Margie L. Stinson

STRUCTURE and FUNCTION ofCELLULAR ORGANELLES

The endomembrane system includes the: plasma membrane nuclear envelope endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus or Golgi bodies vesicles vaculoles lysosomes

The membrane of all of these is composed of two layers of phospholipidswith embedded proteins.Membrane has a consistency of a light oil allowing its membranes todiffuse throughout.

Autogenous hypothesis states that the endomembrane system evolved frominvagination of the plasma membrane.

PLASMA (CELL) MEMBRANE(Meg Eppel and Doug Coppick)

The cell membrane is possibly the most important organell in the cell. It holds the celltogether, keeping everything intact. It is mobile & moves along paths that membranesfollow. It is composed of a phosolipid bilayer.

Basic DefinitionThe cell membrane is the thin layer that forms the outer boundary of a living cell or of aninternal cell compartment

The outer boundary is the plasma membrane, and the compartments enclosed by internalmembranes are called organelles. Cell membranes have a dual function: (1) they bothseparate important but incompatible processes conducted in the organelles and keep toxicsubstances out of the cell; and (2) they allow specific nutrients, wastes, and metabolicproducts to pass between organelles and between the cell and the outside environment.

Main Functions ~ Holds cell together Controls whats goes out of cell Controls what comes into cell Manains homeostasis.

Composition ~ FunctionsCell (plasma) membranes are made of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.

Lipids – Barrier separating the interior of the cell from its environment.Also actas a barrier between the solutions inside the cell, seperating contents ofan organelle fromm the cell cytoplasm. For example, the nucleus issurrounded by two layers of membranes that are actually extensions of

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the membrane surrounding the cell. These nuclear membranes keep theDNA inside of the nucleus.Lipid molecules are called PHOSOPHOLIPIDS. ~ made of fatty acides,glycerol, phosphate and hydrophilic organic derivative.

Amphipathic – one end of molecule is hydrophobic (hates water!)and the other side is hydrophillic (loves water!)

Fluid, with the degree of unsaturation of fatty acds determining thefluidity

Barrier to polar molecules Basis for the cell signaling system

Proteins – The proteins within the plasma membrane are the functional part of

the membrane, allowing for transport of materials through themembrane AND sending and receiving signals to and from othercells.

Basically these proteins can act as, pumps, gates, receptors, engerytransducers, and enzymes OR receptors for the endocytosis ofmaterial and cell-cell signaling.

The proteins associated with the outsice surface of the lipid bylayerare called EXTRINSIC PROTEINS. These can be easily removed.

The proteins that are embedded in the membrane are calledINTRINSIC PROTEINS. They can only removed with detergents that

disrupt the cell membrane. Integral proteins also have a hydrophobic

portion (amino acids or fatty acid tail) that spans the hydrophobicinterior of the lipid bilayer. Some of these inner proteins also haveINTEGRINS ~ their job is to connect the outside proteins to thecytoskeleton inside the cell.

Carbohydrates – Modify the lipid and protein moleculesMODIFIED MOLECULES ARE CALLED GLYCOPROTEINS ANDGLYCOLIPIDS

Glycolipids are located mainly in the plasma membrane, and they arefound only in the noncytosolic half of the bilayer. Their sugar groupsthereforeare exposed on the exterior of the cell, where they formpart of the protective coat of carbohydrate that surrounds mostanimal cells. This protective coat is the glycocalyx. The glycolipidmolecules acquire their sugar groups inthe Golgi apparatus.The enzymes that add the sugar groups are confined to the insideof the Golgi apparatus so that the sugars are added to lipidmolecules in the noncytosolic half of the lipid bilayer. Once aglycolipid molecule has been created in this way, it remains trappedin this monolayer. as there are no flippases to transfer the glycolipidto the cytosolic side of the membrane.

Two broad types of glycolipids can be distinguished: Glycerol-Based:

. Fatty acid chains attached to the glycerol molecule.

. A carbohydrate group linked to the 3rd carbon of glycerol with no bridging phosphate group. Glycerol-based glycolipids are the primary form in

plants and bacteria. Sphingolipid-Based:

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. These are based on the addition of carbohydrate unitsto the sphingolipid nucleus (above). This type ofglycolipid is the main form in animal cell membranes.

Simple glycolipids formed by the addition of a single sugar unitare called cerebrosides.

The addition of straight or branched sugar chains producesgangliosides. The carbohydrates added can be have considerablevariation in structure.

Phosolipid BilayerThe Lipid Bilayer is aTwo-dimensionalFluid: The aqueousenvironment insideand outside a cellprevents membranelipids from escapingfrom the bilayer, butnothing stops thesemolecules frommoving about andchanging places withone another withinthe plane of thebilayer. Themembrane therefore

behaves as a two-dimensional fluid, which is crucial for membrane function.Membranes consist largely of a lipid bilayer, which is a double wall of phospholipid, cholesterol,and glycolipid molecules containing chains of fatty acids. Lipids give cell membranes a fluidcharacter, with a consistency approaching that of a light oil. The fatty-acid chains allow manysmall, fat-soluble molecules, such as oxygen, to permeate the membrane, but they repel large,water-soluble molecules, such as sugar, and electrically charged ions, such as calcium.Top and bottom layers of the membrane have their stems facing each other. The proteins canstretch through the top, bottom or both layers of phosolipid bilayer. Embedded in the lipid bilayerare large proteins, many of which transport ions and water-soluble molecules across themembrane. Some proteins in the plasma membrane form open pores, called membranechannels, which allow the free diffusion of ions into and out of the cell. Others bind to specificmolecules on one side of membrane and, in a process that is not clearly understood, transportthe molecules to the other side. Sometimes one protein simultaneously transports two types ofmolecules in opposite directions. Most plasma membranes are about 50 percent protein byweight, while the membranes of some metabolically active organelles are 75 percent.

The proteins in the phosolipid bilayer have 5 reasons for making it possible for the cell membraneto perform its job.

Used to join cells together in cell adhesion Attach the membrane to the cytoskeleton (keeps shape of cell and membrane in place) Proteins gather together as enzymes & carry out different steps of metabolic reactions

that take place near the cell membrane

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Act as receptors to signal the cell when to start or stop metabolic activity Proteins make the membrane semipermeable. Controlling movement of substances in

and out of the membrane.

The cell membrane will only let certain substance pass through it at certain times. 4 Mainfactors that determine a substance can pass through the cell membrane.

If they are lipid or lipid soluble molecules. Smaller molecules will pass through easier than large molecules Molecules with a neutral charge will pass through easier than ions. Cell membrane has the ability to pass different molecules at any given time.

Attached to proteins on theoutside of the plasmamembrane are long carbohydrate molecules. Although their exact functions are unknown, theyare believed to act in the recognition of substances from the extracellular environment and fromother cells.

Study Questions to think about!1. What are four functions of the cell membrane?2. What types of molecules make up the cell membrane?3. What are some of the functions of the proteins?4. What are some of the functions of the lipids?5. What different types of carbohydrates are there?6. Summarize the bilayer aspect of the cell wall.

Cell or Plasma Membrane

Structure:

The plasma membrane (also called the cell membrane) forms the outer limits of the cell.As with other membranes, the plasma membrane is made up of proteins and lipids,especially phospholipids which consist of both a hydrophilic head and 2 hydrophobic fattyacid tails (=amphipathic). See Figure 8.26 page 131. These lipids occur in two layers,often called the bi-layer. The bi-layer has globular proteins that seem to float in the lipid

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layer. This type of structure is in continual motion, giving it a fluid appearance. Thisappearance is often called the fluid mosaic structure. The plasma membrane uses thisfluid mosaic structure to control the environment of the cell.

The lipid bilayer is the main fabric of the membrane but proteins in this lipid layer arevery important because they carry out many of the activities that the plasma membraneperforms. Membrane carbohydrates on surface of the plasma membrane recognize othercells (glycoproteins)

Functions: Transport proteins: allow water-soluble substances to move through their interior, which

opens on both sides of the bi-layer. Some transport proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energysource to actively pump substances across the membrane.

Enzymatic activity: A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its activesite exposed to substances in the adjacent solution.

Signal transduction: A membrane protein may have a binding site with a specific shapethat fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as hormones & other extracellularsubstances that trigger changes in cellular activity

Intercellular joining: Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together invarious kinds of junctions.

Cell-cell recognition: Some glycoproteins serve as identification tags that are specificallyrecognized by other cells.

Adhesion proteins: Microfilaments or other elements of the cytoskeleton may be bondedto membrane proteins, a function that helps maintain cell shape and fixes the location ofcertain membrane proteins. Proteins that adhere to the extracellular matrix (ECM) cancoordinate extra cellular and intracellular changes.

Fluid Mosaic Structure Membranes are FLUID because: Membranes are not static sheets, but rather held together by hydrophobic attraction (=

weaker than covalent bonds) Lipids and some of proteins can drift about randomly, but rarely flip flop. Fluid until temperature decreases ---> solid (like bacon grease) Fluidity is affected by the type of bonds within the membrane. Membranes are MOSAIC because membrane is a collage of different proteins within the

bi-layer. Proteins determine most of the specific functions of membrane Different proteins are

found in different membranes (More than 50 kinds of proteins have been found to datein the plasma membrane of red blood cells, for example)

What other organelle(s) does it connect to structurally? Outside: Fibers of extracellular matrix Inside: Filaments of cytoskeleton

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CYTOSOL = CYTOPLASM = CYTOSKELETOB(Claudia Calderon and Laura ___)

Cytoplasm is everything inside a cell between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It is a jelly-like material that is eighty percent water and usually clear in color. Cytoplasm, which can also be referred to as cytosol, means cell substance. Many tiny

structures called organelles are located in the cytoplasm except for the nucleus itself. Among such organelles are the mitochondria, which are the sites of energy production

through ATP (adenosine triphosphate) synthesis; the endoplasmic reticulum, the site of lipidand protein synthesis; the Golgi apparatus, which packages macromolecules into vesicles fortransport; lysosomes and peroxisomes, sacs of digestive enzymes that carry out theintracellular digestion of macromolecules such as lipids and proteins; the cytoskeleton, anetwork of protein fibers that give shape and support to the cell.

The cytoskeleton is transparent in standard light and electron microscope preparations,therefore invisible. It is usually left out of drawings of the cell, but it is an important,complex, and dynamic cell component. The cytoskeleton maintains the cell's shape, anchorsorganelles in place, and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and motility. Thereare many types of proteins that make up the cytoskeleton, but two of the most studiedaspects are the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons. Microtubules are made of tubulinsubunits and are often used by cells to hold their shape. Microtubules are also the majorcomponent of cilia and flagella. Microfilaments are made of actin subunits. Thesemicrofilaments are approximately the diameter of a microtubule, and are often usedby cells to change their shapes as well as hold structures.

The cytoplasm, as seen through an electron microscope, appears as a three-dimensionallattice of thin protein-rich strands. These lattices are known as microtrabecular lattice andserves to interconnect and support the other solid structures in the cytoplasm. In otherwords, the cytoplasm is like a fence's main purpose is to hold together the organelles withinthe cytoplasm.

Study guide questions:1. Cytoplasm is located between the ________________ and the _______ within a cell.

plasma membrane nucleus2. What kind of cells live in a cytoskeleton?

eukaryotic.3. What organelles would you find in the cytoplasm?

Mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, centrioles, and Golgi bodies.4. What is the function of the cytoskeleton?

It maintains the cell's shape, keeps organelles in place.5. Which of the following organelles doesn't belong in the list?: mitochondrion,

chloroplast, ribosome, lysosome, or peroxisome.Answer: ribosome.

Literature Cited:1.Cytoplasm, by Evan and Melanie http://sm.n.edu/qa9//biology/cens/cell2. Campbell, Mitchell and Reece. Biology, Concepts & Connections Third Edition.

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ORGANELLES of SYNTHESISNucleusNucleolusRibosomesEndoplasmic Reticulum

These organelles are involved in the process of making new molecules. Growth and maintenance of organisms. Flow of genetic information from DNA in chromosomes to RNA to protein. Synthesis of proteins. Origin and distribution of membrane.

NUCLEUS It contains and protects the majority of the cell's DNA in the form of chromosomes. DNA also occurs in the mitochondria and chloroplasts. The nucleus occupies about 10% of volume of cell and typically averages 5 microns in

diameter. Surrounded by nuclear envelope with pores. Nuclear pores regulate the passage of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Double membrane has an inner and outer membrane separated by a space. Outer membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

and has ribosomes attached to its surface. Nucleoplasm (gel) contains the chromatin (chromosomes) and a nucleolus (plural nucleoli).

✎ Nucleus (shows extension to RER)

The nucleus is present only when the cell is not dividing. When the cell is not dividing, the nucleus and nucleolus are visible under the light

microscope--but the chromosomes cannot be seen.

✎ Nondividing Cell Dividing Cell

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NUCLEUS(contributions by James Ransom)

While DNA is found in the chloroplast and mitochondria of eukaryotic cells, the majority of theDNA is located and protected within the cell’s nucleus. The nucleus is the largest organelle and is mostvisible in slides. It occupies about 10% of volume of cell and typically averages 5 microns (5 ) indiameter.

During the first part of a cell’s life cycle (growth phase 1), the DNA molecules exist as longthreads surrounded by proteins. In this state the DNA lengths are called chromatin. Were you toview a slide of a cell during this stage, you would not be able to see the DNA as discrete units. Thenucleus would simply appear as a dark nut or kernel thus the organelle’s name nucleus (=kernel).During the synthesis stage (second part of the cell growth phase), the chromatin threads replicate inpreparation for mitosis or meiosis I. The original chromatin length and its copy are called chromatidsand are temporarily joined together at a point called a centromere. It is not until the first phase ofmitosis or meiosis I (prophase) that the DNA lengths condense into the shorter, thicker and finally visiblechromosomes. It is important to realize that a DNA molecule, a length of chromatin, a chromatid and a

chromosome are all the same unit.

The DNA material takes up most of the volume of the nucleus. Surrounding it and protecting it isa nucleoplasm, much like the cytosol found in the rest of the cell. The nucleoplasm is rich innucleotides to make nucleic acids and amino acids to make proteins. Two types of organelles exist insidethe nucleus: ribosomes and one or more nucleoli (singular nucleolus).

The nucleus is part of the endomembrane system. A double layer of semipermeable (porous)membranes (nuclear envelope) surrounds it. The nuclear envelope is a bilayer of lipids and proteins.The two layers are separated by a space of about 20-40 nm. The outer membrane is studded withribosomes and is continuous with the membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The spacebetween the two layers of nuclear membranes is also continuous with the space of the rough ER.This space in between the nuclear membranes and the space in the ER can fill with proteins and proteinscan pass between the two organelles. True of all the membranes of the endomembrane system, thenuclear envelope is strengthened by a mesh of protein filaments. Both the endoplasmic reticulum andnucleus membranes are connected via membranous extensions to the plasma membrane and Golgiapparatus. The nuclear pores regulate the passage of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.Lining the inside of the inner membrane is a layer of intermediate protein filaments 30-100 nm thick(nuclear lamina), which is hypothesized to add strength and shape to the nucleus, to control theassembly and disassembly of the nuclear membrane during prophase. After the proteins making upthese laminas are phosphorylated, the nuclear membrane begins breaking up into vesicles that appear todisappear during nuclear division. During telophase these proteins lose the phosphate group(dephosphorylation) and the proteins reassemble forming the nuclear membrane.It is clear that laminas control this process because when antibodies to laminas are injected into a cell,the nucleus cannot reform during telophase.

What happens inside the nucleus: Genes “turn on” (gene expression) and a complimentary strand of RNA is made of a particular

gene. It is important to realize that in gene expression, that the entire chromosome is not copiedand the copy made is not complimentary DNA but instead is RNA. Prior to exiting the nucleus RNA iscalled primary or nuclear RNA, but after it exits the nucleus it is called messenger RNA.The RNA can carry its DNA blueprint code for the synthesis of a particular protein to a ribosomewithin the nucleus, or, after further processing, can exit the nucleus through a nuclear pore and

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travel to a cluster of ribosomes (polyribosomes) floating in the cytoplasm or to one attached to therough ER

Chromosomes are replicated (DNA replication) in preparation for nuclear division (mitosis or meiosisI). I used the word chromosome even though the DNA lengths are still in their chromatin statesimply because people think, in general terms, of DNA as chromosomes

The number of chromosomes differs in various species, but all members of a particular species havethe same number. Humans (Homo sapiens) have 46 chromosomes (two sets or a pair of twenty-three different chromosomes) in autosomal or body cells, and one set or one of each of the 23 typesof chromosomes in gametes~sperm or egg cells. The number of sets of chromosomes is called the“ploid” number. Body cells are diploid they have two sets, while gametes are haploid having one set.

Nuclear Pores: pores about 100 nm in diameter perforate the nuclear envelope.Occur in areas of the nuclear envelope, where the inner and outer membranes are joined. At the lipof each pore, the inner and outer membranes are fused. An intricate structure of proteins, called a“pore complex” lines each pore and regulates the entry and exit of certain large macromolecules andparticles. The pore is formed by a ring of eight spokes that point to the center of the pore. Eachspoke is a subunit 15 – 20 nm in diameter. At the center is a diaphragm or plug. The pore itself actsas a water-filled channel 10 nm in diameter. Molecules of 5,000 MW are freely diffusable, whilethose of 60,000 MW cannot enter by diffusion. This means that mature ribosomes with both subunitsattached together are too large to reenter the nucleus. So this means that the translation of mRNAoccurs outside the nucleus. The pore can be caused to dilate open up to 26 nm when the porerecognizes certain peptide sequences rich in lysine, arginine and proline. These proteins control thedirection molecules can actively be transported (active transport requires an expenditure of ATPenergy, so it costs the cell) through the pore. In tests, gold-labeled tRNA or 5S RNA could exitthrough the pore, but not enter. Transport of RNA is inhibited by alteration of the 3' end or the 5'cap structure. The protein signal is so refined and specific, that if the sequence is altered by evenone amino acid the peptide no longer passes through the pore. While proteins can bind to thesurface of the nuclear membrane, they can only enter the pore in the presence of ATP.

The nuclear lamina, a netlike array of protein filaments gives the nucleus its shape. Thislamina lines the inner surface of the membrane.

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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

ORGANELLES INSIDE THE NUCLEUS – Note they are not part of theendomembrane system. Why not?

NucleolusRibosomesThese organelles are not part of the endomembrane system—they are not surrounded bymembranes nor are they extensions of the plasma membrane or associated membranousorganelles.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Nucleolus: makes the ribosomal subunits. Nonmembrane-bound cloudlike mass composed of rRNA and proteins that are combined to

form ribosome subunits. These subunits leave the nucleolus cloud and exit the nucleus through its pores. There is a region of the nucleolus that is called the "nucleolus organizer". Certain genes of chromosomes that are located here make many identical copies of the same

rRNA gene. Humans have five pairs of chromosomes (13, 14, 15, 21 and 22) each that havea nucleolar organizer located at a constriction near one end of the chromosome (this is asecond constriction, not the centromere). All of the copies of the rRNA are expressed withinthe same short period of time resulting in a large number of rRNA molecules, which bondwith proteins forming large and small ribosome subunits.

Nuclear Organizer of an elongated chromosome singlet and a condensed chromosomesinglet.

✎ Elongated chromosome singlet Condensed chromosome singlet

NUCLEOLUS (plural nucleoli) synthesizes ribosomal RNA assembles the ribosomal subunits into a complete, mature, functional ribosome

This is a spherical organelle within the nucleus. The nucleolus contains histones, enzymes,nucleotides, amino acids and RNA. Ribosomes are aggregates of copies of RNA (calledribosomal RNA) aggregate with certain proteins into three-dimensional bodies called “subunits”.Two subunits join together to form a mature ribosome that then becomes a site for readingmessenger RNA. There are certain blocks of genes (on chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22 inhumans) that code for the production of these particular proteins and for this type of rRNA.Those chromosomes, that contain these genes, aggregate in the area making up the nucleolus.These blocks of active genes act as “nucleolar organizers”. These genes are veritable copymachines continually “turning on” (gene expression), making sufficient copies of RNA to producethe proteins necessary for the production of ribosomes, which then become the site of furtherprotein synthesis. An average, healthy cell reportedly can produce up to 10,000 ribosomes perminute (http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/-dpower/cell/ncleolus.htm).

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The enzyme RNA polymerase I acts as a catalyst signaling genes to start transcription. Theresulting copies of rRNA join with proteins to make fibers 5-10 nm in length called the parsfibrosa (PF). Endonuclease enzymes then convert various pre-ribosomal particles into anaggregate of RNA and histone and non-histone proteins that make up a ribosomal subunit.These fibers are linked to ribonucleoproteins to form the ribosomal subunits. These maturingsubunits are called pars granulosa, due to their granular appearance under an electronmicroscope. These granules are 15-20 nm.There are two types of ribosomal units, a large and a small component; the final ribosome hasone of each. Once these subunits are complete the do not join to each other, but exit thenuclear pore separately. Once outside they are joined together by messenger RNA and becomethe site where messenger RNA is read and polypeptides synthesized. The complete ribosomesare too large to return into the nucleus. Once outside, always outside. The complete ribosomescan float within the cytosol or attach to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where they form a porethat moves newly synthesized proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum’s cisterna.

It is a puzzle why the nucleolus contains heterochromatin, which is DNA that is not actively beingtranscribed into RNA, and often involves highly repetitive sequences of satellite DNA usuallyfound in the centromere and telomere portions of a chromosome.

Any particular nucleus might have one or several nucleoli. The nucleoli are present while the cellis in its “cell growth or interphase” portion of its life cycle, but disassemble during prophase andreassemble during telophase.

There is a direct correlation between protein production and number of nucleoli contained withina nucleus. Liver and muscle cells have great need for proteins, so they have great numbers ofribosomes, consequently, the nucleus of such cells will contain a greater quantity of nucleoli. Thegreater the quantity of proteins a cell manufactures, the greater the number of nucleoli that willbe found in that cell’s nucleus.

Organelles out in Cytoplasm:

Cytosol = cytoplasm or cytoskeleton: (see information above on cytoplasm)

Ribosomes

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RIBOSOMES(contributions by Chris Coetzee and Koren Kirby)

float in the cytoplasm (of all cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic alike) attach to the rough areas of the endoplasmic reticulum attach to nuclear envelope are in the nucleoli are in mitochondria are in chloroplasts

Ribosomes are composed of strands of ribosomal RNA (transcribed off of certain genes) andcomplex proteins that bind the rRNA strands together. These ribonucleoprotein complexes formtwo different sizes of units, one larger than the other. In order to be functional, a ribosome musthave one large and one small subunit attached together. These subunits are formed in thenucleolus and exit the nucleus via pores in the nuclear envelope. Once, these subunits joinoutside the nucleus they are too large to reenter the pores. Because proteins are synthesized inthe nucleus as well as outside, we know that some ribosomes become complete and functional inthe nucleus, but they stay inside while the nuclear membrane is intact, while the majority ofribosomes are not put together until the subunits are outside the nucleus. For more informationconcerning the formation of rRNA refer to the section above concerning the nucleolus.The messenger RNA molecule holds the two subunits of the ribosome together duringprotein synthesis.

A ribosome has a mRNA binding site and three tRNA binding sites, known as the P, A and Ebinding sites. All are located on the large subunit.

Function of rRNA in the ribosome: rRNA is the catalyst for formation of the peptide bond(Science, June 5, 1992).The P site holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain. The A site holds the tRNAcarrying the next amino acid to be added to the peptide chain. Discharged tRNAs leave theribosome from the E site.Interfunction: Ribosomes are not part of the endomembrane system in that they are notmembranous, but the ones attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope(bound ribosomes) interfunction with this system. Bound ribosomes make proteins that will beincluded into membranes, packaged within certain organelles such as lysosomes or exportedfrom the cell. Free ribosomes, floating in the cytoplasm, have to do with the synthesis ofhormones.

The ribosomes bring together mRNA and tRNA.

Differences between the tRNA of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:Predictably, eukaryotic and prokaryotic rRNAs are distinctly different but the rRNA insidemitochondria and chloroplasts are more similar to that found in prokaryotic cells.The length of rRNA varies between species from 4700 bases to about 120 bases.

Eukaryotes contain 28, 18, 5.8 and 5 S rRNAs, while prokaryotes contain 23, 16 and 5 S rRNAs.The "S" symbolizes a Svenberg unit (s), which measures the rate of sedimentation of moleculesand organelles during centrifugation. It is the sedimentation coefficient, and is a measure ofrelative size.

Differences in life span of messenger, transfer and ribosomal RNA:A study using Escherichia coli found that in at least that species, most of the cell’s RNA is ribosomal RNA,only a small portion (3%) of the cell’s total RNA is made up of mRNA, but, that the cell uses almost 1/3of its capacity for RNA synthesis to the production of mRNA. In fact, this value may increase to about

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60% when the cell is growing slowly and does not need to replace ribosomes and tRNA. This probably isdue to the fact that transfer and ribosomal RNA are very stable and do not need to be rebuilt, but themessenger RNA lives no longer than three minutes and then needs to be replaced. The average half-lifeof mRNA in eukaryotic cells is about 30 minutes.

Differences between ribosomes in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:The differences in rRNA (detailed above) correlate to differences in ribosomes between bacteriaand eukaryotic cells. The ribosomes found within mitochondria and chloroplasts distinctly moresimilar to those in bacteria. Size:

Eukaryotic ribosomes are large (80S), consisting of 40S and 60S subunits, whileprokaryotic ribosomes are smaller (70S), consisting of 30S and 50S subunits.

Antibiotics:Certain antibiotics including tetracycline, streptomycin and chloramphenicol, kill bacteria bybinding to their ribosomes but do not affect the ribosomes of eukaryotes...possibly due to theirlarger size.

Number:Eukaryotic cells contain far more ribosomes than do bacterial cells. A single human cell mightcontain several million ribosomes.

Function of Ribosome:During protein synthesis, several ribosomes called polyribosomes (or polysomes) follow one anotherdown the same messenger RNA molecule making it possible for tRNAs to bring amino acids to the mRNAand for the amino acids to bond forming a peptide chain.

Each ribosome "car" "reads" the same mRNA and assembles the same amino acids that will result inmolecules of the same protein being synthesized repeatedly.Polyribosomes synthesize multiple copies of the same protein.Cells needing to make proteins most frequently, such as pancreatic, liver and muscle cells have thegreatest number of ribosomes.

Ribosome Organelle composed of two pieces (one large one small subunit). Acts as the platform upon which amino acids are assembled to form proteins. Several million ribosomes in a human cell. During protein synthesis, several ribosomes called polyribosomes (or polysomes) follow

one another down the same messenger RNA molecule. Each ribosome "car" "reads" the same mRNA and assembles the same amino acids that will

result in molecules of the same protein being synthesized repeatedly.

✎ Polyribosomes synthesize multiple copies of the same protein

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Ribosomes are located in two places within the cytoplasm:• free ribosomes are found

. Suspended in cytosol and synthesize proteins that will be used in the cell (except for membrane proteins).

• bound ribosomes are found:. Attached to the outer surface of f the membranous endoplasmic reticulum.

The areas of the ER that have attached ribosomes are called rough ER.. Nuclear envelope, which is an extension of the ER.. Iinside mitochondria and chloroplasts

Ribosome(Tracie Viles)

Ribosomes, the cellular “factory” at which proteins are made, was discovered over 45 years ago.Since then, this structure has kept its own scientific research community of some 1,000 people busyaround the world. Yet, in spite of all of the interest, no one has “seen” the ribosome with any clarity.Ribosomes are cytoplasmic organelles found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

STRUCTURE: Ribosomes are not organelles since they are non-membraneous. They are spherical bodies composed of RNA and protein enzyemes. Ribosomes are made up of two subunits or parts. There are two types of ribosomes: free

ribsomes, which are suspended in the cytosol, and bound ribosomes, which are attachedto the outside of a membranous network called the endoplasmic reticulum. In both casesthe ribosomes often occur in clusters called polysomes.

Ribosomes are found in the nucleus, cytosol, and are attached to the endoplasmicreticulum (ER) constituting rough ER.

FFFUUUNNNCCCTTTIIIOOONNNSSS:::

The function of a ribosome is to convert the genetic code into a sequence of

amino acids that form a specific protein. Ribosomes are involved in protein

synthesis. It creates protein for the cell. Ribosomes can occur freely in the

cytosol and it boundes attached to the outer membrane (endoplasmic

reticulum).

Ribosomes function with one organelle, endoplasmic reticulum.

SSSTTTUUU DDDYYY GGG UUUIIIDDDEEE QQQUUUEEE SSSTTTIIIOOONNNSSS :::

1. Which organelle does ribosomes attach themselves to?2. How many sub units are there?3. Where do ribosomes travel freely?4. Where are ribosomes found?

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Which of the following proteins listed below would be synthesized on free ribosomes and which wouldbe made on bound ribosomes?

Type of Protein Location where Protein would be synthesized: enzymes that function in the cytosol free ribosomes chromosome proteins free ribosomes plasma membrane proteins bound ribosomes hemoglobin free ribosomes insulin bound ribosomes ribosome proteins free ribosomes

Prokaryotes have smaller ribosomes (70s) than are found in eukaryotes (80s).The "s" symbolizes a Svenberg unit (s) which measures the rate of sedimentation of molecules andorganelles during centrifugation. Certain antibiotics including tetracycline, streptomycin andchloramphenicol, kill bacteria by binding to their ribosomes but do not affect the ribosomes ofeukaryotes...possibly due to their larger size.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Is an interconnected canal of membranes. Half of the membranes within a typical animal cell

are endoplasmic reticulum. It comprises the largest portion of the endomembrane system of membrane-bound

organelles that interrelate or interfunction through the production and distribution ofmembranes.

Canal system of ER is composed of two connected subdivisions:Rough ER (RER)

Consists of layers (cisternae) with attached ribosomes on outer surface.Smooth ER (SER)

Consists of a network of interconnecting tubules without ribosomes.

✎ Rough endoplasmic and smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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The Rough ER is continuous with the outer layer of the nuclear envelope. Attached ribosomes synthesize membrane and secretory proteins. Membrane proteins enter ER membrane and diffuse throughout the entire ER membrane

system. Secretory proteins pass through RER membrane and enter the RER cavity (lumen). Enzymes within ER add short chains of sugar molecules to membrane and secretory proteins

changing them into glycoproteins (protein + carbohydrate = glycoprotein). Secretory proteins are transported along the following route

RER transitional ER transport vesicle Golgi Apparatus secretoryvesicle plasma membrane.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Is continuous with RER lacks ribosomes has a tubular appearance SER contains enzymes that male lipids including membrane phospholipids, cholesterols, sex

hormones. Phospholipids and cholesterol are incorporated into SER membrane and diffuse throughout

entire ER membrane. In certain specialized cells, the SER has unique functions:

in liver, SER has enzymes that detoxify many poisons such as barbituates,amphetamines, morphine and some pesticides

The ER is the site of membrane synthesis. Both RER and SER cooperate in membrane synthesis. RER adds membrane proteins SER adds membrane lipids to the membrane of the ER. These proteins and lipids intermingle as they diffuse through and enlarge the ER

membrane. Pieces of the ER membrane bud off membrane-bound transport vesicles containing

proteins. These transport vesicles move to the Golgi apparatus and fuse with its membranes. Enzymes within the Golgi apparatus further modify these proteins that are

repackaged in vesicles budded from the Golgi apparatus. Some of these vesicles, secretory vesicles, move to the plasma membrane and fuse

with it resulting in the secretion of glycoproteins and the incorporation of secretoryvesicle membrane with the plasma membrane.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM(Travis King and Lara Grow)

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Throughout the eukaryotic cell, especially those responsible for the production of hormones andother secretory products, is a vast amount of membrane called the endoplasmic reticulum, or ERfor short.

The ER membrane is a continuation of the outer nuclear membrane and its function suggests justhow complex and organized the eukaryotic cell really is. When viewed by electron microscopy,some areas of the endoplasmic reticulum look “smooth” (smooth ER) and some appear “rough”(rough ER).The rough endoplasmic reticulum consists of a system of membranous sacs and tubules knownas cisternae. It derives its name from the fact that it is coated with numerous ribosomes, whichline the cytoplasmic surface of its membrane. This causes the surface of rough ER to appearstudded or “rough” under the electron microscope. AN electron microscope must be used toview the rough ER due to its extremely small size; 0.005 um in diameter

The rough ER has two primary functions; make more membrane and convert polypeptide chains into avariety of functional proteins. Information coded in DNA sequences in the nucleus is transcribed asmessenger RNA. Messenger RNA exits the nucleus through small pores to enter the cytoplasm. At theribosomes on the rough ER, the messenger RNA is translated into proteins. The proteins are thendelivered into the endoplasmic cisterns.

In most instances, polypeptide chains require a considerable amount of processing before theyare ready for shipment. Some are fitted with carbohydrate side-chains, that contain as many asten or more sugar molecules (glycosylation). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is an extensivemembranous network, and like the rough ER, it is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.

The smooth ER is a network of interconnected tubules that lack ribosomes. Much of its activityresults from enzymes embedded in its membrane. One of the most important functions of thesmooth ER is the synthesis of lipids, which includes fatty acids, phospholipids, and steroids. Eachof these products is made by particular kinds of cells. In mammals, for example, smooth ER incells of the ovaries and testes synthesizes the steroid sex hormones.

These proteins are then transferred to the golgi in transport vesicles where they are furtherprocessed and packaged into lysosomes, peroxisomes, or secretory vesicles.

Our liver cells also have large amounts of smooth ER, with additional kinds of functions (Bio.Concepts and Connections pg. 59). Certain enzymes in the smooth ER of liver help regulate theamount of sugar released from liver cells into the bloodstream. While other liver enzymes helpbreak down drugs and other potentially harmful substances. They also are used as a destructionof toxic substances in the liver cells. The drugs detoxified by these enzymes include sedativessuch as barbiturates, stimulants such as amphetamines, and certain antibiotics.

Another function of the smooth ER is the storage of calcium ions. In the muscle tissue, these arenecessary for contraction. When a nerve stimulates a muscle cell, calcium ions leak from thesmooth ER into cytoplasmic fluid, where they trigger contraction of a cell. These proteins arethen transferred to the golgi in transport vesicles where they are further processed and packagedinto lysosomes, peroxisomes, or secretory vesicles. Living cells manufacture all sorts of exportmaterials, which they assemble, process, package, and transport in a chain of interconnected,membrane-limited organelles. Biologists refer to this cytoplasmic network as the endomembranesystem. The endoplasmic reticulum is only one of the many organelles in the system responsiblefor the synthesis, storage, and export of important molecules.

Study Guide Questions The genetic code of all cells is in the form of:

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double stranded DNA triple stranded RNA single stranded ribosomes mitochondrion

Extensions (evaginations ) of cell membrane are called cilia if very long are called flagella if very short neither of the above statements is true

Site where amino acids are assembled to form proteins. mitochondrion golgi apparatus ribosome nucleolus microtubules

Which organelle(s) produce(s) a great amount of cellular energy. The cell “powerhouse”.• mitochondrion• golgi apparatus ribosome nucleolus microtubules

Which organelle looks like a stack of pancakes. mitochondrion golgi apparatus ribosome nucleolus microtubules

Alternate name for the cell membrane. lysosome centriole cytolemma vacuole chromatin

Contains potent destructive enzymes. lysosome centriole cytolemma vacuole chromatin

Packages materials for cell export. mitochondrion golgi apparatus ribosome nucleolus microtubules

Stores food, water, or waste products. lysosome centriole cytolemma vacuole chromatin

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SourcesCampbell, Neil, A., Mitchell, Lawrence, G., and Jane B. Reece.

Biology: Concepts and Connections. 2nd

ed. Menlo Park: Longman Inc., 1997.

De Duve, Christian. A Guided Tour of the Living Cell. Volume 1. New York: Rockefeller UP,

1984.

Gennis, Robert, B.. Biomembranes: Molecular Structure and Function. Cantor, Charles, R.

ed. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM(by Natalya Cherepakhin)Both the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, along with the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles,nuclear envelope and plasma membrane are part of the endomembrane system. All are interconnectedby membranous canals (folds or extensions) or by the transfer of membrane segments as tiny vesicles(membrane enclosed sacs).Endo=within, plasmic=cytoplasm, reticulum=network… Latin for network within the cytoplasm.

Is the most extensive cellular organelle. It accounts for more than half of the total membrane withinan eukaryotic cell.

It consists of cisternae that form a network of membranous tubules and sacs that separate theinternal compartment (cisternal space or lumen) from the cytoplasm.Areas embedded with ribosomes are called rough endoplasmic reticulum and those areas lackingribosomes are called smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Function of Rough ER:The polyribosome (subunits of rRNA + proteins) is connected or held together by a molecule ofmessenger RNA, which runs between the two subunits. As the polypeptide chain grows itprojects down from the large subunit and is inserted into the membrane of the endoplasmicreticulum and then into the internal cisterae of the RER. The membrane of the RER has areceptor site that binds the larger subunit of the polyribosome. Adjacent to this receptor site isthe pore through which the polypeptide chain will pass into the cisternae of the ER.The membranous sacs of the rough endoplasmic reticulum connect with the rest of theendomembrane system, with the nuclear envelope, plasma membrane and golgi apparatus (etc.),and the proteins synthesized by the ribosomes on the surface of the RER are passed throughmembranous canals or channels to the rest of the cell.

Function of the Smooth ER:1. Produces enzymes for synthesis of lipids.

phospholipids, steroids, hormones Metabolism of carbohydrates.

In the hydrolysis of glycogen in liver cells, glucose phosphate (the first product of thereaction) cannot leave the cell and enter the blood until an enzyme embedded in thecell’s smooth ER remove the phosphate from the glucose.

Detoxification of drugs and proteins.Smooth ER adds hydroxyl groups to drugs such as barbiturates or alcohol, makingthem more soluble and easier to flush from the body. Drugs induce a proliferation ofsmooth ER that leads to an increased tolerance of the drug that then requires higherdoes and this causes further proliferation of the smooth ER.

Contraction of muscle cells.

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ER membrane pumps calcium ions from the cytosol into the cisternal space. When anerve impulse stimulates a muscle cell, calcium rushes back across the ER andtriggers the contraction.

GOLGI APPARATUS Modifies, sorts and packages proteins into secretory vesicles and lysosomes. Is a stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs (cisternae) that look like a stack of pita bread. Some cells have one large stack, others have hundreds of small stacks. Transport vesicles carry proteins from the ER to the Golgi apparatus.

Transport vesicles: Contain proteins, made on bound ribosomes of the RER. Transport vesicles bud off from the RER and are transported to the Golgi Apparatus,

where they fuse with the face of the GA. Enzymes in the GA modify these proteins by adding short chains of sugars. Many of the polysaccharides secreted by cells are produced by the GA

(i.e. hyaluronic acid that helps glue animal cells together). The GA packages its molecules into either secretory vesicles or lysosomes that bud

from the exit face of the GA.

Structure- description

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Flattened no interconnected sacs that look like a stack of pita bread.

Number The amount of golgi bodies in a cell depends on the level activity.

The more activity the greater number of golgi bodies.

FunctionThe function of the Golgi apparatus involves interaction with other organelles, but is notconnected by membrane with the other organelles. The function is to chemically modifythe secretory proteins and lipids transported from the ER in a transport vesicle. Thetransport vesicle enters the golgi sac through the bottom, the receiving side. Each sac inthe golgi apparatus body contains a different enzyme (remember enzymes have activesites that only accept specific molecules) therefore there are many different modificationstaking place. The mature cells are then marked with a sequence of molecules and sortedinto different batches for various destinations with in the cell including the lyosomalmembrane, plasma membrane and many others. They are the excreted through theshipping side of the golgi apparatus, the top.

Study Questions 1. What are in the transport vesicles?

2. From where do the transport vesicles transport?3. What is the basic function of the Golgi apparatus?4. Just as a letter is taken to the post office to be mailed to anotherlocation by means of the address, a ______ ______ is taken to the _______________ to be _____________ and sorted for final destination by mean of a________ ___________.

Answers1. Proteins and Lipids2. ER3. Import ->Modify -> Export4. transport vesicle Golgi apparatus marked sequence molecule

Sources Campbell, Mitchell, Reece, 2000, Biology: concepts and connections 3rd edition, page 60

Natural Toxins Research Center at Texas A&M University Kingsvillehttp://ntri.tamuk.edu/cell/golgi.html

University of Tasmania Faculty of Health Science, Lee Weller, February 22, 200http://www.healthsci.utas.edu.au/weller/+doocs/cellbio2.htm

GOLGI APPARATUS(by Ryan O’Connor)

Structure:Series of cisternal membranes that overlay one another to form sacs, which are in turnlinked at their edges by tubules to form a highly ordered ribbon-like structure. Each

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saccule forms a separate compartment. The bottom saccule forms the cis, entry, orforming face. The top saccule forms the trans, exit, or maturing face.

Function:• The Golgi apparatus is responsible for modifying proteins that were produced in the

endoplasmic reticulum. It is here that export proteins and membrane proteins mature andwhere polysaccharides, to be exported, are synthesized.

• The GA receives newly synthesized proteins from the ER and then modifies them chemically.• The GA collects, prepares, packages, and releases secretory materials to the surface of the

cell in vesicles pinched off from the GA. After a secretory vesicle has ruptured and expelledits secretory materials form the cell; its membrane often becomes part of the plasmamembrane. This is the last stage in the directional flow of membrane that exists in cells.It also produces lysosomes, vesicles that contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes for digestingparticles taken into the cell during endocytosis.

Structural Connection to other Organelles: The GA is connected at points to the ER. The forming face lies near the nucleus and the maturing face and secretory vesicles lie near

the cell membrane at the surface opposite to the one where the raw materials enter.Interfunction with other Organelles:

Transfer vesicles carry secretory proteins from the ER to the GA. The rER and GA maintain cell membranes.

The Golgi Apparatus is part of the endomembrane system.

LYSOSOMES(by Kieu Nguyen)

Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs of hydrolytic enzymes, which the cell uses to digestmacromolecules.

Lysosomes come from the endomembrane system. The rough ER makes both the hydrolyticenzymes that are found in lysosomes as well as the membranes that form the lysosome tocarry the enzymes. Both products that are made in the rER are then sent to the GA forfurther processing.

The enzymes that are contained in the lysosomes have varying functions. Some hydrolyzeproteins, polysaccharides, fats, and nucleic acids.

Lysosomes provide a safe way for the cell to digest products without having to deal with thedestructive possibilities of hydrolytic enzymes. Lysosomes not only digest food products, butthey also aid in the recycling of materials from defective or dying cell parts. Lysosomes alsowork closely with food vacuoles, which basically hold food products waiting for enzymes fromlysosomes to come and continue with the cellular digestion of food.

Interestingly enough, when lysosomes have small breaks in their membrane, the neutralenvironment of the cytosol will make the enzymes that leak out less active, thus limiting theirdamage to the cell itself. Large leaks, however, do cause autodigestion of the cell.

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Can kill bacteria.

PEROXISOMES(Kieu Nguyen)

Unlike lysosomes, peroxisomes do not bud from the endomembrane system. They are semi-spherical in shape and often have a granular or crystalline core. The core is probably

made up of a collection of enzymes. The enzymes that are found in peroxisomes take hydrogen from various substrates and bind it to

oxygen, making the by-product hydrogen peroxide (H202). In other peroxisomes, oxygen is used to break fatty acids into smaller molecules. The broken acids

are then transported to the mitochondria and used as that organelle’s source of fuel for cellularrespiration.

Peroxisomes play an important role in the liver, where they detoxify alcohol by removing hydrogen toform H202. Although, hydrogen peroxide is toxic, enzymes do exist in peroxisomes that convert itinto water.

VACUOLES(by Kieu Nguyen, Sandra Robles))

Vacuoles are membranous sacs that belong to the endomembrane system. Vaculoes are found both all eukaryotic cells.

Plant cells have a large central water-filled vacuole enclosed by a membranous extension ofthe endomembrane system.

Vacuoles play many roles in the maintenance and functioning of the cell. Vacuoles areprimarily storage bins that hold a variety of substances, which in turn determine theirfunction. For example, food vacuole hold food (leucoplasts hold starch). A lysosome(s) will

fuse with the vacuole and hydrolytic enzymes will then mix with the food digesting it.

In plants, some vacuoles are mainly for storing organic compounds. Others hold and/or helpwith the disposal of metabolic by-products that could be harmful were they to be in thecytosol. The color of flowers is the result of the pigments being stored in the petals’vacuoles.

Vacuoles vary widely in size, shape, content, and function, and are considered inmost occurrences to be true organelles of the cytoplasm.

The structure of vacuoles is very simple. They consist of a single membranesurrounding the liquid or solid contents.

There are different kind of vacuole including plant cell central vacuole, food vacuole,autophagic vacuole, and contractile vacuole.

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A plant cel’s central vacuole is formed from the fusion of smaller vacuoles that occuruniversally in plants. Plant cells are characteristically large and may constitute thegreater part of the total size of the cell. The central vacuole of the plant cell mayoccupy as much as 90% of the volume of the mature cell. The large central vacuolemay contain many diverse substances including salts, sugars, organic acids, aminoacids, proteins, and pigments.

The colors of many flowers and some leaves are due to pigments contained in thecentral vacuole. Plant cells central vacuole can serve as a large lysosome. The centralvacuole may also help the plant cell grow in size by absorbing water, and it can storevital chemicals or waste products of cell metabolism.

Food vacuoles are common in most protozoan and some algae. They form where thesurface of the cell contacts a particle of food. The plasma membrane at the surfaceforms an in-pocketing to engulf the food, which is then detached from the plasmamembrane and becomes a vacuole in the cytoplasm. Lysosome fuses with the foodvacuoles, exposing the nutrients to hydrolytic enzymes that digest them.

Autophagic vacuoles in needed for cell to digest portions of itself. This often happensin response to starvation.

Contractile vacuoles are common in protozoan and are found in some algae.From experiments with fresh water algae it has been shown that the contractilevacuoles is essential only for the removal of excess water from the cytoplasm.Contractile vacuole is vital in maintaining the cells internal environment.

Study Guide QuestionsQ: What substances do large central vacuoles contain?

A: Substances large central vacuoles contain are salts, sugars, organic acids,amino acids, proteins, and pigments.

Q: Are there more than one kind of vacuole; if so what are their name?A: There are food vacuoles, plant cell central vacuoles, autophagic vacuoles, andcontractile vacuoles.

Q: What impact does the pigment substance from a central vacuole have on a plant?A: Pigments gives off different colors to flowers and some leaves.

Energy Producing Organelles:There are two energy-producing organelles.

Mitochondrion (found in all eukaryotic cells) Chloroplast (found in photosynthetic eukaryotic cells)

Both are similar because they produce energy. In plants, chloroplast uses energy fromthe sun to convert molecules of carbon dioxide and water to make sugars. This processis called photosynthesis because its byproduct is oxygen. In animal cells mitochondriaare the second largest organelles.

MMMIIITTTOOOCCC HHHOOONNNDDDRRRIII OOONNN (((MMMiiitttoooccchhhooonnndddrrriiiaaa)))Melissa Goncalves

Places where mitochondria are found:Mitochondria are found in animal tissues.

An example of this is heart and skeletal muscle, which require large amounts of energy formechanical work, in the pancreas, where there is biosynthesis, and in the kidney where theprocess of excretion occurs. They are the cells power source.

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Replication of MitochondriaMitochondria replicate similarly to bacterial cells, when they getllarge, they undergo fission. This involves furrowing of the innerand then the outer membrane as if someone was pinching themitochondrion. The two daughter cells of the mitochondria mustfirst replicate the DNA.

The origin of the MitochondriaThe mitochondria have certain similar features that resemble those ofprokaryotes, which are primitive cells that lack a nucleus. Some of thesame features that these two have are: circular DNA, and ribosomes.Also, the mitochondria divide independently of the cell through binaryfission, which is the method of cell division prokaryotes commonly use.These similarities lead scientists to support what is called theEndosymbiosis hypothesis, which states that millions of years ago,prokaryotes capable of aerobic respiration were engulfed by other, largerprokaryotes but not digested; it may be because they were able to resistdigestive enzymes. The two cells then developed a symbioticrelationship the made the host provided the nutrients to carry aerobicrespiration, which provided the host cell with ATP. The engulfed cellsevolved into mitochondria, which retain the DNA and ribosomescharacteristic of their prokaryotic ancestors.

Recent Mitochondria Research:Scientists have been using DNA in mitochondria to track geneticdiseases and trace ancestry of organisms that contain eukaryoticcells. Scientists have found that in mammals, the mitochondrialDNA (mtDNA) is 99.99% inherited from the mother. Thisresearch has also show that through mitochondrial mutations,many diseases can occur, some of these diseases are:Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and complete or partial blindness.However, newly found mitochondrial medicine, leads tounderstand the role of mitochondrial DNA mutations in these

genetic diseases. Mitochondrial research has also taken samples of different genetic samplesfrom people of different races to compare them and try to construct a family tree that showswhen each group probably began evolving away from one another. Also, scientists are usingmitochondrial DNA analysis in forensic science. Scientists can use this DNA to find a criminal bymatching the DNA at the scene of the crime with DNA from the suspect.

Study Guide Questions:1. Name one advantage of recent mitochondrial research.2. Where did mitochondria originate form?3. Where are mitochondria found?

The Mitochondria

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MMMIIITTTOOOCCC HHHOOONNNDDDRRRIII OOONNN:::(Michelle Nguyen)

STRUCTURE Structure of the mitochondrion is long and slender, or even bean-shaped, or oval through an

electron microscope. They are anywhere from 0.5 micrometer (0.000005 in) to 1 micrometer(0.0001 in) long. The mitochondria have two membranes protecting it on the outside. Theouter most layer is smooth, and also contains transport proteins that passes materials in andout of the mitochondrion. The outer compartment, the area between the two membranes, isfilled with liquid. The inner membrane is call cristae. It looks like folds and are the sites ofATP synthesis. The structure of cristae is very important. The folds allow more surfacearea for ATP synthesis to occur. Transport proteins are molecules also known as electrontransport chains. The enzymes that synthesize ATP are in the folds of the cristae. Withinthe cristae is a liquid filled area known as the inner compartment, or matrix. In the innercompartment is where the enzymes that are used in aerobic respiration.

Q) What is the importance of cristae in the mitochondria?A) It is where ATP synthesis occurs. Their folded structure increases the surface area

where ATP synthesis occurs.

FUNCTION The main function of the mitochondria is to make energy for cellular activity by the process

of aerobic respiration. During aerobic respiration glucose is broken down in the cell’scytoplasm to make pyruvic acid, which is transported into the mitochondrion. A sequence ofreactions, called Krebs cycle, the pyruvic acid reacts with water to make carbon dioxide andten hydrogens. The hydrogen atoms are then tranported by coenzymes to the cristae.There they are given to the electron transport chain (ETC). ETC separates the electron andproton of the hydrogens. The electrons and protons are sent through the ETC to combinewith oxygen to make water.

Energy is released when electrons flow from the coenzymes to the electron transport chain tothe oxygen atoms. This energy is trapped by the ETC. As the electrons travel from onecomponent to another it releases protons from the inner compartment to the outercompartment. The protons can only return by the enzyme ATP synthetase, which is onlyfound in the inner membrane. As protons go back into the inner membrane, ATP synthesisadds a phosphate group to a molecule from the inner membrane, adenosine diphosphate(ADP). Therefore, making it into ATP.

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Q) What is the main function of mitochondria?A) The main function of the mitochondria is to make energy for cellular activity by

the process of aerobic respiration.

MITOCHONDRION (plural mitochondria) (contributions by Antonio Frye)

Is not a part of the endomembrane system. Measures 1 – 10 in length. Is the site in the cell where ATP or energy is produced. It is the site of cellular respiration (Krebs

cycle and electron transport chain) in eukaryotic cells. Convert different food products into ATP.Oxidative phosphorylation: converting food into ATP and heat.Initial degradation of protein, carbohydrate and fat occurs in cytoplasm and yields acetyl-CoAAcetyl-CoA + oxaloacetate yields citric acidProgressive dehydrogenation drives electron transport chain, establishing a proton gradientProton gradient is used by APT synthetase to produce ATP, and by thermogenin to produce heat

Sometimes, a cell might only have one mitochondrion, but cells, such as muscle cells, that requirelarge amounts of energy have great numbers of mitochondria. Muscle cells might containthousands of mitochondria.

The membranes of the mitochondrion are made—not by the ribosomes on ER—but by the freeribosomes floating in the cytosol and by the ribosomes within the mitochondrion itself.

CHLOROPLAST(by Melissa Emerson)

Found in all algae cells and in photosynthetic cells of plants. Is the site of photosynthesis. Using solar energy chloroplasts form sugar from carbon dioxide and water. Is not part of the endomembrane system. Is a member of a family of organelles called “plastids”, which are storage vacuoles. Chloroplasts store chlorophyll on their thylakoid membranes. Are lens shaped organelles measuring 2 – 5 . Contents are partitioned from the cytosol by an envelope made of two membranes separated by a

narrow intermembrane space. Inside the chloroplast is another membranous system arranged intoflattened discs called thylakoids. The fluid outside the thylakoids is called the stroma. The thylaloid

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membrane divides the interior of the chloroplast into two compartments: the tylakoid space and thestroma.

Chloroplasts are mobile and move around the cell with the mitochondria and other organelles alongtracks of the cytoskeleton.

Are not part of the endomembrane system.

Structures outside the cell (plasma) membrane:

CELL WALL(by Nahid Shahjafari)

Heterotrophic protistans and animal cells lack a cell wall. Prokaryotes, algae, fungi and plant cells have cell walls. [Does this give you any clues as to the

evolution of organisms from protistan amcestry?]

Function: Protects the cell

Maintains the cell’s shape Prevents excessive uptake of water

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On the level of the whole plant, the strong walls of specialized cells hold the plant up against theforce of gravity.

Differences in the cell wall between prokaryotes and eukaryotes: The cell wall in most bacteria contain an unique material called peptidoglycan which is a

polymer of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides. The cell wall in plants is formed from cellulose, which are fibers embedded in a

polysaccharide-protein matrix. Plant cell walls are much thicker than the plasma membrane.The cell wall measures between 0.1 and several microns.

Parts to the cell wall: A young plant cell has primary cell wall, which is thin and flexible. Between primary walls of adjacent cells is the middle lamella, a thin layer of polysaccharide

(pectins). Middle lamella glues the cells together. When the cell matures and stops growingit strengthens its wall by adding hardening substances into the primary wall.

Other plant cells add a secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane and theprimary wall. The secondary wall is strong and more rigid protecting and supporting the cell.It is also the primary component of wood.

The cell wall is not part of the endomembrane system.

PILI, CILIA, FLAGELLA(by Kari Coler)

Pili(sing.-Pilus): Found on some prokaryote cells. These long string-like appendages are attached to the outer surface of the cell. They allow the cell to attach itself to other surfaces or other prokaryotic cells. Select pili are active during conjugation by keeping the cells together for DNA transfer.

Cilia(sing.-Cilium) &Flagella(sing.-Flagellum)

Similarities:

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Both of these structures are used by the cell in locomotion. Also, they may be used to circulate fluid over an area of tissue, such as the cilia

found on the lining of the human windpipe. These cilia move debris trapped inmucus from the lungs in this manner.

Cilia and flagella are both made up of a particular arrangement of microtubulesencased in an outgrowth of the plasma membrane.

The microtubules are set up in a circle of nine pairs of microtubules with two,singular microtubules in the center. This is true for most cilia and flagella foundin eukaryotic cells. Radial spokes reach out from the area near the center pair ofmicrotubules to each of the outer pairs. In addition to the radial spokes, theouter pairs of microtubules have a pair of arms in between each pairs. Thesearms enable the cilia and flagella to move in a bending motion. The movementis made possible by a large protein molecule known as dynein. ATP provides theenergy required by the dynein. The basal body, which has the same compositionand structure as the centrioles, is the anchoring structure of the flagella and cilia.

Some basal bodies turn into centrioles, such as the sperm's flagellum once it hasentered the egg in human gametes.

Differences: Cells usually contain a large amount of cilia, whereas cells usually only have one

or a small number of flagella. Cilia, in diameter, are approximately 0.25 micrometers and 2-20micrometers

long. Flagella have a similar diameter but may range from 10-200 micrometerslong.

Movement is also different in the flagella and cilia. Flagella undulate and propell the cell in the same direction of its axis. Cilia move the cell perpendicular to it's axis using a propelling stroke followed by

a recovery stroke. Movement in prokaryotic cells is usually accomplished by flagella. These flagella

are different from eukaryotic flagella in their set up and function.

They do not have a motor, filaments, or a plasma membrane covering of the anchor.They are also much thinner than the eukaryotic flagella.