanitation Programme.

WATSANs are trained to set tariffs in accordance with CWSA approved tariff setting guidelines.

DAs review and approve all tariffs with facilitation from the RWST. Any reduction in expected

tariff revenue as a result of action by the DA, e.g., reduced tariff, etc., require that the DA pay the

difference in revenue into the WATSAN account.

The CWSA, in partnership with External Support Agencies (ESA), the Government of Ghana,

District Assemblies and Communities, source funding for the implementation of projects.

In the early 1990‘s the government of Ghana introduced a hand-pump standardisation policy

whereby four models of hand-pump were selected for use nationwide. They include the Afridev,

the Nira, the Ghana Modified India Mark II and the Vergnet. One of the driving forces behind

standardization was to reduce the number of hand pump models to ensure the quality and



availability of spare parts (CWSA, 2005). In line with this policy, the Ahafo Ano South District

relies on Afridev and Ghana Modified India Mark II.

Working principles of hand-pumps

Fig. 2: Main Components of the hand-pump

(Practical Action, 2008)

The main components of hand-pump include the operating rod (also called the piston or plunger),

the cylinder, the piston valve, the piston seal, and the foot valve or suction valve (Morgan, 1989).

The operation of hand-pump is basically based on the principles of fluid mechanics. It uses

mechanical energy to lift the water from some depth below the ground to the surface, and the water

flow due to pressure differences in the system. The fluid moves from an area of higher pressure to

lower pressure when the piston is moved up and down.



To start the pump working the pump is primed by pouring some water on top of the plunger

(piston). This makes a good air seal and prevents leakage of air past the plunger (piston) during the

first few strokes which are needed to fill the pump with water.

As the piston moves down (down stroke), the foot valve closes owing to the force of gravity on it

and the weight of water above it. At the same time the piston valve opens and water inside the

cylinder passes upwards through the piston valve into the space above the plunger (piston).

On the upstroke, the plunger rises and the pressure below the plunger head decreases causing the

foot valve to open and water is pushed up into the cylinder through the foot valve by the pressure

acting on the surface of the water in the borehole.

On the down stroke, the pressure below the plunger (piston) head increases, the foot valve is closed

and the piston valve opens which allows water into the space above the piston valve.

In the final stroke of the cycle, the piston moves up (upstroke), the piston valve is closed and the

upward motion of the piston head forces water out of the exit pipe. As pressure below the piston

valve decreases, water flows in through foot valve and the process continues

Maintenance of hand-pumps

According to the European Standard EN 13306, maintenance concerns the combinations of all

technical, administrative and managerial action during the life cycle of an item intended to retain

or restore it to a state in which it can perform the required function. Maintenance is obviously an

inevitable requirement of any system that depends on mechanical equipment however small that

equipment may be (Olatunji, 2003). Regular maintenance ensures that all equipment required for

production is operating at 100 % efficiency at all times. Through short daily inspections, cleaning,

lubricating, and making minor adjustments, minor problems can be detected and corrected before

they become a major problem that can shut down a production line (Dale, 2008).

Maintenance of hand pumps refers to the activities required to keep the hand pumps functioning to

sustain the water supply systems in proper working condition.



The importance of an effective maintenance programme cannot be overlooked because it plays

such an important role in the sustainability of rural water systems. Maintenance is not carrying out

repairs when a pump finally breaks down but it is periodically inspecting the system and replacing

parts that are worn or show other signs of deterioration. Its aim is to prolong the life of the hand

pumps and avoid unexpected breakdowns.

The main wearing parts of the reciprocating pump such as hand-pump are the piston seal, which

rubs against the inside face of the cylinder, the piston valve and foot valve, which are constantly

opening and closing, and the bearings in the pump-head, which are subjected to constantly

changing loads (Skinner and Shaw, 1999).

According to Morgan, (1989), below are some of the causes of hand-pump failures:

• The bearings in the pump head

• Overburdened of the hand-pump

• Inadequate maintenance of the hand-pump

• Damage of pump component due to corrosion

• Lack of community involvement in planning

• Limited financial resources for investment on operation and maintenance Lack of

funds

Maintenance can be divided into three types:

Preventive maintenance such as regular inspection cleaning, lubricating, and making minor

adjustments and servicing which is done periodically on the hand pump to check on the conditions

and also recondition the pump for better running of the water system. This is done to lower the

possibility of hand pumps breakdown.



Corrective maintenance such as minor repair and replacement of broken and worn out parts which

is carried out as a remedial action due to failure or deficiencies discovered during preventive

maintenance to repair the pump to its operational state.

Finally, there is breakdown or crisis maintenance which is an unplanned response to emergency

breakdowns and user complaints to restore a failed water supply System.

General guidelines for hand-pump maintenance

The specific preventive maintenance tasks applicable in a given situation will depend on the type

of hand-pump and technology used. The following are the generic tasks to be undertaken in

preventive maintenance:

• Cleaning of the apron and surrounding of the water point every day. Checking for any

cracks around the pedestal, which should be rectified immediately in the event that they

are found

• Cleaning and unblocking the drain and soak-away pits at a rural water supply

point/facility

• Opening the pump head and greasing the chain regularly (specifically for the India

MKII). Checking bolts and nuts to ensure they are intact and not in a loose condition

• Tightening loose nuts and greasing moving parts of the water lifting device

• Replacing worn out parts or repairing broken parts

• Re-installing the down-hole components and the pump head

• Recording the details of the parts replaced or repair work carried out, and indicating the

possible causes of the problem.

• Fencing of the water point to deter animals from getting to the appurtenant facility.



According to Elson and Franceys (1992), proper maintenance includes periodically inspecting the

pump and replacing parts that are worn or show signs of deterioration to prolong the life of the

pump and avoid unexpected breakdowns. The pump should be inspected daily for pump operation,

cleanliness, and wastewater drainage. Weekly, the parts should be lubricated and the tightness of

the bolts and nuts should be checked. Monthly, the output rate should be checked as well as the

condition of the concrete base. Yearly, the internal parts of the pump should be removed for

inspection and parts should be replaced where necessary. As such, maintaining the suction pump

is easier as all parts are located above ground compared to the deep well pump where maintenance

is more complex as the parts are located deep below ground.

Methodology

Available relevant literatures on technology, operation and maintenance of hand-pumps in rural

water systems and conceptual issues that is relevant to the study were reviewed. It was intended to

compile foundational knowledge based on research conducted by others in related fields. This was

an attempt to help provide a foundation for research questions using data acquired through a survey

of experienced professionals in the hand-pump technology. The review provided sound basis and

information for the design of the research and the preparation of data gathering instruments.

Research design

This study relied on both primary and secondary sources of information for its analysis. The

primary data was acquired by employing a combination of data collection methodologies includ ing

administering questionnaire to respondents on the field of study, key informants interviews,

observation and physical inspection of hand pumps to ensure that enough data is obtained on the

existing situation in respect of hand pump maintenance problems. These data collection tools were

carefully developed to ensure that all ingenuities are employed to collect data without too much

sacrifice on accuracy. Pre-testing of the questionnaire and interview guides were carried out to

structure the questions and make them clearer.



Secondary sources of information include information from internet, texts, documents from the

District Assembly, WATSANs record books and journals.

Selection of communities and sampling

A meeting was held with the DWST to collect a list of all hand-pump projects in the district.

This served as a guide in the selection of communities for the research.

The sampling techniques used were purposive and simple random sampling techniques. Forty (40)

communities were selected out of the 53 communities where hand-pumps were installed during the

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme (RWSSP) in 2010 funded by the Agriculture

Development Bank and German Development Bank. These communities were grouped into four

zones and 10 communities selected from each zone at random. In all, 54 handpumps were assessed

based on breakdown recorded from the year 2010 to 2014. Since the Community Caretakers and

Area Mechanics are responsible for the maintenance of the handpumps, the research focused on

only the Community Caretakers and Area Mechanics for the needed data. However, where

necessary, the WATSAN/WSDB chairpersons were contacted for additional data.

Data collection

The field work was carried out in close collaboration with all the key stakeholders. A wide range

of methods were used in the research since no one method could be relied upon singly to provide

reliable data to meet the expected output of the study. Consultation was held with the DWSTs,

Community Caretaker and Area Mechanics and WSDBs/WATSANs to obtain first hand

information on the existing situation.

Questionnaires were administered to the 42 Caretakers in the selected communities. The researcher

together with the Community Caretaker and Area Mechanics undertook transect walk to inspect

the hand-pumps in each of the selected communities. With the aid of a checklist, the caretaker and

Area Mechanics answered questions on each hand-pump in the community. In addition, operation

and maintenance records of each hand-pump were reviewed for dates of breakdown, date repaired

as well as components breakdown. The outcomes of the direct observations and inspection were



adequate in ensuring cross checking of information received during the questionnaire. After the

transect walk, the DWST leader was interviewed on general issues with the help of an interview

guide. The field work enabled the researcher assess the extent of breakdown and identify the most

problematic hand-pump components for investigation.

Data analysis

Primary data which were in a form of close ended questions were processed using Excel and

presented in a form of percentages and tables. The data was examined to discover any obvious

input errors, and to clarify noticeable discrepancies within the data sets. Response from questions

which were open ended and those from key informant interviewed as well as personal observations

were summarised.

Results and discussion

In all, 42 Community Caretakers with ages between 28 and 63years were contacted.

The study identified that about 76 % of the Community Caretakers have Primary education, about

17 % had secondary education and 7 % had tertiary education as shown in the table below.

Table 1: Level of education of Community Caretakers

Level Number of technicians Percentage (%)

Primary (Basic) 32 76.2

Secondary 7 16.7

Tertiary 3 7.1

Total 42 100



According to the DWST, since majority of the caretakers have only primary education, training

them becomes difficult and this negatively affects their performance as maintenance personnel.

Work experience as Community Caretakers

The table below shows the work experience of Community Caretakers. It was revealed that about

50 % of them had worked as Caretakers for more than five years. This shows that there are well

experienced Caretakers in the District that could go a long way to improving hand-pump

maintenance and hence sustainability of the water systems.

Table 2: Work experience as Community Caretakers

Number of years Number of technicians Percentage (%)

Less than 1 2 4.8

1 – 2 8 19

2 – 3 7 16.7

3 – 5 5 11.9

More than 5 20 47.6

Total 42 100

Training of Community Caretakers

It was revealed that about 76 % of the Community Caretakers had been well trained by the CWSA

but about 24 % of them were trained by the Community Caretakers as depicted in table 3. This was



made possible because in some communities where there was more than one Caretaker, when a

Caretaker left the community, the remaining Caretaker(s) selected new person to understudy them.

Table 3: Training received

Trainer Number of technicians Percentage (%)

CWSA 32 76.2

Community Caretaker 10 23.8

Total 42 100

Major problems and bottlenecks associated with the maintenance of hand pumps

Inadequate Community Caretakers

The study revealed that out of the 40 selected communities, only 28 representing 70 % has

community caretakers in the communities to take charge of the maintenance of the hand-pumps.

The remaining 12 representing 30 % do not have Community Caretakers at the time of the research.

According to the WATSAN Chairman the Community Caretakers trained for the job have left the

communities and thus they rely on the caretakers from nearby communities to maintain their hand-

pumps. This has led to ineffective maintenance of hand-pumps since certain preventive

maintenance activities are neglected especially those carried out daily.

The problem of inadequate Community Caretakers is shown in the table below.



Table 4: Lack of caretakers

Community Caretaker Number of communities Percentage (%)

Available 28 70

Not available 12 30

Total 40 100

Lack of regular refresher training

The study revealed that about 24 % had never attended any refresher training as caretakers. About

77 % attended refresher training about a year or two ago as depicted in table 5.

Table 5 shows that for more than a year, there had been no refresher training contrary to the CWSA

strategy to organise refresher training every six months. As mentioned earlier, 24 % of the

Community Caretakers were not trained by CWSA and the same had never attended refresher

training.

Table 5: Refresher training

Number of years Number of technicians Percentage (%)

Not at all 10 23.8

0 – 1 0 0

1 – 2 28 66.7

2 – 3 3 7.1

More than 3 1 2.4

Total 42 100



Overuse of hand-pumps

Eighty percent (80 %) of the Caretakers were of the view that number of people per hand-pump in

their respective communities was higher than the CWSA standard of 300 people per handpump.

This was as a result of inadequate number of hand-pumps and concentration of the available ones

certain areas in the communities. This puts undue pressure on the hand-pumps and this contributes

to the frequent breakdown of the hand-pumps.

Communities who experience overuse hand-pumps is shown in the table below.

Table 6: Overuse of pumps

Overuse of pumps Number Percentage (%)

Yes 32 80

No 8 20

Total 40 100

Improper operation of hand pumps

All the caretakers said that one major problem affecting their work was the improper operation of

the hand pumps especially by children. According to them there were incorrect, excessive and

abusive operations of the hand pumps since some people do not operate the pump well leading to

wearing of some parts and attributed the frequent wearing and damage of the bush bearing to

incorrect operation of the hand pumps such as holding on side of the handle when operating.

Lack of preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance such as inspection, cleaning, lubricating, making minor adjustments, the

tightening of bolts and nuts, etc. is the responsibilities of the Community Caretakers. However, the

study revealed that 19 % of the Caretakers were not doing it at all while 81 % doing it but not on

regular bases. The caretakers attributed it to lack of funds, delay and nonpayment of caretakers‘

allowances and mismanagement by WATSANs. The WATSANs rather show much interest in

breakdown maintenance when there is no water in the communities.



Lack of preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance Number Percentage

Regular 0 0

Not regular 34 81

Not at all 8 19

Total 42 100

Lack of funds

All the caretakers were of the view that lack of funds was one of the major bottlenecks to effective

maintenance of the hand-pumps. About 30 % of the Caretakers complained that some community

members have hand-dug wells in their houses and thus people patronise such wells more than the

community boreholes since the wells were free of charge. This has led to low income generation

by various WATSANs and hence lack of funding for maintenance. This also contributes to the

inability of the WATSANs to pay allowances of the caretakers in full and in time. The caretakers

also cited mismanagement of funds and delay in releasing funds for maintenance work as major

constrains.

Poor installation of hand-pumps

According to the Area Mechanics, some hand-pumps were poorly installed during the

implementation of the project which results in frequent breakdown of some components. They

complained that some Community Caretakers prefer to fix major breakdowns to reporting them to

the Area Mechanics who are well trained for such tasks. Since the Community Caretakers were not

trained to carry out major breakdowns, they are unable to fix the components effective ly.

Consequently, the components replaced by the Community Caretakers break down in no time and

at times create more serious breakdowns.



Maintenance strategies in place

The DWST leader was interviewed on maintenance strategies put in place to reduce frequency of

hand-pump breakdown and ensure sustainable water supply in the District. According to him

maintenance is paramount to the CWSA since it is the main vehicle to sustainable rural water

supply system. Thus maintenance is considered right from the inception phase of the rural water

project where consultation is made with the beneficiary communities about relevant technology

and management choices. Once the hand-pumps are installed the beneficiary communities are

expected to be responsible for hand-pumps maintenance and repairs. Thus, the CWSA facilitate s

the formation and training of water and sanitation committees (WATSANs) to manage the water

systems. The WATSANs include at least one Community Caretaker who is given special training

on repair and maintenance to carry out preventive maintenance and repair of minor breakdowns on

the hand-pumps in their respective communities. The Community Caretakers are supposed to

report major breakdowns to the area mechanics who are private individuals who live in the area

and are also trained during the project implementation phase to do routine maintenance or repair

of major breakdowns on the hand-pumps whenever the caretakers report major breakdowns. It is

the responsibility of the communities (WATSANs) to pay for the services of the Community

Caretakers and the Area mechanics. The WATSANs are responsible for the purchasing of spare

parts and payment of the services of the area mechanics. Thus, if the WATSANs are unable to

generate enough revenues from the sales of water, then maintenance of the hand-pumps becomes

a problem for the communities. According to him, most of the hand-pumps that were down at the

time of visit were as a result of lack of funds to carry out the needed repairs. The Community

Caretakers or WATSANs and Area Mechanics obtain spare parts from Water Company Limited

and shops at Roman Hill in Kumasi. The District Water and Sanitation Team (DWST) provides

post-construction support to the WATSANs. DWST members do not maintain or repairs

handpumps but rather may link up the WATSANs with an area mechanic when major breakdown

occurs. The Team also helps the WATSANs to obtain the support and training they need for

operation and maintenance of the water systems. According to him, the funds available to the

DWSTs to carry out their work are inadequate and pleaded with the District Assembly to give it a

second thought. For instance, refresher trainings for caretakers were supposed to be held every six

month but it is done only when funds are made available.



Condition of the hand-pumps at the time of visit

The researcher the Community Caretaker visited each of the 54 handpumps in the selected

communities to observe the condition of the pump. The following were observed during the visit:

Table 8: Condition of hand-pumps

Condition Number of hand- Percentage (%) pumps

Functioning 44 81.5

Not functioning (waiting 8 14.8 repair)

Abandoned 2 3.7

Total 54 100

It was observed that out of the total number of 54 hand-pumps visited, 44 representing 81.5 % were

functioning, eight representing 14.8 % were not functioning and were waiting for repair work to

be carried out while two hand-pumps representing 3.7% were abandoned. In all, 18.5 % of the

hand-pumps visited were not function contrary to the average breakdown rate of 30 – 40% in

literature. This shows that the hand-pumps in the District were performing far better than in many

places in Ghana and Africa.

According to the caretakers, the downtime for the hand-pumps ranges from three days to two weeks

depending on the fault, availability of funds for the repair and spare parts. It was also revealed that

the hand-pumps that had been abandoned broke down and the communities involved could not

provide funds for the needed components for the repair.

According to the Area Mechanics, the number of hand-pumps functioning defer from time to time

and if the researchers visited earlier, the percentage functioning would have been lower since

several hand-pumps were down but repaired just a week before the visit.



Performance of hand-pump components

A special format was designed to record types of fault, how and when they were repaired and spare

parts used.

Table 9 shows the performance of hand-pump components against the manufacturing set standards.

Table 9: Replacement interval of hand-pump components

Name of the part Fault Approximate lifetime

(from manufacturers‘

manuals)

Actual replacement

interval

U seal Wear 2 – 3 years 6 months to 1 year

Bush bearing Wear, damaged 1 – 2 years 6 months to 1 year

Bobbin damage Damaged, wear, object

from centralizer seal

2 – 3 years 1 – 2 years

Centralizer Misalignment,

wearing of seal

3 – 5 years 2 – 3 years

O ring Damaged 2 – 3 years 1 – 3 years

Foot valve Leakage 2 – 3 years 1 – 3 years

Rising main Cracks, bend and leaking

joints

3 – 5 years 3 – 5 years (repair)

Pump rod

Disconnected 3 – 5 years 3 – 5 years

According to the manufacturers‘ manuals the earliest time for replacement of hand-pump parts is

one year. However, according to the Community Caretakers and data from the maintenance record

books, all the hand-pumps had at least one part replaced before the end of first year of operation.

According to them, some parts broke down less than 6 months and needed to be replaced contrary



to the manufactures recommended replacement interval. This could be attributed to inadequate

preventive maintenance or no maintenance and incorrect, excessive and abusive operation of the

hand-pumps.

Most problematic hand-pump components

Breakdown and average breakdown of component per year

The breakdown of a component per year for a single hand-pump is the number of breakdowns of a

particular component occurred within a particular year under consideration. On the other hand, the

average breakdown of component per year for more than one hand-pump considered over a certain

number of years is given by:

Where

TB = Total breakdown

NP = Number of pumps = 54 hand-pumps

NY = Number of years of data used were recorded = 5years

Average replacement within recommended replacement interval

The average replacement of components within the recommended interval is the indicator for

identifying the most problematic components. It is the number of replacement of particular

component made over the period recommended by the manufacturer for that component to be

replaced.

The average replacement of a component within the recommended interval is given by:



Therefore, from equation 1, we have;

Where

MA = Minimum number of years recommended by manufacturer for replacement

Table 10 depicts the detailed analysis of most problematic components.

Table 10: Most problematic hand-pump components

Name of the part TB AB MA/years AR

U seal 318 1.178 2 2.36

Bush bearing 220 0.813 1 0.81

Bobbin 166 0.615 2 1.23

Centralizer 23 0.085 3 0.25

O ring 20 0.072 2 0.14

Foot valve 12 0.044 2 0.09

Riser main pipe 8 0.030 3 0.09

Pump rod 9 0.002 3 0.006

The average breakdown of component per year tells how frequent a particular component of a

hand-pump breaks down. For the community, the average breakdown of component per year is a

source of worry since what is important to the community is that the hand-pump functions most of

the time. Thus, from the community point of view, the most problematic components are identified

by the average breakdown per hand-pump per year. Hence, the bush bearing with total breakdowns



of 220 would be considered more problematic than the bobbin with total breakdowns of 166.

However, from the manufacturers‘ point of view, the average replacement within the recommended

replacement interval is the indicator for identifying the most problematic components. Thus, the

bobbin with average replacement 1.23 is considered more problematic than the bush bearing with

average replacement 0.81. It is therefore deduced from table 10 that out of the eight (8) common

hand-pump breakdowns, the three most problematic ones are the U seal, followed by bobbin and

bush bearings.

Measures to reduce frequency of hand-pump breakdown

The three most problematic hand-pump components in the District include the U-seal, bush

bearings and bobbin.

The wearing of the U-seals was attributed to the softness of the rubber material used, rough inner

core of the cylinder and the excessive motion. It was therefore, suggested that the cylinder inner

core be given a smooth finishing and double seals made of hard leather material used for the seal.

The bobbin problem was attributed to two things; wearing due to rough inner core of the plunger

and objects from the wearing and tearing of the centraliser seal that falls on the bobbin. It is

suggested that the plunger inner core be giving a smooth finishing and hard leather material used

for the centraliser seal.

The bush bearings also wear because of incorrect, excessive and abusive operation of the

handpumps and neglect of preventive maintenance. Thus the hand-pump handles should not have

a T- end but straight end to prevent people especially children from holding one part of the handle

while operating the hand-pump. In addition, preventive maintenance should be taken seriously and

the WATSANs should educate the communities on the correct way to operate the handpumps.



Findings

1. The major problems associated with the maintenance of hand-pumps include: lack of caretakers

in some communities, lack of frequent refresher training for Community Caretakers, overuse

of hand-pumps, improper operation of pump especially by children, lack of effective preventive

maintenance practices and inadequate funding.

2. Thirty percent (30 %) of the communities did not have Community Caretakers at the time of

the research but rely on the caretakers from nearby communities to maintain their handpumps

leading to neglect of certain preventive maintenance activities and hence increased frequency

of hand-pumps breakdown.

3. The CWSA has well defined strategies in place to ensure effective maintenance practices to

reduce frequency of hand-pump breakdown and ensure sustainable water supply in the District

but inadequate funds hinder the implementation of these strategies.

4. The hand-pumps in the District were performing far better than in many places in Ghana and

Africa with 81.5 % of the hand-pumps functioning while 18.5 % were not function contrary to

the average non-functioning rate of 30 – 40 % in the literature.

5. Some hand-pump components break down earlier than manufactures‘ recommended

replacement intervals

6. The most problematic hand-pump components in the District are the U seal, followed by bobbin

and the bush bearings.

Conclusion

The research was undertaken to minimise problems associated with maintenance of hand-pumps in

rural water systems to reduce frequency of hand-pumps breakdown. The major problems and

bottlenecks associated with maintenance of hand-pumps have been identified, maintenance

strategies in place for effective maintenance and the extent of hand-pumps breakdown have been



assessed, the most problematic hand-pump components have been identified and measures

suggested to reduce the frequent hand-pump breakdown for sustainable rural water systems. It is

clear from the findings that most rural water supply systems are working despite the problems and

bottlenecks associated with the maintenance of the hand-pumps. These mentioned problems are

indeed the most effective criteria that increase the frequency of breakdown and increase the

downtime of some of the water supply systems.

In future research, it would be interesting to investigate the causes of breakdown of some

components with regards to the strength of the materials used.

Recommendations

• The Government of Ghana and External Support Agencies should make funds available to

enable CWSA organise regular training for the caretakers and WATSANs since training is

essential element for a successful operation and maintenance

• In communities where each spout of a borehole hand-pump serves more than 300 persons

set by the CWSA, more boreholes should be provided to prevent overuse of existing hand-

pumps

• The DWST should embark on regular follow-ups to ensure that Community Caretakers

carry out necessary preventive maintenance

• The WATSANs should embark on user training programmes on the operation of the hand-

pumps since incorrect, excessive and abusive operation of the hand-pumps could lead to

wearing of some components and hence reduce the lifespan of the hand-pumps

• Hand-pumps manufacturers should carry out the following modifications to reduce the

frequent hand-pump breakdown

o In order to prevent the wearing of the U-seals, the cylinder inner core be giving a

smooth finishing and double seals made of hard leather material used for the seals



o In order to prevent wearing of the bobbin and torn objects from the centraliser seal

from falling on the bobbin the plunger inner core should be giving a smooth

finishing and hard leather material used for the centraliser seal

o To prevent the wearing of bush bearings due to incorrect, excessive and abusive

operation of the hand-pumps, the hand-pump handles should not have a T-end but

a straight end to prevent people especially children hold one part of the handle while

operating the pump

References

Beers, P. H. (2011): Reliable, Low-Cost Maintenance Hand-pumps are the Key for Sustainable

Rural Water Supply: 35th WEDC International Conference, Loughborough, UK 2011;

Briefing Paper 1277

Beers, P.V. (2010): Water & Sanitation:

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e+fairwaterpdf (Retrieved 6/2/14)

CWSA, (2005): Small Communities Water & Sanitation Policy. Ministry of Water Resources,

Works and Housing, Government of Ghana

CWSA (Community Water & Sanitation Agency) (2012): National Coverage – 2012;

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