structural polytonality in contemporary afro-american music

Structural Polytonality in Contemporary Afro-American MusicAuthor(s): Lee CronbachSource: Black Music Research Journal, Vol. 2 (1981 - 1982), pp. 15-33Published by: Center for Black Music Research - Columbia College Chicago and University of IllinoisPressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/779409 .

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STRUCTURAL POLYTONALITY IN CONTEMPORARY AFRO-AMERICAN MUSIC'

Lee Cronbach

Introduction

As the twentieth century draws to a close, the worldwide influence of Afro-American music becomes more and more apparent. First presented to outside communities in the form of spirituals in the 1870s, and now, in such manifestations as jazz, rock, and disco, it promises to become "the dominant earth music everywhere in the near future" (Reck, 1977, p. 36). Indeed, the ethnomusicologist goes on to state a need for a concerted

scholarly effort to save "endangered music species" which are about to be overwhelmed by the Afro-American flood (Reck, pp. 36-42).

Let us cite just a few examples of this worldwide expansion. The British "rock revolution" began when the Beatles and Rolling Stones challenged the commercial dominance of "trad jazz" (based on the older Afro- American style of swing) with their versions of compositions from the

younger Afro-American style of rhythm and blues (Dalton, 1979, pp. 15- 16, 20-21, 27-28). The Japanese enthusiasm for jazz was demonstrated by their dramatic reception of John Coltrane in the 1960s (Cole, 1976, pp. 209- 212). Other countries in non-communist Asia have shown a preference for various rock forms. Disco has swept the Pacific islands.2 When Dinah Shore telecast a show from Singapore, she interviewed a group of local children, asking the names of their favorite musicians. To her obvious as-

1This paper is an adaptation of a speech given at the February 21, 1981 meeting of the Pacific Southwest Chapter of the American Musicological Society. The author wishes to acknowledge the help of Mr. Arnie Cheatham (the Jazz Coalition, Boston) who in several telephone consultations gave invaluable advice on the treatment of this subject, and of Drs. Robert Fowells and Olga Termini (California State University, Los Angeles), who reviewed the manuscript. The author also wishes to acknowledge the theoretical background given him by Mr. Curtis Jones and Mr. Charles Holley (Cooperative Artists Institute, Boston), Dr. Hugo Norden (Boston Conservatory), and Mr. Charles Banacos. As is the case with all their students, I am forever in their debt. Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Mr. Lee Cronbach, 1847 N. Kingsley Dr., Los Angeles, California 90027.

2For an interesting example of disco treatment of Tahitian songs, see the album Gabilou (North Hollywood: Bon Jour Records, BJ-7880).

15



BMR Journal

tonishment the answers were the Isley Brothers, the Brothers Johnson, and Peaches and Herb.3 In Israel the style known as Yemenite rock, based on a mixture of Sephardic melodies and 1970s rock rhythms and instru- mentation, was the predominant dance style until recently challenged by disco versions of Jewish folksongs.4 Finally, Africa itself has been deci-

sively influenced by Afro-American forms from both North and South America (Roberts, 1974, pp. 245, 250, 252, 253, 258, 260).

Despite its obvious historical importance, this music remains terra in-

cognita to the majority of the American academic community. One result of this ignorance is that fundamental music theory courses (harmony, counterpoint, orchestration, etc.) are taught exclusively on the basis of the European musical aesthetic. In many curricula, jazz is the sole repre- sentative of the multitude of Afro-American musical styles and is isolated as a specialized course of study in one of the following forms:

(a) Ethnomusicology, in which the study of Afro-American music is combined with the study of Balinese gamelan, Indian ragas, etc., often as a one-semester course. Indeed, ethnomusicology, defined in The Nev Grove Dictionary as being the study primarily of the music of non-literate and Oriental cultures,5 is hardly the right category for the study of the art of such non-Oriental intellectuals as John Coltrane;6

(b) Commercial music, in which an exclusive emphasis is placed on a sin-

gle phase of jazz, a big band swing style usually bound by stylistic param-

3D. Shore, Dinah! Show Nos. 5001-5003, broadcast November 1 and 2, 1979. Information on show numbers and dates obtained from Ms. Gloria Neidorf, Perry and Neidorf, Beverly Hills, California.

4An inclusive sampling of Yemenite rock can be found in the album Tsliley Hakerem-Golden Hits in Yemenite (Tel Aviv: Galton L-5970). The album Hasha-

gririm Group of Ya'akov Eliezrov (Tel Aviv: CBS Records Ltd., ELI-790) gives several

examples of Israeli disco. 5The complete definition of "ethnomusicology" in The New Grove Dictionary

(1980) appears even less appropriate for the work of Coltrane:

Ethnomusicology is concerned primarily with living music . . of oral traditions, outside the limits of urban European art music. The chief subjects of investigation are: the music of non-literate peoples; the orally transmit- ted music of the high cultures of Asia . . . and folk music, which Nettl ten-

tatively defined as the music of oral tradition found in those areas which are dominated by high cultures (Krader, 1980, p. 275).

6Evidence of Coltrane's mastery of both Occidental and Oriental intellectual traditions can be found in J. C. Thomas's biography Chasin' the Trane (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1975), pp. 102, 118, 187, 188, 199.

16



Polytonality in Afro-American Music

eters ranging from Count Basie to Doc Severinson. Such courses are fre-

quently taught by a Eurocentric instructor, who is likely to consider any attempt to write in the style of such composers as George Clinton or Charles Mingus to be almost an act of treason. Of course, the term "commercial music" is hardly an apt phrase for the work of such artists as Sun Ra;

(c) Black studies, in which Afro-American music is often taught solely as an aspect of black culture. While this approach would seem to be more

logical than the preceding two, its delimitations necessarily exclude consideration of the worldwide influence of the music, and the rise of such "mixed" styles as country and western or disco. (An analogy follows: while the Old Testament is properly taught as the core of Jewish studies

programs, it would hardly be appropriate to limit the study of the Bible to its role in the development of Jewish culture, since its ideas, through such "mixed" forms as Christianity, Islam, and Marxism, have decisively af- fected world history.)

In short, there is a remarkable disparity between the position of Afro- American music in world culture, on the one hand, and in American academia, on the other. In the twentieth-century world, Afro-American musical forms are all-pervasive. This in turn has resulted in the generation of an entirely new family of musical forms. Some of these forms-jazz and funk (or gospel), for example-are almost completely African in form and content. Others, such as bluegrass, Texas swing, or salsa, make use of African formal techniques to express the cultural content of different eth- nic groups. However, all of these new musical forms share two common denominators: first, they are based on African theoretical concepts; and second, they have been adopted en masse as the common musical lan-

guage of the twentieth century.7 In American academia, however, both of these common denominators

are usually excluded from the teaching and study of Afro-American music. While the black studies approach does emphasize the African cultural

7For evidence showing the surprising extent of Black influence on country & western styles and performers, see the following articles in Patrick Carr's Illus- trated History of Country Music (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1979): Charles K. Wolfe, "Across the Ocean, Into the Hills," pp. 9, 23, 24, 27, 28; Wolfe, "Birth of an Industry," pp. 54-55, 66; Douglas B. Green, "Depression and Boom," p. 99; Douglas B. Green and Bob Pinson, "Music from the Lone Star State," pp. 115, 135; Roger Williams, "Hank the Great," p. 188. For a discussion in depth of the extent to which black teaching molded the style of country music's "founding father," Jimmy Rodgers, see Mike Paris and Chris Comber, Jimmy the Kid (New York: Da Capo Press, 1979), pp. 15-16, 38-39, 165-169. For the mixed black/Latin origin of salsa, see John Storm Roberts, Salsa! (New York: BMI, 1976), pp. 4-6, 21.

17



background, the ideational-theoretical content of this background is fre-

quently given insufficient attention.8 In addition, the hybrid forms

(which with typical hybrid vigor are among the most successful) are ig- nored by definition. The ethnomusicological and commercial-music approaches described above are completely inappropriate. The former approach ignores the intellectual training of most jazz and rock musicians, while the latter ignores almost entirely the African content of jazz and rock. Both approaches miss the central historical feature of Afro- American music in this century as posited in this study-the creation of a new method for composing and performing music, and the worldwide assimilation of this method.

The ideas expressed above are based upon the author's experience as a student, performer, and teacher in the field of Afro-American music. The

necessity for papers such as this one became apparent to the author when, after approximately ten years of study with working musicians in the fields of jazz, r & b, Afro-Cuban, blues, and gospel, he entered an academic course of study.

The difference between the manner in which Afro-American music is

presently taught in the academic system and that in which it is presently taught by musicians working in these genres is profound. The author be- lieves that the root cause of this difference is the lack of academic awareness of the new body of concepts created in Afro-American music. This

paper will explore the concept of vertical stratification, since the tech-

nique appears in a large variety of Afro-American styles. Furthermore, an outline of this concept has already been presented by the composer Oily Wilson (1974). While Wilson may very well disagree with some or all of the general statements made above, I feel that the following specific anal-

yses strongly support his hypothesis of a "West African musical culture

sphere united by a commonality of shared conceptual approaches to music making" (Wilson, 1974, pp. 21-22). Finally, the theoretical model created by the author matches that deduced by Wilson, the only difference

being that he used metric considerations to demonstrate vertical stratification, while this study focuses on tonal means of vertical stratification.

Wilson's Hypothesis

Wilson begins his study by summarizing the work of such scholars as Herskovitz and Waterman, who hypothesized a strong connection be-

8This may in part be a result of a concept espoused by Imaru Baraka in the 1960s, in which African "instinctive" musicianship was contrasted with Euro-

pean "technical" art (Jones, 1963, p. 82). For evidence of the considerable-albeit informal-training demanded of African musicians by their society, see Nketia, 1974, pp. 55, 60-63.

BMR Journal 18




tween West African music and Afro-American music. In particular, Wa- terman listed five characteristics common to most sub-Saharan African music, and found that three-"dominance of percussion, off-beat phras- ing of melodic accents, and overlapping call and response" (Wilson, 1974, p.4)-were also characteristic of Afro-American music. Wilson states that the purpose of multimeter is to produce cross-rhythms, and he distin-

guishes between syncopation, in which the foreground rhythm is only slightly displaced, and true polymeter, in which the foreground rhythm is consistently displaced over a long period of time. Wilson finds polymeter rather than syncopation to be characteristic of West African music, and

gives the following as a basic theoretical model: a "fixed rhythm" section, playing unchanging patterns, combined with a "variable rhythm" section, whose patterns change during the course of the piece (Wilson, 1974, pp. 7, 9, 11). These two basic units can then be subdivided into smaller

groups. Wilson demonstrated this theoretical model with an analysis of two

pieces, a West African drum piece and an American rock composition, James Brown's "Super-Bad." After presenting the analyses, Wilson then concludes that "the polymeter is the result of the stratification of the musical lines by means of emphasizing the independence of timbre (color) for each voice" (Wilson, 1974, p. 15). This emphasizes the vertical stratification created by the rhythmic sub-divisions. Wilson concluded by stat- ing that the African-American relationship is one "not only of shared characteristics but, more importantly, of shared conceptual approaches to music making, and hence is basically not quantitative but qualitative" (Wilson, 1974, p. 20).

In almost every instance Wilson's model matches the one independ- ently created by this author, using melody instead of rhythm as the measure. The basic structural model illustrated in the four analyses below consists of a fixed melody section, containing one or more ostinatos, which serves as the foundation for a free melody section containing one or more non-repeating melodies that are rhythmically independent of the ostinato section. The vertical stratification is intensified by the use of differing tonal centers for the various levels-hence the use of the term "polytonality."

The result of this melodic stratification is to create a musical structure divided into different melodic layers, so that a vertical dynamism is created, comparable to the horizontal dynamism created by a European harmonic progression. Furthermore, the different linear strata will have shifting call-and-response relationships, in which a line will answer first one, then another, of the subgroups of its own main group or of the other main group (fixed melody or free melody). This type of compositional technique is well adapted to the creation of a densely polyphonic texture.

19



Should it be found that this hypothetical model matches the analyses of the four pieces given below, support would be added to Wilson's second, more general, hypothesis that the African content of such styles as jazz, folk, gospel, etc., is not merely superficial and manneristic, but is fundamental and conceptual. In short, it would seem that these styles are built on African as well as on European musical principles. This in turn would strengthen the argument advanced by the author in the introduction to this paper that Afro-American styles should be studied and taught from the viewpoint of African as well as of European music theory.

Analyses "Festival Music" (Figure 1)

The polytonal nature of the Dahomean piece "Festival Music" is nondiatonic and thus fairly easy to perceive. The ensemble for this piece consists of two xylophones, bells, and a women's chorus. The bass (lower) xylophone has a phrase with d as its tonal center, which ascends stepwise to f#, while the tenor (higher) xylophone has a phrase which descends from d to bs, working contrapuntally against the bass's ascending phrase (Ex. 1, a). Both of these phrases are repeated in "African ostinato" fashion, i.e., with frequent, subtle variations. In the first part of the recording the tenor xylophone performs a solo, while the bass functions as a

ground. On completing its solo, the tenor xylophone returns to its ostinato. After an interlude in which both ostinatos are repeated several

Figure 1. Structural outline of "Festival Music.

n. t. = non-tonal t. c. = tone center

Bells-n. t.

Voices - G t.c.

Xylophone 2-Bb t.c.

Xylophonel-D t.c.

20 BMR Journal



Polytonality in Afro-American Music 21

times, the vocal chorus enters with a beautiful, long-lined unison melody in which first e, then g, functions as the tonal center.

The vocal line is sharply differentiated from the xylophone ostinatos (Ex. 1, b). While the ostinatos are rhythmically short phrases, both with the small range of a major third, the contrasting vocal line has a range of a major ninth, as well as a smooth horizontal contour, and is rhythmically independent from the ostinato pulse. The bells appear to function as an

upper register drone (unpitched), which acts as a background for the two main melodic constituents.

Example 1. Musical excerpts from "Festival Music."

)( tl, f / F - r-?^i -?=_==_ - - r IF ,"1 7

!__rj Jj ft" a M--^

(a) - > > _ >

Voices I L

4JJ JJ4 .

TTn ( r m jU rii *

4p 1 I - # 11

"Bad Girls" (Figure 2)

The same general structure-rhythmic ostinato contrasting with a rhythmically free vocal line-can be seen in Donna Summer's 1979 disco piece, "Bad Girls." However, the nature of the polytonality differs from that occurring in the Dahomean piece. "Festival Music" has three differ-



BMR Journal

Figure 2. Structural outline of "Bad Girls."

n. t. = non-tonal t. c. = tone center m = measures

I I Whi I I I i

I I

G uitar 2 - iD/F t.

Gljuitarl - F t.c. I I Pialno- D

Balss- D

I I I I stlie - n. t. l I

I I It I Lec4d \cal-q t.c.

I IHI I

~I I Hotlrns2-Ftc.

Chlorus - n.t.

Hiorns1-D It.c. I I I

C. I

t. c.

t. Ic. I

I

Bass Dirum l 4m

I I 4m

I

I

I I I I I I

4m I 4m

I I I I I i i I I 4m

ent tonal centers, with a clear anti-diatonic clash between the tenor xylophone's b6 and the b natural of the vocal line. "Bad Girls" uses only two different tonal centers, and the polytonality is diatonic, consisting of a play of the relative major (F) against the relative minor (D); only the use of functional harmony and melodic emphasis distinguish the bitonality of the different strata.

"Bad Girls" is introduced by the bass drum, which pounds out the even, loud quarter notes for which disco is famous (or infamous); then the two rhythm guitars enter (Ex. 2). For four measures the first guitar plays a three-chord sequence (F, C, BR) which implies an F tonal center; the second guitar plays a three note phrase of ambiguous tonality which could be seen as part of either an F-major or a D-minor pentatonic scale (Ex. 2, a and b). The bass and piano enter at the fifth measure. They firmly estab- lish the D tonality with the three-chord sequence Dm, Am and Gm (Ex. 2, c and d); note that these are all minor triads, while the first guitar, as noted above, plays all major triads. At the ninth measure the horn section enters, combining the two triad groups (major centering on F and minor centering on D) into a group of three minor-seventh chords (Dm7, Am7, Gm7) which again emphasize the D tonal center (Ex. 2, e). This is the first

I

I I I I I I I I I

22

c



23 Polytonality in Afro-American Music

Example 2. Musical excerpts from "Bad Girls."

I E . i . . l 1 i

Lv) fX T rEfl *ttU- M Ja a <M I _i -^-;2 j 7 eL

Gtr1 . >

Lb) c ! f Gtr, 2

Piano 1- / 1/

Bass r r

Horns1

(f)( 7 7 X

Horns 2

(9) 1 > --> > Drum T v r rF r

_ _

Pulse I0 y

time in the piece that complete seventh chords appear in one section. At the seventeenth measure the horns are given a unison melody line, one which appears to have an F tonal center (over half of the notes in the line are repetitions of the pitch f-Ex. 2, f).

Simultaneously with the horns' first figure (the seventh chords) the whistles enter. They play a sparse background obbligato, unpitched and rhythmically asynchronous to the preceding instrumental groupings.

f-

(1)) I 1 7 7 AR j 7 If-



The whistles foreshadow the vocal chorus, which enters on the thirteenth measure with a spoken "toot toot beep beep," similar to the whistles in

being unpitched and detached from the common pulse. The common pulse is shown in Example 2, h. It is a two-measure

rhythmic phrase, begun by a heavy accent on "one," and then marked by stressing the afterbeats of the third and fourth beats in the first measure, and the forebeats of the third and fourth beats in the second measure. It is

interesting to observe that each of the instrumental groupings (guitar 1 and 2, piano and bass, horns) has one element which strongly expresses the common pulse (guitar 1, piano, horns 1) and one element which is either detached from the pulse or else a free variation of it (guitar 2, bass, horns 2). As noted above, the whistles and vocal chorus operate outside of this rhythmic framework. When the lead vocal enters, it is given a

rhythmically choppy melody which appears now inside, now outside the stress points of the common pulse. The instrumental sections have created a rhythmic foundation-the common pulse and its variant-and the lead vocal, chorus, and whistles hover around it (like birds around a tree).

In this piece diatonic polytonality is used to create a layered effect, con-

sisting at its peak of five different strata-bass and piano, guitars, horns, vocal chorus and whistles, and lead vocal. The harmonic-melodic elements of these strata are, respectively, minor triads (D tonal center), ma-

jor triads (F tonal center) and an ambiguously-centered melody (F or D), minor-seventh chords (D tonal center) alternating with a unison melody (F tonal center), non-pitched sounds, and the lead melody (D tonal cen-

ter). The formal necessity for the polytonal separation of the different

parts of this construction can be seen if one were to add bass "roots" to the

major triads of the first guitar part, transforming them to minor seventh chords. This would, first, destroy the effect created by the separate en- trances of the different strata (Fig. 2), and, second, muddy the horizontal definition; for example, the first guitar part and the first horn part would become tonally almost identical. Should this occur, much instrumental interest would be lost, for it is precisely the formally complex differentiation of harmonically simple parts which creates the beauty of this composition.

"Maiden Voyage"

As with the other pieces studied here, "Maiden Voyage" has a basic

two-part vertical structure. Here it consists of (1) rhythm section (bass, drums, and piano), all constituents of which share an identical rhythmic figure, and (2) melody section (trumpet and saxophone) that has a unison

melody with a contrasting rhythmic figure. The diatonic, polytonal na-

24 BMR Journal




ture of the composition was in this case confirmed by the composer. Han- cock, in a seminar at the Berklee School of Music (Boston), in the early 1970s, insisted that the piano should play an Am chord against the bass's d, and should definitely avoid the two defining notes of a Dm chord (d and f)9. Further evidence of the composer's intent can be found in the harmonic transcription of "Maiden Voyage" published in the Almo Press an-

thology of Hancock's works, as it was proofread by the composer before

publication. 1

The tonal centers in "Maiden Voyage" first appear stacked in a tonic- dominant-tonic relationship. In the first four measures of the melody, the bass is centered on D, the piano on A, while the melody itself is in D minor

pentatonic (Ex. 3, A). It is interesting to note that here the tonal stratification "crosses" the rhythmic stratification. While the bass and piano function as a rhythmic unity, their tonal centers are clearly differentiated; the

melody instruments, while having their own unique rhythm pattern, share a tonal center with the bass (Ex. 3, A1). This dual stratification is maintained throughout the piece. At the fifth measure both the bass and the piano move up a minor third to form a second polychord-the bass

playingf against the piano's Cm7 chord. Simultaneously the melody instruments complete the melodic phrase begun, in the first four measures, in D minor pentatonic with notes from the minor pentatonic scale. So here, while the dual form is maintained, there is a slight transposition of elements: now the melody instruments share a tonal center with the piano, while before they had shared a tonal center with the bass. Note, however, that the tonic-dominant relationship between the different vertical strata is maintained (F - C - C).

After a literal repetition of the eight-bar phrase described above, Han- cock takes us to the bridge. The basic sound of the bridge is identical to that of section A1. The melody is again in the shape of a tied whole note, introduced and followed by a pair of eighth notes, while the rhythm section continues with the same rhythmic figure that it was given in the A1 section. The fifth relationship of different tonal centers is also maintained, but with a small variation-the number of different tonal centers is ex-

panded from two to three. While both the bass and piano move down one

9C. Banacos, Personal communication, April 1973. Charles Banacos, a former student of Jaki Byard, was teaching at Berklee at the time of the Hancock sympo- sium. He has since incorporated Mr. Hancock's advice into his teaching method.

'1L. Shulgren, Personal communication, June 24, 1981. Ms. Shulgren, man-

ager of Almo Publications, stated in a telephone conversation with the author that to the best of her knowledge this was the case, but advised confirming it with Mr. Hancock. Mr. Hancock was on tour at the time this article was written, and hence unavailable for comment.

25



26 BMR Journal

Example 3. Transcription of theme statement of Hancock's "Maiden Voyage."

Maiden Voyage Music by

HERBIE HANCOCK

Medium Am70" D

rpff-c , e -. -

0)

(y J,J j - j - j S t:z jJ:

'" I IM I I h-i l hl 1 1 I i h 1' w' w..__ . v_ (e . - w_ 'a. - .

?$ o" '*'r - - a

t~? M-Ij

p N h' I hi I Ii h 7 :1 I I I hI

#2F

V ' (w)

Cw (W

From "Maiden Voyage" by H. Hancock, The greatest jazz hits of Herbie Hancock, Los Angeles, Almo Publications, 1979, 16-18. Copyright 1973 by Hancock Music Company. Reprinted by permission.

p) 1p

Cm7 onF

'L A (.Am7 onD

,- (D.S. time w )

-

_J At

:f : i

i'W ' WJ i. v~L_w (W




Cm7? F

. L_ _

(1jL r-* il - tJ

9) v _' io_. - i b i _ - == - :

)

p

jI

c

C

Am7 OnD

(' Y^. 4j. ^J^

Cm70nF

' " --r-- - - -

J , l. Ii hi.- -- + W

(t f - _Z

~':h: Mj~j j1I. lh 3P l h t. 1 I ,hD l ++~~, FJ]~,, ~ I#) b ~_~' VWP _ p4t L40 (?) ro- 4< 4* p<_^ (4)

step from their positions in the preceding section (the bass from F to Eb, the piano from Cm7 to B&m7), the melody instruments move up a fourth to a phrase with an F tonal center (see Example 3, B). Thus the three tonal centers have fifth relationships to each other (EB - B - F). All three strata- bass, piano, melody-coalesce on the same tonal center (DI) (see Example

C

C . - , i . ,l ._?: -_._^

27



28

Dr P'

TV p1

BMR Journal

d "e C ( : r -

VA m 7 ott D -Z Am70nD

( ?"i + ' "" " " -

mp

J IJ . I_ 1JI W NI Jh iJ J. jJz J.

Am7 o0D

t a ^

-C - tf-f^ ^L -J J1_

9: _JJ IK. UJ 'JLJ)JK. J..w

3, C). This marks the climax of the theme which is emphasized by (a) the

saxophone abandoning the melody and joining the isometric pattern of the rhythm section, (b) a dramatic increase of intensity on the part of the trumpet, and (c) a drum break (the only one occurring during the statement of the theme). After a sudden decrescendo, Hancock returns to his

D

[ - I',^.:\I f , (_ A k ,'

Dm- i L




opening statement, the D-A-D, vertical stack, and the soloing section begins.

The theme of "Maiden Voyage" is constructed from a minimum of

rhythmic and melodic material. The basic form consists of a repetitive isometric figure in the rhythm section, with a contrasting, extremely simple rhythmic and melodic line in the melody instruments. There are no rhythmic or melodic changes throughout the theme statement. The initial statement is retained, constantly transposed from one key to another. Han- cock created formal interest by making a series of subtle variations in the relationships of the different vertical strata to each other. First, there is a

crossing of the rhythmic and tonal strata. Second, the tonal stack, while never leaving the tonic-dominant relationship, constantly shifts the order of tonal centers among its constituent parts. Finally, there is an expansion from two to three different tonal centers by all the vertical elements. As in "Bad Girls," formal interest is created by a series of subtle variations made on a basically simple framework.

"Try Love" (Figure 3)

The last composition under consideration may not be polytonal, al-

though it is certainly polyphonic. I say "may not" because of the poor fi-

delity of the live recording and the pitch-bending of the participating singers make it difficult to clearly identify all of the pitches employed. Nevertheless, Charles May's arrangement11 of his composition "Try Love" (as recorded by Reverend James Cleveland and the Southern Cali- fornia Community Choir) demands the attention of this study, as it has such an elaborate vertical form. It should be noted here that the purpose of vertical stratification is the simultaneous separation and unification of different elements of a composition, and the creation of dynamic tension between the different vertical strata. The employment of polytonality is only a means to this end. Any clear differentiation of the whole into separate vertical sections, some being fixed and some free, serves the same

1lCharles May, Interview, Los Angeles, February 5, 1982. While being interviewed in relation to another study, Mr. May was able to examine Figures 6 and 7. He confirmed the accuracy of both the transcription (Figure 7) and of the formal schematic (Figure 6). Mr. May then showed several of his "lead-sheets" to the author, demonstrating how he was careful to write the harmonic notation "Eb/C" instead of "Cm7" when he wished the c tone to be omitted by the rhythm guitar or the keyboard's right hand. Mr. May also stated that, despite this notation, he almost always had to supervise rehearsals to make certain that the guitarist hired for the occasion did not play a "Cm7" instead of the desired polytonal formation "E/C".

29



BMR Journal

Figure 3. Structural outline of "Try Love."

t. c. = tone center ? = tone center ambiguous m = measure ms = measures

f Soprano - 'EO Pedal I I T1

Choir 3-i? - I C mI

i

hoir 1 -E' t.C. TCh

Bass- C

t Rhythm Se Im I 7

f 1 m 1 7 ms

'oir It.c. I

Alto- C' t.. . I ' f/f A 0-

I I,I 2-? ,////Iq

rction -F/C itc. C

I ms 8ms 24 1 8 ms I 8 ms , 24 ms

function and thus shows the existence of the same formal concept. In any case, there does exist a polytonal thread to tie this work into our study. In the instrumental introduction, the bass plays a descending run in

EB-major, while the guitar plays a G0 major chord against it (Ex. 4, a). "Try Love" begins with a fairly simple structure. Two strophic verses

are sung in call-and-response fashion by the soloist and choir, the verses being separated by a homophonous bridge passage. At the end of the second verse the bridge passage is repeated, but instead of returning to the verse (which is in Eb-major), it leads to a second homophonous bridge passage in the relative minor (C). A third bridge passage leads to the polyphonic conclusion.

As the rhythm section and soloists pause for one measure of silence, the first choir enters, singing a descending phrase built on the notes of an Eb-major pentatonic scale (see Figure 3). The Eb tonal center is emphasized by the use of es as the final pitch of the phrase, and by its repetition (Ex. 4, b). In the next measure, the bass and piano return, playing a sin- uous ostinato which climbs to c and appears to emphasize both F and C as tonal centers (Ex. 4, b). Immediately thereafter, the bass soloist enters,

30

I I




Example 4. Musical excerpts from "Try Love. "

Gtr , PV1r'ip I b . 1.m2

-r tro v (a)

Choir 1

Bar cIrnFLJ -ftrtJ- (b)

. Waha -i I I ( C:, k /.-- -.- ? -r ' '1 I. MM=c -

_ _ Y b- I I ' l- I

responding to the call of the first choir (see Figure 3). As the vocal call and

response pattern continues over the instrumental obbligato, a new element unobtrusively appears-the second choir, singing an ascending stepwise phrase which crosses the descending phrase of the first choir. Some measures later the third choir appears, singing isolated high notes. At this entrance the bass soloist is replaced by the alto soloist, who for

eight measures participates in a call and response pattern with the choir. Then the bass soloist returns for the polyphonic climax. The bass and alto

sing a duet and respond as well to the three choral divisions, so that a

complex of interlocking vertical relationships is created. The formal climax is marked by an isolated soprano singing one sustained note- almost a controlled scream or shout-as a high pedal.

In this most elaborate version of the form we still find the basic fixed melody/free melody division-the various choral ostinati opposed to the two soloists. However, the choir is divided into three parts (four counting the soprano pedal), while the free melody stratum features first one soloist, then a second, then both at once, responding to each other as well as to the choir. Throughout this section an instrumental ostinato, with a completely independent pulse and a unique tonal center (F), underpins the entire vocal complex, so that yet another two-part vertical form is created-instrumental ground against multi-part vocal structure.

It is interesting to observe the state of the vertical strata at the conclusion of this recording. It is composed of a rhythm section playing an ascending ostinato, one choir singing a descending major pentatonic line, a

31



second choir singing an ascending stepwise line, two soloists improvising in a minor pentatonic scale, a third choir singing short high bursts of melodic punctuation, and an obbligato of one high pedal note.

Conclusions

All four pieces examined in this paper share a common general form- ostinato (fixed melody) against improvised (free) melody. Each composition employs a different working-out of this basic framework, the most elaborate being that of James Cleveland, the most simple being that of Herbie Hancock. It is interesting to note that from a horizontal harmonic

perspective the roles of these two pieces are reversed. The portion of the Cleveland piece examined in detail here sustains a single chord (Cm7/f), while the Hancock piece modulates through four keys.

While the polytonality was nondiatonic in the African example studied, it was diatonic in all of the Afro-American pieces considered (with the

exception of the instrumental introduction to "Try Love"). However, in all four cases the differing tonal centers served a common function-the creation of what could be called vertical harmonic movement, vertical dynamism.

Finally, it should be noted that in two of the pieces, "Bad Girls" and

"Try Love," the separation of the vertical strata is emphasized by the orchestration and by contrapuntal means, each different vertical section be-

ing given its own distinctive entrance. All four pieces considered conform to the overall shape of our theoreti-

cal model-a two-part vertical division, with each main part frequently subdivided, and with deliberately intensified clarification of the stratification. This tonally derived model is identical in shape to the rhythmically derived model posited by Oily Wilson. It would appear that the results of this study validate Wilson's hypothesis.

As noted above, Wilson concluded that the results of his study, which demonstrated a strong formal similarity between a West African and an Afro-American composition, indicated that the African content of Afro- American music was not superficial but fundamental, not manneristic but

conceptual. In this study a similar likeness has been demonstrated between a Dahomean composition and three contemporary Afro-American compositions, coming from such diverse genres as disco, jazz, and gospel. Analyzed solely from the perspective of traditional European har-

mony, these compositions could all be dismissed as simple pieces with little or no harmonic movement. Seen from the perspective taken in this study, however, all of these compositions display a high degree of har-

32 BMR Journal




monic complexity which appears in vertical rather than in horizontal rela-

tionships. The conclusion offered here is that there exists an academic misunder-

standing of Afro-American music. This misunderstanding derives ulti-

mately from the academic unawareness of an African conceptual system of composition. It is hoped that as this non-awareness ebbs, as now appears to be happening, the true importance of African and Afro-American culture in the development, form, and content of twentieth century world musics will become more and more apparent.

REFERENCES

Carr, P. (Ed.) The illustrated history of country music. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1979.

Cole, W. John Coltrane. New York: Schirmer Books, 1976. Comber, C. and M. Paris. Jimmy the Kid. New York: Da Capo Press, 1977. Dalton, D. (Ed.). The Rolling Stones. New York: Quick Fox, 1979. Hancock, H. The greatest jazz hits of Herbie Hancock. Los Angeles: Almo Publica-

tions, 1979. Jones, L. (Baraka, I.) Blues people. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1963. Krader, B. Ethnomusicology. In S. Sadie (Ed.), The new Grove dictionary of music

and musicians (Vol. 6), London: Macmillan Publishers, 1980. Nketia, J. H. K. The music of Africa. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1974. Reck, D. Music of the whole earth. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons., 1977. Roberts J. S. Black music of two worlds. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1974. Roberts J. S. Salsa! New York: BMI, The Many Worlds of Music, 3, 1976. Thomas, J. C. Chasin' the Trane. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1976. Wilson, O. The significance of the relationship between Afro-American music

and West African music. The Black Perspective in Music, 1974, 2, 3-23.

DISCOGRAPHY

Cleveland, J. and the Southern California Choir. Amazing Grace. Newark: Savoy Records, 14260, N.D.

Hancock, H. Maiden voyage. New York: Blue Note Records, BLP-4195/84195, N.D. Rouget, G. (Ed.). Music of occidental Africa. New York: Esoteric/Counterpoint Rec-

ords, CPT-529, N.D. Summer, D. Bad girls. Los Angeles: Casablanca Records & Filmworks, NBLP-2-

7150, 1979.

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structural polytonality in contemporary afro-american music

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