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Lithos 113 (2009) 1–20

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Structure and geochemistry of Tethyan ophiolites and their petrogenesis insubduction rollback systems

Yildirim Dilek a,b,c,⁎, Harald Furnes b,c

a Department of Geology, Miami University, 116 Shideler Hall, Oxford, OH 45056, USAb Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Allegt. 41, 5007 Bergen, Norwayc Centre for Geobiology, University of Bergen, Allegt. 41, 5007 Bergen, Norway

⁎ Corresponding author. Department of Geology, MiamOxford, OH 45056, USA. Tel.: +1 513 529 2212; fax: +1

E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Dilek).

0024-4937/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. Aldoi:10.1016/j.lithos.2009.04.022

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 9 September 2008Accepted 17 April 2009Available online 3 May 2009

Keywords:Tethyan ophiolitesArc–forearc extensionBoninitesTroodos ophiolite (Cyprus)Oman ophiolitePindos ophiolite (Greece)

Suprasubduction zone (SSZ) ophiolites in orogenic belts represent oceanic crust generation in subductionrollback cycles during the closing stages of basins prior to terminal continental collisions. Mantle flow andslab rollback result in one or more episodes of arc splitting and basin opening, producing a collage of‘protoarc and forearc oceanic lithosphere’ in suprasubduction zone settings. The Jurassic–Cretaceous SSZTethyan ophiolites in the eastern Mediterranean region (i.e. Mirdita, Pindos, Troodos, Kizildag, Oman)generally have Penrose-type oceanic crust and contain well-developed sheeted dike complexes indicative ofmagmatic extension beneath narrow rift zones during their seafloor spreading evolution. Igneous accretionof these SSZ Tethyan ophiolites involved upper plate extension and advanced melting of previously depletedasthenosphere in host basins, showing a progressive evolution fromMORB-like to IAT (island arc tholeiite) toboninitic (extremely refractory) protoarc assemblages. However, there are some distinct differences in thegeochemical evolution of these Tethyan ophiolites that appear to have resulted from variations in theirsubduction zone geodynamics. Whereas a major part of the Kizildag and Troodos lavas shows island arcaffinity similar to their counterparts in the Pindos and Mirdita ophiolites, a significant component of theOman lavas indicates MORB affinity and the majority of the Kizildag and Oman data plot within the mantlearray between N-MORB and E-MORB on the Nb/Yb–Th/Yb discriminant diagram. Furthermore, the Troodosand Oman lavas do not show any particular Th-enrichment in their multi-element patterns, suggesting thatfluid/melt input from subducted sediments was not that significant in generation of their magmas. Althoughall ophiolites exhibit geochemical features indicating increased subduction influence during the meltevolution of their younger extrusive sequences and dike intrusions, as evidenced by their negative ɛNd values,their overall characteristic trace-element patterns seem to have been strongly affected by the maturity of thesubduction systems in which they developed.

© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The ophiolite concept has evolved significantly since the firstrecognition of themafic–ultramafic assemblages in the Alpine–ApenninemountainbeltsbyA.Brongniart (1821)andsubsequentlybyG. Steinmann(1927) as “spatially associated kindred intrusions in axial parts ofgeosynclines”. Ophiolites played a major role in the formulation of theplate tectonics theory in the early 1960s because they were widelyaccepted as relict fragments of ancient oceanic crust and upper mantledeveloped at divergent plate boundaries (Dilek and Newcomb, 2003, andreferences therein). This view of ophiolites as on-land analogues of theoceanic crust and depleted peridotiticmantle formed atmid-ocean ridgesprevailed until the early 1970s (Gass,1968; Bailey et al.,1970;Moores andVine, 1971; Anonymous, 1972; Moores and Jackson, 1974).

i University, 116 Shideler Hall,513 529 1542.

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The period between the early 1970s and mid-1980s saw a paradigmshift in the ophiolite concept pointing to the magmatic origin ofophiolites in subduction zone settings and leading to the definition ofsuprasubduction zone ophiolites (Miyashiro, 1973; Pearce and Cann,1973; Pearce, 1975, 1980; Pearce et al., 1981, 1984), mainly based ongeochemical studies. The results of thefirstmodern geochemical studiesof backarc basin lavas obtained from a series of oceanographic cruises tothemarginal basins of theWestern Pacific and SouthAtlantic (Hart et al.,1972; Gill, 1976; Hawkins, 1976, 1977) were essential in understandingophiolite geochemistry during this period.

After the realization of suprasubduction zone (SSZ) ophiolites(Pearce et al., 1984), a new phase in ophiolite studies has emergedusing better and advanced geochemical discrimination methods andcombining the results of these studies with the findings of dredgingand drilling of arc–basin systems in the Western Pacific and SouthAtlantic (Hawkins, 2003; Pearce, 2003, and references therein). It hasbeen well documented through geochemical and isotopic studies ofmany ophiolites throughout the 1990s and in recent years that most

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Fig. 1. A. Distribution of major Tethyan ophiolites and suture zones in the Alpine–Himalayan orogenic system (modified from Dilek and Flower, 2003). Key to number Mirdita, 2–Pindos, 3–Troodos, 4–Kizildag, 5–Oman ophiolites.B. Distribution of the Tethyan ophiolites and major tectonic features in the eastern Mediterranean region (modified from Dilek and Flower, 2003). Key to lettering: AC–Ant Complex, AO–Aladag ophiolite, BHN–Beysehir–Hoyran Nappes,IAESZ–Izmir–Ankara–Erzincan suture zone, IPO–Intra-Pontide ophiolites, MO–Mersin ophiolite.

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ophiolites display subduction zone chemical characteristics, indicat-ing their magmatic and tectonic association with subduction zoneprocesses (Laurent and Hébert, 1989; Pedersen and Hertogen, 1990;Robinson and Malpas, 1990; Pedersen and Furnes, 1991; Furnes et al.,1992; Stern and Bloomer, 1992; Heskestad et al., 1994; Bédard et al.,1998; Dilek and Thy, 1998; Shervais, 2001; Ishikawa et al., 2002;Encarnacion, 2004; Dilek et al., 2007, 2008). The ‘ophiolitic’ SSZ crustis interpreted in these studies to have formed via seafloor spreading inincipient arc–forearc or backarc environments. The internal architec-ture and geochemical make-up of this SSZ crust are likely to capture asnapshot picture of multiple episodes of asthenospheric upwellingand melting associated with seafloor spreading immediately follow-ing subduction initiation (Dilek et al., 2008, and references therein).

Tethyan ophiolites (Fig. 1A) are particularly important because manyideas on the “ophiolite concept” have been based largely on systematicstructural, petrological, geochemical, geochronological, and tectonicstudies of these ophiolites during the last 30 years. We now know thatthe Tethyan ophiolites are highly diverse in terms of their structuralarchitecture, geochemical features, isotopic fingerprints, and emplace-ment ages and mechanisms (see Dilek, 2003, for a review). However, itappears that most Tethyan ophiolites (except those in the Alps andApennines; Fig. 1A) display a common geochemical progression in theirmagmatic evolution from initiallyMORB-like to island arc tholeiites (IAT)to boninites, and then in some cases further to calc-alkaline and finallyalkaline magmatism, reminiscent of the young subduction zone systemssuch as the West Philippine–Mariana island arc–backarc system(Hawkins,1977; Crawford et al., 1981; Stern and Bloomer,1992; Hawkins,2003). Thus, ophiolitic subunits can reveal valuable information on themode and nature of magmatic, metasomatic, and tectonic processes ofmelt generation and their interplay during oceanic crust generation insuprasuduction zone settings.

In this paper we present an overview, based on our own recent workand on the extant literature, of the igneous structure and stratigraphy ofsome of the best studied Tethyan ophiolites in the easternMediterraneanregion, namely the Jurassic Mirdita (Albania) and Pindos (Greece)ophiolites and the Cretaceous Kizildag (Turkey), Troodos (Cyprus), andOmanophiolites (Fig.1A), anddocument the compositionalmake-up andtime-progressive geochemical evolution of their magmas. We use well-established crosscutting relations of various intrusive suites and thevolcanic stratigraphy in these ophiolites to evaluate the nature and tempoof the crustal and mantle processes involved in their evolution. Weinvestigate the crustal properties and geochemical features of ophioliticmagmas generated from melting of water-rich mantle beneath incipientintra-oceanic arcs within different Tethyan seaways. The main objectivesof this study are: (1) to identify the characteristic geochemical features ofthe mantle sources and the time-progressive melt evolution patterns ofthe ophiolitic magmas, and (2) to develop a tectonic model that canexplain all these geochemical patterns and the structural features of theTethyanophiolites in a regional geodynamic framework. This comparativestudy of the geochemical and structural evolution of the Tethyanophiolites is important because our related observations and interpreta-tions provide valuable information on a water-rich end-member to mid-ocean ridge generated oceanic crust and to our perspectives of seafloorspreading processes of oceanic crust formation in arc–trench rollbacksystems.

2. Structure and igneous stratigraphy of SSZ Tethyan ophiolites

2.1. Jurassic Mirdita and Pindos ophiolites

The NNW-trending Tethyan ophiolites in the Balkan Peninsulaoccur in two distinct zones bounding the Pelagonian ribbon continent

Fig. 2. Structural cross-sections of the (A) Mirdita–Albania, (B) Pindos–Greece ophiolites. No vertical exaggeration. D–dunite, H–harzburgite, L–lherzolite.

4 Y. Dilek, H. Furnes / Lithos 113 (2009) 1–20

(Fig. 1B). The Vardar Zone ophiolites, also known as the “InnermostHellenic ophiolites” (Smith, 1993) or the “Eastern Hellenic ophiolites”,are located east of Pelagonia and are Jurassic–Early Cretaceous in age

Fig. 3. Composite columnar sections showing the igneous pseudostratigraphy and internal s(B) Pindos.

(Bébien et al., 1986; Robertson, 2002). The Tethyan ophiolites to thewest of the Pelagonian microcontinent are nearly coeval or slightlyolder than the ones in the Vardar Zone and are spatially associated

tructure of the ophiolites, their tectonic basement, and sedimentary cover. (A) Mirdita,


with Triassic–Jurassic volcano–sedimentary units and mélanges(Smith, 1993; Robertson and Karamata, 1994; Saccani and Photiades,2004; Dilek et al., 2005; Beccaluva et al., 2005; Bortolotti et al., 2005;Bonev and Dilek, in press). The Western Hellenic ophiolites in Greeceand southern Albania, the Mirdita ophiolites in northern Albania andtheir northward continuation into Kosovo and Serbia, and the Dinaricophiolites in Bosnia and Croatia collectively form the Pindos Zoneophiolites in the Balkan Peninsula.

2.1.1. Mirdita ophioliteThe Pindos Zone ophiolites in southern Albania occur in a NW-

trending belt, which makes a sharp 90° turn into a short NE-trendingsegment in northern Albania before it joins the NW-oriented Dinaricophiolite belt (Fig. 1B). This NE-trending short segment is known asthe Mirdita zone in the literature (Nicolas et al., 1999; Robertson andShallo, 2000; Dilek et al., 2005; Bortolotti et al., 2005; Dilek et al.,2007). The ophiolites in the Mirdita zone occur in a ~30–40-km-widebelt bounded by the conjugate passive margin sequences of Apuliaand Korabi–Pelagonia on the west and the east (Fig. 2A; Dilek et al.,2005). The western and eastern parts of this ophiolite belt areoccupied by peridotite massifs representing the upper mantle units(Fig. 2A). The massifs adjacent to the Apulian margin sequences in thewest (i.e., Krabbi, Gomsiqe, Skenderbeu) are composed mainly oflherzolites–plagioclase lherzolites, whereas those close to Pelagonia inthe east (i.e., Tropoja, Kukesi, Lura) are made of harzburgites withmajor chromite deposits (Nicolas et al., 1999; Hoxha and Boullier,1995).

Based on the differences between the upper mantle peridotitesand the internal stratigraphy and chemical compositions of the crustalunits, previous studies have recognized the existence of two types ofophiolites in the Mirdita zone (Shallo et al., 1985; Shallo, 1990; Shalloet al., 1990; Beccaluva et al., 1994; Bortolotti et al., 1996; Bébien et al.,1998; Nicolas et al., 1999; Hoeck et al., 2002; Shallo and Dilek, 2003;Beccaluva et al., 2005). The Western Mirdita ophiolite (WMO) has amuch thinner crustal section (~few km) and shows mainly a MORBaffinity, whereas the Eastern Mirdita ophiolite (EMO) may reach up to10–12 km in thickness and shows a predominantly SSZ geochemicalaffinity (Fig. 2A).

The Eastern Mirdita ophiolite represents a typical Penrose-typeophiolite pseudostratigraphy (Dilek, 2003) complete with sheeteddikes and a nearly 1.1-km-thick extrusive sequence (Fig. 3A). Theupper mantle peridotites in the Eastern Mirdita ophiolite consist ofharzburgite tectonite, harzburgite–dunite interlayers, and dunite withextensive chromite deposits. The uppermost massive dunite istransitional upward into a 0.5–2 km-thick ultramafic cumulate sectionmade of olivine clinopyroxenite, wehrlite, olivine websterite, anddunite that represents a petrological Moho (Fig. 3A; Dilek et al., 2007).Plutonic rocks above this fossil Moho include pyroxenite, gabbronor-ite, gabbro, amphibole gabbro, diorite, quartz diorite, and plagiogra-nite intrusions. The sheeted dikes have mutually intrusive relationswith isotropic gabbros, plagiogranites, and quartz diorites, and feedinto the overlying pillow lavas (Fig. 3A).

Crosscutting relations of dike intrusions within the EasternMirditaophiolite sheeted dike complex (SDC) define four dike generationswith different orientations and the compositional ranges (Fig. 3A;Philipps-Lander and Dilek, 2009). Early D1 and D2 dikes are orientedNNE and NNW and are composed of basalts and basaltic andesites,respectively. They are crosscut by dike-parallel normal faults (F1)forming local grabens (Fig. 3A). Andesitic and boninitic D3 dikesintruding the earlier dike generations in the eastern part of thesheeted dike complex have WNW orientations and are cut by, androtated along, dike-parallel F2 faults that display extensive epidositeand chalcopyrite mineralization. The youngest D4 dikes with ~E–Worientations occur as isolated swarms intruding earlier dike genera-tions in the eastern part of the sheeted dike complex. They range incomposition from quartz–microdiorite to rhyodacite and rhyolite, and

are cut by ~NW-oriented faults and shear zones. These latest stage andhighly evolved rhyodacitic and rhyolitic D4 dikes and their extrusivecounterparts were constructed on and across the extended incipientarc–forearc Mirdita crust (Philipps-Lander and Dilek, 2009).

The ~1.1 km-thick extrusive sequence in the Eastern Mirditaophiolite is composed of pillowed to massive sheet flows ranging incomposition from basalt and basaltic andesite at the bottom toandesite, boninite, rhyodacite and rhyolite in the upper part (Fig. 3A;Shallo et al., 1987; Shallo, 1990; Beccaluva et al., 1994; Shallo, 1995;Bortolotti et al., 1996; Bortolotti et al., 2002; Shallo and Dilek, 2003;Saccani et al., 2004; Dilek et al., 2007, 2008). Boninitic dikes and lavascommonly crosscut and/or overlie the earlier-formed extrusive rocks,indicating that they are among the latest magmatic products in crustalaccretion of the Eastern Mirdita ophiolite (Dilek et al., 2005). Theupper Bathonian–Oxfordian radiolarian cherts stratigraphically over-lie the Eastern Mirdita ophiolite extrusive sequence (Marcucci et al.,1994; Chiari et al., 1994; Marcucci and Prela, 1996).

2.1.2. Pindos ophioliteThe Pindos ophiolite occurs west of theMesohellenic Trough in the

Pindos Zone in the Western Hellenides and rests tectonically on theMaastrichtian–Eocene Pindos flysch as a west-verging mega-thrust(Fig. 2B). The ophiolite itself is highly dismembered and composed ofseveral imbricate thrust slices (Jones and Robertson, 1991; Jones et al.,1991). The Pindos ophiolite and its metamorphic sole (LoumnitsaUnit) are thrust over the late Triassic–late Jurassic Avdella mélange(Figs. 2B and 3B). The ~1-km-thick Avdella mélange includes blocksand clasts of Triassic limestone, chert, pillow lava, amphibolite(derived from the metamorphic sole), and ophiolitic subunits in adeformed mudstone–siltstone matrix. Most of the pillow lava blocksin the mélange have transitional to N-MORB geochemical affinities(Pe-Piper and Piper, 2002).

The Dramala and Aspropotamos complexes constitute the mainthrust sheets of the Pindos ophiolite. The structurally lowerAspropotamos complex includes harzburgite and dunite overlain byultramafic–mafic cumulates (b0.5 km), passing upward into layeredgabbros (Fig. 3B). The ultramafic–mafic cumulates contain a dunite–anorthosite–troctolite–gabbro series, a dunite–wehrlite–olivine gab-bro series, and layered gabbros (Saccani and Photiades, 2004).Isotropic gabbros and plagiogranite intrusions form the upperplutonic sequence; locally, the basal isotropic gabbros contain olivineand grade upward into quartz-bearing gabbros (Pe-Piper et al., 2004).Sheeted dikes (b500 m) consist of crosscutting dike swarms withdifferent orientations and chemical compositions. High-Ti MORB dikes(Moura dikes) are the oldest dike generations crosscut by transitionalMORB/IAT (Gortsia dikes) and IAT (Padia Verdi) dikes; transitionalIAT/boninite (‘dolerite’ dikes) and boninite (N50°E dikes)make up theyoungest dike generations (Kostopoulos, 1989). Thus, there appears tobe a progressive geochemical trend from MORB to IAT to boninite indike intrusive events in Pindos.

The extrusive sequence in the Aspropotamos complex shows thesame geochemical range in the lava stratigraphy as in the sheeted dikecomplex. MORB-type basaltic pillow lavas in the lower part areoverlain by IAT-type basaltic andesite, andesite and dacite massive topillowed lava flows, which are in turn succeeded by boninitic andrhyolitic lavas on top (Fig. 3B; Capedri et al., 1980; Saccani andPhotiades, 2004). Dikes of similar compositions crosscut all these lavasequences.

The structurally upper Dramala complex includes a 200-m-thickbasal mylonitic harzburgite, overlain by amassive and highly depletedspinel harzburgite that is intruded by dikes and stocks of pyroxeniteand gabbro (Rassios and Smith, 2000; Pelletier et al., 2008). Mafic–ultramafic cumulates overlie these harzburgites and contain plagio-clase dunite, troctolite, and anorthosite gabbro that are interlayeredwith wehrlites (Capedri et al., 1982). Locally, these cumulate rocks areintruded by coarse-grained boninitic dikes (Fig. 3B; Rassios and Smith,


2000). A Jurassic–Cretaceous pelagic limestone unconformably restson the Dramala cumulates, and the Eocene–Miocenemolasse depositsof the Mesohellenic Trough in turn unconformably overlie thislimestone and the Dramala mafic–ultramafic rocks.

2.2. Cretaceous Kizildag, Troodos and Oman ophiolites

The Cretaceous ophiolites in the eastern Mediterranean region(Fig. 1) were derived from the Southern Tethys, and were emplacedsouthward onto the northern edge of the Arabian continent in thelatest Cretaceous (Dilek and Moores, 1990; Dilek et al., 1999;Robertson, 2002). These include the peri-Arabian ophiolites (lecroissant ophiolitique péri-arabe) of Ricou et al. (1975) along theBitlis–Zagros suture zone in Turkey and Iran, namely the Kizildag(Turkey), Baër–Bassit (Syria), Kermanshah and Neyriz (Iran). TheTroodos ophiolite to the west has been in the process of emplacementsince the latest Miocene–Pliocene (Robertson, 1998) onto the Era-tosthenes seamount.

These peri-Arabian ophiolites and the Semail–Oman ophiolite arenearly coeval in age and are likely to have developed within a laterallycontinuous (in an~ESE direction in the present coordinate system)arc–trench rollback system in the Southern Tethys (Robertson, 2002;Dilek and Flower, 2003). All these Cretaceous ophiolites displaystructural field evidence for original seafloor spreading tectonics andcomposite extrusive and intrusive sequences with different magmaticplumbing systems, collectively pointing to oceanic crust formation inan extended arc–forearc setting.

2.2.1. Kizildag ophioliteThe Kizildag ophiolite consists of a core of serpentinized mantle

rocks overlain by a plutonic sequence, sheeted dikes, and extrusiverocks (Fig. 4A; Dubertret, 1955; Çogulu et al., 1975; Selçuk, 1981;Erendil, 1984; Tekeli and Erendil, 1986). It is stratigraphically overlainby a generally east-dipping upperMaastrichtian–Tertiary sedimentarysequence (Figs. 4A and 5A). The 3-km-thick mantle units consistmainly of serpentinized harzburgite tectonite with local bands andlenses of dunite, wehrlite, lherzolite, and feldspathic peridotites(Fig. 4A). Relatively undeformed gabbroic to doleritic dikes crosscutthe serpentinized mantle rocks (Dilek et al., 1991).

A nearly 1-km-thick cumulate section composed of mafic andultramafic rocks occurs between the mantle peridotites and theplutonic sequence (Fig. 5A). Gabbroic rocks above this section displaycumulate textures commonly cut by low-angle, mm- to dm-scalemylonitic shear zones that have diffuse to sharp boundaries with thesurrounding undeformed gabbros. Isotropic gabbros become predo-minant upward in the plutonic sequence, where multiple and mutualintrusive relations between isotropic gabbros and small bodies ofplagiogranite, leucocratic gabbro, and dolerite are common (Fig. 5A;Dilek and Eddy, 1992). Doleritic dike intrusions locally increasetowards the top of the 2.5 km-thick plutonic sequence where dikesbecome predominant, and this dike–gabbro boundary appears to bethe root zone of the sheeted dike complex.

The main outcrop of the sheeted dike complex occurs in a NE–SW-oriented structural graben bounded on both sides by the plutonicsequence (Fig. 4A). Mineralized oceanic faults transect the sheeteddikes and form two major subsets: one subset of faults is parallel tothe generally steeply dipping dikes with shallower dip angles anddisplays down-dip plunging slickenside lineations. Locally, thesefaults form well-developed horst–graben structures (Fig. 5A),whereas in some places they are listric in geometry, associated withrotated and tilted fault blocks of sheeted dike swarms (Dilek and Eddy,1992).

Crosscutting relations and textural and compositional differencesindicate the existence of at least three main generations of dikeintrusions in the Kizildag sheeted dike complex. The first generationand the oldest dikes are made of basalt–dolerite and constitute the

majority of the steeply to moderately dipping, wall-to-wall sheeteddikes that are crosscut by the oceanic faults described above. Thesesheeted dikes are intruded by individual dikes and dike swarms of thesecond generation that are commonly subparallel and/or oblique totheir host dikes (Fig. 5A). They may range in thickness from 20–30 cmto 50–70 cm and are medium- to fine-grained. These intrusions arealso observed crosscutting the layered and isotropic gabbros andlocally injecting into them as medium- to coarse-grained, subhor-izontal sills and small stocks. They are made of basaltic andesite,andesite and rare dacite. The third generation, late-stage dikescrosscut the older dikes at random angles (steeply dipping tosubhorizontal) as thin (5–25 cm), individual dikes and locally showzig-zag patterns controlled by the distribution of faults, fractures andpre-existing dike margins. These dikes also intrude the isotropic andlayered gabbros at various angles (Fig. 5A), and they aremade of high-Mg andesites or boninites (Dilek and Thy, 2009-this issue). Plagio-granite dikes show mutual crosscutting relations with both doleriteand basaltic andesite dikes in the sheeted dike complex.

The Kizildag extrusive sequence crops out in several locations inthe NE part of the ophiolite. One of them near the village ofTahtaköprü includes a ~400-m-thick sequence, consisting of massiveand pillow lavas intercalated with hyaloclastites and metalliferoussedimentary rocks. These volcanic rocks overlie serpentinizedperidotites along a gently southeast-dipping fault and are in turnoverlain stratigraphically by the Maastrichtian siliciclastic andcarbonate rocks (Fig. 5A). The second exposure of extrusive rocksoccurs farther north around the Kömürçukuru village and directlyoverlies the isotropic gabbros. This ~600-m-thick block includesmainly pillowed and massive lava flows interstratified with metalli-ferous umbers (Tekeli and Erendil, 1986; Dilek and Thy, 1998). Theumber horizons are locally spatially associated with bleachedhydrothermal alteration zones and/or mineralized zones enriched inpyrite, chalcopyrite and malachite (Robertson, 1986).

A separate exposure of pillow lavas occurs on the Antakya–AltinözüRoad,12 km SE of themainmassif of Kizildag, forming a ~300-m-thickvolcanic unit. First described by Dubertret (1955) as sakalavites, thesepillow lavas rest on serpentinized peridotites at the bottom and areconformably overlain on top by the Campanian claystone, argillaceoussandstone–limestone, and mudstone that are in turn unconformablycovered by upper Maastrichtian clastic rocks. Egg-shaped pillow lavas(sakalavites) up to 20 cm in size are embedded in an interstitialhyaloclastite matrix, which also contains micro pillows (4–5 cm long)and nodules (Dubertret, 1955; Laurent et al., 1980). Compositionally,these sakalavites are high-Mg andesites or boninites (Dilek and Thy,2009-this issue) and represent the youngest eruptive rocks in theKizildag ophiolite overlain by Campanian sedimentary rocks.

2.2.2. Troodos ophioliteThe Troodos ophiolite north of the Arakapas fault zone consists of a

central core of serpentinized peridotites overlain by layered to isotropicgabbros, sheeted dikes, and extrusive rocks (Fig. 4B). The Troodosextrusive sequence is conformably overlain by the upper Cretaceouschalk deposits, which are unconformably covered by a Maastrichtian–lower Eocene pelagic limestone and the upper Eocene–Oligocenecarbonates (Fig. 5B; Robertson, 2000). A lowerMiocene reefal limestoneand the Messinian gypsum-evaporite deposits constitute the youngestmarine sedimentary cover above Troodos (Fig. 5B).

The mantle section in Troodos includes serpentinized harzburgiteswith associated lherzolites and dunites (with chromite pods; Fig. 4B;Sobolev and Batanova (1995); Portnyagin et al. (1997); Batanova andSobolev, (2000)). Spinel lherzolite occurs in the east-central part ofthe peridotite body in Troodos and contains numerous dunite podsand cpx-bearing harzburgite. It has a Cr# of 0.22–0.28 and 5–7 modalpercent of cpx (Batanova and Sobolev, 2000). Cpx-poor refractoryharzburgite occurs higher in the mantle sequence and just beneaththe ~1-km-thick mafic–ultramafic cumulate section, and has high


spinel Cr# values around 0.32–0.51 and lower modal cpx (1.5%–4.5%)than the surrounding spinel lherzolite (Batanova and Sobolev, 2000).The spinel lherzolite appears to have formed as residua after ~12%criticalmeltingof a depleted,MORB-likemantle source andextraction ofMORB-like melts. This spinel lherzolite peridotite was subsequentlymodified by late-stage melts with calc-alkaline and/or boniniticcompositions percolating through them, as evidenced by veins andpods of dunite–chromitite and harzburgite crosscutting them (Thy andEsbensen,1993) and by the upward inflection of La and Ce on chondrite-normalized multi-element patterns of critical melting models for thespinel lherzolite (Batanova and Sobolev, 2000). The dominantlyharzburgitic peridotites constitute the residuum after the formation ofthe highly refractory magmas of this late magmatic event. Thecompositions of the majority of the cpx crystals in harzburgite veinsand pods in the spinel lherzolite indicate light REE- and Zr-enrichmentthat requires subduction zone influence, in support of their origin fromlate-stage, subduction-derived melts, which percolated through theresidual peridotites (Sobolev et al., 1993; Batanova and Sobolev, 2000).

The plutonic complex consists of two suites of gabbroic rocks(Malpas et al., 1989; Thy et al., 1989). Relatively undeformed plutons(late-stage) in the lower suite are compositionally andmineralogicallysimilar to the underlying mafic–ultramafic cumulates. These gabbroscommonly showwell-preserved cumulate layers and igneous textures,and contain in their margins xenoliths of deformed gabbros (Malpas etal.,1989). Basedon their pyroxene compositions, these late-stage lowergabbros correspond to the depleted upper pillow lavas (Robinson and

Fig. 4. Structural cross-sections of the (A) Kizildag–Turkey, (B) Troodos–Cyprus, (C) Omaophiolite from Lippard et al. (1986). Key to lettering on the Oman cross-section: BM–BatinahD–dunite, H–harzburgite, L–lherzolite.

Malpas,1990). The lower-suite gabbros are intrusive into the deformedupper suite (Fig. 5B), which is compositionally similar to the sheeteddike complex and the lower pillow lavas (Robinson andMalpas, 1990).The deformed gabbros show high-temperature L-S fabrics and smallisoclinal folds that are interpreted to have formed as a result of upwardand lateral movement of mantle material during seafloor spreading(Malpas et al., 1989; Robinson and Malpas, 1990).

The extrusive sequence in the Troodos ophiolite contains threemajor geochemical suites (Robinson et al., 1983; Robinson andMalpas,1990). A lower suite of relatively evolved island arc tholeiite (IAT)lavas, a middle suite of depleted arc tholeiite rocks, and astratigraphically higher suite of highly depleted boninitic rocks. Thelower suite and the middle and higher suites correspond approxi-mately to the LPL (Lower Pillow Lavas) and UPL (Upper Pillow Lavas)divisions of the Troodos extrusive sequence (Fig. 5B; Gass, 1990, andreferences therein), respectively. Aphyric to olivine+plagioclase-phyric, relatively high-Ti lavas (basaltic andesite, andesite, dacite withMORB-like abundances of primitive to evolved magmas) of the LPLseries in the Akaki Canyon area in north-central Troodos aretransitional upwards to aphyric and olivine–phyric, low-Ti depletedtholeiitic lavas of the UPL series (Bednarz and Schmincke, 1994; Dilekand Flower, 2003). The extrusive sequence in the Margi–Kataliondassection farther east in the ophiolite displays a sharp transition (locallymarked by an erosional disconformity) from the primitive to evolvedLPL series to ultra low-Ti and ultra-depleted, high-Ca boninitic lavas(Dilek and Flower, 2003). These ultra-depleted high-Ca boninitic lavas

n ophiolites. No vertical exaggeration. Topographic and structural data for the Omanmélange, GU–Geotimes Unit, PS–metalliferous umbers, pelagic chalk, and radiolarite.

Fig. 5. Composite columnar sections showing the igneous pseudostratigraphy and internal structure of the ophiolites, their tectonic basement, and sedimentary cover. (A) Kizildag, (B) Troodos, and (C) Oman.

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also occur in the Limassol Forest area to the south, adjacent to theArakapas fossil transform fault zone (Flower and Levine, 1987).

The sheeted dikes display compositional ranges similar to those ofthe different lava suites in the extrusive sequence, and the rock typesrange from basalt to rhyodacite (Baragar et al., 1989). The majority ofthe sheeted dikes are made of basalt and basaltic andesite, whichgeochemically correlate with the LPL series (Dilek et al., 1990; Thyand Esbensen, 1993). Thus, sheeted dikes and the LPL series can beconsidered as the products of an early-stage, seafloor spreading relatedmagmatism in the history of the Troodos ophiolite (Robinson et al.,2008). The sheeted dike complex includes several ~N–S-trendingstructural grabens formed by blocks of inward-dipping dikes andextensional faults, and locally (i.e. in the Solea graben) highly rotatedsheeted dikes are separated from the underlying gabbros by low-angledetachment faults (Fig. 5B).

These intrusive and extrusive relations combined with thepetrological and geochemical observations suggest a two-stageevolution of the Troodos ophiolite. The ophiolite sequence thatformed via seafloor spreading earlier includes the upper plutonicsuite, sheeted dikes, and the Lower Pillow Lava (LPL) series (Dileket al., 1990; Thy and Esbensen, 1993). This young oceanic lithospherewas subsequently underplated by magma chamber(s) of basalticandesite compositions that produced the mafic–ultramafic cumulatesand depleted Upper Pillow Lava (UPL) series. Dikes that feed intothese UPL have steep dips, and they crosscut the earlier-formedsheeted dikes (Fig. 5B; Dilek et al., 1990; Thy and Esbensen, 1993).

2.2.3. Oman ophioliteThe Oman ophiolite occurs in a ~600 km long, up to 150 km-wide

belt in the Oman Mountains in the SE part of the Arabian Peninsula(Fig. 1). It forms the uppermost tectonic nappe of a number of oceanicimbricate thrust sheets and rests tectonically on a discontinuouslyexposed metamorphic sole or a sub-ophiolitic mélange consisting ofblocks of amphibolite and greenschist rocks in a serpentinite matrix(Fig. 4C; Searle and Cox, 1999). The 40Ar/39Ar hornblende ages fromthe metamorphic sole beneath the ophiolite range from 95.7 to 92.6±0.6 Ma (Hacker et al., 1996). Locally, the metamorphic sole or theserpentinite matrix mélange tectonically overlies the Haybi sedimen-tary mélange, which includes the Triassic Haybi volcanic rocks (rift-related extrusive lavas and seamounts of ocean island basalt) andreefal limestone blocks (Fig. 4C). All these tectonostratigraphic unitsare thrust upon theMesozoic passivemargin sequences of the Arabiancontinent (Hawasina assemblage and the Sumeini Group).

The reconstructed composite ophiolite sequence is N15 km-thickdown to the metamorphic sole (Fig. 5C). Petrological and structuralfeatures of the Semail ophiolite resemble those of lithosphere formedat fast-spreading centers (Pallister, 1981; Pallister et al., 1981a; Pearceet al., 1981, Alabaster et al., 1982; Umino et al., 1990; Nicolas et al.,1994; Nicolas and Boudier, 1995; Umino, 1995; Nicolas et al., 1996;Adachi and Miyashita, 2003; Umino et al., 2003).

The thickmantle sequence includesmainly harzburgitic and duniticperidotites crosscut by pyroxenite dikes at intermediate to upper levelsof the sequence; lherzolitic peridotites also exist in the basal section ofthemantle sequence particularly in the SE part of the ophiolite (Lippardet al., 1986; Godard et al., 2000; Takazawa et al., 2003). These harz-burgite and lherzolite peridotites are similar petrologically to residualperidotites from the fast-spreadingmid-ocean ridges (Tamura andArai,2006). However, a refractory suite of harzburgite–orthopyroxenite–dunite from the northern Oman ophiolite reveals mineral chemistryand trace-element characteristics suggesting that the harzburgite anddunite underwent high-degrees of partialmelting aided by subduction-derived and LREE-enriched influx ofmelts and fluids (Tamura and Arai,2006); the orthopyroxenite appears to have formed a cumulate phasethat originated from this partial melt.

The nearly 1-km-thick and flat-lying Moho transition zone (MTZ)consists predominantly of dunite, wehrlite, websterite, and gabbro

(Fig. 5C; Nicolas et al., 1988; Korenaga and Kelemen, 1997). Gabbrosoccur as sills, varying in thickness from ~1 m to tens of meters,intruding the host dunite, and they continue laterally for ten to severalhundred meters. Gabbroic sills are cut by numerous wehrliteintrusions. The mineral chemistry of these gabbroic sills in theMoho transition zone is similar to that of the layered gabbros in theoverlying lower crust, suggesting that the parental melt from whichthese Moho transition zone gabbros formed also produced the crustalrocks (Korenaga and Kelemen, 1997). Gabbroic sills making up muchof the Moho transition zone appear to have originated from in-situfractional crystallization “along the edges of a small-scale, open-system melt lens”, which was replenished continuously by astheno-spheric upwelling beneath the spreading axis (Korenaga and Kele-men, 1997).

Gabbroic layers in the lower oceanic crust of Oman are parallel tothe paleo-Moho and are crosscut by wehrlite intrusions; upward inthe plutonic sequence these layered gabbros are roofed by foliated andisotropic gabbros (Fig. 5C). Near the top of the plutonic sequence theupper isotropic gabbro and small discontinuous bodies of diorite andplagiogranite intrude the base of the sheeted dike complex (Fig. 5C),whereas some of the late-stage diabasic and granophyric dikes of thesheeted dike complex locally cut through the uppermost section of theplutonic sequence (Hopson et al., 1981; Pallister and Hopson, 1981;Juteau et al., 1988a,b). These crosscutting relations indicate mutuallyintrusive relations between the sheeted dike complex and theunderlying plutonic sequence (Pallister, 1981; Nicolas and Boudier,1991). In places, where isotropic gabbros are absent, sheeted dikes areobserved to have intruded layered gabbros and ultramafic rocks of thelower crust. These spatial relations may show lateral propagation(along-strike) of dike injection into a previously emplaced plutonicsequence (Dilek and Eddy, 1992). Thickness of sheeted dikes rangefrom b1 cm to N13 m with an average thickness of ~70 cm. Mostsheeted dikes have a bulk Mg# of 55–66, overlapping the majority ofMORB (Umino et al., 2003).

The extrusive sequence in the Oman ophiolite is nearly 2 km inthickness and consists of pillowed to massive lava flows with varyingcompositions that are cut by basic to felsic hypabyssal intrusives anddikes. These volcanic rocks are intercalated with and stratigraphicallyoverlain by umber deposits and chalk and radiolarite layers (Fig. 5C;Lippard et al., 1986). The Geotimes volcanic unit in the stratigraphi-cally lower levels in the extrusive sequence (Figs. 4C and 5C) is madeof low-K tholeiitic, aphyric pillow basalts with slightly depletedchondrite-normalized REE patterns that are enriched in the LILE, Sr,Rb, K, Ba, and Th and depleted in the compatible elements (Alabasteret al., 1982; Umino et al., 1990). The majority of the sheeted dikes areassociated with these extrusive rocks, and most of the layeredcumulate gabbros display mineral assemblages similar to those inthe Geotimes volcanic unit suggesting their common parentalmagmas. All these rocks have MORB-like compositions (Pearceet al., 1981; Pallister et al., 1981; Alabaster et al., 1982; Browning1984; Ernewein et al., 1988; Benn et al., 1988; Ernewein et al., 1988;Juteau et al., 1988a,b; Umino et al., 1990).

The Lasail extrusive unit, locally up to 700 m in thickness,discontinuously overlies the Geotimes unit and is composed ofseamount basalts erupted directly on the older oceanic crust (Pearceet al., 1981; Lippard et al., 1986). More evolved calc-alkaline rocks(andesite, dacite, rhyolite) in the Alley volcanic unit overlie theseLasail volcanic rocks (Pearce et al., 1981; Alabaster et al., 1982;Ernewein et al., 1988; Umino et al., 1990). Boninites also appear aslavas and dikes in the Alley volcanic sequence (Umino et al., 1990;Ishikawa et al., 2002) unconformably overlying and in some casescrosscutting the Geotimes unit (Fig. 5C). Plutonic equivalents of theseevolved Alley volcanic rocks include dikes, stocks, and plutons ofgabbro, diorite, and trondhjemite rocks intruding into the oldercumulate gabbros and the sheeted dike complex (Figs. 4C and 5C). TheU–Pb zircon ages from plagiogranite rocks in the ophiolite range from

Table 1Major and trace-element analyses of representative lava and dike samples from the Mirdita, Pindos, Kizildag, Troodos and Oman ophiolites.

Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeOt MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 L.O.I Sum Sc V Cr Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Y

MirditaMORB-like4-Al-00 50.30 1.10 14.88 10.27 0.19 8.00 12.51 1.89 0.11 0.06 1.60 100.91 293 381 48 109 100 83 nd 75 3144-Al-00 48.18 1.54 14.66 13.29 0.21 7.05 10.02 2.16 0.18 0.11 3.31 100.71 49.7 400 84 65 47 80 123 2 92 4331-Al-01 46.03 1.96 14.22 13.68 0.22 6.31 11.74 1.54 0.07 0.18 4.68 100.67 46.9 495 198 74 78 80 121 1 77 5529-Al-01 41.11 1.98 14.84 12.32 0.18 4.81 14.08 1.44 0.08 0.17 9.64 100.66 511 237 71 83 98 115 86 61IAT-like16-Al-00 56.66 0.41 13.55 8.05 0.15 5.96 8.40 3.42 0.01 0.02 3.57 100.20 33.9 199 138 43 64 70 61 nd 18 16116-Al-01 55.92 0.48 16.25 10.34 0.17 5.09 4.39 4.42 0.17 0.04 2.13 99.44 44.2 269 28 52 26 112 64 1 47 19Boninite-like90-Al-00 53.21 0.12 10.35 8.87 0.15 15.56 9.28 0.05 0.01 0.01 1.81 99.42 51.8 191 1319 56 410 5 35 1 21 4

PindosMORB-likeP59 48.41 1.87 14.02 12.61 0.18 7.45 10.44 3.06 0.08 0.20 2.92 101.24 313 271 49.8 120 95 97 11 172 40IAT-likeP61i 49.34 0.73 15.62 9.34 0.13 9.59 12.53 2.41 0.11 0.04 1.43 101.27 202 473 47.4 146 108 51 13 59 24Boninite-likeP58 58.12 0.20 14.14 8.53 0.14 7.24 9.10 1.29 0.07 0.02 2.00 100.85 151 401 37.6 114 592 54 17 43 11

KizildagMORB-likeKC-37 55.21 1.03 14.99 9.73 0.08 6.62 4.24 4.88 0.25 0.07 2.69 99.81 70.0 339 314 33 28 3 24 1.1 108.7 26.8IAT-likeK-5 49.64 0.75 15.15 10.26 0.17 7.18 5.36 5.50 0.52 0.06 5.18 99.68 54.0 243 30 24 42 26 114 4 58 18.7Boninite-likeK-12 51.22 0.48 13.32 9.18 0.23 12.65 5.22 2.61 0.38 0.04 4.91 100.24 69.0 218 510 35 203 77 126 b1 111 13.8

TroodosMORB-likeDepth 316 m 53.36 0.71 15.81 7.56 0.14 7.84 12.42 2.05 0.11 100.00 34.9 215 35.4 56 2.17 98IAT-likeDepth 345 m 56.01 0.45 14.20 7.89 0.16 7.98 11.24 1.86 0.21 100.00 38.3 264 33.7 62 5.36 68BoniniticM.12 55.44 0.31 13.43 8.58 0.16 9.83 10.83 1.15 0.20 0.02 4.19 99.94 42.0 737 33 244 63 4.9 90

OmanMORB-likeOM7040⁎ 49.50 1.53 14.40 11.50 0.30 5.95 9.68 3.16 0.08 0.17 1.71 97.98 17.1 303 38 38 51 106 148 42IAT-likeOM7072⁎ 50.60 0.70 15.10 5.75 0.28 7.19 11.11 3.91 0.17 0.04 4.74 99.59 35.3 197 241 56 nd 53 56 17OM5967⁎ 45.00 0.72 15.70 8.22 0.15 7.45 8.63 2.73 0.09 9.92 98.61 32.4 301 83 54 48 59 41 24Boninite-likeOM4206⁎ 47.00 0.48 15.90 7.83 0.15 5.92 10.96 1.75 1.11 7.88 98.98 26.4 212 268 67 685 13 498 10

Source of the data: Mirdita (Dilek et al., 2008); Pindos (Pe-Piper et al., 2004); Troodos (Rautenschlein et al., 1985), Taylor (1990); Oman (Lippard et al., 1986).


97.3 to 93.5±0.25 Ma (Tilton et al., 1981) representing the crystal-lization ages of the late-stage differentiates in the Oman oceanic crust.Collectively, these late-stage volcanic and plutonic rocks representisland arc magmatism.

Intrusions of ultramafic and island arc magmas into MORB-likebasement plutonics (Benn et al., 1988; Ernewein et al., 1988; Juteauet al., 1988a,b), the eruption of boninites and calc-alkaline tholeiites(Alabaster et al., 1982; Ernewein et al., 1988; Umino et al., 1990), andsubsequent intrusion of calc-alkaline plutonsmark a secondmagmaticstage in the development of the Oman ophiolite (Pallister et al., 1981;Pallister, 1984; Benn et al., 1988; Juteau et al., 1988a,b; Lachize et al.,1996; Schiano et al., 1997). These intrusive rocks form stocks and dikesand are commonly discordant with older MORB-like layered rocks(Benn et al., 1988; Juteau et al., 1988a,b; Umino et al., 1990; Umino,1995). They consist of a suite of dunite, wehrlite, pyroxenite, troctolite,olivine gabbro, and diorite cumulates, and a series composed oflherzolite, gabbronorite, two-pyroxene diorite, and trondhjemite(Umino et al., 1990). Previously interpreted as remobilized melt-cumulate emulsions (Pallister et al., 1981), these lithologies appear torepresent refractory magma series originated from boninitic parentalmagmas (Umino et al.,1990; Schiano et al.,1997). The intrusive rocks ofthis stage include a Cpx series of dunite, wehrlite, olivine gabbro, anddiorite, and an Opx series of lherzolite, gabbronorite, two-pyroxene

diorite, and trondhjemite (Shervais, 2001). These plutonic rockscorrelate with olivine+cpx–phyric lavas of the Lasail and opx–phyriclavas of the Alley units (Alabaster et al., 1982; Umino et al., 1990;Shervais, 2001).

The most recent Oman igneous activity produced alkali basalts ofthe Salahi volcanic unit between c. 85 and 90 Ma (Umino et al., 1990;Lachize et al., 1996). These alkali basalts are separated from the Alleyvolcanic unit by a thin horizon of pelagic sedimentary rocks (Erneweinet al., 1988), indicating a period of quiescence between the lasteruption of suprasubduction zone lavas and the Salahi volcanics. TheSalahi volcanic rocks represent off-axis magmatism fed by meltspossibly originated from an asthenospheric window beneath thedisplaced oceanic lithosphere in the upper plate (Shervais, 2001; Dilekand Flower, 2003).

3. Geochemistry

Since theMirdita and Pindos ophiolites both occurwithin the sameJurassic ophiolite belt (Western Hellenide Ophiolites of Smith andRassios, 2003) west of the Pelagonian subcontinent, it is anticipatedthat the geochemical composition and melt sources of their magmaticrocks may be rather similar. In order to compare the magmaticsequences of these ophiolites, we have used the geological

Zr Nb Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Pb Th U

MirditaMORB-like5891 0.74 0.03 5 1.95 6.65 1.23 7.68 3.52 1.32 5.16 1.04 7.09 1.55 4.32 0.62 3.89 0.61 2.38 0.06 0.45 0.11 0.04148 1.18 0.02 3 2.97 10.36 1.89 11.28 4.79 1.77 6.78 1.31 8.93 1.92 5.29 0.78 4.85 0.76 3.34 0.09 0.36 0.14 0.04162IAT-like35 0.44 4 0.93 2.20 0.37 2.10 0.96 0.37 1.46 0.30 2.12 0.47 1.35 0.20 1.24 0.20 0.66 0.03 0.38 0.15 0.0936 0.47 0.05 9 1.11 2.66 0.39 2.16 1.00 0.39 1.70 0.35 2.51 0.60 1.73 0.27 1.82 0.29 0.73 0.03 0.44 0.25 0.18Boninite-like21 0.58 0.01 3 1.19 2.18 0.24 0.93 0.27 0.10 0.34 0.07 0.56 0.14 0.44 0.08 0.55 0.10 0.25 0.05 0.26 0.42 0.25

PindosMORB-like112 5 137 4.46 15.00 12.00 4.17 1.45 0.9 4.37 0.65 3.2 1 0.2 0.3IAT-like33 0.4 82 0.67 3.00 3.00 1.37 0.49 0.4 1.99 0.30 0.9 6 n.d n.d.Boninite-like20 0.92 2.00 1.00 0.32 0.12 0.1 1.04 0.16 0.3 6 0.3 0.2

KizildagMORB-like44.5 3 b0.1 4.8 3.90 7.70 1.02 5.90 2.10 0.74 2.99 0.63 4.12 0.88 2.55 0.38 2.88 0.39 1.4 0.20 1.10 0.40IAT-like32 0.9 0.1 34 1.30 3.72 0.65 3.94 1.41 0.583 2.30 0.45 3.02 0.66 2.05 0.315 2.00 0.291 1.1 0.05 0.18 0.07Boninite-like21 0.9 b0.1 11 1.02 2.42 0.38 2.27 0.82 0.399 1.47 0.29 2.01 0.46 1.45 0.229 1.45 0.208 0.6 0.06 0.17 0.06

TroodosMORB-like

17 1.41 4.22 4.03 1.52 0.619 2.25 2.76 1.85 1.79 0.266 0.95 0.039 0.21IAT-like

0.238 22 0.88 2.39 2.43 1.03 0.419 1.63 2.16 1.44 1.44 0.217 0.77 0.071 0.20Boninitic22 1.74 4.12 2.98 1.04 0.43 2.15 1.42 1.41 0.24 0.65

OmanMORB-like100 6.00 17.2 16.20 5.20 1.63 7.10 1.27 0.99 4.93 0.78 3.54 0.16 0.32IAT-like35 1.45 4.69 4.55 1.54 0.62 na 0.40 1.59 0.28 1.11 0.0546 2.50 5.80 6.90 1.90 0.68 na 0.53 0.42 2.50 0.43 1.45 0.08Boninite-like20 1.10 4.00 3.60 1.30 0.86 1.90 0.31 0.20 1.23 0.23 0.90 0.03 0.17


information and geochemical data of Shallo (1992, 1995), Dilek et al.(2005, 2007, 2008) for the Mirdita ophiolite, and of Pe-Piper et al.(2004) and Saccani and Photiades (2004) for the Pindos ophiolite(Table 1). We further compare the geochemical features anddevelopment of the Mirdita and Pindos ophiolites with those of theyounger (Cretaceous) Troodos, Kizildag and Oman ophiolites in theSouthern Tethyan system farther southeast (Table 1).

3.1. Geochemistry of Mirdita and Pindos ophiolites

For the classification of the Mirdita lavas and dikes (Dilek et al.,2007, 2008) we applied the geochemical criteria of LeBas (2000) forthe major element compositions, as well as the classification schemeof Winchester and Floyd (1977) for the combination of major andtrace elements.

Fig. 6 shows the geochemical evolution of the lavas and dikes of theMirdita and Pindos ophiolites in three Bowen diagrams, representedby MgO versus SiO2, TiO2 and Zr. These three diagrams were chosenbecause SiO2, TiO2 and Zr values are little changed during alteration,and furthermore these elements spread the data into well-definedtrends (for further details, see Dilek et al. (2008)). The oldest rocks ofboth ophiolites are the MORB-type basalts, which range in composi-tion from high- to low-MgO basalts with their SiO2 contents between

47 and 51 wt.%. TiO2 and Zr values, on the other hand, define a muchlarger and awell-defined compositional range. The island arc tholeiite(IAT) sequence of the Mirdita ophiolite shows a large compositionalrange from basalts to rhyolites with basaltic andesites and andesitesmaking up the most abundant rock types (see Dilek et al., 2007). At agiven MgO content, the TiO2 and Zr of the IAT rocks are much lowerthan those for the MORB-type rocks. The youngest igneous suite forboth the Mirdita and Pindos ophiolites is represented by boniniticrocks that are characterized by high MgO and SiO2 contents and verylow TiO2 and Zr values.

In Fig. 7 we show the geochemical data from the same suites ofrocks plotted in Ti–V, Ti–Zr, and Y–Cr discrimination diagrams. In theTi–V diagram the basalts of the oldest suites of the Mirdita and Pindosophiolites define Ti/V ratios in the range of 20–50 that are typical forMORB-like rocks of backarc basins. The younger lavas and dikes ofbasaltic to rhyolitic compostions, on the other hand, show apredominance of Ti/V ratios between 10 and 20, and some also haveratios b10, with extremely low Ti and V contents grading into theboninitic field (for the Mirdita ophiolite). This progression is typical ofisland arc volcanic rocks (Stern et al., 1989; Straub, 2003; Nishizawaet al., 2006; Takahashi et al., 2007). The youngest lavas and dikes,which on the basis of major element compositions have beenclassified as boninites (LeBas, 2000), also plot in the boninitic field

Fig. 7. Ti–V, Ti–Zr and Y–Cr discriminant diagrams applied to the lavas and dikes of the Mirdita and Pindos ophiolites. Ti–V diagram (after Shervais, 1982); the Ti–Zr (mainly based onPearce and Cann (1973), plus other data from the literature); Y–Cr diagram (mainly based on Pearce (2003), plus other data from the literature). The boninite fields have beenconstructed based on data from Crawford (1989). The geochemical data for the Mirdita ophiolite are from Dilek et al. (2008), and for the Pindos ophiolite from Pe-Piper et al. (2004)and Saccani and Photiades (2004).

Fig. 6. Bowen diagrams for SiO2, TiO2 and Zr for lavas and dikes from the Jurassic Mirdita and Pindos ophiolites. The geochemical data for the Mirdita ophiolite are from Dilek et al.(2008), and for the Pindos ophiolite from Pe-Piper et al. (2004) and Saccani and Photiades (2004). The red, orange, and yellow curves represent the regression lines for the MORB-type basalts (oldest), IAT rocks, and boninites (youngest), respectively.


Fig. 9. MORB-normalized multi-element diagrams of representative MORB, IAT, andboninite dikes and lavas of the Mirdita and Pindos ophiolites. The data for the Mirditaophiolite are from Dilek et al. (2008), and for the Pindos ophiolite from Pe-Piper et al.(2004). Normalizing values (in ppm) (after Pearce and Parkinson, 1993) are: Th (0.12),U (0.047); Ta (0.13), Nb (2.33), La (2.5), Ce (7.5), Pb (0.3), Sr (90), P (314), Nd (7.3), Zr(74), Hf (2.05), Sm (2.63), Eu (1.02), Gd (3.68), Ti (7620), Tb (0.67), Dy (4.55), Y (28),Ho (1.01), Er (2.97), Tm (0.456), Yb (3.05), Lu (0.455), V (300), Sc (40), Cr (275), Ni(100). The negative Ta and Nb anomalies in the MORB-like, IAT and boninitic lavas anddikes of the Mirdita represent a feature that is interpreted as a typical subduction zonesignature due to the fluid immobility of these elements relative to other elements suchas Th, U, and LREE (e.g. Saunders et al., 1991). The MORB-like, slightly enriched,representative basalt sample from the Pindos ophiolite, on the other hand, shows no Nbanomaly. This feature may indicate the generation of its magma(s) away from theinfluence of subduction zone hydration processes.


of the Ti–V diagram. This boninitic field is particularly well demon-strated for the Pindos ophiolite. The other two discriminant diagrams(Ti–Zr and Y–Cr) display similar classification patterns, i.e. the oldestMORB-like suites, followed by island arc tholeiitic rocks of a muchwider compostional range (in terms of major element geochemistry),and terminated by typical boninitic rocks.

The MORB affinity for the oldest basalts of the Mirdita ophioliteand the island arc-related character of the younger dikes and lavas arealso well demonstrated in the Nb/Yb–Th/Yb diagram (Fig. 8). TheMORB and OIB domains form a diagonal mantle array on thisdiscriminant diagram, whereas magmas that have interacted withcontinental crust or have a subduction component are displaced tohigher Th/Yb values (Pearce, 2008). While the basaltic rocks of bothMirdita and Pindos plot within the mantle array, the younger IAT andboninitic rocks are displaced toward higher Th/Yb ratios characteriz-ing the Mariana arc and backarc basin fields with clear subductionzone influence.

MORB-normalized multi-element diagrams of representativesamples of different suites from the Mirdita and Pindos ophiolitesare shown in Fig. 9. Whereas the MORB sample from the Pindosophiolite shows a slightly enriched pattern (with increasinglyincompatible elements), the two MORB samples from Mirdita displayflat to slightly depleted patterns andwith slight to marked negative Taand Nb anomalies. The younger IAT basalts and basaltic andesites allshow a progressively depleted nature with increasingly incompatibleelements, except for strong enrichment of Pb, U and Th, thus creatingstrong negative Ta and Nb anomalies. The boninitic samples showprogressive depletion from Ni and Cr (the highly compatibleelements) through Eu, a steady increase with positive Zr and Pbanomalies from Eu through Th, and pronounced negative Ta and Nbanomalies. These features produce a typical downward-convexboninite pattern (i.e. Bédard, 1999).

3.2. Comparison with the Cretaceous Tethyan ophiolites (Troodos, Oman,and Kizildag)

In this section we present representative geochemical data fromthe Cretaceous Troodos–Cyprus (Rautenschlein et al., 1985; Auclairand Ludden, 1987; Taylor, 1990), Kizildag–Turkey (Dilek and Thy,

Fig. 8. Lavas and dikes of the Mirdita and Pindos ophiolites plotted in Nb/Yb–Th/Ybdiagrams (after Pearce, 2008). The data for the Mirdita ophiolite are from Dilek et al.(2008), and for the Pindos ophiolite from Pe-Piper et al. (2004).

1998; Dilek, unpublished data), and Semail–Oman ophiolites (Lippardet al., 1986; Ishikawa et al., 2002; Godard et al., 2003; Einaudi et al.,2003) for the comparison with the Jurassic Mirdita ophiolite.

Fig. 10 shows Bowen diagrams for SiO2, TiO2 and Zr for lavas anddikes from the Kizildag, Troodos and Oman ophiolites. The Kizildagdata cluster nicely between the trend lines defining the MORB and IATsuites of the Mirdita, but do not reach the highest TiO2 values of thelatter. In the MgO–SiO2 diagram, the Troodos lavas and dikes closelymatch those of the Mirdita ophiolite and define two clusters in theTiO2 diagram. Also, for some of the samples, their MgO values at agiven Zr content are somewhat higher than those for the Mirditasamples. The Oman lavas and dikes also closely occupy the spacebetween the trend lines defined by the Mirdita samples.

In the Ti–V, Ti–Zr, and Y–Cr discriminant diagrams all threeophiolites (Kizildag, Troodos and Oman) display a large spread in thedata from island arc to typical MORB-type compositions (Fig. 11).There are differences, however, in the relative abundance of island arctoMORB-type lavas. Whereas a major part of the Kizildag and Troodosdata indicates IAT affinity, a major part of the Oman data ratherindicates MORB-like affinity, as well as alkaline affinity (Ti/VN50).However, in the Nb/Yb–Th/Yb discriminant diagram, the majority ofthe Kizildag and Oman data plot within the mantle array between E-MORB and N-MORB (Fig. 12).

Fig. 13 shows multi-element diagrams of representative samples ofthe MORB, IAT, and boninite compositions for the Kizildag, Troodosand Oman ophiolites. The element patterns of the MORB-like basalts,IAT suites and boninites for the Kizildag ophiolite show pronouncedsimilarities to those of the Mirdita ophiolite, but the Troodos and


Oman samples do not show any particular Th-enrichment in theirmulti-element patterns.

4. Petrogenesis of Tethyan ophiolites in subductionrollback systems

4.1. Tectonomagmatic model

Fig. 14 shows a generalized tectonomagmatic model for thepetrogenetic development of Tethyan ophiolites within a supra-subduction setting in an arc–trench rollback system. In this model,the geological and geochemical data argue for a progressive evolu-tion in time and space of MORB to IAT to boninitic magmas. For the

Fig. 10. Lavas and dikes from the Cretaceous Kizildag, Troodos and Oman ophiolites plotted ithe regression lines for the MORB-, IAT-, and boninitic-type rocks from the Mirdita ophiolite.Y. Dilek, unpublished data); Troodos (Rautenschlein et al., 1985; Auclair and Ludden,1987; Taet al., 2003).

well-documented Mirdita ophiolite (Dilek et al., 2005, 2007, 2008)this progression demonstrates that the Western and Eastern Mirditageochemical affinities represent not only a west-to-east transition,but also a stratigraphic, vertical gradation into more subduction-influenced volcanic sequences. This sequence of magma evolution isalso suggested for the Pindos ophiolite (Pe-Piper et al., 2004;Saccani and Photiades, 2004), and hence the model we proposehere is also applicable to this ophiolite in the Western Hellenides.The younger (Cretaceous) Troodos, Kizildag and Oman ophiolitesalso appear to follow in general the same magmatic developmentfrom MORB-like to IAT to boninites as the youngest magmaticcomponent (Dilek and Thy, 1998; Ishikawa et al., 2002; Godardet al., 2003).

n the Bowen diagrams for SiO2, TiO2 and Zr. The thick red, orange and yellow curves areThe geochemical data are from the following sources: Kizildag (Dilek and Thy, 1998, andylor,1990); Oman (Lippard et al., 1986; Ishikawa et al., 2002, Einaudi et al., 2003; Godard

Fig. 13. MORB-normalized multi-element diagrams of representative MORB, IAT, andboninite dikes and lavas of the Kizildag, Troodos and Oman ophiolites. See Fig. 9 forfurther details. Kizildag (Dilek and Thy, 1998, and Y. Dilek, unpublished data); Troodos(Rautenschlein et al., 1985; Taylor, 1990); Oman (Lippard et al., 1986). The MORB-like,IAT, and boninite-like basalts from the Kizildag, Troodos and Oman ophiolites all definerather flat multi-element patterns. The Kizildag and Troodos rocks show only minornegative Ta and Nb anomalies, whereas all the Oman rocks shown here displaysignificant negative Ta and Nb anomalies. However, all (except the MORB-like basaltfrom Oman) are highly depleted relative to N-MORB, and are partly enriched in themost-incompatible elements (Th, U), a typical feature of subduction zone-relatedmagmas.

Fig. 11. Ti–V, Ti–Zr and Y–Cr discriminant diagrams applied to the lavas and dikes of theKizildag, Troodos and Oman ophiolites. For further details, see Fig. 7. The geochemicaldata are from the following sources: Kizildag (Dilek and Thy, 1998, and Y. Dilek,unpublished data); Troodos (Rautenschlein et al., 1985; Auclair and Ludden, 1987;Taylor, 1990); Oman (Lippard et al., 1986; Ishikawa et al., 2002, Einaudi et al., 2003;Godard et al., 2003).


The igneous stratigraphy and geochemistry of the Tethyan ophiolitessuggest that theirmagmaswere evolved frommantle sources that werehighly heterogeneous as a result of varying degrees of previous partialmelting and associated depletion events, and of enrichment by varioustrace elements due to the addition of slab-derived fluids carrying asubduction component (Dilek et al., 2007). In the initial stages of the

Fig. 12. Lavas and dikes of the Kizildag and Oman ophiolites plotted in a Nb/Yb–Th/Ybdiagram. The geochemical data are from the following sources: Kizildag (Dilek and Thy,1998, and Y. Dilek, unpublished data); Oman (Einaudi et al., 2003; Godard et al., 2003).

subduction zone, MORB-like magmas were produced from partialmelting of relatively hot, depleted peridotites in the upper plate(Fig. 14A). The compositions of these early crustal units, particularlythose of the lavas, are MORB-like in most respects, but show an arc-likedepletion in Ta and Nb as seen in the abundances of trace elementsnormalized to N-MORB values. This feature is analogous to thegeochemical characteristics of the oldest basalts of the Lau Basin drilledinto at ODP Sites 834 and 835 (Hawkins, 2003). Slab rollback faster thantheconvergence rates resulted in extension in theupperplate (Dilek andFlower, 2003; Garfunkel, 2006) that helped produce a well-developedsheeted dike complex in the Tethyan ophiolites.

The previously formed MORB-like oceanic crust and its peridotiteswere subsequently impregnated by subduction-derived magmas, aswe see the field and geochemical evidence of it in Mirdita, Troodosand Oman. The IAT basaltic to andesitic, dacitic volcanic rocks, sheeteddikes and mafic intrusions formed from magmatism triggered fromascending mantle diapirs and related melting beneath the infant arc–forearc region (Fig. 14B). Mixing of upwelling mantle diapirs occurredin the melting column above the retreating slab with the influx offertile mantle and incompatible element-enriched fluids and sub-ducted sediments, and the resulting magmas further evolved viafractional crystallization in crustal to sub-crustal magma chambersbeneath an extending protoarc–forearc system (Fig.14B). Slab rollbackand sinking during continued subduction caused increasing astheno-spheric diapirism from the arc axis to the forearc region (Fig.14C). Thisin turn resulted in shallow partial melting of the highly depleted (afterIAT melt extraction) and refractory harzburgites producing boniniticmagmas in the forearc environment (Fig. 14D). Diapiric upwellingsthat promote decompressional melting of the hydrated refractory


mantle wedge in a suprasubduction zone setting are needed in orderto get increasingly more boninitic magmas through time.

4.2. Geochemical fingerprinting of melting processes and increasedsubduction influence

The geochemical evidence for the island arc magmatic fingerprintin Tethyan ophiolites can be demonstrated by several types ofdiscriminant diagrams (see summary by Pearce, 2003). Commonlyused are binary discrimination diagrams such as Ti–V, Ti–Zr, Y–Cr, andmulti-element diagrams (i.e. Figs. 7 and 9) for themagmatic rocks thatrepresent melts. Provided that the igneous stratigraphy is well known,we can use these diagrams to argue that progressive changes in theconcentrations of incompatible elements demonstrate magmaticdevelopment that can only be related in time and space to subductionzone processes. Common patterns observed in the extrusivesequences of the Tethyan ophiolites are that the oldest basalts areMORB-like, although locally displaying slight to pronounced Ta and

Fig. 14. Summary of tectonic and petrogenetic development in time and space of Tethyan SSDilek et al. (2005). Vertical blue lined-pattern in A through D depicts oceanic crust with Mundergoes rifting in D, which may lead into a new phase of embryonic backarc spreading. S

Nb negative anomalies (Fig. 14, geochemical diagram on top) showinga hint of subduction influence. At a higher stratigraphic level in theextrusive sequences the MORB-type character changes to IATsignatures, characterized by progressive depletion in the increasinglyincompatible elements and more pronounced negative Ta and Nbanomalies, as well as commonly negative anomalies for Ti and Zr(Fig. 14, geochemical diagram in the middle). The progressivedepletion in the increasingly incompatible elements is attributed torepeated melting of a hydrous mantle above a subduction zone, andthe characteristic negative anomalies, particularly of Ta and Nb, arerelated to the stability of certain minerals (e.g. titanite and zircon)during melting (e.g. Saunders et al., 1991). At higher stratigraphiclevels further up in the extrusive sequence, enrichment in the most-incompatible elements (e.g. Cs, Rb, Ba, Th, U, K, La, Ce, Pb) of the lavasis common. This enrichment is due to processes that may include fluidrelease from subducted altered crust and/or sediments into themantle above the subduction zone, and from felsic magmas generatedby partial melting of sediments (Saunders et al., 1991; Pearce and

Z ophiolites. Trench-slab rollback model is adapted from Stern and Bloomer (1992) andORB-like affinity, whereas horizontal red-lined pattern marks incipient arc crust thatee text for further discussion.


Parkinson, 1993; Pearce and Peate, 1995; Gribble et al., 1996;Hawkesworth et al., 1997; Macdonald et al., 2000; Elburg et al.,2002). The REE features of highly to ultra-depleted late-stage magmasshow a distinct convex-down pattern typical of boninites (Fig. 14,geochemical diagram at the bottom).

The increased subduction influence in younger dikes and lavas isalso substantiated by the ɛNd (T) data from both theMirdita and Pindosophiolites. This is particularly well documented for the Mirditaophiolite, where the ɛNd values of the Western MORB-like basaltsrange between +8 to +7.5, the Eastern IAT dikes and lavas between+7 to +3, and the latest boninite dikes as low as −4 (Dilek et al.,2008). The same trend is also documented for the Pindos ophiolite,where the ɛNd (T) values decrease systematically from+8 to+7 in theIAT rocks to +3 to +0.6 in the boninites (Pe-Piper et al., 2004).

The maturity of a subduction system and the associated backarcbasin (e.g. Saunders and Tarney, 1984) should exert strong control on:(a) the extent to which the full variety of magmatic rocks fromMORB-like to island arc tholeiites (IAT) to boninites, and then finally to calc-alkaline and eventually to alkaline magmatism (as displayed in theWest Philippine–Mariana island arc–backarc system) are representedin SSZ ophiolites (Shervais, 2001), and (b) the extent to which theircharacteristic trace-element patterns are developed. Ifmelt generationtakes place at a long distance from the subduction zone, and/or if thesubduction system is young, the subduction influence will be limited(Taylor and Martinez, 2003). Such parameters may account for thevariations in the subduction influence among the SSZ ophiolites, asdemonstrated by the variations observed in our Ti–V, Ti–Zr and Y–Crplots (Figs. 7 and 11), Nb/Yb–Th/Yb relations (Figs. 8 and 12), and themulti-element diagrams (Figs. 9 and 13). The geochemical evolution ofthe arc magmas is affected largely by the addition of subductedsediments and aqueous fluids into the previously depleted mantlesources above the slab (Gribble et al., 1996; Leat et al., 2003; Ishizukaet al., 2006). The amount of added sediment component and thedegree ofmantle depletion that increase significantlywith a prolongedperiod of subduction and thematurity of arcmagmatism exert a strongcontrol on the formation of tholeiitic and calc-alkaline magma series,with the calc-alkaline types having the higher sediment input.

5. Conclusions

Tethyan ophiolites in the eastern Mediterranean region representthe remnants of a structurally and geochemically heterogeneousoceanic crust produced in extended protoarc–forearc settings. Theinternal structure and stratigraphy of the lower and upper crust andmantle sequences in the Mirdita, Pindos, Troodos, Kizildag and Omanophiolites show evidence for multiple intrusive and extrusive eventsduring their igneous accretion. Our evaluation of the extrusivesequences and dike rocks of these ophiolites indicates that theirmagmas evolved from MORB to IAT to boninitic compositions in timeand space (stratigraphically upwards). This geochemical progressionresulted from different stages of melt production and various degreesof melting of a highly heterogeneous mantle source, which wasmodified by slab-derived fluids and sediments.

The IAT and boninitic magmas were derived from depletedperidotites that had already experienced previous MORB-type meltextraction during the early stages of ophiolite formation in theTethyan subduction rollback systems. Rapid slab rollback andassociated extension in the arc–forearc region caused increasingasthenospheric diapirism and corner flow toward the forearc mantle,resulting in shallow partial melting of the highly refractory harzbur-gites producing boninitic magmas.

The systematic decrease in the ɛNd (T) values with increasing silicacontents of extrusive rocks in the studied ophiolites suggests increasedrates of sediment input (via subduction) into the sub-arcmantle. Highlyevolved, youngest dacitic and rhyolitic lavas and dikes in some of theophiolites (Mirdita, Pindos) display higher concentrations of Th than

their older mafic counterparts. This late-stage phenomenon was mostlikely related to melting of sediments on the subducting slabs. Theproduction of increasingly more calc-alkaline rocks in the later stages ofthe evolution of some of the Tethyan ophiolites (i.e. Oman) suggestshigher sediment input into the melting regimes via subduction andhence a longer period of subduction and arc maturity.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by research grants from the NATO ScienceProgramme research grant (EST.CLG-97617), the Miami UniversityCommittee on Faculty Research, Miami University Hampton Funds forInternational Initiatives, and IGME of Greece. We wish to thank ourcolleagues A. Rassios and D. Kostopoulos in Greece; E. Gjani, A. Meshi,I. Milushi, and M. Shallo in Albania; C. Xenophontos in Cyprus; O.Elitok, O. Parlak, and E. Sarifakioglu in Turkey for providing us withvaluable discussions on the geology of the Tethyan ophiolites.Constructive and thorough journal reviews by Zvi Garfunkel andPaul Robinson helped us improve the paper.

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