status of the living marine resources in the red sea and … of considerable socio-economic...

Strategic Action Programmefor the

Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Status of the Living Marine Resourcesin the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

and Their Management

Regional Organization for theConservation of the Environment of the

Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

PERSGA

2002 The International Bankfor Reconstruction and Development/ THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

Manufactured in the United States of America

First Printing May 2002

This report has been prepared for the PERSGA Strategic Action Programme Task Force by Khadli I.Hariri, Paul Nichols, Friedhelm Krupp, Samir Mishrigi, Ahmed Barrania, Ali Farah Ali and Salah M.Kedidi. The judgements expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the cooperating governments andorganizations.

The documentation for the Strategic Action Programme includes three complementary publications:(a) Strategic Action Programme - Volume 1 - Main Report, published in 1998; and (b) Strategic ActionProgramme - Volumes 2 and 3 - Supporting Studies. Volume 2, the Country Reports for Djibouti, Egypt,Jordan, Saudi Arabia, northern coast of Somalia, Sudan and Yemen, was published in March 2001. Vol-ume 3a, the Navigation Risk Assessment and Management Plan for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, waspublished in July 2001. This is Volume 3b, the Status of the Living Marine Resources in the Red Sea andGulf of Aden and Their Management. The Strategic Action Programme has also prepared a wall map thatshows major environmental features of the PERSGA Region.

Printed on Recycled Paper

.

Contents

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................... vii

Abbreviations and Acronyms ..................................................................................................... viii

Executive Summary...................................................................................................................... xi

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

2 Resource Base .................................................................................................................... 5

3 Fisheries Activities........................................................................................................... 17

4 Post-Harvest Activities..................................................................................................... 31

5 Socio-Economic Aspects ................................................................................................. 41

6 Institutional Structure of the Fisheries Sector.................................................................. 51

7 Collecting Activities for Aquarium Trade ....................................................................... 59

8 Ongoing and Planned Mariculture Projects ..................................................................... 61

9 Fisheries Threats to Coastal/Marine Habitats and Resources .......................................... 65

10 Recent, Current and Planned Fisheries Projects .............................................................. 73

11 Discussion and Conclusions............................................................................................. 77

12 References ........................................................................................................................ 99

iii

iv Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Appendices

Appendix A. Main Target Species in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ........................................ 107

Appendix B. Artisanal Fisheries Profile, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden......................................... 109

Appendix C. Industrial Fisheries Profile, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ........................................ 110

Appendix D. FAO Landings Statistics for Main Species, 1988-1997........................................ 111

Appendix E. Landing Facilities for Fishing Vessels in the Red Sea .......................................... 115

Appendix F. Socio-economic Indicators .................................................................................... 117

Appendix G. National Institutions Involved in Fisheries and Environmental Management...... 119

Appendix H. Fisheries Overview for the PERSGA States ......................................................... 122

Appendix I. Fisheries and Environmental Legislation in Force ................................................ 132

Tables

Table 1: Fishermen Active on the Egyptian Red Sea Coast

Table 2: FAO Data on Catch (mt) of Invertebrates by Country, 1988 and 1998

Table 3: FAO Data on Catch (mt) of Finfish by Country, 1988 and 1998

Table 5: Summary of National Marine Catch Data for 1998 (mt)

Table 4: FAO Catch Data by Species (mt) in 1998

Table 6: Egyptian Red Sea Catches (mt), 1998-1995

Table 7: Saudi Arabia Red Sea Fish Production (mt) 1988-1997

Table 8: Species Composition of Saudi Arabian Red Sea Landings in 1985 and 1995

Table 9: Production of Sudanese Marine Products, 1992-1998 (mt)

Table 10: Total Fish Production (mt) in Yemen, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Coasts, 1995-1997

Table 11: Total Fish Production (mt) in Yemen, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Coasts (1998)

Table 12: Fisheries Cooperatives and Societies in the Region

Table 13: Supporting Fund for Fishermen Cooperatives: Loans Provided 1990-1995

Table 14: Loans Issued by Yemen’s CACB Branches in the Red Sea Area, 1992-1997

Table 15: Volume and Value of Fish Trade, Saudi Arabia, 1988-1995

Table 16: Ministry of Fish Wealth (Yemen) Employment Profile 1997

Table 17: Marine Aquaculture Production (mt) in Saudi Arabia, 1988-1997

Living Marine Resources v

Boxes

Box 1. Principles of Fisheries Management

Box 2. Fisheries Management Goals

Box 3. Principles of Population Dynamics and Yield

Box 4. Principles of Fisheries Assessment and Monitoring

Box 5: Fisheries Regulations

Box 6: Enforcement of Fisheries Regulations

Box 7. The HACCP Principle

Box 8. Architectural Features for Good Fisheries Management

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their gratitude to the following for providing data, information and advice forthe production of this document: Dr. Nizar I. Tawfiq, Secretary General, and Dr. Dirar Nasr, Coordinatorof PERSGA; Dr. William Gladstone, Chief Technical Advisor of the Strategic Action Programme for theRed Sea and Gulf of Aden from 1995 to 1997; Ms. Catherine Cheung, UNDP; Dr. Maroof Khalaf, MarineScience Station, Aqaba; and Mr. Ahmed Darar Djibril, Services des Pêches, Djibouti. Our sincere thanksare due to fisheries workers and fishermen in the PERSGA member countries for providing informationthat has been used in this report.

vii

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ABS Agricultural Bank of SudanACPM Association Coopérative des Pêches Maritimes (Djibouti)AFSED Arab Fund for Social and Economic DevelopmentCACB Cooperative and Agricultural Credit BankCFC Coastal Fisheries Corporation (Yemen)CIDA Canadian International Development AgencyCPUE Catch per unit effortDANIDA Danish International Development AssistanceDEP Direction de l’Elevage et des Pêches (Djibouti)EC European CommissionEEC European Economic CommunityEEZ Exclusive Economic ZoneEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentEPC Environmental Protection Council (Yemen)ESD Ecologically Sustainable Development EU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFICO Fisheries Investments Company (Yemen)FMAC Fisheries Management Advisory CommitteeFMDC Fisheries Manpower Development Center (Yemen)FTCC Fisheries Training and Commercial Center (Somalia)FTI Fisheries Training Institute (Yemen)GAFRD General Authority for Fish Resources Development (Egypt)GDP Gross Domestic ProductGEF Global Environment FacilityGNP Gross National ProductGPS Global Positioning SystemGRP Glass Reinforced Plastic

viii

Living Marine Resources ix

GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbHHACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point IDA International Development Agency (of the World Bank)IsDB Islamic Development BankIFAD International Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentIOTC Indian Ocean Tuna CommissionIQF Individually Quick FrozenIUCN World Conservation UnionJICA Japanese International Cooperation AgencyMARPOL International Convention on the Prevention of Pollution from ShipsMAW Ministry of Agriculture and Water (Saudi Arabia)MCS Monitoring, Control and SurveillanceMEMAC Marine Emergency Mutual Aid CenterMEP MacAlister Elliott and Partners Ltd.MEPA Meteorological and Environmental Protection Administration (Saudi

Arabia)MEY Maximum Economic YieldMFRC Marine Fisheries Research Center (Sudan)MFW Ministry of Fish Wealth (Yemen)MOFNE Ministry of Finance and the National Economy (Saudi Arabia)MPA Marine Protected AreaMPC Marine Pollution Center (Yemen)MRC Mariculture Research Center (Yemen)MSRRC Marine Science and Resources Research Center (Yemen)MSY Maximum Sustainable Yieldmt Metric Tonsn.a. Data not availableNCSFM National Corporation for Services and Fish Marketing (Yemen)NIOF National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (Egypt)NGO Nongovernmental OrganizationOBM Outboard MotorODA Overseas Development Administration (United Kingdom), now

DFID, Department for International DevelopmentPDRY People's Democratic Republic of YemenPERSGA Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of

the Red Sea and Gulf of AdenR/V Research vesselSAP Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of AdenSDP Sudanese Pound (1 USD = ca. SDP 1500 in Nov. 1996)SFC Saudi Fisheries CompanySMCC Sudan Marine Conservation CommitteeSAR Saudi Arabian RiyalsTAC Total Allowable Catch

x Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the SeaUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environmental ProgrammeVMS Vessel Monitoring SystemWWF World Wide Fund for NatureYAR Yemen Arab RepublicYFC Yemen Fishing CorporationYopt Optimum Sustainable Yield (or OSY)YER Yemeni Riyal (1 USD = ca YER 130 in 1999)

Executive Summary

The Red Sea has a number of unique marinehabitats, including seagrass beds, saltpans, man-groves, coral reefs and saltmarshes. The Gulf ofAden is a region of oceanic upwelling, resultingin high productivity of fish resources, particu-larly in the eastern part of the Gulf of Aden. TheSocotra Archipelago constitutes a separate eco-system; the importance of its unique environ-ment and endemic biodiversity is on a par withthe Galapagos Islands.

The fisheries of the Red Sea and Gulf of Adenare of considerable socio-economic importanceto the member states of the Regional Organiza-tion for the Conservation of the Environment ofthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA), interms of national food security and income gen-erat ion for rural communit ies . Fisheriesresources are exploited by artisanal subsistencefishermen, local commercial fisheries and for-eign industrial fisheries targeting invertebrates,demersal finfish and pelagic finfish. Many spe-cies cross national boundaries and are essentiallyshared stocks.

The Red Sea artisanal sector comprises at least29,500 fishermen and 9,000 vessels. The Gulf ofAden artisanal sector comprises at least 28,000fishermen and 6,400 vessels. Artisanal fishermenuse a range of gears, including long-lines, handlines, gill nets, trawls, trammel nets, tangle nets,set nets, traps and spears.

The Red Sea industrial sector totals at least 7,500fishermen and 1,600 industrial vessels. The Gulf

of Aden industrial sector comprises at least 450fishermen and 65 vessels. Industrial vessels uti-lize purse seine, trawl, long-line and verticaldrop-line gear.

The artisanal and industrial fisheries in the RedSea and Gulf of Aden produced around 17,096metric tons of invertebrate species and 194,844metric tons of finfishes in 1998. These figuresindicate a considerable increase in the Region’sproduction of 7,951 metric tons and 135,904,respectively, in 1988.

In 1998 Yemen accounted for 56 percent of totalproduction of invertebrates, Saudi Arabia 32 per-cent and Egypt and Somalia around 5 percenteach. Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti togetheraccounted for less than 2 percent. Importantcommercial invertebrate species include penaeidshrimps in the Red Sea and cuttlefish and rocklobsters in the Gulf of Aden.

In 1998 Yemen accounted for 52 percent of totalfinfish production, Egypt 26 percent and SaudiArabia 11 percent. Jordan, Sudan, Eritrea, Dji-bouti and Somalia together accounted for around11 percent of the Regional total. Pelagic finfishcatches are dominated by sardine, Indian mack-erel, Spanish mackerel and yellowfin tuna. Thedemersal catch is dominated by species of snap-per, jack, emperor, lizardfish, grouper, seerfish,rabbitfish and sea bream.

Artisanal fisheries are under-exploited in Dji-bouti, Sudan and Somalia. Declines in catches

xi

xii Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

are reported for several fisheries such as Indianmackerel, kingfish, shark, cuttlefish, shrimp, rock-lobster and trochus. Fish collecting for the aquar-ium trade is significant in Saudi Arabia andYemen. Saudi Arabia has at least seven aquariumfish exporters in operation. Marine aquaculture inthe Region includes shrimp farming in Egypt andSaudi Arabia and pearl oyster farming in Sudan.Turtles are caught by fishermen throughout thesouthern Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Turtle meatand eggs are eaten and oil collected along thecoasts of Sudan, Djibouti, Yemen and the SocotraArchipelago, and Somalia. Local recreational useof beaches results in nesting turtles being disturbedor killed at Dhobba, Shihr and Ras Sharma inYemen.

The shark resources of the Region are heavilyfished, especially in Sudan, Djibouti, Yemen andthe Socotra Archipelago, and Somalia, where thereis evidence of depletion. This is attributed to a lackof control over national shark fisheries and also anincrease in illegal fishing by fishermen workingoutside their normal territorial boundaries for thesoutheast Asian shark-fin market. Sharks arecaught with gill nets and long-line which alsodamage reefs. Carcasses are habitually discardedonce the fins are removed. The shark-net fisheryand shrimp trawl fisheries have very high bycatchrates of fish, turtles and dolphins, which are dis-carded.

The efficiency of fisheries data collection, analysisand dissemination systems varies throughout theRegion. Egypt, Djibouti and Saudi Arabia havesystems in place to monitor catch by species atmajor landing sites. In Sudan and Jordan data col-lection is ad hoc, and in Somalia very little reliableinformation is available. Data for the industrialfleets is generally of better quality than artisanalfleets, but the greater socio-economic importanceof artisanal fisheries underlines the fact thatimproved monitoring of artisanal activities isurgently required. Current data collection systemsare designed to record catch at landing sites for theproduction of annual catch summaries. Biologicalinformation is not generally recorded. Fish pro-cessing information is also unrecorded. Nationalauthorities do not have access to data of sufficientquality to allow stock assessment or economicevaluation of fisheries activities. The Egyptian and

Yemeni fishing fleets have modernized andexpanded in the past 10 years, but there is notenough information with which to examine sus-tainability of current effort.

Applied fisheries research and stock assessmentthroughout the Region has been neglected in thepast two decades. In most countries, no stockassessment has been undertaken since the cessa-tion of collaborative research programmes under-taken during the 1970s and 1980s by the formerSoviet Union and international organizations suchas the Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations (FAO). Only Djibouti undertooksignificant assessment of demersal and pelagicstocks in the 1990s, with German assistance. Con-sequently most national authorities do not havereliable recent resource information regardingstock status, population parameters, estimates ofpotential biological yield or comprehensive andreliable catch and effort statistics even for thecommercially important stocks. Such informationis required on which to base rational managementplans, monitor the effectiveness of managementstrategies and assess the socio-economic value ofthe fisheries.

The absence of effective control, surveillance andenforcement of regulations has resulted in wide-spread poaching and habitat destruction by foreignand national vessels, especially off the Gulf ofAden coast of Yemen and Somalia. Illegal fishingby vessels operating outside their national watersis commonplace. Lack of management hasresulted in concerns of overfishing on somestocks. The northern Red Sea coast, from al-Lith tothe Jordanian border on the Saudi Arabia side andthe areas in and around the Gulf of Suez appear tobe fully exploited. Concentration of Jordanianfishing effort within the limited national waters inthe upper Gulf of Aqaba has reportedly led to areduction in the number and diversity of fishcaught. Over-exploitation in localized areas of Dji-bouti (Doralé, Khor-Ambado, Arta Plage, theislands of Musha, Maskali, Waramous) by sportand artisanal fishing is further compounded byhabitat destruction. Catches and average size ofrock lobster and cuttlefish off Yemen’s southerncoast have declined in recent years possibly indi-cating growth overfishing and recruitment over-

Living Marine Resources xiii

fishing.1 Uncontrolled expansion of industrialtrawling has led to a decline in shrimp catches inthe Red Sea. The large number of licences issuedto foreign industrial trawlers to fish in Yemeniwaters has caused major habitat destruction,including damage to coral reefs, seagrass beds,spawning grounds for cuttlefish and depletion ofresources. These vessels compete with artisanalfishermen whose gear they regularly damage, andconflicts are common.

The legal framework providing for fisheries man-agement and development is weak in many states.Penalties for infringements are too low to act as aneffective deterrent and encourage compliance byfishermen. Enforcement is virtually non-existentin most of the Region. Internationally acceptedmodels for management have not been adopted,such as the principles laid down in the FAO Codeof Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. However,some states are acting to strengthen the nationallegal framework through higher penalties, provi-sions for habitat/biodiversity conservation andclearly defined powers for management authoritiesand enforcement officers.

National institutional structures lack the adminis-trative and technical capacity to formulate andimplement realistic and effective fisheries man-agement policies and strategies. A generic prob-lem throughout the Region is the lack of financialand material resources allocated to those authori-ties responsible for fisheries research, managementand development. Weak systems for integratedplanning and management have allowed rapidgrowth of unplanned settlements and increasedpressure on coastal resources. Integrated manage-ment and coordination between ministries does notexist in most countries because of the strong sec-toral nature of government. Institutional capacityneeds to be strengthened in the areas of regulatorypolicy, fisheries management and environmental

conservation. At the regional level greater cooper-ation between states in data sharing, research andmanagement issues lead to improved and cost-effective monitoring, control and surveillance(MCS). Indeed, research and management oftransboundary stocks requires a regional approach.Greater harmonization of national legislativeframeworks for fisheries and the environment,data collection, research and MCS operations andprocedures would provide a better basis for cost-effective management.

A lack of awareness of the need for and benefits ofeffective fisheries management by stakeholders inthe fisheries sector is a critical problem throughoutthe Region. Insufficient resources are allocated tohuman resource development in both the publicand private sectors throughout the Region. Greatertraining opportunities for fisheries managers, fish-eries scientists, MCS personnel, personnel formaintaining shore facilities, extension services,cooperative staff and fishermen are required.

Access to affordable terms of credit is a major con-straint for fishermen wishing to maintain theiroperations or equip themselves for entering new,less exploited fisheries. An exception is Yemenwhere the Cooperative Agricultural Credit Bank(CACB) operates a highly effective soft loanarrangement for fishermen. In the absence of othermore amenable forms of credit, many vessel own-ers in Egypt and Sudan depend on fish merchantsfor loans to finance operations, gear, maintenanceetc., often at high rates of interest. These loans areprovided on the basis that the fishermen then selltheir catch to the particular merchant. This ‘infor-mal credit system’ often leaves the fisherman at adisadvantage with regard to pricing structure.

Shore based facilities in the Region are relativelywell developed in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and alongYemen’s Gulf of Aden coast. Most artisanalcatches are marketed fresh, chilled on ice. How-ever a lack of ice machines, cold storage, fish pro-cessing and marketing infrastructure in many ruralareas in Sudan, Somalia and Yemen’s Red Seacoast limits the expansion of artisanal catches andoften results in poor quality and, consequently,reduced earning potential for rural fishermen.Large stretches of Sudan’s coastline are withouteven basic facilities. The lack of infrastructure,

1. Growth overfishing: a level of fishing in which young recruits entering the fishery are caught before they grow to an optimum marketable size; a level of fishing beyond that required to maximise yield (or value) per recruit. Recruitment overfishing: A level of fishing in which the adult stock is reduced to the extent that recruits produced are insufficient to maintain the population.

xiv Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

especially ice and road communications in Sudanhas led to increased pressure on resources such astrochus, pearl shell and bêche-de-mer. Most ofSomalia’s shore facilities were destroyed duringthe civil war in the 1990s. Consequently fishingpressure on sharks has increased for the productionof sun-dried meat and fins.

Exports of fish products from the Region aresmall; only Yemen is a significant exporter. SaudiArabia and Egypt are net importers of fish prod-ucts. Although investment in shore infrastructureon Yemen’s Gulf of Aden coastline has enabled awide range of fisheries products to be exported,Yemen is currently suffering from the loss of itsEuropean market as a result of failure to complywith European fish quality and hygiene standards.

Threats to the Region’s coastal and marine habitatsare posed by a number of factors. These includehabitat destruction due to coastal development,pond construction for shrimp and fish culture,mangrove destruction, damage to coral reefsthrough unsustainable fishing practices, removalof coral for the tourist trade, and physical damagecaused by tourist divers. Overfishing, illegal fish-ing and non-compliance with national fisherieslaws and regulations pose a significant threat to thelonger-term sustainability of living marineresources. The Region is a major oil producer andtransportation route for crude oil. The risk of oiltankers running aground and discharges from ves-sels, as well as continued oil exploration and oilterminal construction, pose significant threats tofisheries and coastal resources. Industrial activitiesand urban development pose threats in the form ofindustrial and urban pollution, waste disposal, sur-face and groundwater usage and saltwater intru-sion to aquifers. Agricultural threats includeincreased sedimentation and run-off of pesticideand fertilizer residues.

The Region requires assistance to address theseproblems. The emphasis for future assistanceshould be on greater management and controlrather than stimulation of fishing activities. Thiswill require training, equipment and finance forimproved fisheries and environmental MCS.Improved infrastructure, especially in the form ofcold storage and handling facilities, coupled withmore assistance in improving quality control

would result in greater utilization of fisheriesresources and increased revenues from domesticand export markets.

1

Introduction

BackgroundThe Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden region,

referred to as the ‘Region’ throughout this docu-ment, has always been a vital maritime trade-route linking the Middle East with the other con-tinents of the Old World. Over the course of thepast few decades, the oil industry and marinetransportation of oil has increased the signifi-cance of the Region. This has placed it frequentlyat the center of the geopolitical strategies of theindustrialized countries. At the same time anincreasing interest in the Region’s living marineresources and their habitats has developed bothat the local and international levels. Early studieson the Region’s living marine resources can bedated back to the collections of flora and fauna,particularly fish, made by the Swedish naturalistPeter Forsskal in 1761-1762. Most recently,projects funded by the Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF) and other donors aim to help inthe conservation and sustainable management ofthe biodiversity of the Region.

The relative socio-economic importance of thefisheries sectors in member countries of theRegional Organization for the Conservation ofthe Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden (PERSGA) varies in magnitude from onecountry to another. The contribution of the fish-eries sector in each country may be assessed byconsidering the amount of fish supplied to thepopulation, the employment generated by fishingand other related activities, and the foreign

exchange earned from exports of fisheries prod-ucts.

The importance of the living marine resources ofthe Region is reflected in several ways. TheRegion displays a high degree of genetic, speciesand ecosystem biodiversity. Many living marineresource species are endemic: of the vast numberof its fish species 17 percent are found only inthe Region.

The Region is characterised as an arid/semi-aridzone with no significant major rivers. It displaysa wide range of habitats (with the obvious excep-tion of riverine estuaries). The coral reef systemsof the Region are the world-renowned, particu-larly spectacular colorful fringing reefs of theRed Sea with their complex and diverse associ-ated fauna. Mangrove systems have developed inthe conditions prevailing in the relatively nutri-ent poor (or oligotrophic) waters of the Red Sea,characterised by high salinity, high temperaturesand low oxygen concentration, which limit fau-nal diversity. The Red Sea mangroves provide amajor ecological service through accumulationand retention of sediments and prevention ofcoastal erosion. Mangroves are well developedespecially in the southern part of the Red Sea,contributing their high primary productivity tothe ecosystems of the area and providing impor-tant nursery grounds for a wide range of marineand terrestrial fauna. Sandy beaches provideimportant nesting grounds for sea turtles. Sea-grasses constitute the only group of higher plants

1

2 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

to have adapted to a sub-aquatic habitat; theyinhabit shallow water areas with soft benthos, indepths usually between the mid-tidal level to about70 meters depth. The Region’s seagrass areas arehighly productive ecosystems where many speciesof living marine resources abound. For example, inthe Khor Umaira lagoon in the west of the Gulf ofAden, Halodule spp. provide important feedinggrounds for the green marine turtles Cheloniamydas, and many species of sea cucumbers, thatform the basis of important artisanal fisheries. Theoceanographic characteristics of the Region offerconsiderable potential for scientific research andinvestigations for example, to oceanographers, theRed Sea is a nascent ocean and essentially a prod-uct of the divergence of the African and Arabianplates. Further research is needed to fully under-stand its development. The Gulf of Aden’s abun-dance of fish species is due to upwelling in theArabian Sea, a phenomenon that has not beenstudied in any detail to date;

The socio-economic importance of artisanal andindustrial fisheries to the national economies andrural communities in the Region is significant inall the PERSGA states, with the exception of Jor-dan, which has minimal fisheries in the Red Sea.However, despite the importance of fishing as asource of income and national food supply, thedirect effects of fishing on fish stocks, especiallyvulnerable species such as shark, cuttlefish, shrimpand rock lobster, as well as indirect effects on themarine environment are largely unknown. Themain reason for this is a lack of reliable informa-tion on fisheries and environmental interactionsthroughout the Region.

The relatively small area in which fishing takesplace means that most important f isheriesresources can be considered as shared stocks.Many are truly highly migratory, for example thetuna and small shoaling pelagic species of theRegion. However, overfishing by industrial trawl-ers in the Gulf of Aden nearshore waters duringthe 1970s and 1980s has depleted some valuableresources, such as cuttlefish and deep sea lobsters.These stocks have not fully recovered, due prima-rily to a lack of effective fisheries management. Inthe Red Sea, there are signs that industrial trawlfisheries for penaeid shrimps are placing consider-able pressure on shrimp stocks. The large but unre-

corded bycatch of non-target species taken byshrimp trawlers, which is dominated by juveniles,is having an unknown impact on the recruitment ofother living marine resources. Non-fish resourcesincluding marine turtles, mammals and sea birdsare important species in the biodiversity of theRegion and also require proper management mea-sures.

Although most of the coastal areas and the watersof the Region are considered still to be in a pristinestate, this situation is changing. The acceleratedgrowth and expansion in urban coastal centers dur-ing the 1980s and 1990s, coupled with a widerange of human activities, have increased the riskof environmental degradation, depletion of fisher-ies resources and loss of the invaluable amenity ofthe Region’s precious coastal and marine habitatsand ecosystems.

In view of the importance of the Region and thethreats it faces, a Strategic Action Programme(SAP), is being executed by PERSGA. It is fundedby the GEF and other donors, such as the IslamicDevelopment Bank (IsDB). The SAP is a continu-ous, consultative and cooperative process amongthe coastal states,1 of the Region (PERSGA, 1998).The report presented here is one of a series pro-duced as part of the SAP.

It should be noted that data on fisheries in Eritreais provided by FAO in the report by Reynolds andothers in 1993. Although not a member state ofPERSGA, Eritrea accounts for approximatelytwenty per cent of the Red Sea coastline and istherefore included only to complete the regionalfisheries picture. However, the report shall by nomeans be interpreted as an official statement ofPERSGA on the status of fisheries in that country.

Objectives, Scope and Report StructureThe objective of this work is to present an

overview of the current status of fisheries in theRegion and identify particular problems in regardto the sustainability of fisheries and their effect onthe environment. The last such review of fisheriesin the Region was prepared by Food and Agricul-ture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

1. The PERSGA member states are: Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen.

Living Marine Resources 3

(Sanders and Morgan, 1989). This reviewed thestate of the living marine resources that form thebasis of fisheries in the Region up to 1987, andwas of considerable value to national authoritiesfor planning fisheries development, research andmanagement activities.2 The scope of the presentstudy focuses on the period 1987-1998 andincludes consideration of environmental healthand biodiversity conservation.

In 1998, PERSGA held a regional meeting in Jed-dah, attended by fisheries specialists from thePERSGA member countries where the structureand format of the present report was agreed. Muchof the data presented has been provided bynational authorities in their national status reportson fisheries, national fisheries statements, directcommunication with national personnel and insti-tutions, plus information available through theInternet and lending libraries.

Fishing in the Region is dominated by small-scale,artisanal activities. As is the case throughout theworld, such fisheries are by their nature notori-ously difficult to monitor, due to the large numberof small craft and fishermen, and the wide range oflanding sites used. Reliable data are thereforeoften very difficult to obtain on a national basis,and comparisons of equivalent data between coun-tries are difficult to undertake with precision.

The information available on the PERSGA mem-ber states is given in Chapters 2-10 and is orga-nized in the following manner. Chapter 2 providesan overview of available information on the mainliving marine resources in the Region, includingstock assessment studies, identification of majordemersal and pelagic finfish, and invertebrates that

support significant fisheries. Of particular notefrom an environmental perspective is the identifi-cation of spawning/nursery areas, and issuesrelated to the management of stocks that rangeacross geographical boundaries and are conse-quently targeted by more than one members state.Chapter 3 provides an overview of fishing activi-ties in the Region, including the structure and sizeof artisanal and industrial fishing fleets. It summa-rizes available information on catches, landingsites and shore infrastructure available to fisher-men, post-harvest processing of catches and mar-keting. Chapter 4 focuses on post-harvest matters,including availability of landing sites, onshorefacilities and processing activities in the Region.

Chapter 5 provides a brief overview of the domi-nant socio-economic and cultural conditions fac-ing the fisheries communities. The role of fisheriescooperatives and societies, and the economic con-tribution of the fisheries sector in member states isbriefly reviewed. Chapter 6 presents the institu-tional structure in the member states, the currentlegal framework and national capacity for under-taking fisheries and environmental managementresearch. Chapter 7 presents specific informationon fishing for the aquarium trade. Chapter 8 out-lines ongoing and planned mariculture projects,mariculture production figures and focuses on thepotential threats to the environment posed by mar-iculture. Chapter 9 indicates the threats posed tocoastal and marine habitats and resources arisingfrom fishing, including over-exploitation/non-sus-tainable practices, environmentally harmful fish-ing practices and illegal fishing activities. Finally,Chapter 10 reviews ongoing and planned fisheriesprojects aimed at improving management anddevelopment of the sector at national level.

The foregoing chapters are discussed in Chapter11. Conclusions are made regarding appropriatefuture action that might usefully be taken toimprove fisheries and environmental managementin the Region. Relevant reference material is citedin Chapter 12. Information and data are providedas tables throughout the text and also in theAppendices.

Throughout the document, financial information isexpressed in terms of the relevant national cur-rency. It is not possible for US Dollar equivalents

2. Throughout this document, any reference to ‘fish-eries management’ is meant to encompass: monitoring (the continuous measurement of fishing effort, catches, operational data etc.), control (the regulatory condi-tions, that is, laws, regulations, licence conditions under which fishing may be conducted legally), and surveil-lance (the degree and types of observations required to maintain compliance with the controls imposed on fish-ing activities), known collectively as MCS. Enforce-ment of regulatory conditions, prosecution of those who disregard them, and stock assessment research (essen-tially stock status, population dynamics, yield, and the effect of management regimes applied to the fisheries) completes the fisheries management function.


to be given in each case, however, because someof the countries in the Region face very high infla-tion rates.

2

Resource Base

Physical Features of the Red Sea

The Red Sea is a long narrow basin approxi-mately 2,000 kilometers long, with an averagebreadth of 280 kilometers. Its maximum breadthis 306 kilometers in the south, narrowing to 26kilometers near its entrance to the Gulf of Adenat Bab-al-Mandab. Its continental shelf area to200 meters depth is around 180,000 square kilo-meters, or 41 percent of the total area of about440,000 square kilometers. A semi-enclosedbody of water, it is characterised by high watertemperatures and high salinity. There are nomajor river inflows and water lost through evap-oration far exceeds precipitation. The loss ofwater through evaporation is replenished throughthe inflow from the Gulf of Aden through theStrait of Bab-al-Mandab. Primary productivity isrelatively low due to poor surface circulation inthe absence of strong wind systems. Productivityis greatest in the south where it is stimulated bythe inflow of nutrient-rich Indian Ocean water.The north of the Red Sea is divided into the Gulfof Suez, a shallow sea less than 100 metersdepth, and the Gulf of Aqaba, a deep rift basinreaching 1800 meters in depth. The two gulfs aresimilar in size and shape. The geographical sepa-ration of the Red Sea from the Gulf of Aden isvia a 100 meters deep sill about 125 kilometersnorth of Bab-al-Mandab.

Much information on the coastal resources of theRed Sea has been produced in by the World Con-servation Union (IUCN) in collaboration with

national environmental authorities (see for exam-ple MEPA 1987, 1989, 1989a, 1989b, 1994,1995).

In general, four physiographic zones are recog-nized based upon species distribution (Sheppardand others, 1992):

• The Gulf of Aqaba is characterised by itsgeographical isolation and the relatively highnumber of species that are either restricted toor restricted from the area. The extremenorth of the Gulf contains species foundnowhere else in the Red Sea.

• The Northern Red Sea is characterised by theseagrass Thalassodendron ciliatum which isfound in this zone and the Gulf of Aqaba butrarely elsewhere in the Red Sea. Tempera-ture may be a determinant factor for manyspecies distributions.

• The Central Red Sea, including the outerFarasan Bank, contains many species absentfrom the north and south. There is some evi-dence that coral abundance is important inexplaining species distribution as well astemperature in this zone.

• The Southern Red Sea has many speciessuited to its waters which are laden with sed-iment from land based sources and undergowater mixing across the wide shallow coastalshelf. The highest sea temperatures are foundin this zone and coral development isrestricted. There is a lack of deep water habi-

5


tat. The types of fisheries habitats in the RedSea are determined mainly by the interactionbetween seawater intrusion, terrestrial fresh-water aquifers and tidal activities.

The coral reefs of the Red Sea are among the mostspectacular in the world. Most are situated alongthe coast and surrounding offshore islands and arein relatively good condition. However, reefs alongsome stretches, such as the eastern coast aroundJeddah and the industrial city of Yanbu, arebecoming increasingly affected by development.

Five areas along the Saudi coast are noted for theirextensive coral reefs: the Tiran Island area, WajhBank, the area north of Yanbu, the coastlinebetween Obhur and Tuwwal north of Jeddah; andthe outer Farasan Bank. Coral reefs play an impor-tant role in the coastal ecosystem. They providehabitats for a wide variety of marine species andprotect coastal lands from erosion and storm dam-age. In the Red Sea, coral reef communities gener-ally form extensive and productive reef flats whichcreate protected habitat for many juvenile speciesas well as lagoons which also serve this purpose.Corals also create a protected environment for thedevelopment of coastal vegetation such as sea-grasses and saltmarshes.

Typical features of the western coast of the RedSea are coastal lagoons and sheltered bays (or mar-sas), which form natural harbours and fish landingplaces. Several of these lagoons are fringed bymangrove (Khalil 1994, Khalil and Krupp 1994,Wilkie 1995). The black mangrove, Avicenniamarina, is the only species occurring in the areaand forms extensive cover in some areas. Seagrassbeds are frequently found in the shallow waters ofmarsas and in lagoons between the coast and thefringing reef.

The Egyptian and Sudanese coasts are character-ised by the most diverse reefs of the Red Sea. Mostof the coast is bordered by fringing reefs 1 to 3kilometers wide, separated by deep channels froma barrier reef of 1 to 14 kilometers width. Theouter barrier drops steeply to several hundredmeters depth. One of the most unique reef struc-tures of the Red Sea is Sanganeb Atoll (Krupp1990). Its steep slopes rise from a sea floor ofmore than 800 meters depth. Coral reefs of the RedSea are described in more detail by Betz and Otte

(1980), Schröder and others (1980), Vine and Vine(1980), Schröder (1981, 1983), Schröder and Nasr(1983), Mergner and Schuhmacher (1985), Shep-pard and Wells (1988), Musa (1991), Abdellatif(1993), El Hag (1994), and Krupp and others(1994, 1995).

Mangroves generally grow in the waterlogged andsaline soil of the intertidal zone and are often asso-ciated with areas of runoff. Only two species havebeen recorded along the Saudi Arabian Red Seacoast, Avicennia marina, which is widespread, andRhizophora mucronata, found at only six sites.They are found in such areas as broad coastalplains, protected shores, over shoals and spits, andin lagoons. While mangroves are found scatteredalong much of the Red Sea coast, the major con-centration is in the southern Red Sea where factorssuch as increased sediment create an environmentmore conducive to their development. Thisincreased development in the south also coincideswith areas of greatest agricultural potential.

Agricultural development, properly planned andmanaged, could be beneficial to certain coastalhabitats such as mangroves. Mangroves have avariety of values: they provide food in the form ofdetritus, shelter for numerous organisms (such asmolluscs, crabs, shrimp, and fish), fodder for cam-els and goats, and fuel for human use. Mangrovesare also important nesting sites for several speciesof birds. Development of coastal recreation facili-ties and ‘Coastal Villages’ in the Ras Hatiba areanorth of Jeddah and shrimp aquaculture along thesouthern Red Sea coast have contributed to thedecline of coastal mangroves.

Seagrasses are fairly widespread along the RedSea coast although they are more common in thesouthern Red Sea. They tend to be concentrated inshallow water areas such as lagoons, sharms(drowned wadi mouths), and marsas (shallowembayments) because of the soft bottom sedimentsfound in these areas. Of the eleven seagrass spe-cies in the entire Red Sea, ten have been recordedalong the Saudi Arabian coast. As seagrasses areone of the most productive habitats in coastal envi-ronments, their abundance along the coast of theRed Sea is indicative of a highly productive eco-system.


Sabkhas or saltpans are broad expanses of season-ally inundated mud flats, often encrusted with salt.These areas support significant microalgal growthwhen flooded, which may contribute to the overallproductivity of the Red Sea. However, relative toother forms of coastal vegetation, these areas areless important ecologically.

Saltmarsh halophytes and freshwater-dependentvegetation such as date palms are also found alongthe Red Sea coast. In the far north, saltmarsh halo-phytes usually occur in a band 1-3 meters abovethe high water mark and are sparse and stunted dueto the arid climate. The best developed and great-est variety of halophyte communities grows in thecentral region of the Red Sea. Some of the off-shore islands also support dense stands of halo-phyte vegetation. In areas of plentiful freshwatersupply, date palms develop.

Much of the Red Sea coastal area is dominated bya flat, low lying desert or semi-desert plain. This isknown as the Tihama and separates the mountainsfrom the sea. On a typical shoreline, this plain endsabruptly and becomes a narrow, gently slopingbeach, often backed by halophyte vegetation.

The bays, sharms, and marsas of the Red Sea pro-vide an important environment for mangroves,seagrasses, and saltmarshes. These ecosystemssupport a large variety of marine life includingfish, shrimp, turtles, dugong, and birds (Gasperettiand others, 1993). Maintenance of the complexrelationships among species found in these envi-ronments is dependent on the conservation of vari-ous habitats. Although bays, sharms, and marsasare scattered all along the coast, they are morecommon in the central region.

Islands of the Red Sea are important sanctuariesfor a variety of marine life, seabirds and turtlesthat feed or nest on and around islands. Many fishand invertebrates are supported by the reefs aroundthese islands. Some of the Farasan Islands areinhabited and support fishing communities.

Physical Features of the Gulf of Aden The Gulf of Aden extends geographically east-

ward from the Red Sea, to Ras Fartak on Yemen’ssouth coast and Ras Asir on Somalia’s northeast-ern coast, including the Socotra Archipelago. Its

continental shelf area to 200 meters depth isaround 50,000 square kilometers. The area isheavily influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoonsystem. The winds blow from east to northeastduring the northeast monsoon, October to April,and from the southwest during the southwest mon-soon, May to September. The strongest winds, andassociated water currents, occur in July andAugust.

The water column in the Gulf of Aden is character-ised by a well mixed surface layer, separated fromthe sub-surface waters by a highly stable ther-mocline at about 100 meters depth. The surfacelayers have high temperature and salinity and oxy-gen contents above saturation levels. The sub-sur-face waters are much cooler, low in salinity andhave extremely low oxygen levels. During thesouthwest monsoon, the thermocline becomesmore marked and rises to less than 25 meters fromthe surface. This upwelling stimulates primaryproduction of phytoplankton and ultimately cre-ates an increase in the abundance of pelagic fish.The northeastern part of the Gulf of Aden and thearea south of Socotra are among the most produc-tive marine areas in the world, with productivitylevels comparable to those off the coasts of Peruand West Africa.

The surface water temperature in the Gulf of Adenvaries considerably. Maximum temperatures occurin May-June and September-October. The mini-mum temperatures in July and August, during thepeak of the upwelling, are 7-10 ºC lower than thehighest in May.

The coastline consists of a series of sandy beaches,broken at intervals by rock outcrops that oftenextend into the shallow waters. There are no fring-ing coral reefs because of the seasonal occurrenceof cold and turbid water from areas of upwelling.The seabed slopes steeply from the coast and thecontinental shelf is relatively narrow. The onlyshallow water banks are adjacent to, and east of,Aden and extend to about 30 kilometers offshore.Offshore islands are limited to Perim Island andthe Socotra Archipelago.

Gulf of Aden waters are characterised by a largevariety of species, but with relatively few commer-cially important ones. The abundance of pelagicspecies is strongly influenced by seasonal varia-


tions due to the monsoon seasons. Demersal fin-fish and crustacea are more stable and relativelyunaffected by the monsoon seasons in terms ofabundance.

The Socotra Archipelago, located in the ArabianSea at the entrance to the Gulf of Aden, constitutesa separate marine ecosystem. The islands’ inacces-sible location has spared them from modern intru-sions and today the archipelago represents anundisturbed, pristine environment with a uniquebiodiversity. It has been described by the World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as an ‘Indian Oceanversion of the Galapagos’ (UNDP/GEF, 1997).

Status of Fish and Shellfish Stocks Fish and shellfish stocks in the Red Sea and

Gulf of Aden support artisanal, semi-industrial andindustrial fisheries fleets of Djibouti, Egypt, SaudiArabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen. Jordan hasonly a very small presence in Red Sea fisheries.Eritrea, although not a PERSGA member, isincluded here since it has sizeable fishing fleetsand is an important country in the Region in regardto exploitation of living marine resources. How-ever, as noted above, this information shall by nomeans be interpreted as an official statement ofPERSGA on the status of fisheries in that country.

A large number of fish stocks are exploited. Themost important commercial species/groupings interms of both monetary value and national foodsecurity are detailed in Appendix A. Of the vastnumber of fish species in the Region, only aroundsixty-five are currently considered to be of eco-nomic importance, in addition to sharks, rays,shrimps, lobsters, crabs, molluscs and sea cucum-ber (Sanders and Kedidi 1984a-f; Mishrigi 1993).In the artisanal fisheries, eight taxa account for themajority of catches: tunas and mackerel (familyScombridae), coral trout (Epinephelus spp., Plec-tropomus spp.), snappers (Lutjanus spp, Aprionsp.), emperors (Lethrinus spp.), jacks/trevallies(family Carangidae), leatherjackets (such as Nasounicornis), mullets (Valamugil seheli) and sharks(mainly species of Carcharhinus spp. and Sphyrnaspp.).

Very few large-scale resource surveys and stockassessments have been conducted on major specieson a regional basis since the late 1980s, when a

UNDP/FAO project on development of fisheries inareas of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden was con-cluded in 1988. In 1989 FAO produced a summaryreport on published and unpublished materialrelating to stock status and assessment coveringthe preceding two decades (Sanders and Morgan,1989). These authors note that the total potentialyield of fisheries resources for the Red Sea hasbeen calculated at 360,000 metric tons (Gulland,1971) and 267-414,000 metric tons for the Gulf ofAden, but excluding meso-pelagic resources(Kesteven, and others, 1981).

Badawi (1996) provides a summary of stockassessment research in Red Sea fisheries. There isonly scattered, unreliable information regardingspecies composition and no scientific attemptshave been made to estimate the maximum sustain-able yield (MSY) or maximum economic yield(MEY) of any of the individual species.

Despite the importance of shark and miscellaneouslarge pelagic species such as kingfish (Spanishmackerel), cobia and barracuda, no research hasbeen undertaken on these stocks in the Region. Inthe Gulf of Aden, it is only cuttlefish, exploited byindustrial trawlers, and rock lobster, exploited byartisanal fisheries, that have received continuous,though sometimes limited attention. The industrialtrawler fleets of Yemen, Somalia and Egypt haveexploited large quantities of demersal fish in theGulf of Aden over the years but surprisingly therehas been little applied research carried out.

The lack of fish stock assessment research in mostcountries of the Region can be attributed to the fol-lowing reasons:

• Lack of funds and equipment.

• Insufficient skilled technical staff.

• Limited commitment to regional cooperationon fisheries research due to the costs involvedin relation to perceived benefits.

• Civil unrest in some countries in the Regionsince the late eighties has hindered scientificresearch and fisheries management in general.

• For some countries in the Region marine fish-eries are of minor importance, for example,Jordan has very limited jurisdiction over fish-


eries in the Red Sea; Egypt and Sudan dependmore on inland freshwater fisheries.

• Political influence of fishermen in each coun-try in the Region is negligible due to the verylow percentage they represent in the wholepopulation.

• The absence of a regional fisheries organiza-tion that could act as a vehicle for facilitatingdata collection, analysis, sharing and harmoni-zation of national management and develop-ment plans.

Despite these constraints, some national efforts onfish stock assessment in the Region have contin-ued since 1988 with support from bilateral donors.

Between 1989 and 1995 FAO undertook a generalsurvey of fisheries in Egypt’s Gulf of Suez,Ghardaqah to Ras Banas and Foul Bay (Project:RAB/83/023/02). In 1996 the Institute of Fisheriesin Egypt undertook a fisheries survey in the Gulfof Suez. This concluded that all Gulf of Suez fish-eries were overfished. Recommendations includedeffort reductions.

The only country in the Region where significantstock assessment research has been conducted inrecent years is Djibouti. In 1996, assessments ofpelagic and demersal resources were conducted infour areas: (a) Loyada in the south to Ghoubbet;(b) Ghoubbet to Obock; (c) Obock to Godoriya;and (d) Godoriya to Bab-al-Mandab on the Dji-bouti-Eritrean border (Künzel and others, 1996).Using a swept-area methodology, abundance, dis-tribution and potential yields were calculated byspecies. One hundred and ninety two species offish were sampled. Total biomass of demersal spe-cies in all four areas sampled was calculated as26,260 metric tons, with an optimum sustainableyield (Yopt) of 15,214 metric tons. Total biomassof pelagic species was estimated to be 74,500 met-ric tons, with a Yopt of 32,625 metric tons. Thecombined pelagic and demersal resources wereestimated to be 100,760 metric tons and Yopt of47,839 metric tons. A number of surveys have alsobeen undertaken by French research vessels, butdetails are not available.

In Yemen each year since 1990 the nationalMarine Science and Resources Research Center(MSRRC) undertakes pre-fishing season surveysof cuttlefish resources in Gulf of Aden ExclusiveEconomic Zone (EEZ), using its fisheries researchvessel, R/V Ibn Majid, or by hiring a commercialstern trawler. The results of these surveys are usedto set the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for thecuttlefish fishery.

INVERTEBRATES

Shrimp In the case of Yemen’s Red Sea waters, only

the shrimp resources have been studied to someextent (Esseen, 1996b). The potential sustainableyield of shrimp in the Red Sea has been estimatedat 1,000 metric tons, based on an analysis of avail-able stock assessment results (Sanders and Mor-gan, 1989). The catch was assumed by researchersto have been taken with a shrimp trawler effort of400 boat-months. The predicted yield compareswell with a scientific estimate of 800 metric tonsmade a decade earlier and with the commercialproduction, 900 metric tons, of a private companyin the early 1970s. The most common species isPenaeus semisulcatus but there are also smallerquantities of P. monodon, P. indicus and P. japoni-cus. The resources are concentrated in the areas ofRas Xatib, Taij, Harounia, Salif and al-Luhayyah.There have been no surveys, research or stockassessment work conducted for this resource sincethe termination of the FAO regional project forDevelopment of Fisheries in Areas of the Red Seaand the Gulf of Aden in the early 1980s.

Rock Lobster Commercial exploitation of rock lobster (prin-

cipally Panulirus homarus) occurs off the easterncoast of Somalia and the south coast of Yemen(MEP 1992; 1994b).

In Yemen, commercial exploitation began around1975. Because of the high export value of the lob-ster, the resource is relatively well researched.This work has been facilitated by the availabilityof reasonably accurate catch and effort data due tothe buying and marketing monopoly of a state-runcompany, the Coastal Fisheries Corporation(CFC). Rock lobsters are abundant in shallow


waters along the coast between Mukalla, Hadhra-maut Governorate in the west, and the Oman bor-der, al-Mahara Governorate, in the east. Theheaviest concentrations are found off al-MaharaGovernorate (Esseen 1997a). Potential yields havebeen estimated by several scientists at differenttimes. They vary between 300 and 1,000 metrictons. The most recent study covering the entirefishery resulted in an estimate of 700 metric tons(Valle and others, 1993).

A recent MSRRC study (Subeir and others, 1997)reveals that the catch in the western area droppedfrom 340 metric tons in 1992-1993 to 120 metrictons in 1994-1995 without any increase in the fish-ing effort. The catch per unit effort (CPUE) there-fore dropped by two thirds during this period.According to the same study, the fishing effortincreased dramatically during the 1995-1996 sea-son (by 80 percent) resulting in slightly higher pro-duction (160 metric tons) but, of course, in afurther reduction of the CPUE.

Cuttlefish Commercial exploitation of cuttlefish (Sepia

pharaonis) in the Gulf of Aden is centerd off thesouth coast of Yemen. The fishery commenced in1966. The virgin stock was large and because of itshigh export value, assessment of the cuttlefishstock and estimation of potential yields have beenattempted more or less continuously since the startof exploitation. Resource assessments have beenbased on catch and effort data, population dynam-ics modelling, trawl mesh selectivity trials andresource surveys conducted by fisheries researchvessels and commercial trawlers.

The first estimates of MSY were on the order of10,000 metric tons and a standing stock of around100,000 metric tons. In the late 1970s, the MSYwas revised to 5,000-20,000 metric tons. It wasalso believed at that time that the yield in any par-ticular year was largely dependent upon environ-mental factors believed to influence spawning andrecruitment and that significant fluctuations couldbe expected. The most recent estimate, in an inter-nal MSRRC report (Valle and Ahmed, 1993), sug-gests that a catch of about 3,000 metric tons issustainable.

The cuttlefish resources off Yemen’s southerncoast are located east of Ras Qusayir in Hadhra-maut Governorate, with highest densities foundbetween Ras Sharwain and Ras Fartak. Cuttlefishare found to a depth of 120 meters, although mostof the fishing is carried out in waters of less than50 meters.

Deep Sea Lobster and Deep Sea ShrimpDeep Sea lobster (Puerulus sewelli) and deep

sea shrimp (Parapenaeopsis sp.) resources inhabitthe slope of the continental shelf at 200-600 metersdepth in the Gulf of Aden. In Yemen, the industrialtrawl fishery for these species is seasonal, fromNovember to April, mainly because of a prefer-ence to deploy vessels during other months tocatch cuttlefish. As in the case of cuttlefish, verylittle research has been done on these resourcesand the estimates of potential yield that have beenmade have a weak scientific foundation. In ananalysis made by Soviet scientists, it was esti-mated that these resources could each yield about1,000 metric tons per year.

Judging by actual catches, it appears that theSoviet estimates were optimistic. Deep Sea lobstercatches reached a peak of 1,500 metric tons in1976-1977 off Yemen’s Gulf of Aden coast andthose of deep sea shrimp peaked at 500 metric tonsin 1983. The landings have since been very small,on the order of 100 metric tons of lobster and asimilar volume for shrimp. The recorded landingsin 1995 were just a couple of metric tons for eachspecies and about 65 metric tons in 1996. The lowcatches must be a result of reduced effort but this,in turn, could also be a result of lower resourceabundance. It is suggested that the total potentialsustainable yield for both species together wouldbe much lower yields than the above estimates,perhaps around 500 metric tons.

Sea CucumberIt was reported in the mid-1980s that sea

cucumber (or bêche-de-mer) was exploited by arti-sanal fisheries in two areas west of Aden, Yemen.Main species include Holothuria scabra and Acti-nopyga sp. A survey indicated that the potentialyield of valuable species was in the order of 55metric tons of dried product that would be equiva-lent to about 550 metric tons wet weight. It was


therefore concluded that there was little commer-cial potential for this fishery in Yemen. Export fig-ures for 1996 indicate that 10 metric tons of bêche-de-mer were exported from Yemen, reportedlycollected from Ras al-Ara, Bir Ali, Burum and al-Hami. Traditional fisheries for bêche-de-mer existin Somalia and Sudan, but have declined duringthe 1990s, primarily because of marketing prob-lems in Somalia and over-exploitation in Sudan.

Trochus and Pearl-ShellArtisanal fisheries targeting trochus (Tectus

dentatus) and pearl shell (Pinctada margeritifera)are particularly important in Sudan, where theyoffer income generating potential for coastal fish-ermen who are unable to exploit and market freshfish due to a lack of ice and other infrastructure.No stock assessment studies have been conductedon these resources. Data are only available fromexport records. The average size of shells hasreportedly decreased. Total production hasdeclined from 1,078 metric tons in 1966 to around554 metric tons in 1998. There is management inplace for the fishery.

PELAGIC FINFISHES

Very little quantitative and scientific informa-tion is available on the pelagic fisheries resourcesof the Gulf of Aden. As noted above, most of thepast research work was undertaken 15-25 yearsago through externally supported developmentprojects, in many of which FAO played a promi-nent role.

In the period 1975-1984, the small pelagic speciesin the Gulf of Aden were surveyed by acousticmethods during seven cruises undertaken with R/VDr. Fridtjof Nansen under the auspices of FAO(Sanders and Morgan, 1989; Aglen and others,1981). The estimates of potential yield were on theorder of 130,000-150,000 metric tons. Besidesthis, very little scientific work in terms ofresources assessment has been undertaken on theabundant small pelagic fish resources off the southcoasts of Yemen and Somalia. The sardineresource has received some attention because of itspotential value as raw material for a fishmealindustry. Large pelagics, including yellowfin tuna,shark, kingfish, etc. have not been studied at all.

Yellowfin Tuna The most important large pelagic species

caught in the Gulf of Aden is yellowfin tuna(Thunnus albacares). It is available all year round,but with a peak season between March and Aprilwhen the fish appear in large quantities in the Gulfof Aden where it is exploited by artisanal boatsusing hook and line, trolling or by baited drop-line,primarily off the Hadhramaut Governorate inYemen, and Spanish and French flag industriallong-liners and purse seiners operating off thecoast of Somalia. Since yellowfin is a highlymigratory species, the fish present in the waters ofthe Gulf of Aden are almost certainly part of thelarger Indian Ocean stock rather than a separate,resident stock. The potential yield is thereforeinfluenced by the catch taken in other IndianOcean countries that share the stock. The Yemenicatch currently appears to be limited only by thenumber of vessels operating and the types of gearemployed, not resource abundance. Little informa-tion is available on tuna fisheries from Somalia,although shark fisheries are better documented.

Annual yellowfin production in the western IndianOcean currently amounts to around 300,000 metrictons (figures from the Indian Ocean Tuna Com-mission-IOTC). The regular appearance in watersoff Yemen and Somalia, the ease with which it canbe caught close to the shore and the sharp increasein landings in recent years indicates that the fish-ery may have considerable further potential, espe-cially if post-harvest processing can be improvedand more lucrative markets offering better finan-cial returns can be tapped. This assumes that theyellowfin resource does not become collectivelyover-exploited by other countries in the Regionwhere higher effort and more efficient methods areemployed.

Shark In the Gulf of Aden sharks (mainly Carcharhi-

nus spp.) are caught all along the coasts of Yemenand north Somalia using similar methods as in theRed Sea. Again, many of the species are migra-tory, over long distances, while others may wellform resident stocks. No data or research has beenundertaken on which estimates of potential yieldcan be made. The potential of the oceanic sharkcould be quite high but, as in the case of yellowfin,


it depends on the catches by other countries withinthe Region.

It should be stressed that a more cautious approachto managing shark fisheries is required due to theirrelatively low reproductive rate and slow growth.Reports from fishermen on Socotra Island offYemen’s south coast indicate that catches arenoticeably declining, indeed an ongoing GEF/UNDP project focuses on shark fishery manage-ment for this reason. Collapse of the Socotra sharkfishery would have catastrophic consequences forlocal communities there, as they rely very heavilyon sharks for food and a source of economic pros-perity (Saeed, 1999). Fish markets throughout theRegion often offer large numbers of very smallsharks for sale. The practice of finning largersharks at sea and dumping the carcasses overboardis widespread.

Despite the lack of reliable information, it is clearthat shark resources in both the Red Sea and Gulfof Aden are facing ever increasing levels of fishingpressure. Sharks have high commercial value fortheir meat, fins, skin and jaws (valuable to thetourist trade), and are a major component of thediet and income earning potential for many ruralfishing communities throughout the Region andtheir decline or collapse would have catastrophicconsequences for the livelihood of many coastalcommunities in Somalia and Yemen. A pro-gramme of shark resource assessment for both theRed Sea and Gulf of Aden coasts, including theSocotra Archipelago is urgently required, andmanagement plans should be formulated and putinto effect in the short term.

Sharks of the genus Carcharhinus are also highlyimportant to all the Red Sea artisanal fleets. Theyare caught using long-lines, drift nets and hookand line. There are no data or research informationat all from the Red Sea on which estimates ofpotential yields can be made. Fish marketsthroughout the Region often offer large numbersof very small sharks for sale. The practice offinning larger sharks at sea and dumping the car-cass overboard is widespread. Although informa-tion available does not allow a reliable estimate oftotal landings, it is believed that shark landings inthe Red Sea are far greater than in the Gulf ofAden.

Indian Mackerel Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) is

abundant throughout the Gulf of Aden and RedSea. It is caught by artisanal boats using round-haul seine nets and gill nets by artisanal fishermen.It is particularly abundant in the western part of theGulf. No assessments have been conducted andthere are no estimates available on the size of thestock or the potential yield. The species forms avery important basic, low cost protein food sourcethroughout the Region.

SardinesThe main sardine species in the Gulf of Aden

is the Indian oil sardine, Sardinella longiceps, andSardinella fimbriata. These small pelagics areabundant in the nearshore waters of Yemen,around Socotra Island and the north and east coastsof Somalia, where large concentrations occur offCape Guardafui. Traditionally, it was caught bycast nets and later by small purse seines or sur-rounding nets. In connection with the attempts toestablish a fishmeal industry in the 1970s, severalexploratory fishing trials were undertaken usinglarger purse seiners, but these proved unsuccess-ful. Assessments of the stocks of sardine, based oncommercial data from the area between Mukallaand Ras Sharma (off the coast of Yemen) indicatedthat the stocks were heavily exploited. Landingswere about 18,000 metric tons against an esti-mated yield of 21,000 metric tons (Sanders andMorgan, 1989).

Pacific Mackerel and ScadsThe most abundant pelagic species in the Gulf

of Aden is the Pacific mackerel (Scomber japoni-cus) which is also called chub mackerel. It wascaught in the past by Soviet vessels in the Gulf ofAden using mid-water trawls during the winterseason, October to April. It is believed that thismackerel is migratory and that the resource isshared by Oman, Yemen and Somalia. A Russianestimate of the potential yield gave a figure of16,000 metric tons but the research findings onwhich this is based are not readily available.

Also of importance, according to available esti-mates, are the scads or horse mackerels, Trachurussp. and Decapterus sp. According to Soviet esti-


mates, the potential yield of these species is 8,000metric tons.

Anchovy Anchovies (Stolephorus sp.) are abundant in

the Gulf of Aden. As in the case of mackerel andscad, very little or no research has been done onanchovy resources. Soviet scientists estimated thepotential yield to be as high as 10,000-22,000 met-ric tons. Anchovy does not appear in the landingrecords since the 1980s.

Meso-pelagicsPast acoustic surveys undertaken in 1975,

1976, 1979 and 1983 by R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansenhave indicated a very large resource of meso-pelagic fish in the Gulf of Aden in depths greaterthan 150 meters, comprised mostly of lanternfishes (family Myctophidae). Benthosema ptero-tum is reported as the most abundant species,although occasionally it was surpassed by B. fibu-latum, Symbolophorus evermanni, Myctophumspinosum and Diaphus sp. The estimated biomassfor the inner Gulf of Aden varied from 12 millionmetric tons in the spring and autumn of 1975 totwo million metric tons in the summer of 1976.The range in the outer Gulf of Aden was between28 million metric tons (spring 1975) and 2 millionmetric tons (summer 1979).

No commercial exploitation of meso-pelagicresources has taken place. They are also not likelyto be exploited in the foreseeable future since it isnot economically feasible given their low marketvalue and relatively high production costs.

Miscellaneous Large Pelagic SpeciesThis category includes a large variety of spe-

cies that are widespread in the Gulf of Aden andRed Sea including kingfish (Scomberomorus com-mersoni), jacks (family Carangidae), billfish (sail-fish and marlins), cobia (Rachycentron canadum),dolphin fish (Coryphaena hippurus), queen fish(Scomberoides spp.) etc. Kingfish, together withyellowfin tuna, represent two of the most impor-tant commercial pelagic species in the Gulf ofAden targeted by both artisanal and industrial fish-eries.

Tuna species other than yellowfin are common, forexample, skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis),bonito tuna (Eythynnus affinis) and frigate mack-erel (Auxis thazard). No stock assessment researchhas been attempted on any of these stocks. Verylittle reliable data, even on basic landing statistics,are available. Some of these stocks are definitelymigratory over large areas but others might be res-ident in coastal waters. Nothing about this appearsto be known. These species are commonly caughtall along the coasts of the countries bordering theGulf of Aden but it is not possible to quantify theamount landed.

DEMERSAL FINFISHES

In the Gulf of Aden, the first estimates of thepotential yield of demersal fish resources weremade in the early 1970s shortly after the start ofindustrial exploitation, and suggested an MSY of70,000 metric tons in Yemeni waters. In thedecade that followed, the resources were heavilyexploited by vessels from Japan and the formerSoviet Union. Large quantities of fish were caughtand much was discarded as bycatch. This resultedin a drop in catch rates and a change in the speciescomposition of the catches. In the mid-1980s,analyses based on surveys undertaken by the fish-eries research vessels R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansen andYemen’s R/V Ibn Majid, resulted in sustainableyield estimates of 10,000-15,000 metric tons froma stock of about 120,000 metric tons. About onethird of the catches consisted of low value or non-commercial species. The estimates made by Sovietexperts in the late 1980s were also on the order of10,000-12,000 metric tons for commercial speciesand twice that amount if low value and inediblespecies were included.

The most common commercial trawl species arebream (Nemipterus spp.), emperor (Lethrinusspp.), snapper (Lutjanus spp.), grunt (Pomadasysspp.), ribbonfish (Trichiurus spp.) and lizardfish(Saurida spp.) The composition varies by area,season and water depth and species such as barra-cuda (Sphyraena spp.) and jack (Caranx spp.) maysometimes also constitute significant portions ofthe catch.

In the Red Sea, Egypt’s main surveys for demersalstock assessment research were undertaken by the


UNDP/FAO Regional Project mentioned above,over the period 1979-1983, the conclusions ofwhich are summarized in Sanders and Morgan(1989). In 1996, the National Institute of Oceanog-raphy and Fisheries (NIOF) undertook a survey offisheries in the Gulf of Suez. Catch samples weretaken during 1989-1990 and 1993-1994 fromtrawl, purse seine and hand line fisheries and MSYestimates calculated. The major conclusion wasthat all Gulf of Suez fisheries are overfished andrecommendations were presented to reduce fishingeffort.

It is understood that there is virtually no recentdetailed information on the status of the principalcommercial stocks in the Egyptian Red Sea. Stud-ies by Sanders and Kedidi (1981) reviewed areayield estimates for different fishing methods in theRed Sea, which provide some indication of thepresent levels of exploitation. These estimates arebased upon very incomplete data and the authorsadvise caution in interpreting the results. GeneralAuthority for Fish Resources Development(GAFRD) landing figures contain an unknownproportion of fish caught outside of Egypt’s RedSea waters. Without detailed information on thecatches within Egyptian waters it is impossible tocorrelate present landings with the potential yieldfigures given above. Improved data collection isrequired before any form of rational managementplan for the sustainable exploitation of fisherieswithin the area is possible. Desegregation of land-ings as to the gear used, the fishing grounds andfurther detail on species breakdown is essential asa first step.

In Saudi Arabia, the most recent MSY estimatewas 45,000 metric tons for all fisheries based onstudies conducted in 1979 by the United King-dom’s White Fish Authority (Sanders and Kedidi,1984f). A number of other assessments on singlespecies have also been conducted over a 1-2 yeartime frame and over limited areas, focusing onartisanal target species; they are considered bySaudi officials to be of minimal value for manage-ment. No assessment of the important shrimp androck lobster resources has been attempted.

No significant stock assessment has been con-ducted in Sudan’s waters. However, work byUnited Kingdom Overseas Development Adminis-

tration (ODA) indicated a total MSY of around35,000 metric tons. In comparison to currentannual total national catch of around 1,400 metrictons, Sudan considers its marine fish resources tobe lightly exploited. The effect of illegal fishing onSudan’s fish stocks is not known.

Eritrea’s fisheries resources were estimated tohave an MSY of 50,000 metric tons/year (Rey-nolds and others, 1993) although these authorsnoted that there were no recent reliable stockassessment figures available.

With support from Germany and technical assis-tance from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Tech-nische Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ), Djiboutihas conducted an evaluation of the fisheriesresources and exploitable yields in national waters.The project recorded a total of 192 fish species andestimated the average total annual biomass at28,000 metric tons for demersals, 56,000 metrictons for small pelagics, and 18,000-19,000 metrictons for large pelagics. The potential MSY ofexploitable fish species in Djibouti’s continentalshelf areas was estimated at 15,000 metric tons fordemersals and 23,000 metric tons for pelagics.However, only 1,300 of demersals and 3,200 met-ric tons of pelagics comprise species of commer-cial value.

In Yemen, estimates of the potential yield of dem-ersal and pelagic fish from the Red Sea again comefrom surveys conducted during the 1970s andearly 1980s. These were based on trawl surveys,commercial trawling data and on the production ofthe artisanal fisheries. Estimates varied from about20,000 metric tons to 31,000 metric tons. The esti-mates from trawl surveys may not be relevant tothe current fisheries due to changes in the popula-tion structure of the resource and the physical con-ditions prevailing on the trawling grounds. Noother, more recent, stock assessment efforts appearto have been made. A Fisheries Sector Reviewconducted in 1997 under the auspices of the FourthFisheries Project provided estimates of potentialyield and current levels of production for fishresources in Yemeni waters off the Red Sea andGulf of Aden coastlines (MEP, 1999).

In summary, there is a general lack of knowledgeregarding the status of fish stocks, their potentialyields or indeed the current levels of harvest they


support, throughout the Region. Much of the fish-eries production (as much as 90 percent in the caseof Yemen) is taken by artisanal fisheries, targetingresources for which the level of sustainablecatches is not known. Statistics collection for theindustrial fisheries is better, at least in the case ofSudan, Yemen and Egypt, but again data collec-tion systems cannot be described as well devel-oped even in these countries.

Highly Migratory and Shared StocksInformation on migration patterns and popula-

tion dynamics of shared and highly migratorystocks in the Region is not available. Obtainingsuch information is possible through taggingexperiments, which are costly and require a highdegree of technical ability and regional coopera-tion.

Sanders and Morgan (1989) note that attention tofish stock assessment as an ongoing activity inmany countries in the Region is very recent. Thisfact, coupled with the general lack of an adequatetime series of detailed landings and effort statis-tics, has meant that the precision of most resourceassessments undertaken to date could be muchimproved. In addition, little is known regarding thedistribution and interdependence of many of themajor commercial species.

While assessments of fish resources have been car-ried out at a national level, consideration needs tobe given to the interactions between stocks on aregional level. Unfortunately, insufficient dataexists to allow this to be done; the assessmentsundertaken during the 1970s and 1980s do notaddress the question of interaction between stockswithin the Region. It is not clear whether it isappropriate to assume that the fisheries resourceswithin the territorial waters of each country can beassessed and managed independently of otherneighboring states. As awareness grows in thePERSGA member states to increase knowledge ofstocks in support of improved fisheries manage-ment, such interactions will need to be addressedand regional cooperation in management of thestocks initiated. Such cooperation is likely to be ofsignificant importance in the assessment and man-agement of some of the pelagic stocks of theRegion such as the various species of Sardinella,

Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta), horsemackerel (Trachurus indicus), tunas (especiallyyellowfin) and many of the shark species.

It could be argued that many of the species/stocksdescribed above can be considered to be sharedstocks, given the relatively close proximity to oneanother of the sea areas over which jurisdiction isclaimed by the PERSGA members. Despite this,few of the countries have formal mechanisms forcommunicating on fisheries management issues,or for working together to facilitate a regionallyharmonized approach to management. Even forthose species that are not highly migratory, such asdemersal finfish and invertebrates, the relativelysmall area of the Red Sea means that the eggs andlarvae are distributed by water currents within theRed Sea as a collective whole. Consequently thefishing activities of one state almost certainly havea definite impact on recruitment, which ultimatelyaffects neighboring fisheries.

Highly migratory species, in particular yellowfin,(Thunnus albacares), Spanish mackerel (Scomber-omorus commersoni), Indian mackerel, Pacific (orchub) mackerel (Scomber japonicus) and variousshark species are most likely part of larger IndianOcean stocks rather than separate, resident stocks.The future of the Region’s fisheries are thereforeinfluenced by the catch taken in other IndianOcean countries which share the stock. A regionalorganization, the IOTC, serves to assist memberstates to better manage their shared tuna and tuna-like fish resources. Yemen and Somalia wouldbenefit from closer involvement in the activities ofthis body. Yellowfin tuna and Spanish mackerelhave formed the basis of long-established butsmall-scale tuna fishing operations in Yemen andnorth Somalia (in Somalia, tuna was until the out-break of civil war the basic raw material for thenow defunct canneries of Laas Qoray, Xabo andQandala). Yellowfin and Spanish mackerelappearances in the coastal waters of the Gulf ofAden peak during spring (March to May) andautumn (September to November).

Although not migratory, the rock lobster (Panuli-rus homarus) also constitutes a shared resource bythese three countries. The highly valuable rocklobster fisheries in each country operate in isola-tion of each other. There is no communication and


dialogue on joint management of rock lobster,even between close neighbors Yemen and Oman.The Omani rock lobster fishery suffered a dra-matic decline during the 1970s and early 1980sdue to unsustainable levels of fishing and ecologi-cally unsound fishing practices (removal of egg-bearing females, removal of undersize specimens,use of immature females as ‘teasers’ in traps andthe use of trammel/tangle nets). Yemen could ben-efit from closer dialogue with Oman that wouldhelp in management of this highly valuableresource. Somalia’s rock lobster fishery is stillreportedly healthy, since the civil war has dis-turbed the artisanal fishing sector for many years.

Major Spawning/Nursery Areas of Important Commercial Species

Due to the topography and geomorphology ofthe Red Sea (maximum depth over 2,000 meters)and the limited development of the continentalshelf, coastal benthic communities are not exten-sive. They are restricted to mangrove areas, softsubstrates of the shallow water bays and the coralreefs. These can be regarded as critical habitats, asthey are often important spawning, nursery andfeeding grounds for the majority of the importantcommercial species of the Red Sea.

Spawning sites provide the correct environmentalconditions for reproduction. Many of these, suchas day length, water temperature, lunar cycles etc.are not necessarily linked to particular sites, butothers, such as substrate type (for burrowing andegg attachment), protection against predation etc.are site specific. Little is known about the preciseand individual requirements of the commercialRed Sea fishes for spawning, nor the location andtiming of such events. It is likely that sheltered,shallow lagoon areas behind reef flats (such as themarsas) are likely be important spawning andnursery areas. Nursery habitats, which are betterknown, are characterised by productive mangrove,seagrass and coral areas that provide shelter, abun-dant epifaunal grazing areas and stable substratesfor settlement. It is understood that a number ofprevious studies have already provided some detailof the spawning and nursery grounds on the Egyp-tian Red Sea coast.

Data on the location of spawning grounds formajor species in the Gulf of Aden is not readilyavailable. In Yemen, the MSRRC has developedmarine charts indicating the precise location ofhard substrate shallow water areas where cuttlefishspawn. Unfortunately, these locations are wellknown to the industrial trawling fleet, who targetthe spawning aggregations, resulting in damage toegg masses and severe overfishing of the spawningstock biomass. This has been the major reason forcollapse of this stock in past decades.

The northern coast of Somalia consists of massiverocky shorelines in the east and fairly exposedbeaches in the west with no lagoons or large creeksthat penetrate into the land to form favorable habi-tats for spawning. The Khor Xabo and Khor Butiy-alo areas are the largest of several tidal beachesalong the coastline. These and other smaller natu-ral habitats form the primary/major spawningareas of the north Somalia coast. In general, exceptKhor Butiyalo, which is considered to be animportant spawning area for penaeid shrimps, noother major spawning areas of either commercialor other aquatic animals are known. The sandymostly unpopulated beach between Qandala andBuruc is also believed to be a nursery for marineturtles.

3

Fisheries Activities

Artisanal FisheriesAn overview of the numbers of fishermen,

vessels, and principal gear types in the artisanalfisheries in the Region is given in Appendix B.

One of the problems facing national administra-tions in the Region in trying to collect accuratedata on artisanal fisheries is the mobility of thefleet, with a large number of boats moving to dif-ferent areas at different times depending on theweather, availability of fish and market outlets.

Jordan’s short coastline (27 kilometers) has avery small artisanal fishery based at Aqaba. In1999, around 230 fishermen were licensed, oper-ating around 100 artisanal vessels. The gear andvessel characteristics are similar to those ofEgypt. Target species include snappers, groupersand emperors. No stock assessment studies havebeen conducted in Jordanian waters.

In Egypt’s artisanal fisheries, hand lines, long-lines and to a lesser extent, gill- and trammel netsare employed. Most vessels are locally made ofwood, 6-7 meters in length with petrol outboardmotors (OBMs) of 8-20 horsepower. A fleet oflarger artisanal vessels of 10-15 meters operatewith 50-150 horsepower inboard diesels. Beachseining is also important. Fishing currentlyemploys around 16,300 persons on the EgyptianRed Sea. Based on discussions with GAFRD,approximately 9,000 (53 percent) are predomi-nately artisanal fishermen (using hook and lineand set nets), 5,600 (33 percent) use trawling and

1,700 (10 percent) use purse seiners. On theother hand, based on the number of vessels inoperation, GEF figures suggest that these may besubstantial overestimates and must therefore beused with caution. Data from GAFRD, summa-rized in Table 1 below, indicate a slightly highernumber of total artisanal and semi-artisanal fish-ermen. The majority of fishermen are active inthe Suez region.

Results from GEF baseline fisheries reportsshow that fishing gear usage is characterised bythe substrate type and depth. In the Gulf of Suezand Foul Bay trawling and purse seining are pos-sible on the uniform sand substrate, while thecoral-rich southern Red Sea means that hook andline fishing for demersals and reef-livingpelagics such as jacks predominates, together

Source: GAFRD

TABLE 1: FISHERMEN ACTIVE ON THEEGYPTIAN RED SEA COAST

Area SuezArea No. %No. fishermen 13,376 75Suez 13,376 75Ghardaqah 2,022 11El Quseir 1,227 7El Tour 831 5Total 17,918

17


with shore based set nets, trammel and gill nets.Important species in the Egyptian artisanal catchinclude grouper, emperor and longspine bream inthe Gulf of Suez and Ghardaqah.

Saudi Arabia’s fisheries were exploited exclu-sively by artisanal sanbuks of up to 20 meters inlength until the 1970s. Today, the artisanal fleetranges from 5-18 meters and mainly uses handlines, gill nets and traps. The Farasan Bank isamong the main fishing grounds. Target speciesare grouper (family Serranidae), emperor (familyLethrinidae), snapper (family Lutjanidae) and seabream (family Sparidae). In the south, ring nets areused to take Indian mackerel (Rastrelligerkanagurta) and troll lines are used to take pelagicssuch as Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus sp.)(PERSGA, 1997j).

Eritrea’s artisanal fishermen employ a wide vari-ety of gear, including beach seines, hand lines, gillnets, trolling, and shark long-lines. Catches aredominated by small pelagics, such as goldspot her-ring (Herklotsichthys punctata) and anchovy(Stolephorus heterolobus, Thrissina baelama).Snappers and emperors are also taken (Lutjanusspp., Lethrinus spp.).

Sudan’s Red Sea artisanal fleet is comprisedexclusively of locally made wooden boats. Boat-building continues to be an important activityalong the coast, especially near Suakin. Non-mechanized dug-out canoes, mechanized huris andsanbuks using OBMs and inboard diesels are used.Methods include hand lines, bottom-set andpelagic gill nets, surrounding nets, trolling, castnets and traps. Handlining accounts for over 80percent of catches. The most productive areas arethe inner edges of the offshore reefs. Main speciestaken by the hand line fisheries include groupers,emperors, coral trout, snapper (especially Lujanusbohar). Pelagic species include Spanish mackerel,barracuda and jacks. Gill nets are employed to takerabbit fish (Siganus rivulatus), unicornfish (Nasounicornis), grey mullets, trevallies and wrasses(Cheilinus undulatus)

Hand diving for trochus shell or ‘kokian’ (Tectusdentatus), Trochus virgatus and black mother-of-pearl shell (Pinctada margaritifera) is also impor-tant for income generation in the coastal areaswhere lack of ice and other shore and road infra-

structure constrains the marketing potential offresh fish for the domestic market. Traditionally,the Suakin area has been the center of kokian fish-eries, but production has recently shifted toMohammed Gol and Dongonab Bay (Anon, 1988;Eltayeb 1999 (in prep.). The shells are collected byfree diving from huris (4 meters long with sails),felukas (6-8 meters long with engines) andlaunches (8-12 meters long with engines). The sea-son is generally May to December; it is dependenton the monsoon season rather than any legislativecontrol.

A former ODA-funded project introduced theexploitation of sea cucumber (bêche-de-mer)along the Sudanese coast. Production was basedon two species (Holothuria sp. and Actinopygasp.). In 1981, 15 metric tons of dried sea cucumberwere exported. Thereafter, production stoppedbecause of low prices on export markets and col-lection difficulties in collecting. However, in thepresent situation where fish and kokian landingsare in decline, sea cucumber exploitation hasresumed in the Marsa Ashat area south of Suakin.

In Djibouti, the artisanal fleet comprises someninety fishing boats. Most are small, open boats,6-8 meters long and powered by OBM. Each boatoperates with an average of three fishermen. Some15 percent of the boats are equipped with inboardengines. They are 10-14 meters. long and carry anaverage of five fishermen per boat. The smallboats undertake one day trips while the largerboats usually stay out for four days. The principlefishing areas are to the north and south of the Gulfof Tadjoura. The northern area is both most pro-ductive and least exploited, because of a lack ofcold storage and other shore facilities and its dis-tance from Djibouti City, the main population cen-ter.

Gear includes ring nets, hand lines, trolling, gillnets and cast nets. Species include snappers, jacks,Spanish mackerel, barracuda, grouper and tunas,especially skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) and lit-tle eastern tuna (Euthynnus affinis) Fishing opera-tions vary seasonally, with most activity in Mayand the least in February. Many Djiboutian fisher-men operate at the subsistence level and fishingeffort is generally low. The main fishing gear usedis hook and line and to a lesser extent gill nets and


throwing nets. Lobster fisheries are also important,with some 4 metric tons per year collected by handby free diving.

In Yemen, artisanal fisheries are of considerableimportance to rural communities for employmentand also to the national food supply. In 1997 theestimated number of fishermen in the Gulf ofAden was 19,700 (Esseen, 1997b). Some 40 per-cent operate between Mukalla and Qusayir. Fish-ing is concentrated on the continental shelf, within40 kilometers of shore. The number of artisanalvessels has more than doubled since 1992. Mostboats have a crew of about three persons, but thoseemploying surrounding nets have larger crews. Asanbuk has a crew of around ten. Small glass rein-forced plastic (GRP) boats are normally owned byone of the three fishermen operating it but jointownership by two or more fishermen is common.Non-fishing boat owners are rare. The vast major-ity of the boats used on the Gulf of Aden coast are7-9 meters long, slender and shallow, and made ofGRP. The traditional classification of woodencraft as huris and khadifas has lost its significance.Wooden boats are hardly used any longer and theGRP hulls are of hybrid designs. The boats aredriven by OBMs of 15-40 horsepower, with fisher-men increasingly preferring to use 40 horsepowermotors. According to the agent of the dominantbrand, Yamaha, 40 horsepower outboards accountfor 50 percent of total sales. Many boats carry twoOBMs when fishing, often of different horse-power, keeping one in reserve in case of mechani-cal breakdown. All artisanal boats are engaged insingle-day fishing only and nowhere along thecoast do they carry ice onboard.

Fishing is conducted as far out as the drop-off,where oceanic species such as yellowfin tuna andbillfish are targeted, perhaps 10-20 miles offshore.As is common in artisanal fisheries elsewhere inthe Region, a variety of different fishing gear isused:

• The most common gear, used everywhere, ishook and line for catching large pelagic spe-cies and high value demersals. In the Mukalla-Shihr area, nearly all boats use trolling lineand drop-line with live bait to catch yellowfin.Most of these boats have a small built-in water

circulation tank for carrying live sardine asbait which are caught using cast nets.

• Along the eastern part of the coast, particularlyfrom Sayhut eastwards, the dominant gear issurrounding nets and cast nets for sardine andwire mesh traps for rock lobster.

• In the rock lobster fishery, rock lobster boatsowned by CFC each operate 30-50 traps, whilethe number of traps among the private fisher-men is generally lower and varies consider-ably. The traps are usually emptied every 24hours.

• Entangling drift nets for tuna, kingfish andcarangids, and surrounding nets for Indianmackerel, little tuna and skipjack are mostcommon along the western stretches of thesouth coast towards Aden. The size of a sur-rounding net is approximately 240x25 meters.

The Gulf of Aden fishing fleet also includes some100 sanbuks, 15-20 meters in length, made ofwood and driven by 40-75 horsepower inboarddiesel engines. They are mainly located in Aden,Mukalla, al-Hami, al-Qarn and Qusayir. Most ofthem are engaged in shark fishing using nets andlong-lines. Shark meat is salted onboard and thefins are removed and dried. The fishing trips lastfor 1-3 weeks depending on the catch rate. Thisfleet is supplemented, from March to October, byabout 50 sanbuks from Socotra, operating mostlyfrom Mukalla, Qusayir and Nishtun. In the Adenarea, sanbuks use surrounding nets (500 x 60meters) for small pelagics. Some sanbuks, possiblyfrom the Red Sea, land iced fish at the dockyardmarket in Aden.

In the Socotra Archipelago, fishing is the mainoccupation for coastal inhabitants. Sharks are tar-geted using long-lines, gill nets, and hook and linetechniques. The annual production of sharks isestimated at 7,283 metric tons, and average CPUEis estimated at 54 kilograms per boat and day. It isestimated that the boats fish for shark 160 days ofthe year (Saeed, 1999). The predominant speciesare Carcharhinus albimarginatus, Carcharhinussorrah and Sphyrna lewini. In the catches at land-ing sites along the southern coast of Socotra Island(the Nogid area), species such as Carcharhinusmelanopterus, Carcharhinus sealei and Galeoc-


erdo cuvier have been identified. Catches of theblackspot shark (Carcharhinus sealei) reached3,000 fishes, or 7.5 metric tons per day in May1999. During the monsoon season, fishingdecreases due to the high wind speeds and waveswells. Fishing effort is also limited by the lack ofmarketing paths for all products except for driedshark fins and limited amounts of shark meat. Alack of fisheries services, in terms of availabilityof fishing gear and of maintenance workshops foroutboard engines and GRP boats, additionally lim-its any increase of fishing effort.

On Yemen’s Red Sea coast, at least 16,000 fisher-men are working in boats that are traditionallyclassified in two types, huris and sanbuks:

• The huri was originally a small, slender shal-low craft for inshore use. Today, larger hurisare built and used for offshore fishing. Theyare therefore found in a wide range of sizesfrom 5 meters to 20 meters. What they have incommon is that they are all powered byOBMs. Larger huris are still being built ofwood but most of the smaller ones are nowmade of GRP. The smallest craft have oneOBM of 15 horsepower while the larger oneshave up to two 75 horsepower motors. Thenumber of huris is estimated to be about 1,610.

• The sanbuk is a large traditional Arabian-stylewooden craft varying in length from 12 to 26meters. They are powered by inboard dieselengines in the range of 40-150 horsepower. Itis estimated that there are about 620 of them.

From the point of view of measuring the fishingeffort, the above classification is not particularlyappropriate. The reason is that the larger hurishave an operational pattern similar to sanbuks, thatis, they carry ice and stay out fishing for severaldays at a time. The fishing effort may thereforebetter be divided into single-day huris and multi-day huris. A third category comprises sanbukstrawling for shrimp.

Most of the huris, perhaps 80 percent, are 5-9meters long and are engaged in single-day fishing.They do not carry ice onboard to preserve thecatch. The most common fishing gear includes (a)drift nets of different mesh sizes, mainly used forkingfish and Indian mackerel but also for species

such as barracuda and tuna and (b) hand lines fordifferent types of demersal species. Other gearused includes trolling line for large pelagic speciesand cast nets for catching baitfish and smallerpelagics. Single-day huris usually carry a crew of2 to 4 persons. Their fishing areas are generallyclose to shore, within a range of about 20 nauticalmiles. Small huris are spread along the entire coastand can be seen anchored, or lying on the beach, atall fishing centers. However, their operation isrestricted during the winter season, October toDecember. The sea is then too rough to allow theboats to be launched and landed on the openbeaches.

An unknown number of large huris, but probablyin the range of 200-400, have built-in insulatedfish holds enabling them to carry ice and thereforeengage in multi-day fishing. The capacity of thefish hold varies with boat size, but the largest cancarry up to 2.5 tons of iced fish. The duration of afishing trip is about a week. These craft target bothpelagic and demersal species and employ a varietyof gear such as drift nets and trolling lines for largepelagic fish, long-lines for shark and, very impor-tantly, hand lines for demersal fish. All gear ishandled manually and there is a large crew for thisconsisting of about 10 fishermen. The multi-dayhuris are operated around the year, with a peakseason of May to September. They are operatedprimarily from al-Hudaydah and other major land-ing centers. Their range of operation is the entireEEZ of Yemen and beyond. The number of trips ina year is probably around 35, which is the equiva-lent of 245 fishing days. Fishing intensity is lowerduring the period from October to December.

Sanbuks are engaged in fishing operations similarto those of the larger huris. The sanbuks differfrom the multi-day huris with regard to capacity,size of crew and duration of fishing trips. Thecapacity of the fish hold is about 5 tons of icedfish. They carry larger quantities of fishing gearand they have a crew of about 15 men. The dura-tion of fishing trips is about 10 days but may beextended up to two weeks. They make about 25trips per year.

A national vessel registration scheme seems to beworking well in Yemen. At al-Hudaydah on theRed Sea, approximately 95 percent of boats in


1997 had a registration number painted on thebows. In other areas the registration scheme didnot appear as successful, although one report saidthat the vessels were registered, but the numbershad been obscured when the boats were repainted.

During the period from September to April, about120 sanbuks trawl for shrimp. Two small ottertrawls are generally used, one on each side of theboats, towed from a wooden beam lashed on thehull and projecting outboard on either side. Thenets are hand-hauled by a crew of 8-10 fishermen.The trawling is done during the day from dawn todusk but it is reported that some boats haverecently started to operate during the night also.Trawling is usually conducted in shallow waters of5-10 meters depth but may extend to 20 meters.Most of the bycatch is discarded at sea and onlythe larger fishes are brought ashore for sale or forconsumption by the crew. The main areas fromwhich these sanbuks operate are al-Hudaydah,Khobah and Salif. The main landing center is al-Hudaydah, to which catches are trucked fromother places for auctioning. Considerable effort isexpended outside of Yemen’s recognized waters,especially in Eritrean waters.

In Somalia, artisanal fisheries have a long traditionand are a major economic activity on which thebulk of coastal communities depend. Main fisher-ies centers are Alula, Qandala, Bosaso, LaasQoray, Berbera, Lughaye and Zeila. Thoughunder-developed today, they are essential for alarge proportion of the coastal inhabitants,although fishing is considered inferior to farmingand clerical employment. Eight thousand fisher-men are employed either full or part-time on 6-8meters GRP vessels, usually powered by 8-22horsepower inboards. Some traditional woodenvessels and fiberglass canoes are also seen. Thepredominant gear is nylon shark nets. Hand Lines,long-lines (again for shark fishing and other largepelagics) gill nets, trolling and traps also used.Traditional artisanal tuna fishing has been prac-ticed for many years, for local consumption andalso production of dried tuna for export to Arabstates. The fisheries for many years supplied rawmaterial (mostly yellowfin and skipjack) to can-neries at Alula, Qandala and Xabo, until the civildisturbances destroyed these facilities. Otherimportant pelagic species include longtail tuna

(Thunnus tonggol), little eastern tuna, Spanishmackerel and sharks. Night fishing with lights forsmall pelagics targets sardinellas, round herring,scad and horse mackerel. Demersal species arecaught mainly on inshore grounds around Xaboand Qandala. The catch is dominated by species ofgrouper, snapper, emperor and shark. Shark fish-ing is of major importance; with salt-drying ofmeat and dried shark fins providing significantincome for artisanal fishermen.

Commercial/Industrial FisheriesAn overview of the numbers of fishermen,

vessels, and principal gear types in the industrialfisheries in the Region is given in Appendix C.

Egypt has an industrial fleet comprised of 20-30meter vessels, based on the Mediterranean style offishing craft. These utilize heavier gear such aspurse seines, trawls and hand lines. Ice is taken tosea. Pelagic species are landed by purse seiners,trawlers, and artisanal vessels. Catches are takenmostly by purse seining. All fishing grounds areeither fully exploited or overfished, especially inthe Gulf of Suez. Major pelagic stocks includehorse mackerel, round herring, Indian mackereland sardines. Demersal species supporting trawlfisheries include shrimp, golden snapper, stripedsnapper, lizardfish, red mullet and threadfin bream(Barrania, 1997). With the exception of seasonalsardine catches in the north, Egypt’s Red Sea fish-eries are dominated by reef fish landings, mostlythe high value grouper (Serranidae) and emperor(Lethrinidae). There is a marked differentiation incatches down the coast, due primarily to differenthabitats, but also different gear usage and marketdemands. A brief analysis of fish landings from1978 to date in Ghardaqah suggests that overallcatches have increased almost twenty-fold. How-ever the proportion of high value reef species(such as the emperors) has fallen, possibly as aresult of habitat degradation or over-exploitation.

Saudi Arabia’s industrial fisheries commencedafter 1980 and have grown consistently. The fish-eries are dominated by the Saudi Fisheries Com-pany (SFC), which lands around 1,500 metric tonsof shrimp and around 1,500 metric tons of finfish,from both the Red Sea and Gulf coasts. The innerpassage trawl ground of Farasan Bank and the area


around Jizan are important trawling areas. Red Seaindustrial production in 1995 was estimated ataround 7,400 metric tons (4,800 metric tons fin-fish, 2,100 metric tons shrimps, 260 metric tonscrab and 250 metric tons molluscs). Saudi Arabia’sRed Sea industrial fleet comprises vessels of 12-20meters, using trawls almost exclusively in thesouth part of the country to target shrimp primarilyand also lizardfish, emperor and Indian mackerel.

In Eritrea, inshore trawl grounds exist in HargigoBay. Offshore trawl grounds are located betweenMassawa and Assab. Although a trawling fleetoperated during the 1960s, targeting lizardfish,threadfin bream, and penaeid shrimps, there are nonational industrial fisheries today.

Sudan’s industrial fisheries are currently under-developed. There are some 800 square kilometersof trawlable grounds off the southern coast ofSudan, mainly in the Tokar Delta and Gulf of Aqiqareas. In the early 1990s an industrial fleet oftrawlers operated under Egyptian-Sudan joint ven-ture arrangements. Lizardfish (family Synodon-tidae) accounted for 75 percent of the catch.Shrimp and cuttlefish were also caught. Six shrimpspecies of potential commercial importance havebeen recorded: Penaeus semisulcatus, P.latisulca-tus, P.japonicus, P.monodon and Metapeneusmonocerus and M. stebbingi. The projected annualshrimp catch has been calculated at 30 metric tons.However most joint venture trawlers have ceasedoperations because shrimp catches, the major tar-get group, were considered too low. Only Egyptiantrawlers have remained in the area fishing for liz-ardfish for the Egyptian market.

There is however commercial potential for purseseine fisheries. Fishing grounds are mainly in thenorthern areas, including Foul Bay near the borderwith Egypt. A present day fleet of purse seiners,13-30 meters in length, targets pelagic fish. Fivefishing companies, including a semi-public one,are currently operating as fish traders. They lackexperience in fisheries operations and their contri-bution to developing Sudan’s national fishingcapacity has been slow to deliver results. Animprovement in fishing methods and managementstyle is required in order to raise catch rates. Mostfishing companies, however, hire local artisanalfishermen with minimum investment. In some

cases, such as in Mohammed Gol, they monopo-lize the market, benefiting from their ‘zero compe-tition’ status. Most fish landed is exported. ‘Najil’(Plectropomus maculatus) is a key export marketspecies (Anon, 1993).

Djibouti has no domestic industrial fleet, owing tothe lack of shelf area that would permit trawling orother industrial operations.

In Yemen, the structure of the industrial fisheriesas of 1998 consisted of: (a) companies operating78 industrial vessels in the Red Sea and 65 in theGulf of Aden; mainly freezer trawlers targetingdemersal fish, cuttlefish and shrimps; and (b) anationally-owned body, the CFC, which fishes forrock lobsters along the south coast.

In Somalia, the continental shelf is rarely morethan 5 kilometers wide. Thus trawling areas arevery limited and a domestic industrial fishing hasnot developed. However, foreign vessels operatingunder licence off the northern coast prior to 1990reported high catch rates of tuna, demersals andcuttlefish. Between 1982 and 1985 catches of for-eign industrial vessels are recorded as 3,900-11,940 metric tons. No significant industrialdomestic fisheries operated during 1990-1998,other than foreign vessels operating under accessarrangements.

Statistics on Catches and Landings Since 1988

DATA HELD BY FAO Official production figures for landings of fin-

fish and invertebrates for 1988-1998, as compiledby the relevant national authorities and forwardedto FAO for inclusion in the FAO world fisheriesstatistics database (FAO, 2000), are given inAppendix D. These data are considered to be thebest available for indicating major species caughtand trends in production over time. National catchstatistics, where available, are discussed below. Itshould be noted however that in some cases FAOdatabase figures differ from estimates provided bynational experts. Also, the FAO data for SaudiArabia includes catches taken in the Gulf and datafor Somalia include catches taken from the IndianOcean (southern) coast.

The data in Appendix D are summarized in Tables2 and 3 below for all countries, showing total


Soudivid

JorEgySauSudEritDjibYemSomPE

TAB

JorEgySauSudEritDjibYemSomPERtrea

Soudivid

recorded catch according to FAO for 1988, com-pared with 1998, first for invertebrate catches andsecond for finfish catches.

Of the total invertebrate catch for the Region,Saudi Arabia and Yemen together accounted forover 70 percent of landings in 1998. In the case ofSaudi Arabia, this is due to the domestic shrimpfishery. In the case of Yemen, this is due to land-ings of cuttlefish.

With regard to finfish landings, Egypt, Saudi Ara-bia and Yemen together accounted for 89 percentof landings in 1998. Yemen’s finfish landingsalone account for nearly half of the regional total.

These three countries therefore have themost active fisheries sectors in the Region.

Species contribution of the catch in 1998 foreach country based on FAO data is summa-rized in Table 4, overleaf.

DATA FROM NATIONAL CORRESPONDENTS

The FAO data conforms reasonablywell with information provided by the SAPregional working group on living marineresources. This is summarized in Table 5below.

In Jordan, collection of fisheries statis-tics ceased in 1985 due to the closure of

access to fishing grounds in neighboring Egyptand Saudi Arabia, which resulted in a sharpdecline in the size of Jordan’s artisanal fisheries.Available production figures come from universityresearchers. Production in 1999 was estimated ataround 450 metric tons, mostly comprising varioustuna and small shoaling pelagics (Decapterus mac-arellus, Scomber japonicus, Trachurus sp.) andSpanish mackerel (Khalaf, 2000). Fish productionin 1998 was estimated at 120 metric tons. Avail-able data indicate catches are increasing, althoughmodestly. In 1966 total catch was recorded at 194metric tons.

TABLE 2: FAO DATA ON CATCH (MT) OFINVERTEBRATES BY COUNTRY, 1988 AND 1998

rce: FAO statistics. The FAO statistics for Saudi Arabia have been ed by 2, since roughly half the catch was taken in the Gulf.

Country 1988 % oftotal 1998 % of

totaldan (Red Sea) 0 0% 0 0%pt (Red Sea) 532 7% 822 5%di Arabia (Red Sea) 2,658 33% 5,513 32%an (Red Sea) - 0% 13 0%rea - 0% 238 1%outi 8 0% - 0%en 3,526 44% 9,560 56%alia 1,227 15% 950 6%

RSGA Region and Eritrea 7,951 100% 17,096 100%

LE 3: FAO DATA ON CATCH (MT) OF FINFISH BY COUNTRY, 1988 AND 1998

Country 1988 % of total 1998 % of

totaldan (Red Sea) 2 0% 120 0%pt (Red Sea) 27,918 21% 50,538 26%di Arabia (Red Sea) 20,209 15% 21,574 11%an (Red Sea) 1,200 1% 5,500 3%rea - 0% 1,562 1%outi 446 0% 350 0%en 69,630 51% 100,400 52%alia 16,500 12% 14,800 8%SGA Region and Eri- 135,904 100% 194,844 100%

rce: FAO statistics. The FAO statistics for Saudi Arabia have been ed by 2, since roughly half the catch was taken in the Gulf.

TABLE 5: SUMMARY OF NATIONAL MARINE CATCH DATA FOR 1998 (MT)

Source: Living Marine Resources Regional Working Group: Workshop on standardisation of fisheries data, held at the Fisheries Training Institute, Aden, Yemen, 29 April-2 May, 2000. Data for Somalia is an estimate for production in the Gulf of Aden only

Produc-tion

% of total

Jordan (Red Sea) 450 0%Egypt (Red Sea) 58,000 26%Saudi Arabia (Red Sea) 26,000 12%Sudan (Red Sea) 1,500 1%Djibouti 446 0%Yemen 128,600 59%Somalia 4,000 2%PERSGA Region 218,996 100%


Catch statistics for Egypt’s Red Sea fleets indicatethat between 1989 and 1995 annual purse seinelandings have been about 34,600 metric tons. Themajority of purse seine catches are taken in theGulf of Suez, where the main species includehorse mackerel/scad (Decapturus marudsi, Tra-churus indicus), round herring (Etrumeus teres),sardinellas (Sardinella gibbosa). In Foul Bay,

purse seiners take mainly spotted sardinella (Sar-dinella sirm), Indian mackerel (Rastrelligerkanagurta), gold-stripe sardinella (Sardinella gib-bosa) and horse mackerel/scad. Trawling vessels,operating mostly around the Gulf of Suez, takearound 10,000 metric tons. Main species taken bytrawling include lizardfish (Saurida undosquamis),stripped snapper (Lutjanus lineolatus), threadfin

TABLE 4: FAO CATCH DATA BY SPECIES (MT) IN 1998

Source: Derived from FAO’s FISHSTAT database. Data for Saudi Arabia includes catches taken in the Gulf, accounting for around 50 percent of Saudi Arabia’s total production. Data for Somalia includes catches from the Indian Ocean coast. Data for Sudan are incomplete in regard to trochus and pearl shell production.

Species/group

Jord

an

Egyp

t

S. A

rabi

a

Suda

n

Djib

outi

Yem

en

Som

alia

Eritr

ea

Tota

l

% o

f tot

al c

atch

Pelagics:

Horse mackerel - - - - - 1,400.0 - - 1,400.0 0.59

Indian mackerel - 652.0 2,078.0 - - 4,350.0 - 0.3 7,080.3 2.96

Indian oil sardine - - - - 4,200.0 - - 4,200.0 1.76

Pacific/chub mackerel - 810.0 - - - - - - 810.0 0.34

Sardinella - 4,973.0 2,329.0 - - - - - 7,302.0 3.06

Shark - 135.0 1,531.0 - - 4,970.5 - 17.0 6,653.5 2.79

Spanish mackerel - 9,933.0 - - - - 22.0 9,955.0 4.17

Tuna - yellowfin - - - - 820.0 - - 820.0 0.34

Tunas - misc. 70.0 841.0 633.0 - 15.0 3,521.0 - 115.0 5,195.0 2.17

Other pelagics 20.0 - 8,234.0 - 40.5 63,010.0 - 247.5 71,552.0 29.95

Demersals:

Emperor 2.0 557.0 9,751.0 - - 2,490.0 - 104.0 12,904.0 5.40

Grouper - 722.0 - 105.0 1,770.0 - 117.0 2,714.0 1.14

Lizardfish - 7,994.0 215.0 - - - 0.5 8,209.5 3.44

Seabass - 36.0 - - - - 36.0 0.02

Seabream - 1,282.0 3,101.0 - - 2,550.0 - 1.0 6,934.0 2.90

Seerfish - - 5,491.0 - 60.0 510.0 - - 6,061.0 2.54

Snapper/jobfish - 8,784.0 2,391.0 - 80.0 1,490.0 - 363.0 13,108.0 5.49

Other demersals 25.0 1,002.0 6,578.0 - 40.5 9,360.0 - 206.5 17,212.0 7.20

Unidentified mar. fish 3.0 12,797.0 817.0 5,500.0 10.0 14,800.0 212.0 34,139.0 14.29

Invertebrates:

Crab - 149.0 448.0 - - - - - 597.0 0.25

Cuttlefish - 237.0 1,561.0 - - 8,440.0 550.0 3.0 10,791.0 4.52

Octopus - - 0.5 - - - - - 0.5 0.00

Pearl oyster - - - 13.0 - - - - 13.0 0.01

Rock lobster - - 701.0 - 0.5 470.0 400.0 2.0 1,573.5 0.66

Sea cucumber - - - - - 60.0 - - 60.0 0.03

Shrimp - 436.0 8,316.0 - - 590.0 - 9.0 9,351.0 3.91

Squid - - - - 0.5 - - 0.5 1.0 0.00

Trochus - - - - - - - 224.0 224.0 0.09

Total 120.0 51,340.0 54,175.5 5,513.0 352.0 110,001.5 15,750.0 1,644.3 238,896.3


bream (Nemipterus japonicus) and shrimp(Penaeus semisulcatus, P. latisulcatus, P. japoni-cus). Artisanal catches between 1989 and 1995were about 4,900 metric tons per year on average.Groupers dominated, representing 35-40 percentof landings, and comprised mostly of Epinepheluschlorostigma, E. areolatus and E. summana. Thespangled emperor Lethrinus nebulosus is responsi-ble for up to 22 percent of catches. Breams werealso important (Argyrops spinifer, Erynnis cardi-nalis, Sparus major). Total landings in 1995 were47,257 metric tons with 88 percent landed in Suezthat is, 41,594 metric tons while Quseir had theleast, only 0.6 percent (278 metric tons). Another3985 metric tons, or 8 percent, were landed inGhardaqah.

Barrania (1997) provides the following catch sta-tistics for Egypt’s Red Sea fleet (Table 6):

The Red Sea marine catch in 1995, valued atEGP 161.3 million, was approximately 11.6 per-cent of the 407,000 ton fisheries production forthat year including aquaculture, Nile, Mediterra-nean, northern lakes and inland fisheries. As notedabove, the majority came from Gulf of Suez basedvessels, with only 4,632 metric tons or 9.8 percentof the total marine catch from the Red Sea proper.It should be noted that much of the Suez-landedtrawler catch is likely to have been from outsideEgyptian waters. Ghardaqah is the main landingcenter, with a 1996 landed catch of 5,865 metrictons (GAFRD, unpublished figures), althoughGEF estimates suggest that this may be overly

optimistic, with the actual figure as low as 1,618metric tons. Catches over the past five years havebeen relatively steady, with any inter-annual varia-tion due mainly to fluctuating small pelagiccatches. This continuity is puzzling, since by 1995vessel numbers had declined to 76 percent of the1990 number, although average horsepower hadmore than doubled from 75 to 160 horsepowerover the same period. Such a change in fishing pat-terns, designed to increase access to the southernRed Sea, is likely to have changed the landing vol-ume and structure. This has not been reflected inthe GAFRD data. Total production for 1998 wasaround 58,000 metric tons (Barrania, 2000).

Saudi Arabia has one of the best data sets on fishproduction in the Region. Table 7 below summa-rizes artisanal and industrial production between1988 and 1997.

Saudi Arabia’s landings from Red Sea waters in1995 amounted to around 22,500 metric tons rep-resenting 50 percent of the total national produc-tion of 45,692 metric tons (including catches takenin the Gulf), of which 15,490 metric tons werefrom the artisanal fisheries targeting finfish. Theindustrial fleet caught 7,399 metric tons from RedSea waters in 1995, including 4,788 metric tons offinfish, 2,105 metric tons of shrimp, 256 metrictons of crab and 250 metric tons of molluscs (PER-SGA 1997e).

TABLE 6: EGYPTIAN RED SEA CATCHES (MT), 1998-1995

Source: Barrania, 1997.

Year Total Marine Catch

1988 42,0001989 44,0001990 39,9001991 42,0001992 43,0001993 51,0001994 48,3001995 47,300

TABLE 7: SAUDI ARABIA RED SEA FISH PRODUCTION (MT) 1988-1997

Source: MAW, 1998.

Year Artisanal Fisheries

Industrial Fisheries

1988 26,918 4,1311989 27,345 5,3031990 24,601 4,6741991 24,626 5,6561992 25,458 6,0451993 27,272 5,9391994 26,585 6,8741995 15,490 7,3991996 15,406 7,1311997 17,420 8,405


Although Saudi Arabia has some of the best fisher-ies data in the Region, the statistics show anoma-lies between various sources, indicating a need forgreater standardization in the type of data collectedand the format in which it is collected. A signifi-cant problem is that the statistics historically havebeen aggregated for both the Red Sea and the Gulffisheries. It appears however that since 1998 sepa-rate fisheries statistics are maintained for the RedSea and Gulf coasts. Various studies discuss dataissues in relation to the development of appropri-ate strategies for fisheries management (Sandersand Morgan 1989; MAW 1987, 1996; Kedidi andothers, 1984 and Peacock and Alam 1980). It ishowever recognized that a reliable long-termseries of catch and effort, required for specificmanagement decisions, is not available at present.Table 8 below presents recent data on the speciescomposition of Red Sea landings in Saudi Arabia.

Since the Gulf War, Saudi Arabia’s Red Sea fish-eries have become more important than Gulf fish-eries, which now account for around only 46percent of national catches. The Ministry of Agri-culture’s figures for catches in 1997 indicate pro-duc t ion f rom the Red Sea , t he Gu l f andinternational waters at 25,825 metric tons, 22,875metric tons and 695 metric tons, respectively(MAW, 1998).

In Sudan artisanal catches decreased from 1,107.8metric tons in 1989 to 1,047 metric tons in 1995.According to Sudan’s Fisheries Administration,the estimated MSY of artisanal fisheries amountsto 10,000 metric tons per year. In 1975 artisanalproduction was estimated at around 555 metrictons, this rose to 1,490 in 1984 but dropped to1,050 metric tons in 1995 (O'Riordan, 1982; Mish-rigi, 1990-93; 1993). Reasons given for thisinclude the termination of FAO and ODA fundeddevelopment projects that the national governmenthas been unable to continue, increased productioncosts (especially for fuel, ice, and gear), reducedavailability of spare parts, and a lack of availablecredit on affordable terms.

Production figures for the kokian fishery are notavailable but average exports for 1980-1997 indi-cate a reduced amount of 289 metric tons/year.This still means that Sudan is the third largest pro-ducer of trochus shells, behind the SolomonIslands at 578 metric tons/year and New Caledoniaat 349 metric tons/year over the same period.Sudan is however by far the largest producer oftrochus outside the Pacific Ocean (Eltayeb, 1999 –in prep.). Pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, andornamental seashells or ‘surumbak’ (mainlyStrombus and Lambia species) are also produced.Recent production data are given in Table 9 below.

The industrial trawler fleet in 1990-1991 caught597 metric tons in and in 199-19/93 eight trawlerscaught 654 metric tons, of which only 15 metrictons were shrimp and the remaining quantity rep-resented discarded fish. In 1990 eighteen compa-nies were licensed to catch shrimp as the targetspecies. Few of them have actually operated andthe catch in 1993-1994 was only 79 metric tons ofwhich only 800 kilograms were shrimp (PERSGA1997a).

TABLE 8: SPECIES COMPOSITION OF SAUDI ARABIAN RED SEA LANDINGS IN 1985 AND 1995

Source: MAW 1986; MAW 1996. Species in bold face are pelagic species that migrate across national boundaries.

Species % of total landings:1985 1995

Spanish mackerel 30.4 16.2Jack 12.0 10.7Cutlass fish 3.0 2.1Cobia 0.1 0.1Indian mackerel 3.0 15.1Emperor 13.9 12.4Grouper 13.0 10.6Snapper 8.0 4.9Barracuda 7.0 3.9Miscellaneous 4.4 10.5Shark 2.0 1.8Mullet 2.0 1.9Parrotfish 1.0 3.0Wrass 0.1 0.8Sea bream 0.03 1.2Surgeon fish 0.02 0.6Rabbit fish 0.02 4.0Goat fish 0.01 0.2


The present annual landings of the purse seinefleet amount to some 1,400 metric tons and the

MSY is estimated at 2,300 metrictons. Catches are mainly com-posed of spotted sardinella (50.8percent), Indian mackerel (18.5percent), gold striped sardinella(12.9 percent), horse mackereland scads (12.9 percent) (Brand-ford 1979; Feidi 1981; Sandersand Kedidi, 1981).

In Djibouti, national artisanalfisheries production increasedfrom 200 metric tons in 1980 to400 metric tons in 1984 and 446metric tons in 1988. Between1988 and 1991 the increase inproduction slowed down. Weakmarketing of fisheries products isthe main constraint for the fisher-ies sector. During 1991-1994,

production decreased dramatically. In 1991, it wasas low as 200 metric tons, due to unrest in the

TABLE 9: PRODUCTION OF SUDANESE MARINE PRODUCTS,1992-1998 (MT)

Source: Farah, 2000. 1998 data are preliminary.

Year

Com

mer

cial

fish

es

Pear

l oys

ter s

hell

Troc

hus

shel

l

Sea

cucu

mbe

r

Shar

k fin

1992 1,100 13 4851993 1,235 23 3051994 1,120 14 5341995 1,047 13 4321996 1,762 3 190 2.7 0.321997 1,676 6 275 3.5 0.111998 1,421 5 54 8.8 0.50

TABLE 10: TOTAL FISH PRODUCTION (MT) IN YEMEN, RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN COASTS, 1995-1997

Source: Ministry of Fish Wealth, Sana’a, 2000.

1995 No. vessels

Pelagic fishes

Demer-sal

fishesCuttle-

fish Squid Shrimp Rock lobster

Total catch

Artisanal sectorCFC n.a. 100 - - - - 123 223Cooperative and pri-vate fishermen

n.a. 100,224 - - - 981 205 101,410

Industrial sector 16 - 4,871 1,049 408 3 6 6,337Total 1995 16 100,324 4,871 1,049 408 984 334 107,9701996Artisanal sectorCFC n.a. - - - - - 60 60Cooperative and pri-vate fishermen

n.a. 94,060 - - - 665 263 94,988

Industrial sector 32 - 8,023 1,817 67 - - 9,907Total 1996 32 94,060 8,023 1,817 67 665 323 104,9551997Artisanal sectorCFC n.a. - - - - - 85 85Cooperative and pri-vate fishermen

n.a. 93,547 - 150 - 593 397 94,687

Industrial sector n.a. - 12,367 8,415 92 8 - 20,882Total 1997 n.a. 93,547 12,367 8,565 92 601 482 115,654


north of the country. Monthly production is high-est in May, June and September. The annual MSYfor Djibouti’s waters has been calculated at 15,000metric tons although 10,000 metric tons of thismay constitute low value species such as ponyfish(family Leiognathidae) and triggerfish (familyBalistidae). Catches of large pelagics are low, forexample production of tuna was only 13.4 metrictons in 1994 and 10.8 metric tons in 1995. Barra-cuda landings were 21.9 metric tons and 18 metrictons in 1994 and 1995, respectively.

Available statistics for fisheries production inYemen for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden coastsbetween 1995 and 1997 are summarized in Table10 above.

According to official statistics, Yemen’s artisanalfleet has accounted for landings in excess of90,000 metric tons since 1995, comprised mostlyof pelagic species. This perceived increase over1994 statistics is probably due to the effect of thecivil war in 1994 on fishing activities.

According to FAO, Yemen’s industrial and artisa-nal fleets landed 100,400 metric tons in 1998,which tallies well with the trend in catches indi-cated above. This accounts for some 46 percent ofthe Region’s finfish landings, and is double thenext largest producer of finfish in the Region,Egypt. Adding to a 1998 production of inverte-brates of around 9,560 metric tons (mostly cuttle-fish from the Gulf of Aden) and equal to 42percent of the Region’s total, Yemen is the domi-nant fishing country in the Region.

Since 1998, statistics have been collated by theYemeni Ministry of Fish Wealth that separate RedSea and Gulf of Aden production, as indicated inTable 11 below.

However it must be noted that Yemen’s fisheriesstatistics are unreliable because of serious short-comings in the system of data collection and pro-cessing. Landed fish are rarely weighed anywherein Yemen; nearly all landed figures are thereforeestimates made by eye only. This has been the casesince at least 1990 when state control of landingcenters diminished.

Although production records from cooperativesare available, these records represent only a por-tion of the total fish landed by artisanal fishermen.Landings take place elsewhere, outside the juris-diction of the cooperatives, especially when fisher-men are migrating along the coast over the courseof the season. Even when landed at cooperative ormarket sites, the quantity sold is often under-reported to avoid or reduce marketing charges.The portion accurately recorded varies from onearea to another.

Production records for rock lobster are consideredreliable. This is because of the high unit value andthe fact that CFC has a monopoly on the purchaseand export of the lobster. CFC weighs the lobstertails bought and maintains accurate records. Pro-duction in 1998 was 828 metric tons (assumed tailweight) with about equal quantities coming fromthe Sayhut/Qishn area and processed in Mukallaand from the al-Gaida area processed in Dabut.

TABLE 11: TOTAL FISH PRODUCTION (MT) IN YEMEN, RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN COASTS (1998)

Source: Ministry of Fish Wealth, Sana’a, 2000.

No. vessels Fish Cuttle-

fish Squid Shrimp Rock lobster

Deep Sea

lobster

Crabs Total catch

Artisanal sectorCFC n.a. - 82 - - 194 - - 276Cooperative and pri-vate fishermen

8.030 103,681 - - 600 634 - - 104,915

Industrial sector (Gulf of Aden)

65 12,271 3,853 1,134 37 - 17 - 17,312

Industrial sector (Red Sea)

78 4,781 23 - 303 - - 9 5,116

Total 8,173 120,733 3,958 1,134 940 828 17 9 127,619


The level of production has been maintained inrecent years by taking undersized and egg-bearingfemales and also by illegal fishing out of season.This is a major concern for the future of the fish-ery. The lobster fishery is closed June to Septem-ber and the most productive period is October toDecember.

Since 1992 sharks have become the most impor-tant group in terms of volume landed. Prior to that,the highest landings were recorded for Indianmackerel, with 7,300 metric tons recorded in 1991.Landings of all other groups fluctuated during the1990s. Spanish mackerel is the most important fin-fish species in terms of value. Landings of thisspecies are apparently nearly twice as valuable asshrimp according to available records. The same istrue for emperor production. The value of sharklandings is also great due to the high price paid forfins and dried meat. The prime target for industrialtrawlers in the Gulf of Aden is cuttlefish. Of sec-ondary importance are the various species of dem-ersal fish such as bream, emperor, grouper,snapper, barracuda and ribbonfish. Landings ofcuttlefish in 1998 were about 3,800 metric tons,with a total ex-vessel value of 15.2 million).

In Somalia artisanal catches were between 4,070and 7,720 metric tons from 1982 to 1985. Detailedstatistics have not been available since 1988. FAOstatistics do not split the catches between thenorthern coast and the eastern Indian Ocean coast.Catches off the northern coast are currently esti-mated at between 2,000 and 4,000 metric tons(Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Development,2000). Catches have declined since civil strifeerupted in the early 1990s. Between 1990 and1996, catches off the northern coast were probablyaround 1,500 metric tons (excluding sharks). Bestestimates indicate that shark landings in northSomalia accounted for 35-40 percent of totalmarine fish production between 1990 and 1997.Nearshore demersal fish stocks off the northerncoast are likely to be relatively under-exploited.Landings between 1988 and 1998 appear to besmall and well within the sustainable yield poten-tial of available stocks.

4

Post-Harvest Activities

Landing Sites, Onshore Facilities, Processing and Marketing

A summary of landing sites and shore facili-ties is given in Appendix E.

Jordan’s small fleet of artisanal vessels land theirfish un-iced at a single fish landing center, Sidra,near the town of Aqaba. Fish are sold immedi-ately to merchants, hotels and restaurants inAqaba. There are no facilities such as icemachines, cold storage etc. available. Four orfive fish retail shops are located nearby wherefish is sold fresh.

In Egypt, the industrial fleet’s landings are mademainly at three major ports on the Egyptian RedSea coast: Ataka Port in Suez (88 percent ofrecorded landings in 1997), Sakala Port(Ghardaqah (8 percent) and the fishing port atQuseir. Important landing sites for artisanal fish-ermen include Port Tawfik in Suez, al-Dahar(Ghardaqah), Halaib, At Tur (Gulf of Suez) andDahab in the Gulf of Aqaba. Egypt’s main port,Ataka, is the largest fishing port on the Red Seaand is home to most of Egypt’s trawlers, purseseiners and long-liners. The 700 meter quay isprotected by a breakwater and can accommodateup to 30 vessels at a time. Ice producing capacityis 80 metric tons/day. Sakala Port is protected ina bay, has a 100 meters quay and also serves theNavy as well as fishing vessels. The only shorefacility is a fuel store. Quseir port has a quay forfishing vessels, but no other facilities apart froma slipway. Other landing sites are simply beach-

ing sites with no onshore facilities. Ice facilitiesare centerd at Suez, Ghardaqah, Safaga, Quseirand Shalateen.

Port Sudan is the main center for fish consump-tion in Sudan. Other important landing sitesinclude Dongonab Bay, Abu Hashish (close toPort Sudan), Mohammed Gol (160 kilometersnorth of Port Sudan), Arakikyai, Suakin (60 kilo-meters south of Port Sudan) Heidob and SheikIbrahim. Currently at Port Sudan, the MarineFisheries Department owns one operating iceplant with a capacity of 6 metric tons/day, whilethe private sector operates four ice plants with amaximum capacity of 300 metric tons/day. Thepresent production of the four plants is only 100metric tons/day. A large privately owned coldstorage plant with 2,000 tons holding capacity isalso located at Port Sudan. However, ice isalmost always in short supply because of fre-quent water shortages, electricity cut-offs, andincreasing demand. Outside of Port Sudan infra-structure is poorly developed. There are virtuallyno fish handling and processing facilities, roadsare unpaved and communications poor. There areno harbours or sheltered areas along largestretches of the coast except Suakin fishing har-bour, although some coastal lagoons and shel-tered bays or marsas form natural harbours andlanding places. Maintenance and repair work-shops are very scarce. Basic living conditions aregenerally poor and clean drinking water is ascarce commodity. The lack of ice facilities out-

31


side of Port Sudan places heavy pressure onresources that can be marketed without preserva-tion, such as trochus, pearl shell and bêche-de-mer. Fish catches in remote areas (Halaib in thenorth and Aqiq in the south) are consequentlydried or wet salted.

In Yemen the importance of the fisheries sector isreflected in the large number of landing facilitiesavailable for artisanal and industrial fleets. Artisa-nal fishing activities in the Gulf of Aden take placefrom some 50 locations along the 1,500 kilometercoastline. Many of them can only be accessed byfour-wheel drive vehicles over rough dirt roads. Insome areas, particularly al-Mahara, there are onlytracks, which makes it almost impossible to reachthe centers by vehicle. All artisanal boats arepulled up on the beaches or anchored offshore inshallow waters. There are only a few places, suchas Aden, Mukalla, Qusayir and Nishtun, wherenatural rocks or breakwaters provide protectionfrom wind and waves. It is from these places thatthe sanbuks operate, but only Nishtun providessuitable berthing and landing facilities.

Where there is no beach, or where the boats are notpulled up for other reasons, the fishermen swim toand from their anchored boats. During the mon-soon, smaller boats can often not be operated fromthe beaches because of the heavy surf. In al-Mahara Governorate, fishing virtually stops duringthis period. Fishing in Hadhramaut Governorate isalso much less intensive during this time and manyof the fishermen migrate westward.

Nearly all fish is landed on the beach or, as is thecase in Mukalla, on breakwaters. Landing jettieswere provided at a few centers, such as Ras Imran,Shuqra and Bir Ali, under the Third FisheriesDevelopment Project funded by the World Bank,but these are not being used for various reasons. Itappears that fishermen prefer landing on the beachas they have done for centuries and indeed thecraft are designed to run up the sandy shores. Inthe past two decades, artisanal fisheries coopera-tives on the Gulf of Aden have benefited fromthree World Bank-funded fisheries developmentprojects. Assistance to the main landing centersfrom Bir Ali to Ras al-Ara (west of Aden) hasincluded the provision of flake ice plants, jetties,ice stores, insulated vehicles and receiving sheds.

The Fourth Fisheries Project funded by the Inter-national Development Agency (IDA), EuropeanUnion (EU) and International Fund for Agricul-tural Development (IFAD) has provided facilitiesat six of the main landing centers in HadhramautGovernorate—Mukalla, Shihr, al-Hami, al-Qarn,Musaini’a and Sayhut. Each comprises a receivingarea/auction hall, petrol storage and pump dis-penser, ice plant (5-10 metric tons/day), ice store,chill store, freshwater and sewerage, training andspare parts, site civil works and access road. Thesesix centers are now operated by local cooperatives.

The Port of Aden is the base for the trawler fleetoperating in the Gulf of Aden. It is a speciallydesigned fishing port situated within the commer-cial port area. It was built with assistance from theformer Soviet Union and construction was com-pleted in 1988. It is managed by the National Cor-porat ion for Services and Fish Marketing(NCSFM). A number of flag vessels from Egypt,Somalia, Djibouti and Sudan frequent the port forprovisions or unloading catches.

The port has a wharf length of 620 meters alongwhich there are three gantry cranes with capacitiesvarying from 5 to 20 metric tons. The port wasdesigned to accommodate a fleet of 77 vessels (43freezer trawlers, 2 tuna long-liners, 2 fish carriersof 1,000 metric tons capacity and 30 large san-buks). The number of vessels that have used theport to date is far less than was intended. The totalarea of the port is 8.5 hectares and includes:

• A 2,000 metric tons cold storage complexwhich also contains a 100 metric tons/day icemaker, a general fish handling/processing areaand a fishing gear manufacturing and repairarea.

• Extensive engineering, repair and general ser-vice workshops.

• A GRP boatyard for small craft, operated byCFC.

• A large multi-story management and adminis-tration building.

Aden Dockyard is the main facility available forrepair and maintenance of large fishing vessels. Itis managed by the National Dockyard Corpora-tion, a semi-autonomous organization under the


Ministry of Transport, and has a staff of about 450people.

The infrastructure of the dockyard consists of:

• Large multi-purpose engineering workshops.

• Two floating dry-docks of 4,500 metric tonand 1,500 metric ton capacity.

• A 500 metric ton slipway with adjacent 40metric ton gantry crane.

The dockyard provides repair and maintenanceservices for a variety of national and foreign ves-sels, including fishing vessels. However, fishingcompanies report they often experience difficultieswhen utilizing its services due to a lack of techni-cal competence in the dockyard regarding modernvessel equipment and the long time required forcompletion of repair and maintenance services.The latter is due partly to the wait for spares andpartly to inefficiency. Most industrial vesselstherefore undergo routine maintenance and majorrepairs in Dubai.

Nishtun Port is located 60 kilometers west of al-Gaida, the capital of al-Mahara Governorate. Itwas completed in 1984 at a cost of USD 45 mil-lion, financed by a World Bank consortium. Theintention was to provide a base for industrial fish-ing vessels, support for the artisanal fisheries andberthing facilities for general cargo vessels.

The port infrastructure and facilities comprise:

• A main wharf of 210 meters with a waterdepth of 4.5 meters plus a 150 meters wharffor smaller boats.

• A small craft slipway, engineering and carpen-try workshops.

• A desalination plant and power station.

• A fisheries complex, including a 40 metric tonflake ice plant, a 160 metric ton ice store, three10 metric ton blast freezers and four 200 met-ric ton cold stores.

The port has hardly been utilized at all, except toaccommodate a small fleet of forty to fifty GRPOBM-driven artisanal fishing boats. The facilitieshave not been operated since 1995 due to problemswith the power plant. Major repairs are needed butno action taken, partly due to shared but unclear

responsibilities between authorities. The Ministryof Fish Wealth, through NCSFM, is responsiblefor the fisheries facilities but, as of May 1996, thebasic infrastructure and the power generation areunder the Yemen Ports Authority of the Ministryof Transport.

Khalf Port, located on the eastern side of Mukalla,was built as a combined fisheries and generalcargo port in the early 1980s. The port is nowadministered by the Yemen Ports Authority and itsuse by fishing vessels is restricted. The port hasfacilities for refuelling and provision of water, butsupplies are limited and are not used by the fishingfleet. Along the Red Sea coast, port facilities forindustrial fishing vessels are limited to al-Huday-dah, Salif and Mokha.

Along the length of the Yemeni Red Sea coastthere are some forty fishing communities. al-Hudaydah, located about halfway up the Red Seacoast, is the most important center for fish land-ings and marketing. Many of the boats and fisher-men landing at al-Hudaydah come from othervillages or towns along the coast. The second mostimportant center is Khobah, to the north of al-Hudaydah. The third is Khokha to the south of al-Hudaydah. Nearly all the other centers are remoteand provide few facilities. They are only accessi-ble through desert tracks by four-wheel drive vehi-cles. Only al-Hudaydah and Mokha, further south,can at present be reached by asphalt roads but anew road is being laid to Khokha. The poor roadconnections not only cause human hardship butalso make the marketing of fish difficult, withresultant lower prices offered to the fishermen.Fish are unloaded a short distance away from thebeach, depending on the water depth, and then car-ried by men wading up on to the beach. The boatsare usually anchored, and only beached for main-tenance or for longer breaks. During the winterseason, from October to December, the winds arefrom the south and the sea is rough, making opera-tion from the beach hazardous. The smaller boatsthen stop fishing or migrate to more protectedareas among numerous small inshore islands.

Hudaydah has a fishing harbour that was built in1982-1983 under a project funded by the WorldBank and the Danish International DevelopmentAssistance (DANIDA). It provides a 140 meter


unloading area, an auction hall, slipway, boat andgear repair area, and a berthing area for sanbuksand huris. Chill rooms for ice and fish originallyinstalled have been removed. The harbour hasbeen of vital importance for the expansion anddevelopment of Red Sea fisheries over the past fif-teen years. It still is, but cannot accommodate anyfurther expansion of the fishing fleet. The harbourarea is very congested. There are also seriousproblems with silting, and the basin is becomingtoo shallow for the larger sanbuks. The littoraldrift of sand has filled the entire area on the south-ern side of the harbour, up to the end of the break-water. In Khobah, a pier with a total unloadingarea of 90 meters was constructed under the sameWorld Bank/DANIDA project but cannot be usedany longer due to silting. The Government ofYemen is at present seeking external support ofabout USD 14 million for a project to rehabilitatecoastal areas around al-Hudaydah that have beenaffected by silting and erosion. The project pro-posal contains components for civil works at the‘al-Hudaydah Beach and Fishing Harbour’ and the‘Khobah Fishing Harbour and Village.’

Shore facilities along Somalia’s Gulf of Adencoastline are extremely limited; only two plantsand cold stores are known, but these weredestroyed during the civil unrest. Major landingsites include Caluula, Xabo, Qandala, Laas Qoray,Berbera, Lughaye and Saylac. The tuna canneriesat Xabo, Laas Qoray and Qandala and the coldstore at Bosaso have all been destroyed during thecivil conflict. By 1996 only a few small container-ized chill rooms in the north and mobile vehiclecold storage were available. The cold store at Ber-bera has been repaired by COOPI, an Italian non-governmental organization (NGO), and is nowoperational. The predominance of summer sharkfishing in Somalia is mainly due to the absence ofcold storage and processing facilities along thecoast. Salting and sun drying of shark has devel-oped, especially since 1990, except for a shortperiod from 1989 to 1993, at the height of the civilstrife. Dried shark fin production nevertheless con-tinued throughout Somalia’s civil disturbances.Since 1995 local entrepreneurs have utilized largeformer trawlers as floating processing stations andpurchase the catches of local artisanal fishermen.

It is reported that only grouper and snapper largerthan 1 kilogram per specimen are accepted.

Fish Marketing and DistributionIn Egypt, Red Sea catches are marketed

locally at the major landing site in Suez, and therest are sent to markets in Cairo. At Ghardaqah thefish distribution systems are also similar to thoseof Suez, but marginal quantities are also marketedin Qena market in the Nile valley. The bulk of fishdistribution is handled by private fish traders. Only5 percent of purse seine landings and 20 percent oftrawler landings are sold locally at Suez andGhardaqah; the rest goes to the Cairo markets. Percapita consumption of fisheries products in Egyptwas 9 kilograms/year in 1995 compared with 4.5kilograms/year in 1980 and 7.3 kilograms/year in1992. Around 80 percent of domestic marketingand distribution of fish is handled by private sectormerchants, with public sector corporations han-dling the remaining 20 percent. The private sectoris organized through fishing cooperatives. Thesesell through wholesalers by auction. Wholesalersthen sell on to the local market or transport the fishto larger centers to fish markets or retailers.

In Saudi Arabia most of the fisheries products aremarketed fresh in ice (chilled). Ice is commonlyused on fishing boats, on the shore and also inretail shops. In the past decade fish marketing hasbeen developed by the private sector using a largenumber of refrigerated trucks and modern fishretail shops. A small portion of fishing products ismarketed frozen or canned, and smoked fisheriesproducts are also exported.

In Sudan, fish are mostly marketed in Port Sudan.Catches from landing sites up and down the coastare marketed through the capital by private sectortraders. In addition, the Marine Fisheries Depart-ment operates a fish distribution center in PortSudan. Fish are marketed fresh, both un-iced andchilled on ice. Fish are sun-dried at Halaib andAbu Ramad landing sites, shark fins and seacucumbers at Aqiq. The remoteness of fishing vil-lages, poor roads and communications, and a gen-eral lack of shore facilities are major factorscontributing to low levels of production and poorproduct quality. Trochus shells are exportedunprocessed through merchants to markets in


Italy, Germany and Spain where they are use formaking buttons and jewelry. The meat is not con-sumed prior to processing.

In Djibouti 90 percent of the catch is landed in Dji-bouti City and consumed close to point of landing,because of the lack of markets elsewhere. The dis-tribution chain and marketing system for fish inDjibouti is very localized. In the 1980s over 70percent of artisanal catches were marketed throughthe Association Coopérative des Pêches Maritimes(ACPM). No details are available on ACPM’s cur-rent status.

In Yemen, prior to unification in 1990, all fishmarketing in the former People’s DemocraticRepublic of Yemen (PDRY) was controlled andcarried out by the NCSFM, although from 1979onwards cooperatives were allowed to sell fishdirectly to consumers at prices 50 percent abovethose set by NCSFM. These purchases were thenmarketed at low prices throughout the year in anattempt to supply even remote areas of southernYemen. In complete contrast, fish marketing in theformer Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) was leftentirely to the private sector.

Fish marketing has changed a great deal since uni-fication and the relaxation of government controlsin southern Yemen. Fish is still bought by the gov-ernment sector organizations NCSFM and CFC,but the vast majority of artisanal production is pur-chased by private sector traders and companies.

On the Red Sea coast all production is bought bythe private sector. Literally thousands of small pri-vate traders and a smaller number of trading com-panies buy fish from beachside auction sites andsell to wholesalers or retailers. Insulated four-wheel drive vehicles are used to preserve the fishon ice.

It is reported that substantial quantities are pur-chased and exported to Saudi Arabia, destined forretail and wholesale markets or re-export. Esti-mates received suggested that 60 percent of fishand 90 percent of shrimp production in 1996 wasexported to Saudi Arabia. Landed catches are pur-chased by small private trading operations orlarger private companies. NCSFM figures suggestthat in 1996 a total of 30,000 metric tons of fishwere landed on the Red Sea coast valued at

YER 3,132 million (though these figures may onlyreflect landings and/or prices at al-Hudaydah).Kingfish, bream and shrimp are the most commer-cially important species landed in al-Hudaydah interms of total value.

Along the Gulf of Aden coastline artisanal catchesare purchased predominantly by private tradersand companies. NCSFM and CFC are alsoinvolved in fish marketing.

Artisanal fishing is mostly conducted with smallhuris operating on single-day trips. The fishermenoperating these boats do not take ice to sea.Catches are stored directly on the open deck, in thebilges or sometimes in wooden boxes in areas thatare likely to be contaminated by bacteria left overfrom previous catches. Often the catch is leftuncovered, though sometimes tarpaulins are used.

Larger huris and sanbuks in the Red Sea workmulti-day fishing trips because they carry andstore the catch on ice. Such large huris have beenadapted to incorporate insulated fish holds or insome cases chest freezers are simply used to holdiced fish.

In general fish are not headed or gutted at sea andthe majority of the artisanal catch from small hurisreceives no icing until after first sale at auction.

Along the Gulf of Aden the majority of artisanalsales are carried out through well established auc-tions run by the fisheries cooperatives (establishedduring the former PDRY) and newly formed (post-unification) societies. Facilities vary throughoutthe southern coast: some cooperatives and societ-ies hold beach auctions while others use landingquays and specially built auction sites.

As a variety of services are provided by fisheriescooperatives and societies, a range of different lev-ies are charged at auction on the value of fish sold.NCSFM collects a 3 percent marketing fee and theprivate auctioneer generally receives 5 percent.Most cooperatives and societies charge a 2 percentfee for payment into a Social Fund and some of themore established or active organizations makeextra charges to fishermen and recently to tradersas well.

Fishermen landing in the more remote villageswhere there are no auction facilities either have


direct supply contracts with private traders, privatecompanies, NCSFM or CFC, or they arrange fortheir catches to be transported to nearby auctionsby pooling transport facilities within the village.

On the Red Sea coast the majority of artisanal fishproduction is sold at beach auctions operated andregulated according to local tradition. Fishermensocieties exist at Midi, al-Hudaydah, al-Khokhaand Mokha. They collect 2 percent of the value ofmembers’ sales as contributions to the SocialFund, but it is not clear what other services theyoffer at auctions. NCSFM representatives arebased in Midi, Khobah, al-Hudaydah, Khokha andMokha and collect 3 percent of the value of fishsold as a marketing fee. They do not assist in theauctioning process. It is reported that they collectmarketing information on prices and species soldalthough volume figures do not corroborate this.

Locally appointed private auctioneers commandthe auction process. The senior auctioneer con-ducts the day’s affairs and assists in the collectionof fees from fishermen including his own 5-10 per-cent of the value of sales. As the auctioneers bothearn and deal with large volumes of cash, they canprovide credit to buyers to facilitate transactionsand to fishermen and their families for both fishingand social affairs.

The largest auction on the Red Sea is located at al-Hudaydah. The auctioneers are private individualsbut NCSFM manages the facilities by maintainingthe port, landing areas, and auction hall, and pro-viding electricity and running water. It is alsoresponsible for recording sales values and someweights.

In Saudi Arabia, fish are marketed chilled on ice.The national distribution of fish has improved dra-matically in the past ten years due to significantprivate sector investment in fish landing, process-ing and marketing. In the vanguard of this devel-opment has been the SFC, which has pioneered theuse of refrigerated trucks for fish distribution.Fishing vessels use ice far more than is commonelsewhere in the Red Sea area. Value-added pro-cesses such as freezing, canning and smoking arein their infancy.

In Somalia there is little fish marketing activityalong the northern Gulf of Aden coastline due to

the danger posed by civil unrest, which affectsevery aspect of the national economy. Apart fromthe urban centers of Berbera and Hargeisa, wherelocal markets are always available, other outletsfor artisanal catches include the industrial process-ing plants at Berbera, Bosaso, Laas Qoray, Qan-dala and Xabo on the northern coast. Some privateentrepreneurs occasionally export small quantitiesof rock lobsters, Panulirus versicolour, and dem-ersal fish such as grouper and snapper to UnitedArab Emirates and Oman. About 150 tons of driedand salted sharks are exported to the East Africanport of Mombasa. Markets for dried shark prod-ucts include Zanzibar as well as Mombasa, alongwith strong domestic demand. Shark fins also areexported to Dubai and southeast Asian markets.

Nature of Processes and ProductsFish in Egypt are landed either fresh/unchilled

or fresh/chilled on ice from both commercial andartisanal vessels. Some species, such as mullet, aresalted in the traditional way, especially in thesouth of the country, and fetch high prices for usein certain religious and customary occasions.Canned fish is produced by the Edfina public com-pany from two plants at Damietta and Port Said,using imported horse mackerel and sardine as rawmaterials. Smoked fish is produced by four plantswith a total capacity of 370 metric tons/year,which belong to the state-owned Egyptian FishMarketing Company. The private sector also hasseven plants producing 80 metric tons per year.Salted fish is produced by small private businesseswith a total amount of 3000 metric tons/year. Fish-meal is produced by a public sector company intwo plants which have a 70 metric tons/year capac-ity and by two small private units with a totalcapacity of 8 metric tons/year.

In Sudan fish is distributed to the domestic marketmostly fresh and chilled on ice in the areas close toPort Sudan. Facilities for ice production have beendetailed elsewhere. Shark fins and sea cucumberare dried for export. The salted sun-dried operculaof shells are used as a fixative in Sudanese per-fumes. Processing of trochus or kokian shells (pri-marily Tectus dentatus), is simple: the meat is leftto rot. Shells are then put in large rolling perfo-rated cylinders and washed under a pressure jet.After drying they are bagged for export as round,


unprocessed shells. They are used ultimately forthe manufacture of buttons and jewelry.

The availability of processing plants onshore andonboard fishing vessels has enabled Yemen to pro-duce a wide range of fisheries products, particu-larly along the Gulf of Aden coast. These productsinclude traditional salted, sun-dried and hot-smoked small and large pelagic species such asanchovy, sardine, mackerel and tuna. During the1970s processing commenced on board the indus-trial trawler fleet and a range of new products wasdeveloped mainly for export markets. Theseincluded frozen cuttlefish, deep sea lobsters, deepsea prawns and demersal fishes. Value-addedproducts produced onshore include IndividuallyQuick Frozen (IQF) lobster tails, pelagic and dem-ersal fishes, as well as shrimp, dried shark fins anddried bêche-de-mer.

Today most domestic production landed by artisa-nal fishermen is not processed. At first sale largerfish, such as tuna, are gutted but other species arenot cleaned. With the exception of boats workingmulti-day fishing trips, artisanal catches are notput on ice until after first sale.

Large fish, such as tuna, kingfish, barracuda, etc.,are sold to domestic consumers by the kilogram.Smaller fish, such as emperor, snapper, mullet,Indian mackerel, etc., are sold whole. Fish des-tined for domestic sale is generally not frozen orfilleted, especially in coastal areas where consum-ers expect fresh, whole produce. Frozen fish isbecoming more acceptable further inland in theWadi Hadhramaut and larger towns and cities butthe proportion of frozen to total fish sold to con-sumers is low, perhaps no more than 10 percent.

Some fish is preserved by traditional methods. AtHarounia, on the Red Sea coast, Indian mackereland mullet are salted and smoked and can be seenon sale at villages along the main road. Indian oilsardine (Sardinella longiceps) is spread on theground to dry for up to four days in easternHadhramaut and al-Mahara Governorates. Driedsardine is used principally as animal feed (mainlyfor camels) but some human consumption is alsoreported. Recently, a sizeable export business hasdeveloped, with sacks of dried sardine transportedby large sanbuks east to Oman. In Seyoun(Hadhramaut Governorate) dried tuna and bonito

are purchased by low income consumers. Sometuna and kingfish pieces are cooked, smoked anddried in stone-lined pits over embers. Indian oilsardine is a good source of fish oil, which isextracted over 3 to 4 days by placing the fish underpressure and then separating the oil from thewater. The dried residue is sold as fertilizer.

In Yemen, artisanal production destined for theexport market is processed using a variety of sim-ple methods. Private traders and the Shihr Fisher-men’s Society prepare fish in the following ways:

• Whole red snapper, grouper, kingfish, trevally,etc. are washed, but not gutted, frozen andwrapped in plastic.

• Fresh tuna are washed, gutted, graded byweight, put on ice and packaged.

Private companies with better facilities tend toprocess purchases for export in the followingways:

• Shrimp are washed, sorted and graded intosize bands. ‘Head-on’ shrimp account for 75percent of production, with the remaining 25percent are peeled and have the headsremoved. Packaging displays the country andcompany of origin.

• Frozen yellowfin tuna fillets are packed intolocally manufactured cartons holding 15 and20 kilograms total weight.

• Cuttlefish are cleaned, frozen and placed in 20kilogram cartons.

• Sea cucumber are boiled, dried and bagged in25 kilograms packs.

It should be noted that a large proportion ofexports from both private traders and companiesare re-processed in Dubai by purchasers or associ-ated companies.

CFC processes rock lobster for export by washing,sorting and separately wrapping tails which areblast frozen in 10 kilogram cartons. In the past,whole frozen and whole cooked rock lobster havealso been processed for export. In addition, a pri-vate company is supplied with live lobster byCFC. Of 100 metric tons bought in 1995-1996only 65 metric tons survived export. As part of thecontract, mortalities are returned to CFC.


All processing by companies holding industriallicences, with the exception of Egyptian shrimptrawlers, is carried out at sea. Fish are cleaned,sorted, frozen (to -25°C), nylon packed and placedin cold storage (-30°C). One company exportsblocks of tailless emperor with a net weight of 10-20 kilograms and blocks of cuttlefish of 12.5 kilo-grams net weight.

Egyptian shrimp trawlers operating under licencein the Red Sea do not land catches in Yemen at all.Shrimp are iced while at sea and processed onreturn to Egypt.

Sharks are sometimes gutted and headed while atsea. Fins are removed from larger fish, salted anddried in the sun. In al-Hudaydah whole sharks arelanded either fresh or salted at sea. The sun dryingof shark fins in al-Hudaydah is usually contractedout by exporters and the meat is sold locally. Sharkliver is boiled to extract the oil that is used locallyfor sanbuk wood.

Two fish canneries at Shuqra and Mukalla on theGulf of Aden coastline currently can sardines,mackerel and tuna. The total capacity is around13.8 million cans annually. The two plants operateindependently but cooperate in terms of exchang-ing supplies. The plants suffer from fish supplyproblems as well as shortage of foreign exchangeto import spare parts. The production of the Shu-qra canning plant was 2.975 million cans in 1994,but it dropped to 1.7 million cans in 1995 due tolong periods of low supplies. The canning plant inMukalla, which has a small fishmeal unit forreduction of offal, has increased its production by19 percent from 1.719 million cans in 1994 to2.132 million cans in 1995. The fishmeal produc-tion in 1995 was 59.130 metric tons. Small quanti-ties of canned tuna in oil are annually exportedmainly to Saudi Arabia. Apart from these canner-ies and sardine and anchovy drying in the easternpart of the country, scope for fish processing inYemen is limited. The best value-added will beachieved by concentrating on fresh products ofhigh value (MEP, 1999).

Private sector activity in the fish market hasincreased markedly since unification. This isexpected to continue especially if the Ministry ofFish Wealth’s Public Enterprises are restructuredor privatized since this will remove inefficient,

subsidized organizations that have played a keyrole in the fisheries sector.

In Somalia canning plants situated along the Gulfof Aden coastline have been destroyed as a resultof civil unrest.

Quality Control of Fish ProductsIn Egypt, more than one government depart-

ment/ministry is responsible for inspection of fishprocessing establishments and quality control mat-ters. The systems currently in place have devel-oped in an ad hoc manner over the years and are inneed of rationalization.

In Yemen, the Ministry of Fish Wealth’s qualitycontrol activities are limited. All export consign-ments are supposed to undergo routine qualitychecks before they can be issued with a HealthCertificate. There are no testing facilities locatedoutside Aden and so it would appear that in thoseareas only visual checks are made. Samples fromconsignments in Aden can be sent to the qualitycontrol laboratories on Labour Island or a newfacility that has been constructed in the fisheriesport area under the Fourth Fisheries DevelopmentProject. There they undergo chemical, sensory andmicro-biological analysis. However, an evaluationof procedures conducted in 1994 (MEP 1994c)indicated that tests that are undertaken are unlikelyto provide conclusive indications of product qual-ity.

The largest export problem Yemen currently facesconcerns products destined for the EU, whichrequires that third country fisheries products beproduced according to the standards outlined inCouncil Directive (91/493/EEC)3 concerninghealth conditions for production and marketing offisheries products in Europe. This Directive out-lines minimum cleanliness, hygiene and organisa-t ional s tandards in handl ing, process ing,packaging and transporting by individual compa-nies. Since July 1, 1998, no fisheries products ofYemeni origin have been allowed into the EU.

3. Commission Decision of 22nd July 1991 laying down the health conditions for the production and the placing on the market of fisheries products 91/493/EEC. Official Journal of the European Communities. No. L 268/15 (24/9/91).


Yemen is working to put in place appropriateguidelines, facilities and quality assurance meas-ures that meet EU quality standards in order toregain access to the European market.

Capacity and Value-added Production (since 1988)

Data for value-added production are notreadily available from the PERSGA memberstates. Some information is available from Yemen,which in 1996 exported and re-exported 64 percentof all types of goods to other Arab countries. TheUAE, Saudi Arabia and Qatar receive 93 percentof Yemen’s total exports and re-exports to Arabcountries (MEP, 1999). Prior to 1998 the EuropeanEconomic Community (EEC) accounted for 25percent of all exports and re-exports, while Amer-ica, Asia and Africa each received between 3 and 4percent. Fisheries exports follow a similar pattern,with the exception that more fisheries exports goto Jordan, rather than Qatar. It should be noted thata significant proportion of fisheries exports toArab countries are destined for re-export to Europebut detailed figures are not available.

Environmental Issues and Precautions Regarding Processing

Virtually no information is available concern-ing the environmental issues with regard to pro-cessing operations throughout the Region. InSudan, fish are simply iced after landing. No pro-cessing plants exist, other than a shell cleaning/grading and packing plant opened in Port Sudan in1995. Planned activities under the Arab Invest-ment Group for a Sudan Integrated FisheriesProject include the establishment of a tuna can-nery, shrimp processing plant, fishmeal factoryand shrimp feed mill. Tuna will be caught bySudanese vessels operating in the Gulf of Adenand shipped in refrigerated trucks to Port Sudan.An optimistic volume of 40,000 metric tons peryear is envisaged. The shrimp plant is to have athroughput of 30,000 metric tons per year, prima-rily from existing and planned shrimp farms. Allrecoverable wastes will be converted to meal at arate of 4,000 metric tons per year, which will beutilized by the feed plant. Environmental impactsof these planned developments include: filling inof coastal areas for wharf/factory construction and

possible siltation of neighboring reefs; effluentdischarges to the marine environment; andincreased demand for the already limited freshwa-ter supply in Port Sudan.

5

Socio-Economic Aspects

The significance of fisheries to the econo-mies of the Region is reflected in a number ofindicators including the following:

• Number of fishermen directly employed.

• Employment generated in activities directlyor indirectly related to fisheries.

• Fish supply to the national market.

• Revenues generated from exports, accessfees, licences, penalties for infringementsand other duties.

Human Resources in the Marine Fisheries Sector

Socio-economic aspects of each of thePERSGA states are presented in Appendix F.The institutional framework in which fisheriesare managed, discussed in Chapter 6 also con-tains information of human resources.

In Egypt, figures for 1995 indicate a total of9,024 artisanal and semi-industrial fishermen.Some 400 government staff and 10,000 otherpersons are involved in training, processing andmarketing. A number of authorities are responsi-ble for supervision of the Red Sea fisheries. Themain agency responsible for training is theGAFRD of the Ministry of Agriculture. Thenumber of staff engaged in the Egyptian Red SeaFisheries Department is 30 persons and 23 per-sons are responsible or the 12 fishermen cooper-atives (Barrania, 1992).

In Saudi Arabia the Ministry of Agriculture,Water and Fisheries Affairs supervises the fish-eries sector. Training for staff members is contin-uous, through fellowships for overseas training,and on-the-job training programmes. Research-ers have undertaken study tours to at least eightcountries in the past to improve their technicalskills. International expertise is available for in-country and on-the-job training of Saudiresearchers.

In Sudan the government has about forty-eighttechnical personnel working in fisheries manage-ment and services, fourteen fisheries researchersand ten staff members at the Faculty of MarineSciences and Fisheries and the Marine ResearchInstitute of the Red Sea University. There arefew records available for personnel in the privatesector. Although eleven societies are registered,with a total of 600 members, only two are activeand successful, each with around 100 memberfishermen.

In Djibouti the Directorate of Stock-farming andFisheries (DEP, Direction de l'élevage et despêches) in the Ministry of Agriculture andHydraulic is responsible for supervision of andpolicy formulation for the fisheries sector.

In Yemen, particularly on the southern coastline(Gulf of Aden and Eastern Arabian Sea), thegovernment of the ex-PDRY was heavilyinvolved in fisheries production processing, localmarketing and export of fish and fisheries prod-ucts. There were 565 staff members at the head-

41


quarters of the Ministry of Fish Wealth in Sana'a in1997. The Ministry of Fish Wealth supervises theMSRRC with its Mariculture Resources Centerand Marine Pollution Center (MPC), the FisheriesTraining Institute (FTI) in Aden, the NCSFM andthe CFC. In 1997 the MSRRC had 169 staff, theFTI had 84 staff, and NCSFM had 1,130 staff. TheCFC had a total of 546 employees, including thecrew on its fleet engaged in rock lobster and otherfisheries (about 350 crew members). It is worthmentioning that the total number of governmentemployees in the Ministry of Fish Wealth and theother fisheries institutions is 3,000, without count-ing personnel of the two canning plants and theindustrial fleet crew. A review of the Ministry ofFish Wealth’s institutional structure conducted in1992 (MEP, 1994d) suggested reductions rangingfrom 22 percent to more than 50 percent in somedepartments to make the Ministry more efficientunder the framework of reform policies and priva-tization.

Employment from processing in Yemen is signifi-cant. Some cooperatives and societies on thesouthern coast have full-time employees whoreceive a base salary while others pay a part-timewage to active fishermen who help run the organi-zation. Opportunities also exist for entrepreneurswith their own transport to supply ice to fishermenin more remote areas. This is done, for example, atSalif on the Red Sea where ice is brought dailyfrom al-Hudaydah some 100 kilometers away. InKhokha, fish from nearby fishing sites is broughtin baskets on motorcycles.

At al-Hudaydah fishing port hundreds of people,excluding traders, crew and government staff, areinvolved in carrying fish; supplying petrol, diesel,and ice; and selling fish baskets, food, tea andclothes. Thousands of young men and boys findcasual labour at landing sites and auctions aroundYemen helping gut fish, move and load trader’spurchases, unload fish holds or refill them withice.

There are hundreds of private traders operatingwithin Yemen and around ten to twenty privatecompanies operating in the fisheries sector employincreasing numbers of workers—possibly as manyas 2,000. No women are involved in fishing, and

very few have any involvement in fish processingor marketing.

AffiliationsIn Egypt, most fishermen come from the NileDelta, Fayum and other upper Egypt provinces.Fisheries resources in the southern Red Sea are tar-geted by three groups:

• Sedentary Bedouin fishermen, belonging tothe Besharin and Ababda tribes: small groupsof 7-10 fishermen, particularly in Foul Bay,using small wooden boats with veranda nets,cast nets and hook and line. Production is con-sumed locally, with some salted or sun-dried.Most lack boats or vehicles and are thereforerestrained in terms of fishing effort and marketdistribution.

• Migratory fishermen: fishermen fromGhardaqah, Safaga and El Quseir who followfishing patterns down the coast, particularlythe migratory grey and red mullet, duringOctober to February. They usually establishseasonal fishing camps and possess motorizedboats supported by vehicles. It is understoodthat increasing numbers of professional fisher-men from the Mediterranean coast are alsoparticipating in Red Sea fisheries.

• The semi-industrial fleet of purse seiners andtrawlers from the north who target sardine anddemersal fish respectively and are predomi-nately based in Suez.

Fisheries provide an important income earningopportunity for the first two groups noted above(that is, the sedentary Bedouin and the seasonalmigratory fishermen) and shore access is essentialto both groups. This is particularly the case fortrammel net fishermen, who usually lack boats andneed to walk across the shoreline and reef flat inorder to set the net. Despite shoreline planningrestrictions, there is already some conflict betweentourism development and traditional fishing inter-ests, and some level of compromise needs to beintegrated into proposed shoreline managementplans.

In Saudi Arabia, nearly all fishermen are foreign-ers, employed by Saudi vessel owners. In Djibouti


a large but unknown proportion of fishermen fromYemen operate vessels owned by Djiboutians.

In Sudan, the Beja (Kushitic/Hematic origin) havebeen considered as indigenous and the largest eth-nic tribe in the eastern state. Within the Beja groupthe Amarar and Besharin sub-groups occupy thenorthern part of the Red Sea province and are bothnomadic pastoralists and fishermen. The Hadan-dawa and Beni Amer sub-groups in the south Kas-sala state are agro-pastoralists and fishermen. The‘Rachides’ are active fishermen in Suakin.

In Yemen tribal affiliations and influences areweak in the coastal areas. The growth of ports andsea trade with distant countries in southeast Asiaand East Africa has fostered a mix of populationsin Yemeni coastal communities, especially on thesouth coast, for example in the Gulf of Aden mainports of Aden and Mukalla and in rural fishingcommunity centers such as Shuqra, Bir Ali andShihr.

Social Structure and Employment StructureLiteracy levels of Egyptian fishermen are

around 95 percent. By law fishermen have tobelong to a pension scheme, but health and lifeinsurance is not normally provided by the vesselowner or fisherman himself. Most fishermen in theartisanal fleet are related or belong to one family.Interestingly, fishermen in the south—Ras Banas,Shalateen and Halaib—all belong to a single tribe.There is a noticeable trend toward leaving fishingto work in catering, mining or drilling. Reasonscited include pollution, limited fishing ground andinadequate fishing related facilities.

From an employment perspective, upstream anddownstream employment associated with fishingaccounts for some 1 million jobs. Fisheries relatedemployment accounted for 3.7 percent of totalagricultural sector employment in 1997. Forty-sixpercent of fishermen are marine, 54 percent areemployed in freshwater fisheries.

In Sudan, the main source of employment statisticsis the 1993 population census. The Red Sea Statehas a population of 434,000. Out of this group,49.7 percent were defined as economically active.Out of the total economically active population, 79percent were employed. Of those employed, 70.3

percent were living in urban and the rest in ruralareas, 33.2 percent worked in agriculture and fish-eries, 21.6 percent in community and social ser-vices, 16.4 percent in transport and storage and13.9 percent in wholesale and retail services.

Employment opportunities in the State are largelylimited to the urban centers, above all Port Sudanand Tokar. Although agriculture and fisheries pro-vide some employment opportunities for the ruralpopulation, these sectors are of minor importanceas compared to urban employers. The fisheriessector, although potentially important, does notemploy a large number of people. The reasons are:limited marketing opportunities, inadequate trans-port facilities, the lack of cold storage, and limitedpolicies relating to fish resource utilization. Atpresent, fisheries rank very low in the resource uti-lization priorities of the Red Sea State. Coastalpeople are semi-nomadic. Fishing is their mainactivity, along with herding and goats/camels.Fishermen are often illiterate, very poor and live atsubsistence level in villages scattered along thecoast. Basic services such as clean drinking waterare largely absent.

In Yemen, artisanal fish processing does not pro-vide direct employment for many people in fishingcommunities. It is difficult to calculate theemployment generated by private companies andtraders as this is a new and expanding sector.However, from information gathered during fieldvisits, it is estimated that between 2,000 and 3,000people are employed in private fish export andprocessing operations, with a range of between 5and 200 employees per enterprise.

Average Income and Estimated Cost of LivingFishermen in the Suez area in Egypt are

described as having an ‘average’ living standard.For artisanal fishermen, 50 percent of catch earn-ings are distributed equally to the crew and theremainder put aside for operational and mainte-nance costs. For the industrial fleet, 70 percentgoes to the vessel owner from which all operatingcosts are deducted. The remainder is dividedbetween the skipper and mechanic, with a smalleramount to each crewman. Artisanal fishermen earnaround EGP 300-400 per month during the season,compared to EGP 800-1,000 per month for semi-


industrial crewmen. Skipper and mechanicincomes are three times higher. These incomes arereasonable when compared with the average costof living at around EGP 330 in urban areas andEGP 273 in rural areas. Most fishermen in Egyptsupport a family of 6-8 persons. A large portion ofthe fisherman’s income is spent on food and chil-dren’s education.

In Sudan, salaries and wages are generally lowwhile inflation may be as high as 200 percent permonth. Wage policies are set by the government.Currently, the minimum basic monthly wage foran unskilled labourer is SDP 10,000. It may reachSDP 50,000 for a government official. The privatesector offers higher salaries than the government,with a minimum basic monthly salary of SDP30,000 for an unskilled labourer and up to SDP200,000 for a senior employee. The average costof living for a household of five persons has beenestimated to range between SDP 50,000 and300,000 per month. Average income for huris tar-geting the fresh fish market is SDP 42,167 per yearnear Port Sudan, but in remote landing sites theincome drops to SDP 18,525. Huris working onshell collection in remote areas do not have higherincome levels than other fishermen in those areas,whereas those operating in shell and dried fish domake more, for example, SDP 21,300/year nearHalaib. An average fisherman’s family consists of6-7 dependants, and most live in huts or sheltersmade of wood and tin-plate. Most depend on mid-dlemen who provide loans for fishing operationsagainst delivery of the catch.

In Yemen, the highest incomes are found in therock lobster fishery in al-Mahara/Hadhramaut andin the yellowfin fishery in Hadhramaut where sea-sonal incomes average YER 40,000-100,000(USD 317-793) per fisherman per month. In theextreme eastern and western parts of the coast,where the catch contains relatively large portionsof low va lue f i sh , ea rn ings may be on lyYER 5,000 (USD 40) per fisherman per month.There are no studies available in Yemen on the liv-ing standard of fishermen, only anecdotal informa-tion and visual observations with all theirshortcomings. However, these differences inincome are clearly reflected in the activities, livingconditions and attitudes of the fishermen. Some ofthe better-off fishing families in the Mukalla-Shihr

area own cars, have good houses with satellitetelevision, modern kitchen equipment, wall to wallfloor coverings and mobile telephones. These andothers near larger population centers also benefitfrom relatively good social services. At the otherend of the scale there are poor fishing familieswith very low incomes, living at subsistence levelin isolated villages where social facilities and ser-vices such as water, electricity and health care arelimited or absent. Without any systematically col-lected data, it is not possible to assess the situationin any quantitative terms.

The size of the Yemeni fishing population on theRed Sea stands at about 16,000. Most of the fisher-men seem to fish full-time as an occupation. Own-ers of fishing vessels have earnings well above theaverage since in addition to their earned crewshare they also have income from the boat share. Itis understood from interviews that most of theboats are operated by their owners, however insome cases ownership is shared between two ormore fishermen and in others boat owners do nottake part in the fishing. The most common sharesystem is 50 percent of the net proceeds, that is,gross revenue minus operating expenses, to thecrew and 50 percent to the owner. Average incomeof fishermen is relatively high because of produc-tivity and prices of fish and other fisheries prod-ucts. The average income of one fisherman on ahuri is about YER 10,000-12,000 per month whichis the average monthly pay of a new universitygraduate. A crew member on a sanbuk will earnabout YER 16,000-18,000/month, which is morethan the average earnings of an experienced uni-versity graduate employed for 10 years in the civilservice. Lobster or shrimp fishermen may earn anaverage as high as YER 30,000 per month (PER-SGA, 1997h).

Additional/Alternative Sources of Income for Fishermen

Most fishermen in Egypt are true artisans inthe sense that they have no other employmentopportunities.

In Djibouti, fishermen have no alternative employ-ment opportunities. This is a result on the one handof the generally conservative attitude of this com-munity, and the limited possibilities for agriculture


on the other hand. Djiboutian fishermen do nothave access to formal credit. Informal credits fromfish merchants or from the fisherman's family are apossible source of financing. The fishing strategyadapts to the requirements of the market, whichmeans fish species, which sell on local markets,are caught. Unfortunately, consumers in Djiboutilargely stick to three species: Spanish mackerel(seasonally), black-spot snapper and jack. Incomedepends on the number of departures to sea, socialstatus, and whether the fisherman is a boat owneror crew member.

Fishermen's Societies and/or CooperativesAvailable data on the numbers of fisheries

societies and cooperative and their membershipare indicated in Table 12 below.

In Egypt, fishing cooperatives are governed by afisheries cooperative law that stipulates the role ofthe cooperatives in improving the economic, socialand professional status of members. As is the caseelsewhere generally in the Region, cooperativesprovide a number of benefits and services, includ-ing: supply of fishing gear and equipment often atsubsidized rates, credit finance, fish transportation,marketing, and basic social services. Many fishingcooperatives are limited to providing fishing gear,which is perceived as a minimal assistance by thefishermen. The Suez cooperative provides consid-erable economic and social services thanks to effi-cient management personnel and adequate finance.

Sudan has no social security programme in placefor fishermen. Most are dependent on their skills atfishing and the extended family system. Societies

and cooperatives have a negligible role in supply-ing goods and services to fishermen, and in assist-ing in marketing of the catch, primarily because oflack of affordable finance and terms for credit.Although eleven cooperatives are registered, onlyfive are operating with any degree of success, themost notable being Abu Hashish CooperativeSociety. The Government of Sudan recognizes theimportance of cooperatives but the constraints totheir effective operation include: cost and avail-ability of imported fishing gear; illiteracy in fisher-men, resulting in poor understanding of the need tosupport the cooperative; poor road conditions;inadequacy of public services resulting in privatesector intervention and manipulation of the fisher-ies post-harvest systems.

During 1971-1973 the fishermen on the Gulf ofAden coast in Yemen were organized into thirteencooperatives under the socialist PDRY govern-ment (one being the Socotra Cooperative). During1999, three new cooperatives were formed onSocotra (Yusef and Kaseem, 1999). The coopera-tives have received much assistance directly from,and through, the Ministry of Fish Wealth. TheThird Fisheries Project funded by the World Bankprovided facilities for landing, auctioning, andstorage of fish and for ice-making and boat repair.The cost of the productive elements has not beenrecovered from the cooperatives as planned.

Under the Fourth Fisheries Development Projectlarge loans were provided for the purchase ofboats, engines and nets. Recovery performancewith respect to these loans has been very good.

TABLE 12: FISHERIES COOPERATIVES AND SOCIETIES IN THE REGION

Source: National fisheries administrations. N.a. means data not available.

Country Active coops

Members Active societies

Members No. private fishermen

Reference year(Source)

Jordan 1 85 0 0 n.a. 1995 (PERSGA archive)Egypt 12 4,462 - - 4,758 1997 (Barrania 1997)Saudi Arabia n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. no data availableSudan 11 600 - - n.a. PERSGA (1997)Djibouti 1 270 - - n.a. PERSGA (1997)Yemen 23 13,160 15 n.a. n.a. MEP (1997)Somalia 18 8,000 0 0 n.a. Internal report (SOM/94/004)


Fishing gear and engines provided under theFourth Fisheries Project have undoubtedly stimu-lated the expansion of the artisanal fleet. FishReceiving Centers at six landing centers inHadhramaut and al-Mahara Governorates wereprovided.

With today’s liberalized economy and less govern-ment support and control the cooperative structurestarted to loosen up, particularly in the vicinity ofurban areas. In addition to the original coopera-tives, by mid-1997 there were at least nine newsocieties, all having been created through break-away groups from the cooperatives.

The establishment and function of cooperativesand societies are today governed by Law No. 18 of1994. The Law states: ‘cooperative societies areindependent, voluntary and democratic, social andeconomic organizations.’ The Ministry of SocialAffairs is the responsible authority, while the Min-istry of Fish Wealth is the competent ministry intechnical matters. Despite the present autonomousstatus of the cooperatives, many of their directorsand other employees are still on the payroll ofMinistry of Fish Wealth branches.

A common income generating activity of all coop-eratives/societies is the auctioning of fish fromwhich they derive their main income through alevy varying from 2 to 10 percent of the value offish sold. Income is also earned in many casesfrom the sale of OBMs, spare parts, fishing gearand fuel and in a few cases from the sale of ice andstorage of fish. Two of the cooperatives still ownsanbuks and earn money from members’ use ofthem.

Most of these organizations’ expenditures relate tosickness benefits and health coverage. Some ofthem also support other social infrastructure andservices such as schools, water supply and healthclinics. There appears to be a genuine solidarityamong members and responsibility on the part ofthe cooperative/society for providing social ser-vices for members and their families.

A number of ‘societies’ exist along the Red Seacoast. These are not involved in fishing, marketingof fish or providing supplies to fishermen. They dohowever provide social security functions andsometimes give limited loans to their members

from funds accumulated by charging 2-5 percentof the value of the landed fish in the auction halls.Often the communities are made up of a few fami-lies who have expanded but are interrelated. Somefamilies have relatives in other fishing communi-ties along the coastline. With development andexpansion of schools many young people, espe-cially in the Gulf of Aden area, leave to take otherjobs, yet they keep their boats for fishing or workon other boats whenever they have the time to gofishing.

Artisanal fishermen are not organized into cooper-atives. It is reported that attempts have been madeto establish such organizations, the latest in 1994by the Ministry of Social Affairs, but without suc-cess. Despite the absence of functioning organiza-tions, a commission of 2 percent of the value of thefish auctioned at the landing sites goes to the‘association’. It is unclear whether this commis-sion is actually charged and, if so, how it isaccounted for and by whom. Social facilities andservices in fishing villages on the Red Sea coastare rudimentary. Electricity supply is rare. Wateris very limited, if available at all, and expensive tobuy if supplied by truck. Schools are available inmost communities but there is an acute shortage ofteachers and many of the schools remain closed.All the fishing centers, except al-Hudaydah andKhobah, completely lack landing facilities such asharbours, jetties, protected anchorages or unload-ing facilities.

Until 1996 Djibouti had a single fishermen's coop-erative (the ACPM based at Boulaos), whichserved to market fish and sell ice and petrol to thefishermen. It was a state-owned organization.which was managed by civil servants. The ACPMno longer exists and the site is now operated by theprivate sector.

Development of fisheries cooperatives in Somaliawas assisted by FAO during the 1980s, throughintegrated community fishing centers within thecooperatives system. As of 1996, most fishermenwere grouped either within eighteen state-runcooperatives, or were part of the Coastal Develop-ment Project, an offshoot of the Ministry of Fish-eries created in the aftermath of the 1973-1975drought in an unsuccessful attempt to teach fishingto nomads.


Many of the Region’s cooperatives have largelyfailed to deliver the services needed by their mem-bers. The reasons are many, but the principal prob-lems include: lack of management capacity inadministration, supervision and guidance of coop-erative affairs; inability to provide fisheries exten-sion services; weak financial management,irregular auditing and poor account keeping; lackof planning; interventions by various authoritiesand outside vested interests; and limited ability toprovide handling, processing and marketing ser-vices for members’ catches.

Availability of Credits (Sources, Conditions and Amounts)

In Egypt a ‘formal credit’ system operatesthrough the commercial banks: these provideshort- to medium-term loans, often in support ofgrant aid, and set at prevailing interest rates. TheSupporting Fund for Fishermen Cooperatives,financed by and under the supervision of GAFRD,is an independent body that offers soft loans tofishermen cooperatives. The following loans wereprovided by the Fund between 1990 and 1995(Table 13).

However, most vessel owners depend on fishmon-gers for loans to finance operations, gear, mainte-nance, etc. These loans are provided on the basisthat the fisherman sells his catch to the particularmerchant. This ‘informal credit system’ oftenleaves the fisherman at a disadvantage in regard topricing structure.

A similar situation to that in Egypt is faced by fish-ermen in Sudan, who borrow heavily from privatesector traders to pay for their recurrent and capitalcosts, often at high rates of interest. In the absence

of other more amenable forms of credit, the ruralfisherman is left at the mercy of private sector loansharks who use the relationship to the loaner’smaximum benefit. Besides this informal creditsystem, the Agricultural Bank of Sudan (ABS)operates a seasonal or medium term loans systemto fishermen. In 1991, forty-four seasonal fisheriesloans worth SDP 274,702 (11 percent of totalloans) and 45 medium term loans amounting toSDP 1.3 million (42 percent of total) were issued.ABS is the main avenue for fisheries credit,although the interest charged (27 percent is com-mon) puts these funds beyond the means of manyfishermen.

In Yemen, three main sources of credit appear tobe auctioneers, families/friends and the Coopera-tive Agricultural Credit Bank (CACB). Nothingbut anecdotal information is available regardingthe first two sources. CACB activities and perfor-mance are, however, well documented. CACB hasbranches in Aden, Abyan, Mukalla and al-Gaidaon the Gulf of Aden coast. The CACB branchescater also for agricultural credit but their mainbusiness (80-90 percent) is in the fisheries sector.Funding for fisheries loans has been provided bythe Ministry of Fish Wealth since 1992, utilizingfunds obtained from sale of equipment suppliedthrough the Fourth Fisheries Project, purchasedusing funds from IDA and IFAD. CACB receivesa management fee of 2.5 percent and charges theborrower an interest rate of 7 percent. This rate isvery low compared with commercial bank rates of20-30 percent, but is fixed by the government.

The total amount disbursed to the fisheries sectoron the southern coastline during 1992-1996 wasYER 190 million (USD 1.5 million), covering1,150 loans. Most loans have been used for boats(51 percent) and OBMs (40 percent), with the bal-ance used for purchase of nets and other fishinggear, insulated boxes and boat repair.

Of the YER 190 million (USD 1.5 million), asmuch as YER 83 million (USD 658,730) was dis-bursed in 1996. The average size of loans was thenabout YER 190,000 (USD 1,510), most of themfor OBM purchase.

CACB has four branches along the Red Sea coastin al-Hudaydah, al-Zohra, Hayees and Mokha,through which credit is extended to artisanal fish-

TABLE 13: Supporting Fund for Fishermen Cooperatives: Loans Provided 1990-1995

Year Loan (EGP)1990 547,0001991 609,0001992 405,0001993 505,0001994 284,0001995 557,000


ermen. At present, an Agriculture Credit Projectfinanced by IFAD and the Arab Fund for Socialand Economic Development (AFSED) providesthe funds through a fisheries component. Since1992 the number of loans issued stands at 1,912with a total value of YER 254.2 million. Theyearly distribution is given below in Table 14.

Assuming that actual lending since 1996 is areflection of the present policy and capacity ofCACB in that area, an average amount ofYER 100,000 is lent to 280 fishermen every year.The average loan amount is sufficient to finance asmall fishing boat with OBM. The number of fish-ermen benefiting from the credit is at least 840 orabout 5 percent of the total fisherman population.

In a recent review of the Agriculture Credit Projectit was noted that loans had helped to increase pro-duction, cash earnings and household income andhad improved the living conditions of the borrow-ers and their families and indirect beneficiaries.The job opportunities for young people had alsoincreased; 25 percent of the borrowers were lessthan 30 years of age.

The recovery rates on Red Sea lending have beensatisfactory. However, as in the Gulf of Adenregion, there is a downward trend. The averagerepayment rate was 85 percent during 1992-1994but had diminished to 68 percent in 1996.

In Somalia, private sector entrepreneurs extendlimited loans, in the form of materials and provi-

sions (food), to ordinary fishermen. As in the caseof Egypt and Sudan, high interest rates coupledwith inflated material prices are often involved.However, prior to 1990, a revolving fund was inoperation, managed by the Ministry of Fisheriesand Marine Transport, which provided funds torural fishermen. It is believed that this fund col-

lapsed at the outbreak of civil unrest.

Revenue Generated from Local Sales

Local sales revenue data for mostof the PERSGA member states is notavailable.

In Egypt, the value of fish productionis calculated at around 6 percent oftotal production of the agriculturesector. Revenue figures are availablefor 1995, indicating first sale value ofEGP 2,356 mi l l ion ( inc lud ingimported fish products).

Revenue Generated from Export of Fisheries Products

Reliable export data for the PER-SGA members states is not available. Partial infor-mation for some states is given below.

Egypt exports small quantities of eel and shrimp,mainly to the Netherlands, and some fresh fish toItaly. Total exports were 1,633 metric tons in 1994and 932 tons in 1995. Figures for 1998 indicatethat 2,137 metric tons of fisheries products worthEGP 41 million were exported (Barrania, 2000).Egypt is mainly a net importer of frozen fish fromEurope such as sardines, Indian mackerel, long-spine, sea bream, lizardfish and grouper whichtotalled 165,413 metric tons in 1994 and 141,743metric tons in 1995.

Saudi Arabia exported 2,072 metric tons of fishworth SAR 19 million in 1996. Like Egypt, SaudiArabia is a net importer of fish products, mainlychilled and frozen fish. The average annualimports of fisheries products in the last ten yearswere about 45,322 metric tons valued at USD 64.1million, while the average exports during the sameperiod were 1,793 metric tons, representingUSD 4.8 million. Available official statistics on

TABLE 14: LOANS ISSUED BY YEMEN’S CACB BRANCHES IN THE RED SEA AREA, 1992-1997

Source: CACB, Sana’a. USD equivalents calculated at average exchange rate for year in question.

Year Number of loans Value:

million YER USD

1992 349 5.3 185,9651993 702 28.5 721,5201994 242 12.1 219,2001995 152 11.7 117,0001996 466 165.2 1,310,000

Jan-May 1997 101 31.4 241,538Total 1,912 254.2 2,795,223


fish imports and exports in Saudi Arabia are sum-marized in Table 15 below.

Sudan’s Red Sea State is well endowed with natu-ral resources, but its inhabitants are comparativelypoor, especially those living in rural and marginalurban areas. At present, the natural wealth ofSudan’s Red Sea coast is considered to be largelyunder-exploited. There is no offshore oil exploita-tion and the contribution of fisheries and tourismto the gross national product (GNP) is negligible.In 1993-1994 all fisheries, forestry and agricul-tural services contributed less than 3 percent to theGNP. The backbone of the local economy is mari-time transport, with the national shipping com-pany, Sudan Line, being of major economicimportance. It is expected that the resources of theRed Sea will rapidly gain importance in develop-ment planning. Exported finfish include lizardfish,which are exported to Egypt frozen. Mother ofpearl, trochus, sea cucumber, shark fins and smallamounts of shrimp are also exported. Althoughtrochus (‘kokian’) exports are a minor part of thetotal exports, they are extremely important forincome generation in the coastal areas; lack of iceand other shore and road infrastructure constrainsthe marketing potential of fresh fish to the domes-tic market. Between 1970 and 1998 average exportof Tectus dentatus and Trochus virgatus was 521metric tons, or somewhat less than 0.1 percent ofthe total annual value of all exports.

Export data are recorded by Marine FisheriesAdministration through an export permit issued for

each cons ignmen t .Export data are alsocollected by the cus-toms department, Min-istry of Trade and theveterinary department.An export market toSaud i Arab ia com-menced in 1994-1995with a total of 52 met-ric tons of fresh fishexported.

Yemen is among thepoorer countries of theworld wi th GNP ofabout USD 300 percapita (1998). Fish pro-duction constitutes an

important component of the gross domestic prod-uct (GDP). The annual fisheries statistical reportfor 1995 published by the Ministry of Fish Wealthindicates that fisheries products exported in 1995totalled 6,228 metric tons, worth USD 18.3 mil-lion, without giving details on the composition ofthe exports or their destinations. Exports in 1994totalled 1,906 metric tons of various fisheriesproducts worth USD 13.7 million. A generaldecline in high value exports is believed to be dueto overfishing of cuttlefish, deep sea lobsters androck lobsters. Exports of canned fish have gradu-ally increased, however problems in obtainingfunds from the government for purchasing sup-plies of raw material have adversely affected can-ning production. Production of whole cooked rocklobster directed to France commenced in 1990. Allthese exports were through the NCSFM. Fisheriesexports from Yemen’s Red Sea coastline consistmainly of small quantities of dried shark fin anddried sea cucumber, exported by local fish traders.Shrimps are also exported, mainly through SaudiArabia but accurate data are not available. TheRed Sea Company for Shrimps and Fisheries wasactive in the Red Sea shrimp fishery up until 1994when its operations ceased.

In Somalia, 90 percent of artisanal fishermen areinvolved in shark fishing, primarily for fins.Exports of shark fin from Somalia are currently

TABLE 15: VOLUME AND VALUE OF FISH TRADE, SAUDI ARABIA, 1988-1995

Source: MAW.

Year Imports Value Exports Value Volume

(mt) (SAR mil-

lion)Volume (mt) (SAR mil-

lion)1988 53,177 267.0 1,774 20.71989 54,815 266.7 2,444 33.81990 38,711 214.0 2,559 20.21991 54,073 310.6 1,765 14.91992 37,162 217.4 1,972 15.31993 46,517 208.4 1,496 10.51994 43,750 196.7 1,830 18.71995 66,831 345.2 1,569 13.1


valued at least USD 1.5 million per year (Ministryof Fisheries and Coastal Development, 2000).

Contribution of Fisheries Products to Local/National Protein Supply

The fish resources of the Egyptian Red Sea areregarded as valuable resources that provide foreignexchange revenue and an important source ofdomestic protein and employment. Figures avail-able from 1991 indicate that average national dailyprotein intake is around 107 grams per capita. Ani-mal protein accounts for 15 percent of this amount,of which fish is calculated to provide 6 percent.Fish consumption in coastal urban areas is muchhigher but data are not available. GAFRD’s FiveYear Plan 1992/93-1996/97 aimed to raise per cap-ita consumption from 7.5 kilograms in 1989 to 10kilograms in 1997, through an investment pro-gramme to the fisheries sector worth USD 95 mil-lion. When compared to the global average of 13kilograms per capita, fish consumption in Egypt iscurrently low, and fish is not regarded as a stapleprotein source.

In Sudan, total fish production is estimated ataround 1,047 metric tons per year, most of whichis consumed domestically. As indicated earlier,Port Sudan is the main market.

In 1993, Djibouti had 557,000 inhabitants, most ofwhom live in the coastal zone. The capital is thelargest coastal city, with a population of 290,000.The only other coastal towns are Tadjoura with3,500 and Obock with 2,500 inhabitants. The GNPin 1993 was USD 448 million, and in 1991 theGDP was USD 379 million). Owing to prevailingecological conditions in the Sahelo-Saharian zone,the importance of renewable marine resources inthe local economy is very minor. Agriculture, cat-tle breeding and fisheries contribute only some2.2-2.4 percent to the national income. The majoreconomic sectors in the coastal zone are maritimetransport and port related activities. At present,fisheries and tourism play a limited role, althoughsubsistence fisheries are locally important. Bothtourism and fisheries have a remarkable growthpotential.

Fish consumption along both Yemeni coastlines ishigh. It was estimated at 22 kilograms per capitaannually in ex-PDRY coastal areas during the

1970s (PDRY had a population of around 2 mil-lion people). Consumption now is about 16 kilo-grams per capi ta annual ly. Tota l averageconsumption of fish in the whole country is 6-7kilograms per capita, and is expanding.

6

Institutional Structure of the Fisheries Sector

National Capacity for Fisheries ManagementThe main authorities responsible for fisheries

in each country are summarized in Appendix G.A brief status update for each member state, indi-cating the main problems faced in the fisheriessector, current institutional arrangements and thelegal framework for fisheries, is given in Appen-dix H.

Egypt’s fisheries are administered by a numberof authorities. Fish production activities in Egyptare regulated by the GAFRD. GAFRD publishesfisheries statistics (monthly and annual yield,fishing vessels and gears and number of involvedfishermen) based on a database of informationcollected from official landing centers.

In Saudi Arabia, management activities arefocused on implementation and enforcement ofregulations regarding to fishing gear restrictions,closed seasons (for example, for shrimp a ban isin place from April to July each year), closedareas (such as recognized spawning areas), andcontrol of reclamation/dredging activities alongthe coast. To balance the need for environmentalprotection and conservation of living marineresources with socio-economic needs requiresstrengthening institutional management. In SaudiArabia, the Meteorological and EnvironmentalProtection Administration (MEPA) is the centralenvironmental agency. It sets environmental per-formance standards, monitors the activities ofoperational agencies and serves as a central coor-dinator for environmental management Opera-

t iona l agencies such as the Minis t ry ofPetroleum, Ministry of Agriculture and Ministryof Industry and Electricity retain actual regula-tory control over activities carried out under theirrespective mandates.

In Sudan, various institutions are concerned withfisheries management, including the MarineFisheries Administration, Marine FisheriesResearch Center (MFRC), Ministry of Environ-ment and Tourism, and the Sudan Marine Con-servation Committee (SMCC).

In Eritrea, the Ministry of Marine Resources wasformed in 1993 and is aiming to completely reha-bilitate the fisheries sector. Main policy goals areto increase fish supply to the domestic marketand improve food security, increase fisheriesrelated employment, increase foreign exchangethrough fish exports, enhance skills in the sectorfor fishermen, public sector scientists etc., man-age and control fisheries with due regard for theconservation and protection of the environmentand introduce new technology to foster develop-ment.

Fisheries administration in Yemen is vested inthe Ministry of Fish Wealth and its five branchesalong the coast of the Gulf of Aden and onebranch on the Red Sea coast (see Table 16).Under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of FishWealth, there are also two specialized institu-tions for research and training located in Aden:MSRRC and FMDC. There are two semi-autono-mous commercial organizations: NCSFM and

51


CFC, plus two fish canneries, located in Mukallaand Shuqra.

The structure and function of the institutionalframework for fisheries in Yemen has beenreviewed and options given for improvements(MEP 1994d; MEP 1999).

In Somalia, prior to the outbreak of civil distur-bances, the Ministry of Fisheries was in overallcharge of implementing national policy for fisher-ies. Currently no management or developmentwork is being conducted, but the need is greaterthan ever. Local authorities are seeking the assis-tance of agencies such as UNDP/FAO to revivethe artisanal fisheries in their areas.

National Fisheries LegislationThe main laws concerning fisheries and envi-

ronmental in each PERSGA member state aresummarized in Appendix I. A detailed analysis ofthe strengths and weaknesses of the legal frame-work for fisheries in each of the PERSGA memberstates is beyond the scope of this report. There isroom for improvement in the national legislationof all PERSGA states to provide for better fisher-ies management and conservation.

In all states, fisheries are governed by nationallaws that dictate the terms and conditions underwhich fishing activities may take place and whichprovide for protection and conservation of livingmarine resources. Regulations (or by-laws) set outthe details concerning fishing activities and restric-tions that apply.

Existing national legal frameworks provide foreffective management and protection of livingmarine resources and the environment, but to vary-ing degrees, in the Region. A common feature inthe Region is that most laws do not have thestrength and clarity needed for effective manage-ment and monitoring, control and surveillance(MCS) (Lintner and others, 1995; Nichols, 1997).Common concerns include inadequate definitionof terms such as ‘fishing,’ ‘artisanal fishing vessel’etc. for sound administration and enforcement andthe legal process. Penalties for infringements arefrequently far too low, undermining respect formanagement and control, since there is minimaldeterrence. Licensing systems are often unclearwith inadequate or outdated schedules by which toset out forms for licence applications, licenses,logbooks, etc. Fisheries observers and enforce-ment officers’ powers, duties and responsibilitiesare in some cases not described, procedures afterseizure and arrest are not specified and often thereis no option for imposing an ‘administrative’ pen-alty by the minister responsible for fisheries ratherthan a lengthy court process. Technological con-siderations, such as requiring fishing vessels tocarry a vessel monitoring system (VMS), are lack-ing. National legislation should also be in line withcurrent international initiatives, to promote coop-eration in management of shared stocks asrequired under the UN Convention on the Law ofthe Sea (UNCLOS) and facilitate implementationof the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fish-eries and the Conservation and Management ofStraddling Stocks Agreement.4

TABLE 16: MINISTRY OF FISH WEALTH (YEMEN) EMPLOYMENT PROFILE 1997

Sector of Employment EmployeesNo. of

employeesPercent of MFW staff

Ministry of Fish Wealth:% of Ministry staff (Sana’a MFW Headquarters - 19; Aden MFW - 54; other Governorates - 27)

455 16%

Research and Training Institutions, Research Vessel Crew 162 6%NCSFMN.B.: 5.9% of total Government Service Sector employees

1,189 41%

Public Enterprises (CFC, Canneries)N.B.: 1.5% of total Government Production Sector employees

842 29%

Government Share Fishing Companies: (FICO, YFC) - active and excess employees 250 9%Total 2,898 100%


Illegal fishing by foreign vessels and violations ofthe laws and regulations by licensed vessels willnot stop unless the law provides for enforcement,prosecution procedures and deterring penalty fees.For instance, off Yemen’s southern coast indus-trial trawlers continue the damaging exploitationof the spawning stock of cuttlefish in shallowwaters because the level of fines for this offenceare too low to act as a deterrent (MEP, 1994a).

Level of Law Enforcement and PolicingIn Egypt, GAFRD is responsible for enforce-

ment and policing of fisheries and environmentallaw. Officers work closely with the Frontier Corps(Ministry of Defence). There is no data regardingefficiency of enforcement or degree of compli-ance.

In Yemen, existing regulations governing the dem-ersal trawl fisheries are as follows:

• Trawling is not allowed within three nauticalmiles of the coast.

• The water depth for trawling must not be lessthan 40 meters.

• Minimum mesh size in the cod-end is 55 milli-meters.

• The trawling area must be changed if thebycatch of cuttlefish exceeds 20 percent of thetotal catch.

Unfortunately, these and other fisheries laws arepoorly enforced, resulting in habitat destructionand gear conflicts between industrial and artisanalfisheries.

In Sudan, enforcement of marine and fisherieslaws is the responsibility of the Ministry ofDefence through the naval forces. Surveillance andenforcement of laws is considered effective,despite a need for better training and more materialsupport. Branches of the Fisheries Administrationenforce fisheries regulations and local ordinances.They are efficient in this task but again require

more training and financial and material support.Poaching has reportedly decreased since 1988.

In Yemen, under the terms of industrial fishinglicences fishing vessels must carry two observersonboard, whose salaries are paid by the vesselowner. They are in daily radio contact with theDepartment of Marine Inspection and Controllocated at the Ministry of Fish Wealth Branch inAden and provide summarized information on ves-sel location, activity and catch. All vessels arerequired to undergo an unloading inspection dur-ing which the details of the landings are recorded.However, penalties for violations of agreementsand laws are very low and do not act as an effec-tive deterrent. In addition to the low penalties,enforcement and prosecution procedures are notproperly specified. A review of the fisheries legis-lation was undertaken under the Fourth FisheriesProject but did not have any follow-up. There iscurrently a new proposal for a substantive revisionof fees and penalties awaiting consideration byParliament.

Regional Fisheries AgreementsThe Regional Convention for the Conserva-

tion of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environ-ment (Jeddah Convention) aims to protect the RedSea, Gulf of Aden and Gulf of Aqaba environ-ments. Regional agreements concerning fisheriesand environment are reviewed below.

Egypt has no foreign fisheries access agreementsin place.

Saudi Arabia is signatory to regional and interna-tional agreements which place obligations upon itfor prevention of pollution and protection ofresources. Notable among these is the ProtocolConcerning Regional Cooperation in CombatingPollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances inCases of Emergency (1978); Regional Conventionfor the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden Environment and its Protocol ConcerningRegional Cooperation in Combating Pollution byOil and other Harmful Substances in Cases ofEmergency (1982); and the Declaration of theRegional Organization for the Conservation of theEnvironment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden(1995).

4. United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks.


Sudan has ratified the following fisheries and envi-ronment related agreements: Convention Concern-ing the Protection of the World Cultural andNatural Heritage (1974); Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity (1995); Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora (1982); Regional Convention for the Conser-vation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environ-ment and its Protocol Concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and otherHarmful Substances in Cases of Emergency(1984); Regional Convention for the Conservationof the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment(1984); United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea (1985). The International Convention onthe Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MAR-POL) has not yet been ratified, because of a lack ofport reception facilities. In 1994, Sudan attendedthe Meeting of African Environment Ministers inNairobi and a year later the Arab EnvironmentMinisters’ Meeting in Cairo which discussed envi-ronmental conservation issues of the Red Sea area.In these conferences participating countries agreedto environmental conservation programmes for theRed Sea.

Djibouti and Somalia have had a fisheries agree-ment in place since 1986, although the details ofthis are unknown. Djibouti, Yemen and Somaliaare signatories to an agreement to establish a sub-regional center, the Marine Emergency MutualAid Center (MEMAC), in Djibouti, to combat oilpollution in the Gulf of Aden. Oil pollution controlequipment for the Gulf of Aden area (Yemen,Somalia and Djibout i ) has been s tored atMEMAC. Yemen and Djibouti are currently nego-tiating a bilateral agreement regarding the use ofthese facilities.

Yemen is a party to several international conven-tions, agreements and treaties which have implica-tions on the marine environment. Treaties orconventions that were signed by former YAR andformer PDRY Yemen are still in force accordingto the unification decree. In 1995 alone, four con-ventions relevant to environment, including theBiodiversity Convention, were ratified. Yemen hassigned but not yet ratified the MARPOL Conven-tion, due to lack of funds to purchase the necessaryport waste reception facilities. Yemen is party tothe following conventions: Basel Convention on

the Control of Transboundary Movements of Haz-ardous Wastes and their Disposal (1996); Conven-tion on Biological Diversity (signed 1992, ratified1996); Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer (1996); and ProtocolConcerning Regional Cooperation in CombatingPollution by Oil and other Harmful Substances inCases of Emergency (1992, updated 1994). Yemencooperates with Djibouti and Somalia in combat-ing oil spills, as noted above.

Egypt and Yemen signed a fisheries agreement in1996 which permits Egyptian industrial trawlersaccess to Yemeni waters. Information about theventures operating trawlers in the Red Sea is notreadily available. It appears that in one case, fif-teen Egyptian trawlers are operated through aYemeni agent under a bilateral access agreementbetween Yemen and Egypt. In the other case, aYemeni company has permission to operate four-teen chartered Egyptian trawlers.

In Somalia, no access agreements are in force forforeign vessels to operate off the northern coast.Spanish and French tuna vessels fish under licenceoff the Indian Ocean coast.

Data Collection, Fisheries Research, Training and Extension Services

In Jordan, the Ministry of Agriculture col-lected fisheries data up to 1985, when access toneighboring waters ceased. Since then, the govern-ment has undertaken little research or managementactivities in the sector. Training and extension forartisanal fishermen will only expand if access toneighboring waters can be secured (Khalaf, 2000).

In Egypt, the NIOF has field stations at Suez (96staff, of which 31 are involved in research) andGhardaqah (55 staff, 4 involved in research). TheSuez station is well equipped with laboratories andresearch facilities, but the Ghardaqah station haslimited facilities. Egypt has no research vessel forapplied stock assessment. Main research areasinclude physical and chemical oceanography, pol-lution research, fisheries biology and shrimp cul-ture research. In addition a number of the nationaluniversities and institutes at Suez and Alexandriaare involved in fisheries research. GAFRD hasoverall responsibility for the development andconservation of fisheries resources. GAFRD is


responsible for collecting statistics and enforcingregulations, and for training and extension activi-ties in fisheries and aquaculture. Twenty threeenumerators collect data on Red Sea fisheries (10for the Red Sea, 2 for the Gulf of Aqaba and 11 forthe Gulf of Suez). Landings and species composi-tion data are collected at landing sites. Data cover-age for the artisanal fleet is reported to be good(Barrania, 2000). Effort data are available throughlicence allocations; the Fisheries Department andcooperatives maintain vessel registers on vesselspecifications, gear and licence conditions. TheCoast Guard authorities maintain data from fishingvessel logbooks completed by the skipper withregard to fishing grounds and trip dates. No stockassessment research has been conducted in Egyptsince the early FAO/UNDP assessment studies inthe 1980s.

With regard to fisheries training and extension ser-vices, annual training plans are developed for fish-ermen and fisheries cooperative staff. Workshopsare frequently held covering topics such as fisher-ies technology, fisheries management, preparingfishing projects, fish culture, cooperative manage-ment and legislation. GAFRD has active publicawareness campaigns.

National institutes and universities also offerextension and training services to the fishing com-munity. The government operates an active pro-gramme of study tours and training sessions forsenior staff from government and academic insti-tutions through bilateral arrangements with numer-ous countries in Europe, South America and SouthEast Asia.

In Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Agriculture enumera-tors collect catch and species composition data atsampling sites by interviewing fishermen. TheCoast Guard Authorities collect effort data in theform of boat trips and gear used per trip. About fif-teen enumerators are employed at nine sample sta-tions: Dhuba, Umm Lajh, Yanbu, Tuwwal, al-Gad,al-Badhea, al-Lith, al-Qunfudha and Jizan. Datacollection forms are well developed. Dailyrecorded data are compiled at fisheries out-stationsinto monthly summaries, along with the CoastGuard vessel trip information. The data are thenpassed to Department of Fisheries headquarters forfinal analysis and production of annual summary

statistics. No weights are recorded during sales tomerchants, thus the sampling data raised tonational level is the only estimate of fisheries pro-duction in Saudi Arabia. Despite the importance ofsharks, no special forms are used for recordingdried fin production or gross landings of shark. Avessel licence and specifications register is main-tained by the Ministry of Communications. Inaddition, industrial vessels are required to keepdaily catch and effort logbooks which are sent tothe Ministry of Agriculture. Fisheries research inthe Red Sea area is conducted by several institu-tions, among them the Fisheries Research Centerin Jeddah, which operates under the Ministry ofAgriculture and Water, and the Faculty of MarineSciences at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah.

In Sudan, fisheries research is conducted by theFaculty of Marine Science and Fisheries of theRed Sea University and the MFRC, which operateunder the Federal Ministry of Agriculture. Bothinstitutions are located in Port Sudan. Over the last15 years, the MFRC has been concentrating onpearl oyster research. For the marine fisheries, dataare collected from various sources. One enumera-tor visits Port Sudan market seven days eachmonth and records catch composition, weight andsizes of fish that day. At Suakin, one enumeratorfrom the Marine Fisheries Administration collectsdata from vessels as they land. One Marine Fisher-ies Administration fisheries observer is assigned toaccompany foreign industrial trawlers. Whenunloading, the catch from trawlers is estimated bymultiplying boxes full of fish by 20 (each holdsabout 20 kilograms). The data maintained on for-eign vessels is better than that for national vessels,especially the artisanal fleet. Fisheries cooperativemanagers also supply monthly statistics to theMarine Fisheries Administration on the landingsand catch composition of member fishermen.Finally, export figures from exporting companiesand cooperatives are available from the datarecorded on export certificates. The Marine Fisher-ies Administration statistical division is responsi-ble for data collation and analysis. Data are passedto the fisheries headquarters at Khartoum and usedto estimate total production by species class eachyear. Fishing vessels are expected to completecatch logs which provide catch and effort, speciescaught, gear used and area fished. The national


licensing system provides information on vesselcharacteristics, and the name of the owner andskipper, but not the gear used, number of crew orwhere fishing occurs. Applied stock assessmentresearch in Sudan has been limited to the workconducted during the 1980s by ODA (Brandford,1979; O’Riordan, 1982) and FAO (Anon, 1988).The latter indicated a total sustainable yield of10,000 metric tons per year for all Sudanesewaters and this is the figure used by government asa guide for long-term planning.

In Yemen, the MSRRC is the successor of theresearch branch of the Public Corporation for FishWealth (1970-1978). The MSRRC was establishedwith assistance from the IsDB. In 1983 the head-quarters building was completed on Labour Islandin Aden. Through a UNDP funded project,UNESCO provided technical assistance to Yemeniscientists during 1983-1986 in the fields of marinebiology, physical oceanography and fish stockassessments. The Japanese International Coopera-tion Agency (JICA) donated a 38 meters sterntrawler, the R/V Ibn Majid, originally for trainingbut later converted to basic oceanographic andfisheries research. For inshore work the MSRRChas a small 10 meters GRP launch ‘Donafa’. How-ever, both vessels are currently in need of majorrepairs. They are laid up at the MSRRC site onLabour Island in Aden and have not been used forresearch for several years.

The MSRRC has a large modern MaricultureResearch Center (MRC) in little Aden, fullyequipped under a grant from Japan. The MRCfocuses on penaeid shrimp culture. In addition, theMPC was completed in 1991 with the objective ofdeveloping methods to monitor pollution inYemeni coastal waters. The MPC runs under thesupervision of the MSRRC. Unfortunately, thework of the MSRRC, its branches and researchstations is severely hampered by shortages ofequipment, recurrent funding and institutionalmanagement capacity. The MSRRC has a branchin Mukalla and has plans to open a new one in al-Hudaydah on the Red Sea coast. Other Yemeniinstitutions undertaking fisheries research includethe Department of Oceanography in Sana'a univer-sity and the Biology Department in Aden Univer-sity.

Fisheries training and research in Yemen started in1970 with the construction of the FMDC and in1990 new premises, financed under a World Bank/IDA grant (Third Fisheries Development Project),were established next to the headquarters of theMSRRC on Labour Island in Aden. The FTI, as itis known at present, offers a five year training pro-gramme for young students who have obtained theGeneral Education Certificate (nine year school-ing-primary and intermediate) and who passedphysics, mathematics, chemistry, biology and theFTI entrance examination with high grades. Grad-uates from the FTI receive a Technical Diploma onfishing and fisheries industrial skills. The FTI alsoorganizes short-term training courses of three tosix months to upgrade skills in the fisheries sector.Such courses include marine mechanical and elec-trical engineering, refrigeration and air-condition-ing engineer ing , mar ine naviga t ion , f i shprocessing and handling and workshop machinery.Enrolment of trainees to sixty students annually.

The Marine Fisheries Administration in Sudan isthe main public sector department devoted toextension services and is well represented alongthe country’s entire Red Sea coast. Over the pastyears, FAO provided considerable assistance forextension services in reestablishment of coopera-tives, mechanization of vessels, repair and mainte-nance, and exploratory fishing. Today however,many of these functions have declined since FAOassistance was terminated. The Faculty of MarineScience and Fisheries of the Red Sea University inPort Sudan provides formal education in fisheriessciences. The NGO community is active, espe-cially the Sudanese Environment ConservationSociety (Port Sudan and Suakin), the Sea FriendsAssociation (Port Sudan) and OXFAM of theUnited Kingdom (Port Sudan and Tokar). AllNGOs work towards establishing environmentconservation programmes, revolving funds, andcapacity for training and marketing. The SMCC isa semi-NGO with representatives from concernedpublic sector bodies, the private sector and envi-ronmental NGOs. It plays an important role inraising environmental awareness issues and policyadvice.

In Somalia, data are not collected in an organizedfashion. Some information on landed weight, spe-cies composition and sometimes length frequency

of the catch is collected by a Ministry of Fisheriesenumerator at landing centers in Zeila, Lughaye,Bulahar, Berbera, Karin, Laas Qoray and Elayo.Data are complied at the regional fisheries officeand then passed to Ministry headquarters at Har-geisa. Despite the problems facing Somalia’s fish-eries authorities, record forms are well developedfor vessel registers for both artisanal and industrialvessels, licences, daily catch and effort logbooks.Special forms have been developed to monitor theartisanal shark fishery, in terms of fishermandetails, gear, number of sharks caught, species, sexand fin weight produced.

The current status of Somalia’s Fisheries Trainingand Commercial Center (FTCC) at Berbera isunclear. Catch landing data are reportedlyrecorded on beaches and sometimes on vessels.These are compiled on a monthly basis by cate-gory (demersals, pelagics and sharks). Data collec-tion is however very poor at present. No licensingsystem is functional.

7

Collecting Activities for Aquarium Trade

Present and Planned ActivitiesThe marine aquarium fish trade offers con-

siderable interest to the Region and several coun-t r i e s hav e d e ve l o ped i nd us t r i e s o r a r econsidering such developments. The world mar-ket is supplied by relatively few exporting coun-tries. Bahrain is an irregular supplier to Europe,especially the United Kingdom. Kenya is the big-gest exporter in East Africa, where the fishery iswell controlled and highly organized. Mauritiusexports small but consistent amounts of aquar-ium fish to Europe. Sri Lanka and the Maldivesare two of the largest producers in the world,with Philippines the world leader in terms ofvalue and volume of exports. Singapore is a sig-nificant producer country, but much of its marketis re-exports for Indonesia and Thailand. Indone-sia is a major direct supplier to the United States,Germany and Singapore. The supply of Red Seafish on world markets is limited and nothing isavailable from the Gulf of Aden.

Collection of aquarium species in Egypt was athriving industry some years ago, but all activityhas ceased due to the high prices charged and rel-atively low quality of the product because ofpoor handling through Cairo. No plans to reacti-vate the industry are indicated.

In Saudi Arabia at least seven companies areinvolved in the collection and export of aquariumfish.

At present two companies in Yemen are licensedto collect coral reef fishes for the aquarium trade.More licenses are expected to be issued in thefuture.

In Djibouti, Barratt and Medley (1988) studiedthe potential of exploiting tropical marine fishfor the aquarium trade. They concluded that thereis a substantial market for good quality Red Seaand Western Indian Ocean fish. Djibouti watershold the commonest and popular species includ-ing damselfish (family Pomacentridae), butter-flyfish (family Chaetodontidae), angelfish(family Pomacanthidae) boxfish (family Ostaci-idae), pufferfish (family Tetraodontidae), trig-gerfish (family Balistidae), surgeonfish (familyAcanthuridae) and wrasses (family Labridae).They noted that there is a need to undertake athorough systematic survey of the reefs in Dji-bouti and their stocks and that management plansfor the aquarium fish industry should be devel-oped before the industry expands.

There are also plans by the private sector to col-lect ornamental fish in Somalia.

59

8

Ongoing and Planned Mariculture Projects

Aquaculture Production Since 1988To date, the aquaculture industry in Egypt

has been restricted to fresh and brackish waterpond and lake culture along the Mediterraneancoast and in the Nile Delta, where tilapia, greymullet and carp are farmed. Mariculture on theRed Sea coast is virtually non-existent, largelydue to the considerable investments required forintensive production of marine juvenile and adultfish. Reluctance to promote aquaculture in anarea designated for tourist development is also afactor. Nevertheless there is clearly potential forvarious aquaculture systems on the Red Sea,including extensive culture in lagoons, artificiallakes and penned enclosures as well as semi-intensive and intensive aquaculture developmenton shore based sites or in floating marine cages.Such development, if planned effectively, shouldnot be at the expense of tourism development.Indeed, the rapidly increasing demand from thetourist industry for high value fish is a key stimu-lant to the future of coastal aquaculture in theRed Sea and a number of tourist resorts haveincluded fish farms in their own planning pro-posals.

A number of potential sites have been identifiedby various authorities. With the advent of com-mercial hatchery technology for marine fishes,many local and Mediterranean species havepotential for culture. These include breams(Sparus auratus and Pagrus major), seabass(Dicentrochus labrax), grouper (Epinephelus

spp.) for tourist and export markets and greymullet (Liza spp.), rabbit fish (Siganus spp.) andeuryhaline tilapia for domestic and regional mar-kets. Water temperatures are probably too cold topermit the two crops needed a year for commer-cial shrimp culture. One private concern cur-rently farms shrimp in the Gulf of Aqaba, 30kilometers from Sharm El Sheikh along the Gulfof Aqaba coastline. EEAA monitors the farm,which has twenty earth ponds covering around50 hectares. The shrimp farm in Egypt has a tar-get production of 100 metric tons/year ofPenaeus japonicus and P. semisulcatus shrimpsand 3-5 million post-larvae. Another shrimp cul-ture farm is expected to be established on a 40hectare area either in Za'afrana south of Suez orin Quseir (Sadek and Gamal, 1997).

In Saudi Arabia fish culture is a relatively newactivity. There are eighty-eight fish farms, butmost are used for freshwater aquaculture. SaudiArabia’s total aquaculture production in 1997was 3,775 metric tons of which 2,945 metric tonswas from freshwater culture and 830 metric tonsfrom marine culture (see Table 17).

In Sudan, mariculture started as early as 1904with the pearl shell oyster, Pinctada marga-ritifera, in Dongonab Bay, 110 miles north ofPort Sudan and Mohammed Gol. Pearl oystershell production peaked in 1971 at 118 metrictons, but the average annual landing of wild oys-ters declined to 25 metric tons in subsequentyears. Oyster farming flourished in Dongonab,

61


where up to 65 family farms, with 130 local bene-ficiaries, were established. Large-scale farmingstopped in 1969, following mass mortalities. How-ever export continued, mainly based on wild popu-lations. Between 1966 and 1989, the averageannual export rate was 37 metric tons. In 1992-1993 production amounted to about 40 metrictons. During the last two years, the Dongonab oys-ter culture scheme has been revived and Moham-med Gol added as an additional site. Localvillagers were entrusted with operating 36 farms inDongonab and 15 in Mohammed Gol. The farms,which grow some 6000 oysters each, are super-vised by scientists. Growth rates were improved,enabling partial cropping after 2 years rather than3-4 years. Present production based on 30 percentmortalities is about 14.3 metric tons from 51 farms214,200 oysters (at 15 oysters/kilogram). Pro-jected production is 30 metric tons from 65 farmsat Dongonab and 40 farms at Mohammed Gol.

Fishermen from the Dongonab area rely on furtherdevelopment of the oyster culture scheme as theirmain source of income. Market prices, which arecurrently at SDP 1,600/kilogram, are encouraging.However mortalities are still high (up to 50 per-cent) and it is recommended to shift from thepresent bottom culture to floating rafts, despite thehigh costs in establishing this technique. The tradi-tional oyster culture site at Dongonab has limitedcarrying capacity. Exceeding maximum densitiesleads to mass mortalities, as happened in 1969.This has to be considered when planning futureexpansion of oyster cultures. OXFAM UnitedKingdom/Ireland currently funds oyster farms

under the supervision of the MFRC as part of acommunity development project (FRC/IDRC1985, Mishrigi 1993).

An integrated fisheries project in Sudan includesthe establishment of several shrimp hatchery andgrow-out facilities in the Port Sudan area. The tar-get is 30,000 metric tons of shrimp per year.

There are no mariculture activities in Djibouti.

In Yemen, some prawn research studies have beenconducted at the MRC but shrimp farming has yetto develop as a commercial activity.

Somalia has not developed a mariculture potentialand is unlikely to do so for the foreseeable future.

Environmental Threats Arising from Mariculture

Threats to coastal and marine environmentalresources, including those posed by mariculture,are listed in the PERSGA National FisheriesReports and Country Reports (PERSGA, 1997a-1997i, published in consolidated form in 2001).The major concern comes from planned shrimpand fish pond construction activities. With regardto shrimp farming, environmental impacts include:clearing of coastal areas/mangroves for pond con-struction; pond dykes diverting the normal flow offreshwater to the sea with consequent effects onthe area where it flows; removal of adult shrimpsfrom the Red Sea as brood stock for the hatcheriesmay affect recruitment to wild populations; efflu-ent discharges from shrimp ponds is the largestconcern (El Naiem, 1990; 1988).

Irreversible damage to coastal habitats, destructionof mangroves and declining water quality oncoastal areas may result if mariculture activitiesare not well planned and if Environmental ImpactAssessments (EIAs) are not undertaken as a pre-requisite to approval of new developments. Theuse of chemicals and hormones and their effect onthe marine ecosystem, plus increased nutrientloads caused by the farming operations pose addi-tional potential threats to the environment. In allcases where mariculture expansion is a develop-ment goal, government intends to impose adequatecontrol measures, including a requirement for EIAstudies to be undertaken by an independent author-

TABLE 17: MARINE AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION (MT) IN SAUDI ARABIA, 1988-1997

Source: MAW

Year Production1998 111989 191990 521991 1361992 1791993 1881994 351995 2611996 1581997 830


ity, before licensing of mariculture ventures willbe allowed.

In Egypt, France Aquaculture had planned todevelop 65 sites on the Red Sea coast for maricul-ture in the 1990s. However given the priorityattached to tourism, these plans were not autho-rized. The size and scope of current shrimp farm-ing activities indicates minimal impact on theenvironment, although there is no available infor-mation.

In Sudan, mariculture of pearl oyster has had nonoticeable effects on the environment (Rahama,1990). Mass mortalities have occurred such as in1969, as a result of high stocking densities andadverse environmental factors. Current plans touse bays with good circulation, floating rafts ratherthan bottom culture trays and appropriate stockingdensities should lessen problems in future (Gabor,1995).

9

Fisheries Threats to Coastal/Marine Habitats and Resources

Fisheries operations in the PERSGA Regionpose a number of direct threats to the marineresources upon which they depend, as well asindirect threats to the coastal and marine envi-ronment. Other reports produced by PERSGAsummarize the threats to the coastal and marineenvironment and marine resources (PERSGA1997a-i). These will not be repeated here but canbe categorized as follows:

• Habitat degradation and destruction (due tocoastal development, shrimp and fish farmpond construction, mangrove destruction,physical damage to coral reefs and damageto reefs by tourists).

• Living marine resources (overfishing, illegalfishing, collection of turtle eggs, infringe-ment of fisheries laws).

• Navigation and maritime risks (vessel dis-charges, vessels running aground)

• Petroleum industry transport and develop-ments (oil spills, oil exploration, oil terminalconstruction).

• Industrial activities (surface groundwaterusage, industrial pollution, waste disposal).

• Urban development (surface and groundwa-ter usage, saltwater intrusion to aquifers,solid and liquid waste disposal); plus agricul-tural threats (sedimentation, pesticides, andfertilizers).

A number of common threats specific to fisheriesare expanded upon below.

Unsustainable Exploitation of Living Marine Resources

Increasing fish prices have led to a steadyrise in the number of people involved in fisheriesand fishing effort has increased in an uncon-trolled manner. A general lack of adequate man-agement controls for fisheries has led to thepresent situation.

As mentioned previously, Egypt’s trawl, purseseine and reef associated fisheries are all consid-ered over-exploited. The fishing grounds in andaround Foul Bay are fully exploited. Severe fish-ing pressure, coupled with water pollution in theGulf of Suez and the Red Sea, have been indi-cated as negative impacts on fisheries.

In Sudan, stocks are fully exploited in watersadjacent to Suakin in the south and MohammedGol in the north. A steady decline has occurred incatches of finfish species of snapper such as Lut-janus bohar, Aprion virescens and Pristipo-moides filamentosus. In the Suakin area landingsof the trochus shell Tectus dentatus havedeclined and the main area of production hasnow shifted to Mohammed Gol. Production fromSuakin dropped from 163 metric tons in 1990-1991 to 26.3 metric tons in 1992-1993 andexports as a whole declined from 485 metric tonsin 1991-1992 to 432.7 metric tons in 1994-1995.CPUE has dropped from 3 to 1.5 metric tons per

65


trip. Shark resources have also shown rapiddecline to only 163 metric tons in 1990-1991 to26.3 metric tons in 1993/94. Catches of ‘najil’(Plectropomus maculatus) show a high percentageof small sizes due to the use of finer mesh nets.Collection of turtle eggs on offshore islands iscommon as an alternative food source, althoughthe degree of turtle exploitation is largelyunknown in Sudan.

In Djibouti, no comprehensive scientific studies ofthe effect of fishing on coastal and marine environ-ments have been completed. Although parts of thecoasts and territorial waters are still in a largelypristine state, some studies show that in severalareas there are alarming signs of degradation andthreats are increasing rapidly. Anthropogenic pres-sure is particularly high in the vicinity of the capi-tal.

In Yemen, the lucrative industrial fishery for cut-tlefish (Sepia pharaonis) in the Gulf of Aden pro-vides a clear example of overfishing and resultantdecline of the fishery. Damage to the spawningbiomass during the 1970s and 1980s was causedby the trawling operations of large stern trawlersfrom Japan, the former Soviet Union and alsoYemeni companies operating under license orthrough joint venture arrangements. The stocktoday has still not recovered and remains far belowits biological potential. Similarly the deep sea lob-ster (Pereulus sewelli) was also overfished duringthe same period, often by the same trawlers operat-ing deep-water gear at times when cuttlefish werenot available. Reasonable data for landings by theGulf of Aden rock lobster fishery targeting Panuli-rus homarus and P. versicolor off the coast ofYemen indicate that landings have declined since1990 and the average size of rock lobster hasdecreased; despite government attempts to initiatemanagement controls, these have not been suc-cessful due to inadequate enforcement and lack ofcompliance by fishermen.

Declines in the landings of sharks by fishermenoperating in Yemen’s Red Sea waters and inSudan are an indication of overfishing, probablydue to intensive fishing efforts for the purpose ofexporting dried shark fins.

Practices Harmful to Living Marine ResourcesIn Egypt, use of explosives is recorded and has

resulted in damage to coral reefs in some areas ofEgyptian Red Sea waters. Although the existinglaw bans certain types of gear for certain fisheries,poor enforcement has resulted in the unlawful useof some gear.

The Sudanese Red Sea environment is still in alargely pristine state. However, with the presentgrowth rates of the coastal population, marinetransport and industrial development, threats areincreasing rapidly. Human-induced pressure isparticularly high in the vicinity of the two coastalcities, Port Sudan and Suakin, and in the mangroveareas.

The implementation of the Sudan Integrated Fish-eries Project is expected to cause major destructionof coastal habitats (CIDA, 1995). At the entranceof Port Sudan harbour, 5-8 hectares of land will bereclaimed from the sea by landfill for the construc-tion of industrial processing plants. This will causeloss of coastal and marine habitats and coral reefareas such as Wingate and Towartit. Effluentsfrom the tuna and shrimp processing plants willpose additional threats to the marine environment.The risk of immediate and cumulative impacts isvery high, unless appropriate environmental pre-cautions are taken.

Physical damage to coral reefs, resulting in a lossof coral habitat and decline of reef associatedfauna, is caused by anchorage. Wingate andTowartit reefs are still the main anchorage areasfor large vessels waiting to enter the port forunloading and loading. Fishing vessels and touristboats are also damaging reefs with anchors andfishing nets. There is an urgent need of moorings.Wading in shallow reef areas by artisanal fisher-men and tourists to collect corals and inverte-brates, results in coral breakage.

There are signs of coral die-off at several sites onthe fringing reef, for example, parts of Wingatereef. The causes are unknown and this phenome-non needs urgent investigation. Mangrove habitatsare deteriorating rapidly along much of theSudanese coast, resulting in reduced water qualityand a decline in fish and shrimp catches, and inbird populations.


In the absence of alternative affordable energysources, mangrove wood is used as fuel. As aresult of several years of drought, more than50,000 nomads together with their camels movedinto the coastal zone. Above all in the southernpart of the country, camels are browsing heavilyon mangroves. The damming of wadis diverts thealready scarce freshwater away from the mangrovehabitat. Some mangrove areas have been com-pletely destroyed. Mangrove destruction must beconsidered a major hotspot issue. The constructionof an asphalt road linking Suakin with Tokar willincrease human activities in the area.

In Djibouti, habitat destruction as a result ofcoastal development is still rather localized andconcentrated in the capital area. The constructionand expansion of the port resulted in severe pres-sure on coral reefs. Mangrove habitats are deterio-rating rapidly along much of the coast of Djibouti,resulting in reduced water quality and a decline infish and shrimp catches. In the absence of alterna-tive affordable energy sources, mangrove wood isused as fuel.

As a result of several years of drought, an increas-ing number of nomads together with their camelsmoved into the coastal zone. In some areas, camelsare browsing heavily on mangroves. West of thecapital, where there used to be a very extensivemangrove, some stands have been completelydestroyed and the remaining ones are severelythreatened. In this area mangrove destruction mustbe considered a major issue. Of eight mangroveareas investigated in a recent study, two were clas-sified as in good state; two as in good state, butlocally exploited; one as partially degraded; two asdegraded; and the one at Gaan Maan as severelydegraded.

Physical damage to coral reefs, resulting in a lossof coral habitat and decline of reef associatedfauna, is very severe near the capital and in theMarine Protected Areas (MPAs) of Musha andMaskali. Reefs in other areas are affected to alesser extent. Reefs near the port of Djibouti,which were once flourishing, are rapidly degrad-ing because of silting. In popular recreationalareas, such as the reserves of Musha and Maskaliand near Khor Ambado, corals are severely dam-aged by visitors. Anchor damage is obvious. The

collection of corals and reef associated inverte-brates and the use of spear guns, although illegal,continues at a large scale.

Signs of degradation of reefs in the Strait of Bab-al-Mandab have also been reported, which maypossibly be attributed to the heavy ship traffic inthe Strait (see also comments in Sheppard andWells 1988). Surveys conducted in the 1980s onthe ecological status of twenty-three reef areasthroughout the country indicated nine to be satis-factory, all of which are in the western part of thecountry; three are classified as medium; four asbad; and eight as disastrous. In some reef areas,there were signs of coral die-off without obviousreason.

In Yemen, there are frequent conflicts between thecuttlefish trawlers and the local artisanal fishermenin the Gulf of Aden. The heaviest concentrationsof cuttlefish are found in shallow waters, espe-cially during the spawning period, and complaintsabound regarding illegal trawling within the threemile limit and shallower than the law allows. Onecompany openly admits that this is a commonpractice. As a result, trawlers have been shot at byarmed fishermen and by the Navy and detained forperiods up to a week.

Other conflict situations occur when the trawlerscut or destroy fishing gear used by the artisanalfishermen for which the latter demand compensa-tion. There has been a dramatic increase in suchconflicts since 1995. In the Red Sea there arewidespread complaints in regard to large foreigntrawlers operating illegally or licensed underaccess arrangements in Yemen waters and othersconcerns of artisanal fishermen, which requireaction by the Ministry of Fish Wealth. Problemsreported include:

• Direct competition for shrimp and demersalfish, causing a reduction in catch rates for theartisanal fleet.

• High rate of discards of juvenile demersal fish,causing a decline in the stocks.

• Damage to or loss of local fishermen’s nets.

• Destruction of habitat by indiscriminate use ofheavy trawl gear.


• Fishing for shrimp during the closed seasonunder the pretext of fishing for demersal fish.

In Somalia, some artisanal lobster diving fisher-men have been reported to use sharp iron bars todrive rock lobsters from their crevices causingdamage to the reef. Taking egg-bearing femalesand undersize specimens is also common. Therehave also been reports from Somalia and Yemenof occasional poaching by unnamed foreign trawl-ers, using pair trawl nets with heavy ground gearthat badly damage the habitat, and small cod-endmesh sizes that catch undersize and juvenile spe-cies (Elder, 1987).

Poaching by Foreign VesselsData are lacking throughout the Region

regarding infringements by foreign vessels.Although anecdotal information is available fromfishermen and officials, there is virtually no docu-mented information available by which to quantifyillegal fishing practices.

The problem is exacerbated by the fact that fewcommon marine boundaries have been negotiatedand agreed between neighboring states; indeed,within the Red Sea, the issue of maritime jurisdic-tion is a complex and persistent problem. Fishingby flag vessels other than those of the states sur-rounding the Red Sea is uncommon. Poaching byforeign vessels in the Gulf of Aden is commonlyreported.

Somalia’s domestic problems have meant that nofunctional government has been in place since1990. Consequently no MCS and enforcement offisheries has taken place in the waters over whichit claims jurisdiction. No licences are issued to for-eign vessels, however Somalia’s waters (both offthe north and eastern coastlines) have become lit-erally an open access area for many industrial ves-sels of various flags using a range of gear, fromsmall Pakistani gill netting Dhows to large Tai-wanese pair-trawlers and Italian and South Koreanstern t rawlers . The area around the CapeGuardafui reportedly attracts more illegal activitythan the Gulf of Aden and the Southern sections ofthe coast (FAO, 1995).

In view of the common problems facing the coun-tries in the Region in regard to implementing

effective systems for MCS of fishing activities,there is a strong case for increased regional coop-eration in this area. This is discussed further inChapter 11.

Present and Anticipated Future Problems Facing the Fisheries Sector

There are a number of common problems fac-ing the fisheries sectors of the countries in the RedSea and Gulf of Aden. These can be summarizedas follows.

INADEQUATE INFORMATION BASE

A major problem is the current lack of accu-rate, reliable and timely basic data from the fisher-ies. Current data collection systems lack planningand transparency. Data formats vary widely andare often not amenable to effective stock assess-ment or monitoring of fisheries managementregimes currently in place. At the national level alack of comprehensive biological and economicstatistics is a major constraint to effective fisheriesmanagement. This is compounded by a lack ofawareness or application of the precautionaryapproach principle currently being adopted byother countries to good effect.

The current state of overfishing in the Red Sea andGulf of Aden is not unique: the history of marinefisheries is full of incidences of overfishing andstock collapses resulting in failure of fishingindustries and bankruptcies. It can be argued thatthe primary objective of fisheries management andplanning of fisheries development is to avoid over-investment. When limited background data isavailable, the precautionary approach shouldreplace the 'optimistic' approach taken by investorsin the fishing sector. Knowledge and understand-ing about the real underlying ecosystem anddynamics of fish stocks are crucial to informeddecisions.

For stocks targeted by small-scale/artisanal fisher-ies that provide livelihoods for hundreds of thou-sands of people and food for many more, theinformation systems in place throughout theRegion are particularly poorly developed. This islargely due to the general difficulty of obtaininginformation from diffuse and widespread sources,including from the communities themselves, par-


ticularly where fish products do not enter the for-mal economy. The standard methods used forsmall-scale fisheries statistical systems (census/frame surveys, stratified sampling programmes,etc.) are lacking. Thus even the key parameterssuch as catch, fishing effort, price and participantsin the fisheries are largely unknown. Chakraborty(1984) developed comprehensive manuals for thecollection of fisheries statistical data that could beapplied throughout the Region. The basic premisesof his work are still relevant today.

In addition to the fact that tropical fisheries areinherently difficult to manage because of thediversity of species harvested, issues for effec-tive management center on the insufficiency ofdata upon which to initiate a substantive pro-gramme of fisheries management. Managementfor targets of maximum or optimum sustainableyield, however, must await an improved databaseof catch and effort. The problem of collectingreliable data are discussed in more detail inChapter 11.

NEED FOR EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT

Fisheries management policies are not cur-rently well defined, and are not based on reliablescientific information. There are inadequatehuman and financial resources for administrationof the sector. Modern guidelines such as theCode of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries is notyet part of national legal frameworks. The adop-tion of the precautionary approach has consider-able implications for fisheries managementagencies and the fishing industry. Scientificadvice to fisheries managers should allow foruncertainty in both the understanding of the stateof the stocks and the effects of future manage-ment actions. When less is known, fisheries man-agement agencies should be more cautious. Thisrequires a management approach less focused onand influenced by short-term considerations, andmore concerned with long-term sustainability offisheries resources and the environment.

Overfishing, due to over-capacity and ineffectiveapplication of controls, is the major problem fac-ing many of the Red Sea fisheries. High pricesfor fish attract new entrants to the fisheries, lead-

ing to uncontrolled effort expended on theresources.

Additional attention will need to be paid to man-agement of migratory species that traverse inter-national borders; this will require regionalmanagement. Destruction of important coastalhabitat (landfill of mangroves, filling in of backreef lagoons, etc.) will need to be reduced sincethis translates directly into reduced recruitmentto exploited populations.

Socio-economic factors also need to be consid-ered in establishing objectives for the manage-ment of fisheries. Unfortunately, all desirableobjectives cannot usually be met simultaneously,and one of the main roles of fisheries manage-ment agencies in a precautionary approachwould be to derive trade-offs between competingobjectives in consultation with interested parties.Whichever approach is taken, it will be necessaryto quantify objectives and trade-offs if they are tobe translated into measurable factors such as thelevel of fishing mortality. The more limited theavailable information about a fishery, the morecautious managers should be in opening the fish-ery to exploitation.

INADEQUATE BASIC APPLIED RESEARCH

Institutions involved in fisheries research needto focus on applied research of the type that facili-tates development of appropriate and effectivemanagement regimes for living marine resources.Greater involvement of the fisheries sector in for-mulating annual work plans for national researchinstitutions would result in more needs-directedresearch. The fishing sector likely would be moreamenable to increasing funding for research if ithad more say in setting research priorities and sawgreater practical use made of the results.

For stocks targeted by the industrial sectors, dataon landed weights for major species, and size/weight distributions of the catch are either notgathered, not comprehensive or simply unreliable.Information on biological parameters such asreproductive state, stomach contents, length-weight correlation, age structure of the populationsetc. are not collected, either by seagoing observersor port inspectors. Stock assessment surveys ofcommercial species have in some cases resulted in


nothing more than a species list and distributionmap of the fish caught, without providing any realstock information upon which management strate-gies could be developed.

SHORE INFRASTRUCTURE

For some countries, such as Sudan, Somaliaand Yemen (on its Red Sea coast), a lack of ade-quate shore facilities is a major constraint. Inade-quate or absent landing jetties, service facilitiesincluding workshops, ice and cold storage facili-ties, spare parts and fuel facilities handicap fishingcommunities and constrain the quality and there-fore ultimate value of the fish landed. In the caseof Sudan, there are virtually no shore facilities,with the exception of Suakin and Abu Hashish, forboat and engine repair facilities, freshwater, iceand cold storage. The road infrastructure is verypoor causing difficulties in delivering qualityproducts to consumers. In Somalia the closure ofthe former processing and storage facilities, whichwere the primary markets for the bulk of the fish-ermen, has meant that many fishermen are nowredundant. The physical deterioration of existingonshore infrastructure, through natural and humandamages, presents enormous difficulties for futurerehabilitation and intervention.

INTEGRATED COASTAL PLANNING

In general, legislation on fisheries and envi-ronmental is in need of revision and updating inorder to make better provision for both fisheriesand environmental conservation. Integrated coastalmanagement is also lacking: tourism and oil indus-tries are afforded high priority, but the negativeimpacts of such activities on coral reefs, nurseryareas and fishing grounds are not considered inpolicymaking for these lucrative sectors. Environ-mental Impact Assessments are generally notundertaken for new projects.

A common feature is the lack of effective commu-nication between those formulating fisheries pol-icy, and the fishing industries and communitieswho are ultimately affected by the managementmeasures imposed. This results in poor under-standing of the need for, and agreement with, man-agement measures. Considerable opportunitytherefore exists for increasing the involvement ofrural communities in the development and imple-

mentation of appropriate management measuresfor coastal living marine resources. This trend of a‘bottom-up’ approach to fisheries management isbeing used increasingly throughout the world.

For example, many of the environmental problemsfacing Saudi Arabia require an integrated approachfor their solution. Such an approach has been diffi-cult due to the sectoral Organization of its govern-ment. Recent efforts in creating Advisory Councilsand a national coastal zone management plan maybegin to address this issue. Development alongSaudi Arabia’s coastline has historically pro-ceeded out without environmental impact assess-ment as a pre-condition.

EXTENSION SERVICES, TRAINING AND PUBLIC AWARENESS

These services vary throughout the Region.Public awareness of the need for a balancebetween fisheries and environmental protectionand conservation requires urgent attention. Manyof the undesirable activities currently practiced(such as use of explosives, dumping of used gearat sea, poor fish handling practices leading tolower value products, etc.) could be reduced con-siderably if more physical and financial meanswere provided to national authorities in order tofacilitate improved extension and training servicesand public awareness campaigns.

ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE CREDIT

This is a major problem underpinning fishingactivities. In Egypt and Sudan, fishermen mustobtain credit through the so-called ‘unofficialcredit’ system operated by fish merchants andretailers. This often results in inefficiencies andblatant extortion. The high interest rates and diffi-cult repayment terms required by banks often putsuch credit lines beyond the reach of smaller andmore impoverished fishermen. In Somalia, a scar-city of foreign exchange due to the trade situationhas resulted in an inability to purchase fishingmaterials such as nets, hooks and boats.

POORLY DEVELOPED MARKET SYSTEMS

Monopoly activities by a few large traders or‘middlemen’ tend to stifle the rational develop-ment of the market, due to vested interests.Sudan’s artisanal fishermen in areas far from Port


Sudan are constrained by the lack of proper roads,communications and shore facilities. No ice pro-duction or cold storage facilities exist outside theurban areas. The problems facing Somalia’s artisa-nal fisheries are exacerbated by the remoteness ofthe fishing villages and the inadequacy of govern-ment institutional capacity. Fishing effort is lim-ited due to lack of trained technicians (boat-builders, engineers, refrigeration specialists),chronic shortage of spare parts, fuel supply andworking capital. A similar situation is faced by theartisanal sector elsewhere in the Region.

TOURISM

In spite of the undisputed benefits that tourismhas brought to the Region, especially in Egypt,measures are required to ensure that the tourismindustry works within a framework of integratedcoastal zone management that ensures conserva-tion and protection of living marine resources.Natural resources such as coral reef systems in theRed Sea, the nesting and breeding grounds ofmarine turtles, mangroves, areas inhabited by birdsetc. are a considerable draw to tourists and theirfuture conservation needs to be ensured.

Development along Saudi Arabia’s coastline his-torically proceeded without environmental impactassessment as a pre-condition. For example, ‘cor-niche roads’ have been built by land-filling to thereef edge; private villas and coastal cities havebeen developed with extensive dredging and land-fill; and municipal sewage outfalls have been builtin proximity to recreational beaches. Now EIAsare required for development projects and there isan immediate need for a structured programme ofenvironmental assessment and integrated planningfor projects that have an impact on coastalresources.

MARINE AQUARIUM TRADE

Reef ecosystems are highly sensitive to anyform of fishing. In areas such as the Philippinesand Indonesia, uncontrolled collection of aquariumfish species, often with harsh techniques, hasresulted in damage to the reefs similar to that wit-nessed in areas where dynamite fishing occurs.Aquarium fish collection is currently only under-taken in Saudi Arabia and Yemen to any extentand thus poses only a moderate threat to the living

marine resources of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.However this is an emerging issue that urgentlyrequires attention.

Before expansion of the aquarium fish industryproceeds, the following should be considered andappropriate plans developed:

• Systematic and thorough survey of reefs andthe aquarium stocks present.

• Control to ensure no over-exploitation ofaccessible reefs, in order to avoid direct conse-quences to diving tourism.

• Consideration of a possible predator/preyinteraction whereby aquarium fish removaltakes food from important artisanal reef fishspecies.

• Establishment of ‘no take’ zones which wouldserve as functional sanctuaries for aquariumspecies. Buffer zones should be establishedbetween exploited and ‘no-take’ zones. Suchzones could form part of a larger system ofMPAs.

• Training of collectors in methods that are non-destructive and result in minimal damage tocorals and fish.

• Good monitoring of the fishery (collection ofdetailed catch data by species and by area) andcareful control (allowable harvesting areas,restricted number of vessels/operators/compa-nies). Licensing offers an effective manage-ment tool for a thriving, sustainable industrythat can produce a quality product.

• Development of guidelines for handling andmarketing.

POLLUTION

In Djibouti, there is a constant threat of oilspills of varying magnitude along the coastline.Oil may leak from oil terminals and tankers, caus-ing chronic pollution in the intertidal zone. Con-sidering prevailing currents and winds, oilpollution may occur in almost any part of thecoast, at least at certain times of the year. Tar ballsoriginating from passing ships are often found onthe beaches of Djibouti. The port area is particu-larly threatened by oil spills. A spill of 20 to 25metric tons was reported from the port in 1980 and


two minor spills of 2 to 3 cubic meters occurred in1981 and 1985. The Sawabi Islands (Iles des SeptFrères) are at risk because of their proximity tomajor shipping lanes. The construction of a refin-ery is planned at Doralé/Saline-Ouest. If imple-mented, this project will pose a major threat to therich coastal and marine habitats and biota of thearea. A conflict of interest with fisheries develop-ment in the area is also expected.

In Somalia, the coastline is generally clean exceptaround the main urban areas of Bosaso, Berberaand Zeila. However, signs of oil pollution havebeen observed on the extreme west of the northerncoast close to the Strait of Bab-al-Mandab. This isbelieved to be due to the high level of maritimetraffic that passes through the narrow area at theentrance to the Red Sea (Awad 1995; Rushdie andothers, 1991; 1994). Reported incidents of dump-ing toxic wastes by developed countries intoSomalia’s unguarded waters has prompted Green-peace and other environmental NGOs to investi-gate, but these findings have not yet been madepublic.

10

Recent, Current and Planned Fisheries Projects

A summary of recent, current and plannedenvironmental interventions and priority actionsfor the fisheries sector are summarized in thePERSGA National Fisheries Reports (PERSGA1997a – 1997i). Briefly, these focus on the fol-lowing areas:

• Legislation: Improving the legislative frame-work for environmental and fisheries man-agement and conservation; accession tointernational treaties (such as UNCLOS,Convention on Biological Diversity, MAR-POL, Code of Conduct for Responsible Fish-ing, etc.).

• Habitat conservation: Development of inte-grated coastal zone management plans, man-grove/coral rehabilitation and conservation,establishment and management of MPAs; oilspill contingency planning.

• Tourism management: Guidelines for visi-tors to coral reefs; guidelines for mooringboats on reefs.

• Living marine resources management: Fish-eries management plans and strategies;improved fish handling and marketing; con-servation of sea birds, turtles and marinemammals; establishment of MPAs.

• Community development: Development ofcommunity management initiatives.

• Navigational risks: Improved navigationalmarkers, updating of marine charts.

• Industrial and urban development: Require-ment for EIA for all applications, control ofdredging and filling for urban and industrialdevelopment, port construction and mainte-nance of navigation channels.

• Applied research: Fish stock assessmentactivities; databases for biological resourceand environmental information; improveddata collection for formulating managementplans.

• Education and awareness: Development ofpublic awareness materials, provision oftraining for private and public sector staff.

The following information focuses on fisheriesprojects in some states in the Region.

In Saudi Arabia, short and long term projectshave been prepared by the Ministry of Agricul-ture and Water in collaboration with interna-tional organizations. The focus is on buildingnational capacity in fish handling, processing andmarketing; improving the fisheries shore infra-structure and services; technical ability to under-take fish stock assessment and applied research;and further development of aquaculture. Priorityactions are under development to improveenforcement of legislation related to manage-ment of coastal and marine areas. Plans are alsobeing developed to improve stock assessmentand management for finfish and shrimp throughbetter collection and evaluation of catch andeffort data (Olsen and others, 1996).

73


In Sudan, the Sudan Integrated Fisheries Project isthe main planned activity (discussed previously).

One of Eritrea’s top national priorities is the reha-bilitation and development of its artisanal fisher-ies. Improving the socio-economic situation ofartisanal groups and reconstruction of the shoreinfrastructure are the main priorities. All investorswho wish to participate in Eritrea’s fisheries arerequired to actively invest in infrastructural devel-opment.

In recognition of the importance of strengtheningthe enforcement of existing regulations relating tothe management of coastal and marine areas andresources, Djibouti is considering a revision of itsNational Maritime Law, related laws and regula-tions. A Programme for the Development of Arti-sanal Fisheries, which was initiated in 1980,resulted in a substantial growth of this sector.Before 1980 there were only 50 fishermen, mainlyof Yemeni origin. Their means consisted ofwooden boats of 4 to 6 meters length and very lim-ited loading capacity. These boats, which had noengines, allowed only for subsistence fisheries. Inthe framework of the programme, fishermen weresupplied with fishing gear, outboard engines andfiberglass boats. Ten years after the completion ofthe programme, in 1990, the number of active fish-ermen had increased significantly. The averageage of fishermen used to range between 40 and 55years, and a rejuvenation of the operations andproductions became an imperative for the develop-ment of the sector. To this end a training center forprofessional fishermen was created in 1991 withsupport from IFAD. Unfortunately political eventsof the early 1990s interfered with the successfulexecution of the training.

In Yemen, past, present and future assistance hasbeen summarized by a recent fisheries sectorreview (MEP, 1999). Infrastructure projects havehelped to build fisheries harbours in Aden,Mukalla, Nishtun, al-Hudaydah and Khobah(jetty) and to provide some access roads to fishingcenters. The harbour facilities in al-Hudaydah andKhobah have been of crucial importance in thedevelopment of the Red Sea fisheries but are nowfacing serious siltation problems. The Aden har-bour has also been, and still is, very useful andimportant for the industrial fisheries. The Khalf

commercial port at Mukalla is a good harbour butnot used by fishing vessels. The only failure isNishtun, which has hardly been used; problemsrelate to silting of the harbour basin and itsentrance and to the supply of power and water.The lack of road communications to that part ofthe country, al-Mahara, is probably another reasonfor the limited use of the facilities.

The artisanal sector in Yemen has been supportedwith landing and shore facilities, boats, enginesand credit schemes in both the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden areas. The introduction of boats and enginesand the availability of loans have worked well andhelped significantly in the development andexpansion of the fisheries. Some of the shore facil-ities, such as cold storage and ice plants along thesouthern coast, have functioned well but a generalproblem is maintenance and particularly non-availability of spare parts. Others, on the Red Seacoast, have failed, mainly due to poor managementand maintenance by NCSFM. Landing facilities(jetties), slipways and workshops, such as thoseprovided under the Third Fisheries Project at RasImran, Foqum, Shuqra and Bir Ali, have been usedto a very little extent or not at all.

Past assistance to Yemen’s industrial sector essen-tially consisted of supply of twenty-one old freezertrawlers from the former Soviet Union and Japan,all of which have been scrapped or are still occu-pying the Aden harbour as wrecks. The fish pro-ce s s ing i ndus t ry was f i nance d by l a rg einternational development loans in an attempt toestablish a fishmeal industry (20 years ago), whichtotally failed. Fish canneries in Shuqra andMukalla were also established and refurbishedwith foreign assistance and are still working. In thearea of fish processing and marketing, a largenumber of cold storage facilities, chill rooms,freezers and ice plants have been installed withexternal assistance. The largest ones by far arelocated in Aden and in Mukalla and Nishtun.Smaller facilities of 5-30 metric ton capacity havebeen set up at some twenty other locations. Thelarger ones, except in Nishtun, and the CFC facili-ties in Dabut and Mukalla have been extensivelyused and fulfil an important function. Most of thesmaller ones were provided in the 1970s and arenow out of commission; it is not clear to whatextent they were used.


Yemen’s MSRRC was established with supportfrom external funding and technical assistance andthe research vessel was received as a grant in aid.FMDC was established under the IDA-fundedThird Fisheries Development Project. Many otherprojects have also included components of in ser-vice training and specialized training abroad. Inthis context, the assistance from the former SovietUnion is noteworthy. A very large number ofsenior staff in the Ministry of Fish Wealth and itsinstitutions were trained in the former SovietUnion and the former East Germany. Technicalassistance was also a large input from the formerSoviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s. Otherprojects include those sponsored by IDA and asso-ciated agencies, among them the Fourth FisheriesDevelopment Project.

Yemen has identified a number of key areas wherefuture assistance is required, such as coastal roadsto better integrate fishing villages with the nationalmainstream of economic and social activities.Fisheries harbours and landing facilities are insuf-ficient to meet the needs of the artisanal fishingfleet and need to be improved and expanded. Ear-lier inputs of this kind, such as Ras Imran andNishtun, have not always been successful and it isvery important to clarify why some of the providedfacilities are not being used before starting on newones. The creation of a network of harbours andlanding facilities is a complex task involving geo-graphic, technical, economic, social and politicalfactors and, in all this complexity, the end usermust not be forgotten.

Yemen is in need of financial assistance to rehabil-itate and improve harbours like al-Hudaydah butwould also benefit from technical assistance inpreparing a long-term rolling master plan forfuture development as a guide for the Ministry ofFish Wealth, the government and internationaldevelopment cooperation agencies. Smaller land-ing areas, such as at Khaisa fishing village whichrequires a breakwater to allow year round landingeven during the monsoon, should also be includedin such a master plan.

Regarding fisheries research, the tight restrictionson government expenditures have made it impossi-ble for the Ministry of Fish Wealth to mobilesnational resources for funding of overseas training

and education. Actual needs are yet to be estab-lished and should be done in connection with a pri-oritizing of MSRRC’s work programme. But it isalready clear that a large, long-term programme ofassistance is needed. For assistance in research, along-term twinning arrangement with a suitableresearch institution in a developed country shouldbe considered. The main advantage would be con-sistency in the transfer of technology and training.

Regarding MCS of fishing activities, technicalassistance, training and equipment is needed. Themain components of MCS assistance would bepreparation of new legislation, design of monitor-ing schedules, assessment of surveillance needsand Organization of suitable systems, training ofinspectors, communication equipment, etc. Assis-tance could be broken down into different projects,but should preferably be delivered as a package forconsistency and effectiveness. However, the assis-tance to draft a new law, by-laws and suitableagreements for fishing rights, which is a prerequi-site for meaningful implementation of the othercomponents, could be undertaken on its own.

Regarding future assistance Yemen is currentlyfocusing on two key areas: improved managementof fisheries, especially through provision of physi-cal means and training for more effective MCS,and also improving fish handling and processing atthe national level so as to meet the stringent crite-ria of markets such as the EU. The specific needsfor improved fish quality control in Yemen havebeen identified and the actions required are slowlybeing implemented (MEP 1994c, e, f). The EU isproviding funding assistance in these areas. Inaddition, a Socotra Archipelago Master Plan isbeing formulated, which aims at producing a com-prehensive framework for the economic and socialdevelopment of this unique group of islands in theGulf of Aden. This is funded by the EuropeanCommission (EC) and is being implemented byYemen’s Environmental Protection Council(EPC).

In Somalia, several international organizations(notably UN agencies) and NGOs are involved insupport of the fishing communities scattered alongits northern coast on the Gulf of Aden. The assis-tance provided has mostly been in the form of fish-ing gear and vocational training. Attempts to


provide new shore infrastructure such marketbuildings on beaches and storage/processing facili-ties and to refurbish existing facilities have notbeen successful, due primarily to the absence of afunctional national and local government adminis-tration. The United Nations is endeavouring tostart a fisheries revolving fund to allow import offishing gear for the northern towns of Bosaso andQandala.

11

Discussion and Conclusions

The preceding chapters indicate that thereare a number of key areas in which future devel-opments should be focused in order to improveliving marine resources management and conser-vation throughout the Region.

Fisheries Policy ObjectivesThe fisheries sectors of some PERSGA

members states—Egypt, Saudi Arabia andYemen—are in a dynamic phase of development.Since 1988 new boats have entered the fisheriesat a rapid rate and new companies and individu-als are investing in marketing facilities. Variousdevelopment projects have helped to stimulatethis development. The private sector has alsobeen instrumental in expanding catches, process-ing and exports, especially in Yemen since unifi-cation in 1990. However, careful planning isneeded within an appropriate legal framework toprovide for effective management of fisheriesresources and habitat/biodiversity conservation.

In the four southern states—Sudan, Djibouti,Yemen and Somalia—fisheries are at very differ-ent stages of development. Only Djibouti hasdeveloped and implemented a coordinatedapproach to fisheries, despite the low contribu-tion the sector makes to GNP. Yemen has limitedinstitutional capacity to provide adequate moni-toring and surveillance. Stock assessmentresearch is lacking and therefore cannot form thebasis of management planning. Control of thefisheries is weak, due to inadequate laws and

insufficient enforcement capability. Virtually nogovernment management is possible in Somaliabecause of the effects of the civil war. Sudan hasconcentrated on mariculture, particularly pearloyster shell. The industrial sector is inefficientand the artisanal sector suffers from poorlydeveloped shore infrastructure. The rehabilita-tion of the programmes and activities initiatedwith ODA and FAO assistance in the 1970s and1980s may be the best policy choice for Sudan.

The policy objectives of the relevant nationalfisheries administrations have been developedlargely in proportion to the relative importanceof fisheries to the national economy. In somecases, policy objectives appear to be incongru-ent: for example, the goals of increasing artisanaland industrial production whilst conservingresources and the marine environment may notbe simultaneously possible. Similarly, the goal ofcreating foreign exchange through increasingexports needs to be clarified further if the goal ofincreasing domestic consumption is also to beachieved.

It is suggested that all governments in the Regionaim to develop a clear policy for national fisher-ies within a framework for integrated coastalmanagement. Fisheries policy should aim tofacilitate greater control and management offisheries so that future expansion is well plannedand adequately regulated in order to generatesustained economic and social benefits from thefisheries. The emphasis of government’s role

77


should be on control rather than stimulation andshould be reflected in the policy statements of therelevant national authorities (see Box 1).

In some states, a body which functions as a ‘fisher-ies management advisory committee’ (FMAC) hasbeen established under the fisheries laws in orderto coordinate management and research activitieswith the needs of the fisheries sector. These com-mittees are of fundamental importance if policy isto be developed that meets the needs of the sector.It is suggested that the responsibilities of suchcommittees be strengthened wherever possible toinclude the development of specific managementplans for commercial fisheries and to oversee allaspects of marine fisheries research and manage-

ment. This could be best achieved by expandingthe committee role to advise the Minister responsi-ble for fisheries on sector policy and oversee the

establishment of specific fisheries managementplans, research, MCS and enforcement activities.The formulation of appropriate fisheries manage-ment plans would be a significant improvement onthe current situation. The FMAC could then func-tion as the main coordination body for the activi-ties of national research and MCS agencies. Thecomposition of any FMAC is crucial to its functionas a forum for communication and consultationbetween different fisheries sector stakeholders. Itis suggested that persons from pertinent govern-

BOX 1. PRINCIPLES OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

1. Management objectives

Historically the main objective of fisheries management is conservation of fish stocks. More recently, this limited aim has been extended to address additional economic, social and environmental objectives. The broad objec-tives of management today include: (a) Conservation of fisheries resources and their environment; (b) Ensuring that fisheries are exploited on an ecologically responsible basis; (c) Maximization of economic returns from the fisheries and economic efficiency of operations; (d) The social wellbeing of fishermen and rural coastal communi-ties and employment considerations; (e) Payment of fees to the community from profits made by the exploitation of a public resource; and (f) Developing institutional competence, which focuses on the role of institutions involved in fisheries management and in particular their capability to adapt to changes in resources, technologies and mar-kets.

The objectives of management can be realized by adopting one of several strategies, each with its own set of con-sequences. As fisheries management must often address social, political, legal, economic and biological factors, the overall objectives of fisheries management will almost always involve compromise.

2. Management strategies

Once the objectives or policy aims of managing a particular fishery have been defined, the range of management strategies capable of achieving these objectives can be considered.

Fisheries research and stock assessment should provide advice to fisheries managers in the form of probable bio-logical, economic and environmental outcomes for a range of possible management strategies. This advice should include an assessment of risk associated with alternative strategies and a summary of the particular con-trols or regulations required to achieve the objectives. Cost-benefit analyses should take into account the enforce-ment costs of controls and regulations associated with each strategy. A fisheries management plan should in general contain a description of: (a) The current state of development and level of exploitation of the fisheries; (b) The policy aims, or objectives, of managing the fisheries; (c) The management strategies which would achieve the objectives; (d) The regulations which may be applied to the fisheries under various strategies.

3. Key goals in fisheries management

Objectives of fisheries management may include the aims of maximizing yield either in weight or revenue terms, and of maintaining a particular level of stock in order to provide a buffer against poor recruitment years or to main-tain a minimum spawning stock. These biologically based objectives or goals may be modified to include a range of interdisciplinary objectives related to economic and social benefits and environmental protection.


ment ministries, authorities and also private sectororganizations be members of such committees.

In those countries where an equivalent body doesnot exist, it is suggested that the creation of such abody be initiated as a matter of priority. Formationof a FMAC could proceed through a formal under-standing between the government departmentsconcerned, and does not necessarily require legalendorsement in order to become operational.

Institutional StructuresProposals for structural reform of the national

authorities involved in fisheries management arebeyond the scope of this report. Although there arevariations, most of the national fisheries authori-ties have responsibility for the following tasks:

• Fisheries data collection and collation.

• Sector policy, management and administra-tion.

• Stock assessment and applied fisheriesresearch.

• Preparation of management, development andinvestment plans.

• MCS and enforcement of legislation.

• Formulation of fisheries legislation, controlmeasures and licence conditions.

• Preparation of reports, research papers andtechnical studies.

• Financial support to fishermen.

• Training and extension services.

• Provision of shore facilities and marketinginfrastructure.

• Quality control measures.

• Financial accounting and auditing for the sec-tor.

The principal responsibility is the effectivemanagement of the fisheries sector (see Box2).In some states weak staff motivation, often as aresult of low salaries, inadequate managementoversight and a general lack of direction have ledto an almost total cessation of routine activities.

Lack of transparency in relationships betweenheadquarters and branches may compound theproblem. These issues require consideration bynational authorities and appropriate restructuringand improved procedural arrangement need to beput in place

INFORMATION AND FINANCIAL TRANSPARENCY

Free flowing information is crucial to organi-zations for their daily functioning, developmentand employee motivation. Fisheries managementin the Region suffers from information flow prob-lems for a variety of reasons, including a lack offacilities and communication infrastructure. Thetendency not to share or distribute information iswidespread, to the extent that central statistics areunreliable (see data collection and analysis discus-sion below), if available at all, and new and usefulinformation is not disseminated to the appropriatedepartments or branches.

SALARIES AND PUBLIC SECTOR JOBS

The average civil servant wage is low in moststates. When this is combined with slow dissemi-nation of small operational budgets and a lack ofinvestment/improvement funds, it is not surprisingthat many employees in fisheries managementpositions lack motivation or spend time away fromtheir posts attending to other wage earning activi-ties. Some states are attempting to implementprivatization programmes in the hope that thisencourages government ministries to become moreproactive through a reduced staff and higher realwages. Likewise, it is hoped that stimulating theprivate sector will provide opportunities for excessgovernment employees to find fulfilling and wellpaid work outside government institutions.

National governments should consider rationaliza-tion of their staffing, structure and functioning ofthe national fisheries administrations, includingbranches and institutions. It is envisaged that suchan exercise might be best undertaken as part of anational structural adjustment plan for the publicsector. As part of the rationalization process, thejob descriptions of all staff should include alloca-tion of responsibilities for increased efficiency. Areview of the total staff requirement would iden-tify those who qualify for assistance in redeploy-ment and retraining.


Although a lack of adequate financial resources forfisheries administrations is common throughoutthe Region, the problem is particularly great in

Sudan, Djibouti, Yemen and Somalia. Withoutsufficient funding, national public authorities andtheir institutions cannot effectively discharge their

BOX 2. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT GOALS

Management goals or objectives are achieved by either placing limits on catches (output controls) or placing restrictions on fishing effort (input controls) and can be categorized as follows:

maximizing Catches: MSY as a management objective is often criticized, but attempts to replace MSY with con-cepts such as Optimum Sustainable Yield (OSY) have had limited impact, since OSY includes social, economic as well as biological factors and therefore means different things to different people.

maximizing Economic Yield: maximizing profit is very appropriate in strictly commercial fisheries where most of the catch is exported. Maximum participation is usually sacrificed in favour of maximizing profits in the form of for-eign exchange. There is another benefit of maintaining catches at MSY, since this is below the amount of effort required for MEY, and thus recruitment overfishing is less likely.

Fishing to Biological Reference Points: In many fisheries, management objectives are based on a recommended Total Allowable Catch (TAC) which can be framed as biological reference points such as MSY or MEY. If research has included the monitoring of recruitment and biomass, the TAC can be adjusted to reflect the strength of recruit-ment in that year.

Maintaining Minimum Stock Sizes: Maintaining a minimum or buffer stock size has the aim of improving the stabil-ity of catches from year to year.

Maintaining Spawning Stocks: Objectives may include ensuring, at least within some level of probability, that the spawning stock does not decrease below some minimum value. Many fisheries have crashed because recruit-ment fails due to the spawning stock being reduced too much, such as the clupeid herring and sardine fisheries, and the anchoveta fishery off Peru and Chile in the 1970s. The problem is that the minimum level of spawning stock required to maintain recruitment is not known in most species.

Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD): In the face of decreased catches even in strictly managed fisheries, many scientists now advocate that the narrowly based management of a single resource should be replaced by broader based management of the ecosystem that supports all marine species. This acknowledges that protection of the ecosystem that supports fisheries is required and that marine ecosystems are valuable for reasons other than commercial fishing. ESD attempts to address the demands of various resource users, such as commercial and subsistence fishermen, recreational fishermen, aquaculture, tourism, water sports, shipping, coastal develop-ment, industry etc. The goals of an ecosystem approach to fisheries management include: sustainable use of both species and ecosystem; maintenance of essential ecological processes; preservation of biological diversity at all levels.

Adaptive Management Strategies: One of the criticisms of applying a single management strategy to a fishery as a whole is that there are no results from alternative strategies with which to make comparisons. This approach applies different strategies to different parts of the stock in the expectation of learning something of their effects.

Risk Assessment: A management strategy proposed for a fishery may be framed in terms of an acceptable level of risk of deleterious effects. For example it may be estimated that recruitment overfishing will not occur as long as the stock is not reduced to less than 40 per cent of the virgin biomass. In this case, a TAC can be set at such a level that there is less than a 10 per cent risk that the stock will be reduced to less than 40 percent of the virgin bio-mass in any year. Simulation models are often used in risk assessment.

Technology Creep: Management strategies based on fishing effort, rather than on fishing mortality or catches, suf-fer from the fact that increases in efficiency of gear or methods (technology creep) results in an increase in the effective effort, even though apparent effort (say number of vessels) may stay the same. Technology creep also poses considerable problems in fisheries assessment, particularly if the assessors are not aware that effective effort is increasing over time.


duties. Governments should therefore strive toensure that adequate finance is provided from coresources, and also investigate alternative sources offunds such as fishing vessel licences, penaltiespaid for infringements etc.

Member states should ensure that benefits avail-able through membership in international organi-zations and as signatories to internationalconventions, in the form of direct aid, informationtransfer and in academic and research links, areused to the fullest extent. At present some statessuch as Somalia, Djibouti and Yemen receive lim-ited benefit from membership in internationalorganizations.

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT The fisheries training establishments in the

Region face common constraints, including:

• Funding levels are erratic and too low, affect-ing the efficiency of training.

• Classes are often too large for quality tuition.

• The roles of some departments are duplicated.

• Training curricula are in places outdated, withtoo high an emphasis on theoretical training.

• More practical and short-term courses arerequired to meet the needs of the fisheries sec-tor.

• Much of the equipment is run down, due tolack of repair and maintenance, or at the end ofits useful life.

• Working practices and safety procedures canbe lax.

• There is a shortage of books in the library andof consumables in workshops and classrooms.

A complete review of present fisheries trainingstructure and function, especially the appropriate-ness and adequacy of course syllabi currentlyoffered, would be useful for focusing on the prob-lems at hand and future needs. Material and finan-cial resources required in order to enable theinstitutions to function effectively and serve thechanging needs of the fisheries sector should beidentified and provided for. The potential regionalrole of fisheries training centers in each of the

PERSGA member states and their neighbors war-rants careful consideration.

Fisheries Research

RESEARCH PRIORITIES

Past assistance from international donors andinstitutions has been provided mainly throughtechnical assistance, equipment and infrastructure.Historically there was an emphasis on oceano-graphic work primarily, followed by fisheries,mariculture and the environment in decreasingorder of priority. Environmental issues came intoprominence in the 1990s.

Oceanographic research is extremely important inboth the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The Gulf ofAden is regarded as unique in that an annualupwelling occurs, providing Yemen, Djibouti andSomalia with very rich pelagic fisheries. If ocean-ographic research of a long-term nature is under-taken and carried out effectively, this will provideinvaluable information on the dynamics of theIndian Ocean.

Research in fisheries stock assessment, maricul-ture and environmental protection have been ingeneral applied and short-term in nature. Appliedresearch on the mariculture of pearl shell in Sudanhas been ongoing for over ten years and is formingthe basis for future development. Only Djiboutihas undertaken any significant fish stock assess-ment (with the assistance of GTZ) since 1988 andhas also investigated the potential for developingan aquarium fish industry (with assistance fromFAO). There is a need for research into the envi-ronmental impacts of mariculture in some states,especially Saudi Arabia and Egypt.

In view of the economic and social importance ofthe fisheries, with so many people depending onthem directly for employment and indirectly asconsumers of fisheries products, there is an obvi-ous need for fisheries resource assessment. Infor-mation is required for planning and regulation toprevent over-exploitation and to ensure the long-term sustainability of the fisheries. The importanceof marine environmental protection is indisput-able. In the context of the Region’s marine envi-ronment , t he env i ronmenta l haza rds a refortunately not many at present. However, if


awareness of the environment and the need todevelop fisheries within a framework of integratedcoastal zone management is not developed now,future coastal development and fisheries manage-ment and their associated practices may not serveto protect fish stocks, their breeding grounds orhuman health.

As resources are often limited within nationalresearch institutions it seems prudent to focus onactivities generating high priority benefits, forexample the preservation of fishing communitiesand livelihoods through fish stock preservationand research. While scientific research and envi-ronmental sustainability are undoubtedly impor-tant, the fundamental objective should be to assesspotential yields of fish stocks and explore suitablemeans and methods to ensure exploitation of theresources within maximum sustainable economiclevels (see Box 3). That is the level at which themaximum possible sustainable economic benefit isderived from fishing, which is different from sim-ply the maximum sustainable physical exploitationlevels.

Fisheries research has until now largely been lim-ited to some species with high commercial value—such as snappers, cuttlefish and rock lobster—theirvulnerability to over-exploitation and their loca-tion in limited geographical areas. Species such asyellowfin tuna, sharks, kingfish, emperors, andother species that are as valuable, or more, in total

production, have not been researched and basiccatch and effort statistics, when available, arequestionable. Only Saudi Arabia has a good fisher-ies data collection system in place. Valuable spe-cies should receive priority attention because oftheir economic importance and vulnerability.Besides careful and continuous monitoring of thecatch and effort data and associated analyses, stud-ies of suitable measures to enhance sustainableeconomic yield are vital. Priority issues in fisher-ies research include:

• Fleet structure, costs and earnings, effective-ness of existing management regimes shouldbe addressed. Focus should be placed on fish-eries that target rock lobster, cuttlefish,shrimp, trochus and pearl shell.

• Demersal fish caught by the industrial trawlerfleet require attention for reasons similar tocuttlefish. The quantitative information avail-able on species composition and rate ofexploitation, and costs and earnings of thetrawling fleet are insufficient for stock assess-

ment or formulation of effective managementplans. Basic catch and effort data are producedregularly by the trawlers and although data arecollected by some national authorities, fewanalyses are being carried out. The data aresimply collated and published in annual catchsummary statistical reports.

BOX 3. PRINCIPLES OF POPULATION DYNAMICS AND YIELD

Population dynamics involves:

• Studying basic biology and distribution of resource species.• Studying the population dynamics of species.Some of the major parameters that must be estimated are species distribution, abundance, size/length parame-ters, selectivity of fishing gear, growth rate, reproduction/recruitment, mortality rate.

Yield:

For fisheries management, estimating life history parameters is less important than how these estimates may be used to calculate the maximum weight or yield from a stock without adversely affecting future reproduction and recruitment. This quantity, called the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY), and the level of fishing effort required to take it, formed the basis for biological fisheries management in the past. Since the 1970s, however, fisheries reg-ulations have increasingly addressed other aspects of fisheries management, including (a) access rights/alloca-tion of resources, (b) economic efficiency of fishing (c) environmental protection and (d) stock conservation.


• The species caught by the artisanal fisheriesrequire more study. The current status of theseresources is generally unknown. To studythem all is an enormous task and very strictpriorities should be established when selectingspecies and type of research to be conducted.The main criterion for selecting species shouldbe their socio-economic value. The type ofresearch should in the first place aim at deter-mining the rate of exploitation by collectinglength frequency data at landing sites and onvessels, and secondly at determining whether aparticular stock is resident or migratory, whichwill be fundamental to future managementstrategies. Any study of the artisanal fisherieswill require the establishment of a samplingprogramme (discussed below).

Setting priorities for fisheries research work mustbe done with the participation of all interestedstakeholders. Once priorities have been set, it isessential that they are followed up with the neces-sary reallocation of resources, including staff. Inmany cases the fisheries research priorities men-tioned above have been proposed earlier but thework has not materialized for lack of follow-upactions.

Highest priority should be given to applied fisher-ies research that is of direct practical use in formu-lating specific fisheries management strategies andplans, while oceanographic, marine and coastalenvironmental studies should be encouraged tocontinue using available resources.

Annual work plans should be developed thataddress the priority research issues facing the fish-eries sector. Regular meetings with interested pub-lic and private sector bodies and fisheriesstakeholders would allow continuous review ofwork activities, achievements and direction, andengender a sense of ownership of fisheriesresearch activities.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS The basis for effective fisheries research is the

routine and systematic collection of appropriatedata. The degree to which fisheries data are col-lected in the Region varies considerably: Djibouti,Egypt, and Saudi Arabia have well establishedsystems. In Sudan and Yemen data collection is

not well organized. Data collection in Somalia andJordan has virtually ceased, but for different rea-sons. In all member states fisheries data collectionand analysis systems could be improved.

In general, data for the artisanal fisheries is scarceand affected by a very high degree of inaccuracy.Production data for industrial fleets and on exportsare more readily available. It is not clear whetherall inspections of industrial landings are carriedout thoroughly, or whether foreign vessels operat-ing under licence adhere to their terms and condi-tions. There are discrepancies in the data obtainedfrom different sources and there is certainly scopefor improving and streamlining the system for datasharing and distribution of responsibilities for dataprocessing and production of value-added statis-tics required for specific functions. Such an exer-cise should be fairly simple and low cost, beingmainly a question of organizing and managing theinformation flow.

Further to the general production data from indus-trial fleets, more details on the catch and fishingeffort are required for stock assessment purposes.These requirements could be easily met by cooper-ation between national research agencies and thefishing companies and, if necessary, included asobligations in the fishing licensing agreements.Information on costs and earnings data is requiredto calculate MEYs, though this may require furthertraining of staff.

The artisanal fisheries in the Region, often withseveral thousand producers scattered along theentire coastline, present a major problem for ade-quate monitoring and generation of reliable statis-tics. On Yemen’s Gulf of Aden coast, cooperativesand societies provide information on the landingsin their respective areas of jurisdiction. In somecases the data are broken down into species orgroups of species. Since unification of the PDRYand YAR in 1990, only part of the catch is soldthrough cooperatives/societies and very little isknown about fish landed elsewhere. Artisanal dataon fishing effort, that is, boats and fishermen forSomalia’s northern coast and for Sudan andYemen’s Red Sea coast, are very sparse.

A common problem for both the Red Sea and Gulfof Aden coasts is that fish are never weighed atfirst sale on the beach or at the landing center. In


most coastal markets, fish is auctioned in numbers,lots, baskets or heaps. Weights recorded in ‘offi-cial’ statistics are therefore merely estimates,which are necessarily subjective and thereforeunreliable.

A fundamental requirement for statistical informa-tion on artisanal fisheries, for purposes of resourceassessment, planning and future management, isthe establishment and implementation of an appro-priate sampling programme. This must be basedon a new census of the size, location and charac-teristics of the fishing fleet. The implementation ofthe programme will require enumerators stationedat, or near, the sites selected for sampling.

The situation is not likely to change unless supportis provided in the form of information technologyand staff training in data collection and analysis.Techniques are being developed in other regionsusing multidisciplinary approaches in FisheriesStock Assessment Models (Preikshot and Pauly,1999), which include biological, fishery, eco-nomic, social and ethical values. Many of thesevalues can be obtained through simple scoring sys-tems (and relevant attributes agreed) and imple-mented (data/views obtained and appraisalsundertaken) at the community level, and in waysthat the fishing communities can understand andwhose outcomes they can appreciate and accept.These forms of rapid and participatory fisheriesassessment methods (Pitcher and Preikshot, 1999)might form the basis for some of the newapproaches that could be taken by countries in theRegion.5

To ensure country-wide uniformity, a nationalinstitution should ideally be made responsible.Technical and scientific competence is requiredfor implementation of the data collection system,for training and supervision of samplers and in thecollation and interpretation of the data (see Box 4).

A significant step in clarifying the flow of statisti-cal information and in providing a basis forimproved production statistics would be to makeone institution responsible for statistics on market-ing, including export and fish prices, and for the

overall dissemination of all official statisticalinformation.

It is suggested therefore that the present arrange-ments for fisheries data collection and analysis berevised in each country. Data should be collectedthat will allow routine catch, effort and CPUEanalysis at species level. The data collection sys-tem with a view to manpower and financial con-straints and the importance of the fisheries.

Training of scientific staff in modern techniquesand procedures both in-house and in appropriatebodies within the Region should be facilitated.Organizations such as FAO or the EU and otherbilateral and multi lateral donors could beapproached to provide assistance in stock assess-ment training.

Formal channels for information exchange shouldbe established that clearly define the responsibili-ties of the various users of the data. The standardformats to be used for data collection, alreadydeveloped, should be used as far as possible. For-mal channels of information flow should be devel-oped between all government parties and otherusers of basic statistics.

Data suitable for stock assessment purposes shouldalso be gathered as part of a coordinated nationalfisheries statistics plan. A single government bodyshould be the overall coordinating authority for thenational fisheries statistics collection system.

It is anticipated that much historical data is cur-rently unused at national research institutions. As afirst step, this data should be collated and analyzedto produce working estimates for standing stocksand sustainable exploitation rates as a basis for set-ting catch levels and licence numbers. These esti-mates could be used for fisheries managementpurposes until further data can be established fromnew fisheries research programmes.

FINANCIAL RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR RESEARCH

National research institutions have the impor-tant role of providing data and information to deci-sionmakers on fisheries resources and the marineenvironment for the formulation of policy andmanagement plans. In many cases, this role is not5. The use of the RAPFISH technique in addressing ways

to evaluate a fishery’s convergence with the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries is under development by FAO.


supported with adequate financial, equipment andhuman resources.

Extensive training and education of research staffcan help them to attain the standard required toperform the role they have been assigned. Scien-tists can benefit from undertaking continuing edu-cation courses in various subjects, with emphasison computer-aided resource assessment methods.They should also be able to participate in interna-tional workshops, seminars etc. to gather newinformation and techniques, exchange lessonslearned and share experiences.

With regard to scientific equipment, many institu-tions suffer from a shortage of computers for pro-cessing, storing and analyzing data, of vehicles forfield work, and of research vessels of an appropri-ate size. A lack of vehicles has been a serious hin-drance to effective research. Provision of vehicles

through existing aid projects and governmentsources should be pursued. Any increase in equip-ment assistance should be accompanied by stafftraining in the use of computers for fisheriesrelated research.

National research bodies should be provided withan adequate operational budget from government,with improved financial transparency and account-ing. In order to reduce government expenditure onresearch and to increase cooperation between theindustry and national research bodies, it is sug-gested that commercial vessels be required toundertake applied fisheries research for short peri-ods as a provision in the licence agreement.

Stock assessment programmes could usefully besupported at the national or regional level by form-ing long-term agreements with foreign institutionsspecializing in the collection, analysis and inter-

BOX 4. PRINCIPLES OF FISHERIES ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING

Fisheries assessment aims to establish the status of a fish resource and determine the levels at which it may be sustainably exploited. Stock estimates, in addition to environmental, economic, social and political considerations, are then used to suggest management strategies for the fisheries. Following the assessment of the fisheries, a monitoring programme is necessary to collect data including catch and fishing effort, and to assess the effective-ness of fisheries management strategies.

Data requirements

Several types of information are required from the fisheries, including species composition, distribution, abun-dance, biological data, environmental data and financial/economic information.

Data collection

Types of data required for effective resource appraisal depend on the target species and fishing method and may call for different collection strategies. Most surveys involve regular sampling of the target stock and recording information including CPUE, and length frequency data. Properly designed data sheets are essential for field workers.

Data analyses and stock assessment

Data analysis and stock assessment methods vary according to the aims of the survey and the species caught. For the multi-gear/multi-species fisheries of the PERSGA Region, traditional methodologies used to assess tem-perate fisheries are generally inappropriate.

Fisheries monitoring

Following the assessment and development of a fishery, a permanent and lower level system of data collection may be used to monitor the ‘health’ of a fishery to determine the effectiveness or otherwise of management strat-egies. The basic data required is for catch and fishing effort, supplemented by regular collection of length fre-quency data. In monitoring fishing effort, inventories of boats, fishing gear, and fishing methods must be maintained and continually updated. Gradual increase in fishing efficiency through gear and method improve-ments result in an increase in effective fishing effort. Such ‘technological creep’ can only be detected by having good and regular contact with fishermen.


pretation of resource data using modern techniquesapplicable to tropical fisheries. Such ‘institutionaltwinning’ arrangements work well in other parts ofthe world and could provide valuable ongoinginstitutional support and training for countries inthe Region.

National research bodies should increase thedegree of exposure and contact with the wider sci-entific community, both through contacts withother Organizations and through access to scien-tific literature. Contacts with other Organizations,in the Region or internationally, could be assisted(as appropriate) by joining the IOTC, which wouldprovide numerous benefits in terms of increasedscientific contact, involvement in regional fisher-ies research and management initiatives, jointresearch, reciprocal visits, attendance at scientificsymposia, etc.

Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) of Fisheries

The requirements for MCS vary betweencountries in the Region and between fisherieswithin a country. Different arrangements are oftennecessary for different fisheries (such as artisanalfisheries as compared with industrial trawl fisher-ies). Monitoring aspects (data collection) havebeen discussed earlier. Control (regulatory frame-work), and surveillance (observations and inspec-tions required to ensure compliance with theregulatory controls) are discussed below.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

While regulations for control of fisheriesactivities may differ considerably between fisher-ies, there must be one basic legislation common toall aspects of fisheries exploitation, managementand development. It should be comprehensive,covering existing fisheries and, as far as possible,new technical and commercial development. Itshould also be in line with international initiativessuch as FAO’s Code of Conduct for ResponsibleFisheries and the UN’s Conference on StraddlingFish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks.

Some states have recognized the shortcomings andweaknesses of existing legislation and are takingsteps to update and improve current laws. This isnecessary to provide for effective management and

protection of the living marine resources. Illegalfishing by foreign vessels and other violations oflaws and regulations by licensed vessels will notstop unless the law provides for enforcement,prosecution procedures and effective penalties.

For those states whose legal framework for fisher-ies and environment is outdated, laws and regula-tions should be reviewed, weaknesses identifiedand new legislation formulated. A comprehensivelegal framework is a prerequisite for fisheriesmanagement and its establishment should receivehighest priority. This could be accomplished in arelatively short time with assistance from readilyavailable regional and international expertise infisheries legislation, working together withnational legal draftsmen (see Box 5).

Delimitation of maritime boundaries in the Regionis a complex issue, especially in the Red Sea.Many boundaries between contiguous maritimezones have yet to be agreed. Where possible, statesshould take measures to agree on maritime bound-aries. As a first step, charts showing areas of dis-puted jurisdiction within the Region should beprepared. This will assist in MCS planning.

MCS ORGANIZATION

A competent and appropriately sized MCSdepartment is required to plan, direct and super-vise national MCS programmes. Monitoring needsto be coordinated with national research and plan-ning departments and inputs are required for thecontrol measures, including fishing agreements,that are handled by legal departments. Coordina-tion is also needed with military forces for assis-tance in aerial surveillance and inspection at sea.Regular communication and coordination withneighboring countries for cooperation in surveil-lance activities is another important aspect.

Surveillance of artisanal fisheries can be assistedby implementing boat registration and licensingsystems. These are already established in Egypt,Saudi Arabia and Yemen and form a basis onwhich to build improved monitoring and control ofthe artisanal fleets. Sharing of such vessel registersbetween states can greatly assist in management oftransboundary fisheries. At present, however, suchcollaboration is not in place.


In general, MCS and enforcement activities areeither non-existent or ineffective. Extensive train-ing programmes are required for national MCSstaff in all aspects of MCS including vessel board-ing methods, observer duties, and the correct oper-ation of field equipment.

National MCS staff should improve communica-tion with their counterparts in other member states,and in the case of Yemen with Oman. Closerregional links are an essential first step for improv-ing MCS at the national and regional levels. Thereis a strong case for developing a framework ofregional cooperation in MCS; this has been excep-tionally successful in the central western Pacific,where small island states have joined forces in har-monizing their approach to fisheries managementand have developed reciprocal arrangements toimprove MCS, such as regional observer pro-grammes, regional minimum terms and conditionsfor access of foreign fishing vessels, a regionaldatabase on fish licensing and vessel details, shar-

ing of aerial/surface MCSassets, etc.

MCS OPERATIONS Artisanal Fisheries

As noted earlier, the arti-sanal sector has expandedvery rapidly in the Region.In Yemen, there has been atleast a doubling of the num-ber of boats and fishermen inthe Gulf of Aden during theperiod 1990-1999 (that is,since unification of Yemenin 1990). Returnees from theGulf War have also added tothe numbers entering artisa-nal fishing. Uncontrolledexpansion eventually leadsto over-exploitation. Themost appropriate way of reg-ulating fishing is to limit thefleet to a certain size. It isalso appropriate for the gov-ernment to charge fishermenfor the right to exploit thecommon resources of thecountry and recover some of

the costs of administering the fisheries. This, ofcourse, also applies to the artisanal fisheries of theRed Sea, although expansion there has not been ofthe same magnitude.

One possible management measure to limit thenumber of boats is to implement a registration andlicensing system for boats and fishermen. Vesselregisters are a very valuable tool for fisheries man-agers in many parts of the world. In many cases,such registers are already provided for in the exist-ing legislation The authorities responsible for reg-istration and licensing would be the nationalfisheries authorities and their branches, for whichthey need to be properly staffed and equipped. Theactual requirements could be worked out on thebasis of existing information or on a census basis.Besides the number of persons, vehicles, etc. thatmight be required, the staff needs to be trained tocommunicate with the fishermen on the rationaleof the system to facilitate its implementation. The

BOX 5: FISHERIES REGULATIONS

These are imposed on a fishery to support a strategy designed to achieve pre-defined objectives. Regulations are of two main types: Input controls which are used to either reduce or contain effective fishing effort, or Output controls which are used to restrict total catch in line with predetermined limits.

Although regulations are imposed by government to control fisheries activities, in some inshore fisheries, such as coral reef fisheries in the Pacific, social reg-ulations according to custom, taboo or traditional reef ownership rights can reduce the need for government intervention. In Europe, there is an increasing trend towards involving those communities living most closely to them in the regulation of inshore fisheries through co-management (industry, government and coastal communities all working together).

Examples of Input Controls:

• Limiting the number of fishing units.

• Limiting the number and types of gear.

• Area/temporal closures.

• Minimum mesh sizes and escape gaps.

Examples of Output Controls:

• Size limits (minimum legal lengths).

• Rejection of females or spawning females.

• Catch quotas.


introduction of the system should be launched withan information campaign.

Once the system is introduced fisheries adminis-tration branch officers could function as ‘inspec-tors’ to enforce it. Requirements for this willdepend on the intensity of supervision that isneeded. Enforcement officers should receive spe-cialized training for their duties and be providedwith transport and sufficient funding to performthem (see Box 6).

The rock lobster resources in the eastern part ofYemen’s Gulf of Aden coast are already heavilyexploited. The fishery is regulated as to season(October to April), catching method (traps), andminimum size of lobster. Landing of egg-bearingfemales is not allowed. Because of the high unitvalue of the lobster, the risk for infringements ishigh and the fishery therefore requires a relatively

high degree of surveillance. Ministry of FishWealth branches are not equipped to undertakethis task at present due to lack of trained staff andtransport facilities, as well as loopholes in the leg-islation. Until adequate legislation is put in placeand Ministry of Fish Wealth branches have devel-oped their capacity, the present arrangement withCFC, as the only Organization permitted to buyand market lobsters, is probably the most effectiveway of ensuring compliance with the regulations.

There is anecdotal information concerning illegalfishing and marketing of lobsters but there are con-flicting estimates of its magnitude. CFC managersin Mukalla and Dabut believe that only smallquantities are handled illegally. Intensive surveil-lance could assist in quantifying the problem, butvery little can be done about it without empoweredenforcement officers.

BOX 6: ENFORCEMENT OF FISHERIES REGULATIONS

For any fisheries management strategy to be effective, the regulations designed must be effectively enforced. Most fisheries officials agree that the most important aspect of enforcement is education of the fisherman, and prosecution should be regarded as a last resort. Making fishermen familiar with all regulations that apply and the reasons for their imposition can be achieved by close personal contact, public meetings, radio talks, press articles etc. If the majority of users support the aims of regulations, peer pressure becomes a strong deterrent to those disregarding the law.

Although prosecution is a last resort, regulations must be rigorously enforced. If not, due to insufficient enforce-ment staff, equipment or funding, or overly complex and impractical rules, regulations will fall into disrepute. If reg-ulations are unenforced, benefits will accrue to those who ignore them at the expense of those who abide by them. Penalties for infringements must be significant so as to act as a deterrent, such as large fines and/or gear confis-cation in the case of industrial fisheries. If not, fishermen will disregard regulations.

Enforcement staff should be adequately trained in fisheries law, public relations, fisheries management, evidence collecting, inspection/boarding procedures, court procedures and the legal process. If an infringement cannot be dealt with by education, cases taken to court should have a high probability that the prosecution will be successful.

Enforcement costs often account for a large part of total costs for managing a fishery or MPA. Costs of enforce-ment vehicles, boats and equipment are high, especially for open sea fisheries. Enforcement costs need to be carefully considered when formulating management strategies for the fishery; in some cases, applying less direct regulation, which is cheaper, may be better than direct ones that are expensive to enforce. For example, enforcing legal minimum lengths is likely to be expensive in a large artisanal fishery that has many fishermen spread over an extensive area. However, if catch is marketed at a limited number of points, it would be simpler to inspect fish at point of sale rather than point of capture, thus a regulation making it illegal to sell rather than catch undersize fish would be easier to enforce. Fishermen would soon avoid keeping smaller individuals that are legally unmarket-able.

The main problem in enforcement is not so much in enforcing the regulations, but convincing the community of their necessity. The renewability of fisheries resources depends on fisheries stakeholders accepting controls that not only protect fish stocks but also ensure that the environment in which they live does not deteriorate.


Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Yemen attempt to regu-late the Red Sea shrimp trawl fishery using a num-ber of management strategies, including closedseasons and gear restrictions. Collaborationbetween these states could improve the effective-ness of such measures. Regional cooperation isrequired in order to regulate the number of boatsand allowable mesh size of the trawls. However,this cannot be determined without better monitor-ing of the fishery, as discussed previously. Boatsland directly at relatively few sites on both sides ofthe Red Sea. Because of the limited geographicalextent of the fishery, future surveillance activitiescould probably be conducted by shore basedinspectors at a few of the landing centers. Therehave been reports of the transfer and sale of catchat sea for export to Saudi Arabia. Such practiceswould also need to be monitored and controlled.

National authorities are currently unable to under-take effective MCS of artisanal fisheries due to alack of equipment, recurrent finance and suitablytrained personnel. The allocation of resources forenforcement as well as training of enforcementofficers, particularly in areas of high fishing pres-sure, should be given priority.

National authorities might consider establishmentof a revolving fund into which licence fees andrevenues as well as fines for infringements arepaid, in whole or in part, in order to provide ade-quate operating funds to support MCS. With care-ful management, a user-pays approach could meanthat no direct costs would be borne by nationalgovernments once the system is established. To besuccessful, however, the payment of licence feesand other dues must be actively enforced.

Field and office equipment should be procured fornational MCS departments. A properly equippedMCS operations center, with communications andfield equipment for controlling national MCSoperations is required in Egypt, Saudi Arabia,Sudan, Djibouti, Yemen and Somalia. Equipmentneeds include transport, office equipment, hand-held global positioning systems (GPS) and com-munications equipment. Onboard fisheriesinspectors/observers require proper instructionmanuals and other documentation, rough weathergear, protective clothing, identity cards, and hand-held GPS.

Industrial Fisheries - Gulf of AdenThe industrial fleet in the Gulf of Aden con-

sists of freezer trawlers fishing for cuttlefish anddemersal finfish. In Yemen, trawling operationsare regulated with regard to area, which must bebeyond three nautical miles from the coast and inwaters deeper than 40 meters. The season for cut-tlefish is also regulated. There are regulations con-cerning quantities of cuttlefish caught as bycatchduring the off-season and the handling of the fishbycatch. In Somalia, the current civil situationmeans that no enforcement is possible and indus-trial vessels from many countries are able to fish atwill.

Those regulations that do exist to control industrialfleets are unfortunately very often violated. Trawl-ers operating off Yemen’s coast fish at times invery shallow waters close to the coast where thereare large concentrations of spawning cuttlefish.This practice is destructive to the cuttlefishresources and results in serious conflicts with arti-sanal fishermen as the trawlers damage their gear.There are reports from artisanal fishermen thatlarge quantities of dead fish have been observedfloating or washed ashore on the beaches and aresaid to have come from the trawlers. Violations ofthe bycatch regulation might therefore be anotherproblem.

Two measures may assist in reducing the fre-quency of infringements.

• Imposition of deterrent penalties in new legis-lation, as already discussed above.

• Onboard fisheries inspectors/observers mustbe empowered to initiate enforcement actionsand their duties, powers and responsibilitiesmust be clearly specified in the law. Theinspectors must also be carefully selected,properly trained and well paid.

Further, to reduce ambiguities and obtain evidenceneeded in case of legal actions, the communicationbetween vessels and the national surveillanceoperations center should be efficient. The use ofsatellite transponders and similar electronic infor-mation transfer techniques for independent report-ing of vessel positions is a novel approach thatoffers considerable scope in the Region, but has asyet not been considered.


The above mentioned measures would meet mostof the surveillance requirements for fleets target-ing major stocks, such as cuttlefish and demersalfinfish. They would also be sufficient to cover afleet of vessels fishing for tuna, another resourcesusceptible to industrial exploitation. Neverthe-less, onboard inspection at sea assisted by patrolvessels may also be necessary. Maintenance andoperation of patrol boats is expensive and requiresgood management and flexibility to be effective.Since this is difficult to achieve and incidences areexpected to be infrequent, it is suggested thatarrangements be made with the Navy and/or CoastGuard to use their vessels for inspection trips asand when the need arises.

Industrial Fisheries - Red SeaThe industrial fleet in the Red Sea consists oftrawlers fishing for shrimp and demersal fish.Some Egyptian vessels operate under an accessagreement with Yemen. These trawlers reportedlytake fisheries inspectors on board before they com-mence fishing. Thereafter, the inspectors reportdaily on the fishing operations via radio to theoperations center in Aden. At the end of the fish-ing trip, the vessels again come close to the coastand the catch is supposed to be inspected by anunloading committee before they leave for Egyp-tian ports for unloading. In 1997 there were 30vessels each undertaking approximately 12 tripsper year which would require a total of 360unloading inspections at Salif port and 720 inspec-tor trips a year, all coming from the MCS Opera-tions Office in Aden. Therefore it must beconcluded that the catch in the fish hold is notinspected other than in a very superficial way, andalso that the Ministry of Fish Wealth/Aden cannotcontrol such a complicated inspection programconcurrently on both coasts. The entire systemappears to have many weaknesses and is in contra-vention of one of the fundamental MCS principlesthat transhipment at sea must never be allowed,since this deprives the authorities of a large ele-ment of control.

Improved surveillance of the industrial fleet in theRed Sea would require the same fundamental mea-sures of penalties and onboard inspectors as dis-cussed for the Gulf of Aden fleet. The introductionof VMS using satellite transponders might be fea-

sible on this size and type of vessel, howeverestablishment of such satellite based VMS maywell be beyond the technical capabilities ofnational MCS authorities. Although VMS is a use-ful tool for improving fisheries management, itshould be recognized that VMS transpondersplaced aboard a licensed vessel give managersinformation about the position and activities ofthat vessel, but do not indicate the presence of ille-gal vessels operating without a licence (and there-fore a transponder) thus a satisfactory surveillanceprogramme has to include other elements such aspatrol boats with empowered inspectors capable ofoperating in the entire EEZ. Costs of this should beweighed against other benefits derived fromimprovements in MCS. It might also be useful toevaluate the need for or desirability of resourceexploitation by foreign vessels.

There is no documented information on illegalfishing by unlicensed foreign fishing vessels in thewaters of any PERSGA members states. Theextent of illegal fishing by unlicensed foreign ves-sels is therefore unknown, although anecdotalinformation indicates that it is a significant prob-lem. An appropriately scaled MCS programmewould need combine aerial surveillance, at seainspection by patrol boats, onboard observers andport-side inspection. Before expanding on existingoperations, the extent of the problem and indica-tive costs in relation to the total value of the fisher-ies must be carefully assessed in each country. Inthe Red Sea trawlers are restricted to trawlableareas, and therefore it should be relatively easy todetermine the magnitude of the problem by use ofoccasional aerial surveillance supplemented by aNavy vessel with inspectors onboard.

National fisheries authorities should review exist-ing licence agreements with joint venture compa-nies and the agreements entered into by the jointventures with foreign partners, to rationalize exist-ing fishing effort within existing MSY estimates,or estimates developed in accordance with precau-tionary principles. A clear policy with regard tonumber and size of vessels needed to exploit theresources of any particular state and identificationof those companies considered most desirable andwhose activities should be allowed to continueneeds to be established as part of a specific man-


agement plan for the fisheries, and existing agree-ments amended accordingly.

No further industrial fishing licences, whether fordomestic or foreign access vessels, for anyresource should be issued until basic scientificresearch has been undertaken to determine theability of the resource in question to sustain at leastthe existing level of fishing effort and until fisher-ies management plans are formulated for the indi-vidual fisheries, based on scientific information. Inthe absence of reliable data for the fisheries, a pre-cautionary approach to setting allowable catch andother licensing conditions should be adopted. Spe-cific mention should be made of the Yemeni-Egypt agreement: Yemen should consider whetherallowing industrial trawling of Red Sea shrimps inits sovereign waters is an appropriate policyoption, given the importance of the resource to theartisanal sector.

Fisheries Cooperatives Fishing gear and engines provided to the arti-

sanal fisheries sector should be supplied withoutsubsidy so as to foster expansion of the privatesector as a future source of supply. Where assis-tance to the fisheries is provided by national gov-ernment-sponsored activity, inputs should becarefully price coordinated so as not to competewith private sector vendors.

National fisheries authorities should liaise withpublic and private sector lending institutions toensure that continued financial support to the fish-eries sector is in line with current developmentaspirations. Importantly, credit policy adjustmentscould be encouraged, allowing fishermen to investin new, intermediate technology vessels and gearfor offshore fishing. Obtaining ‘affordable’finance is a major constraint to interested fisher-men, especially in Egypt and Sudan.

Support should be given to the establishment ofOrganizations representing fish exporters and/ortraders/companies. Such Organizations could bol-ster the growing private sector by making informa-tion on prices, government decisions and exportrequirements and markets available. It would alsoprovide a united voice in discussions with nationalgovernment on relevant decisions or legislation.

Environmental Issues

GENERAL

The Gulf of Aden and Red Sea areas are richin marine resources and have high biodiversity. Inthe Gulf of Aden nutrient-rich water is a result ofannual upwelling, driven by monsoon winds, andcenterd on the south coast to the east of Mukallaand also of nutrients and plankton transported bythe wind through the Strait of Bab-al-Mandab intothe Red Sea. Unfortunately, not enough is knownabout the fish and marine resources or habitats inthe Region. The GEF/UNDP funded projects‘Yemen - Protection of Marine Ecosystems of theRed Sea’ and ‘Conservation and Sustainable Useof Biodiversity of Socotra Archipelago’ bothincorporate base line survey work and aim todevelop protection and management plans formarine resources. If these GEF/UNDP projects areexecuted effectively with full support frominvolved national Organizations, they couldgreatly stimulate national research centers. A pro-active stance is required from all staff to make useof opportunities presented.

There are a number of current threats to theRegion’s marine environment, as indicated inChapter 9. Fishermen in both the Gulf of Aden andRed Sea complain about licensed industrial fishingvessels trawling for demersal species within the 3mile limit, the area where artisanal boats operate.In the Gulf of Aden cuttlefish spawning groundsare protected by the 3 mile fishing limit inYemen’s waters, but due to a lack of governmentcontrol on activities, vessels appear not to be com-plying with regulations. Similar reports are madeby fishermen on the Red Sea coast about licensedand unlicensed shrimp trawlers operating duringthe closed season. Inshore nursery and feedinggrounds are important for many species of marinefish and it is therefore imperative that such areasbe protected by active and effective controls forthe sake of target and non-target fish stocks.

Oil pollution does not appear to pose a significantthreat to coastlines at present. The foreign compa-nies operating terminals carry out their own sam-pling of surrounding sea and beaches andrigorously analyze samples for any hydrocarboncontent of their product’s specification. Most have


contingency plans in place in the event of a spill oraccident. A more serious threat comes from pass-ing tankers discharging ballast or oil.

The Region has a growing population is due tohigh birth rates, increased life expectancy, andreturnees from Arab states where employmentopportunities have diminished. Consequently, newproperty developments are springing up on thecoastline of Egypt, Sudan and Yemen, often onlymetres away from high water lines. Prime coastalsites are being bought for future housing or tour-ism development. In many cases, such develop-ment is ugly, done with no environmentalassessment, little planning and in areas wherewater, sewage, electricity, etc., infrastructure is notin place.

Land based pollution from agriculture, industryand domestic waste is causing problems. Agricul-tural run-off, containing sediment, pesticides,heavy metals and fertilizers, is increasing. InYemen, raw sewage is pumped directly into theGulf of Aden.

For some countries, especially Egypt, tourism ispart of national development objectives and touristnumbers are rising. Yemen offers great diving andsnorkeling opportunities for tourists on both coast-lines. But if coastal development, particularly ofhotels and tourist complexes, is not controlled,then the beaches and marine life that helped attracttourists in the first place will lose their ability to doso. Tourists swimming in Adeni waters already aresubject to stomach upsets and further uncontrolleddevelopment will make the situation worse.

Trade in ornamental fish is carried out by severalcompanies on the Red Sea coast. The scale of thistrade is relatively small at present, but should beobserved carefully in the future especially if tour-ism activities focus on viewing coral reefs andtheir fish.

The Gulf of Aden is a breeding ground of world-wide importance for green, hawksbill, and logger-head turtles which are classed as endangered spe-cies by the World Conservation Union. Theleatherback turtle is also an occasional visitor. InYemen and Somalia turtles are killed by coastalcommunities for their meat and oil which is usedas a cure for asthma. Eggs are also eaten. As turtles

have a long life cycle, nesting site exploitationmay take many years to impact upon the popula-tion. Little is known about Yemen’s turtles andnesting sites as there is no current monitoring orresearch, however killing sea turtles is illegalthroughout Yemen under Law 49 of 1991. Unfor-tunately, Yemen currently lacks a well definedinstitutional framework for enforcing these laws,which exist only on paper.

Countries in the Region have ongoing plans toestablish MPAs as part of the overall drive forIntegrated Coastal Zone Management. Specialattributes of such areas range from mangroves,seagrass-rich khors, rocky shores, mud flats, coralareas and reefs and turtle nesting sites. Such plansare highly laudable and should be afforded contin-ued support.

SOCOTRA ARCHIPELAGO

The Socotra Archipelago warrants a specialmention. Socotra’s fisheries have been docu-mented under the Ministry of Fish Wealth’s FourthFisheries Project (Watt 1995, 1996).

The Socotra Archipelago Master Plan aims at pro-ducing a comprehensive framework for the eco-nomic and social development of this uniquegroup of islands, 400 kilometers off the southerncoast of Yemen in the Gulf of Aden. Funding isbeing provided by the EC. Implemented byYemen’s EPC, the Master Plan is being under-taken in two phases: Phase 1 is an assessment ofthe current status, the major development con-straints and the policies and aspirations both of thepeople and their government. A major outcome ofthis current Phase is the outline of a series ofinvestment projects for discussion and agreementat a Phase 1 Workshop in Spring 2000. Phase 2will take these agreed projects and developdetailed, costed project proposals for presentationin the Phase 2 report.

Socotra Archipelago is regarded as an area of glo-bally significant biodiversity. Preliminary studieshave found endemism of plant species on theislands to be high and there is an as yet unexploredpotential for marine endemism at the specific andsub-species level.

Information that is available notes that fishingeffort is focused on a limited number of species:


pelagic shark, kingfish and tuna. Demersal fishand lobster stocks are reported to be large, but onlylightly exploited. Shark stocks are either heavily orover-exploited. There is a lack of storage facilitieson the islands and few traders or reefer vesselsvisit because of the islands’ isolation and uncertainweather. As a result much of the fishery relies onexport to the mainland of dried product, particu-larly shark meat and fins.

Current estimates put the shark catch in theSocotra Archipelago at between 4,000 and 6,000metric tons per year (Saeed, 2000). In recent yearsthe demand for dried shark fin for export to Sin-gapore through the mainland has increased to theextent that some shark carcasses are being com-pletely discarded and not even used for meat.Kingfish, yellowfin tuna and mackerel tuna areusually boiled, salted, dried and shipped toMukalla on Yemen’s southern coast. Grouper,emperor, snapper and grunt are lightly exploitedfor local consumption. Rock lobster is caughtusing large mesh (18-25 centimeters) multifila-ment nets. At the moment stock levels are esti-mated to be good, but increasing and uncontrolledcommercial interests could soon begin to overex-ploit high value stocks. Dried sea cucumber is col-lected by mainland traders each year. Pearl fishinghas declined markedly on the islands with theadvent of pearl culture and synthetic mother-of-pearl but a recent upturn in demand has beenreported.

There is a strong village based fisheries manage-ment system in place which limits fishing effort.Control and enforcement of rules is good as aresult of both peer pressure and tough penalties forinfringements. Socotra’s fisheries will come underthreat if the islands’ societal structure changesmarkedly or outside interests begin to exploitresources on an unsustainable basis. A GEF/UNDP project focuses on protecting Socotra’smarine resources through strengthening the localmanagement system and protecting the Archipel-ago from outside commercial interests throughregulation (Hariri and Krupp 2000). Such regula-tions must be enforceable to be effective.

Physical InfrastructureIn parts of the Region infrastructure for land-

ing, preservation, handling and marketing ofcatches are a greater constraint to the developmentof fisheries than resource abundance and sustain-ability. This is particularly true for Sudan, Yemenand Somalia where improving the basic shorefacilities, providing basic services such as cleanwater and electricity, and road infrastructurewould aid private sector development to increasethe utilization of available fish resources. Withregard to exporting fish products by air, service isoften not reliable and priority is not given to per-ishable freight. There is considerable scope forimproving the efficiency and functioning of theservices that directly affect fisheries exports.

A lack of suitable harbours and associated landingfacilities including areas and facilities for berthing,maintenance and repair of fishing boats forms amajor constraint to the operation of intermediatesized craft, which would be capable of exploitingoffshore resources especially in Sudan, Somaliaand the Red Sea coast of Yemen. This would per-haps reduce pressure on coastal and nearshoreresources. Some of Yemen’s existing harbours arein need of rehabilitation and expansion for exam-ple, Hodeida and Nishtun have major siltationproblems, reducing the availability of the harbourto deeper-draft vessels.

Multi-day fishing in the Red Sea and Gulf of Adenundertaken by sanbuks and large huris hasexpanded considerably in recent years. The land-ings of such vessels is concentrated at a few siteswhere the best market prices can be obtained andwhere there are suitable facilities available. Themulti-day fishing trend is likely to continue since itis financially more rewarding than single-dayinshore fishing. Landing facilities all along theRed Sea and Gulf of Aden coasts for multi-dayfishing vessels are limited.

Changes in the small boat, single-day fleet in theRegion are also foreseen. Fishermen generallyrespond to higher fish prices by attempting toincrease their fish catch and for this they need toventure further out to sea for longer periods, mak-ing it necessary to carry ice. Some of the single-day boats may also start carrying ice to improvethe quality of the catch and thereby obtain better


prices on the market. The boats will have to belarger than the present ones and some huris in theRed Sea will find it uneconomical to use petrol-driven OBMs. Inboard engines will make the boatsheavier and more difficult to operate from thebeach. During the calm weather season they maybe able to operate from the beach by ferrying thecatch ashore and supplies to the boat. Howeverduring the monsoon period there will be a demandfor protected landing and service facilities. Tobuild such facilities along open beaches is techni-cally difficult and expensive. They have to be con-centrated in a few places where the coastconfiguration provides natural protection throughrock formations and bays.

Harbour development is a long-term affairbecause of its complexity and the high capitalcosts involved. Usually, a series of investigationshas to be undertaken to determine the feasibility,impact, costs and benefits. It is also of utmostimportance to plan the work in close consultationwith the end users, that is, the fishermen. Thereis at present little evidence of effort devoted tothis important aspect by national authorities inimproving the infrastructure for artisanal fisher-ies. Development of a ‘national master plan’would be valuable, which could be regularlyupdated in accordance with changes in require-ments. There is currently no recognition of theneed for this type of work in the Organizationand staffing of the appropriate national fisheriesauthorities.

Fish Handling, Processing and MarketingThe domestic markets of some PERSGA

member states are not overly concerned with fishquality at present. Domestic consumers do notbuy fish strictly because of price and quality,although these factors are important. Rather, theytend to accept what is on offer at local marketsand are only just beginning to embrace the freemarket consumer mentality of buying the bestpossible quality at the lowest possible price.Domestic marketing systems have developed fastand are profitable, even with the generally lowprices paid.

Post-harvest fish handling is generally poor. InSudan, Yemen and Somalia, ice is not taken to

sea on single-day fishing vessels; catches areoften not handled with care; auctions are con-ducted in unhygienic conditions; fish are oftentransported in open vehicles with no form of pro-tection from the sun and without ice; public retailmarkets are generally of a poor standard ofhygiene. The reason for this lack of post-harvestcare is that consumers do not yet demand highquality product. In general they will not pay apremium for better quality/cared for fish and sobuyers/sellers further along the distribution chainwill likewise not pay a premium or demand bet-ter quality fish or handling.

In most countries per capita consumption of fishis high in the coastal regions but low inlandexcept for a few major urban areas with goodroad connections. There is thus considerablescope for increased consumption. The bottleneckis the poor state, or absence of, road connections.Facilities for storing and handling fish are alsolacking but would no doubt be forthcoming if theroads were provided. Consumption of fish couldbe further stimulated by government interven-tions to improve market facilities and hygienicconditions.

POTENTIAL FOR IMPROVED UTILIZATION AND MARKETING

At present the countries in the Region are notmajor exporters of fish, with the exception ofYemen. Egypt and Saudi Arabia are net importersof fish and fish products. Fish exports from Jordan,Sudan, Djibouti and Somalia are small.

One of the main opportunities for improving fishutilization is in the export of prime species such astuna, grouper, snapper, emperor, bream, etc. on iceto Middle East and European markets. This couldaugment incomes of the fishermen and all otherparticipants in the distribution network. However,this requires much improved handling of fish fromfirst capture right through processing and packag-ing, reliable checks on quality and health certifica-tion processes, and an efficient transport system toget product to the airport with minimum delay.There is an opportunity for future development byprivate business, especially in the southern states,if government and/or foreign development assis-tance is made available to improve supporting ser-vices and infrastructure. Unless efforts to improve


domestic quality control systems and export certi-fication procedures are made, these opportunitieswill not materialize. The importance of good qual-ity product and processing is recognized by inter-national markets through prices paid for highquality fish and imposition of import regulations,such as those of the EU or the United States devel-oped Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point(HACCP) food technology and quality system (seeBox 7).

Raising the standard of health inspection of fisher-ies products benefits both domestic consumers andbusinesses and traders wishing to export. If stan-dards are improved to satisfy EU and/or UnitedStates import regulations and the HACCP system,then fisheries products from PERSGA states willbe regarded as acceptable in terms of health and

quality for all international markets. These shouldthen be enforced, since the importance of adequatenational quality control criteria is increasing inworld trade today.

In Yemen, traders and companies active in export-ing to international markets are beginning todemand high quality fish and are paying premiumprices. Fishermen are starting to link financial ben-efit with good handling and preservation as onlytheir best fish are bought at high price by traders

purchasing for export. The introduction of privateretail shop chains in the main cities is also startingto attract discerning consumers, especially asprices are being set the same as or lower than thosein well established, but unhygienic, public retailmarkets. However, as discussed earlier, since July1998 Europe has banned the entry of fish products

BOX 7. THE HACCP PRINCIPLE

HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) systems identifies specific hazards and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. The objectives of HACCP are to: (a) provide a system of preventive controls for every specific product and process, (b) clearly define practices under which plant staff prevent hazards occur-ring, (c) define procedures to monitor and audit these practices; and (d) provide cost-effective assurance of food safety, placing more responsibility on operating staff. HACCP is aimed at dealing with processing hazards (prod-uct safety) not quality, which is regarded as an issue between buyer and seller.

The day-to-day monitoring should be performed in the processing plant itself, while specific tests should be sup-plied by specific laboratories having the necessary technical and professional support. The Seafood HACCP Reg-ulation requires that a HACCP plan be prepared for fish and fisheries products that each company processes (where significant safety hazards exist). Once a HACCP system is established, the main effort in quality assur-ance will be directed towards the Critical Control Points and not at numerous tests of the final product. The goal is to assure a much higher degree of safety at less cost.

As part of the HACCP system, criteria (tolerances, target level) that must be met to ensure that a CCP is under control will be established. Based on the criteria a monitoring system is developed, under which procedures for corrective action are established. Furthermore, procedures for verification, documentation and record keeping should be maintained.

In a HACCP based system for assuring seafood quality, a detailed description of all CCPs is necessary. This includes determination of criteria and specified limits or characteristics of a physical (such as time, temperature, condition), chemical (salt concentration, NaCl) or biological (sensory) nature which ensure that the product is safe and of acceptable quality. These criteria must be monitored regularly in a well equipped laboratory in order to cover all analyses. In the processing plants some simpler tests can be run, while more specialized analysis (microbiology, sensory) and those that need an objective assessment should be performed by a certified indepen-dent laboratory.

Buyers in many countries are also requesting that the producer/exporter be certified according to certain interna-tional standards, such as the ISO-9000 series. In order to verify that handling, processing, storage and distribution have been done under controlled conditions, these must be documented by laboratory tests of process/product quality and plant sanitation.


into its member states when national quality con-trol systems do not meet European Union require-ments.

For countries where quality control procedures arelacking, the following steps should be taken as apriority in order to bring countries in line withinternational standards for fish quality control andhygiene:

• Existing guidelines and regulations for fishhandling and quality control for fresh and fro-zen fish and other marine products, and theprocessing of fish on board fishing vesselsshould be updated to conform to the require-ments of major importing countries, particu-larly those set out in EC Directive 91/493/EECor the requirements laid down by the UnitedStates Federal Drug Administration.

• Once national legislation has been amendedand an adequate legal framework for a practi-cal fish inspection quality control system is inplace, inspectors should be trained in the prin-ciples underlying the new regulations andinspection practices and procedures should bedeveloped to allow them to effectively enforceregulations.

• Quality control and technical departmentsshould be structured to allow them to operateeffectively.

• In cooperation with municipal authorities,guidelines should be developed for thehygienic handling of fish in wholesale andretail markets. These guidelines should beincorporated as regulations in any review ofthe national fisheries legal framework or otherappropriate legislation.

Past Development AssistanceThe PERSGA member states have received

assistance from numerous bilateral and multilat-eral sources during 1988-1998. These are welldocumented in the SAP Country Reports andNational Fisheries Reports. The countries andagencies that have provided most of the assistanceare the Abu Dhabi Fund, AFSED, Denmark, EU,GEF, IDA, IFAD, Japan, the Kuwait Fund, theformer Soviet Union and the World Bank. Mainareas of assistance have included:

• Infrastructure projects: Jetties, harbour facili-ties, roads, fish landing facilities, ice plant/cold storage facilities, slipways and work-shops.

• The artisanal sector: Landing facilities, shorefacilities, boats, engines and credit schemes inboth the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden areas.

• The industrial fishing industry: New vesselpurchases, restructuring, economic appraisals,joint venture arrangements.

• The fish processing industry: Large interna-tional development loans to establish fishmealplants and canneries; training in processingand marketing; installation of cold storagefacilities, chill rooms, freezers and ice plants.

• In fisheries research: National research institu-tions have been established with help of exter-nal funding; technical assistance, trainingschemes and research vessels have been pro-vided; stock assessment studies and been car-ried out.

• In training: Establishment of national traininginstitute, funding for exchange schemes,scholarships, etc.

Future Development Assistance PrioritiesSome types of assistance received in the past

are no longer required. In Saudi Arabia for exam-ple, the private sector has amply demonstrated inrecent years that it is capable to develop andexpand commercial activities in fishing, marketingand the necessary supporting services. There is noneed for further direct involvement in any com-mercial activities. This should also include thecooperative sector since it is no longer an extendedarm of the fisheries administration. The fragmen-tation of the cooperative structure makes itincreasingly difficult to distinguish between thecooperative and private sector in artisanal fisher-ies. Future development needs to switch fromstimulation of the fisheries to greater management(see Box 8).

One of the main areas in which external assistance,through government interventions, will play animportant role in the future is infrastructure.Coastal and access roads need to be constructed tobetter integrate fishing villages with the national


mainstream of economic and social activities.National governments are often short of funds andthere are ample opportunities for external contri-butions. Fisheries harbours and landing facilitiesare insufficient to meet the needs of the artisanalfishing fleet and need to be improved andexpanded. Earlier inputs of this kind have notalways been successful and it is very important toclarify why some of the provided facilities are notbeing used before starting on new ones.

Infrastructure development is often driven by civilengineering concerns and important customs, pat-terns of behavior or other social factors might havebeen overlooked or not sufficiently taken intoaccount. In some cases, development assistancehas been donor-driven and facilities have beenprovided to cater for a development that ‘should’take place rather than to meet actual requirements.

Sudan, Yemen and Somalia are in need of immedi-ate financial assistance to rehabilitate and improveshore infrastructure but would also benefit fromtechnical assistance in preparing a long-term roll-ing master plan for future development as a guidefor government and international development

cooperation agencies. Smaller landing areasshould also be included in such a master plan.

Another important area for external support con-cerns technical assistance, education/public aware-ness and training, often supplemented withequipment components.

Research on fisheries and environment is also animportant area needing support. The issues havebeen discussed previously. Considering the restric-tions on government expenditures it is impossiblefor some national fisheries authorities to mobilizeadequate resources for funding of overseas train-ing and education. Therefore external fundingsources should be sought. For assistance inresearch, a long-term twinning arrangement with asuitable foreign research institution should be con-sidered for the advantages it could provide in con-sistency in the transfer of technology and training.Academic studies also could be coordinatedthrough the twinning institution. An umbrella con-tract for a research assistance programme, withperiodic tripartite reviews, would also provide forflexibility and facilitate the monitoring of progressto ensure that targets and objectives are met.

BOX 8. ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES FOR GOOD FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

The principles for an ideal system for good fisheries management would surely be one:

• Based on a clear, precise definition of use rights.

• With a broad, well defined and stable set of aims and objectives.

• Developed at an appropriate geographical scale.

• Involving all major stakeholders within the policy community.

• Using relatively simple and transparent procedures.

• Involving a well integrated combination of regulatory measures.

• Implemented, as far as possible, through responsible user-group organizations.

• With effective means of surveillance and enforcement.

• Amenable to effective monitoring.

• Subject to periodic review and capable of rapid response to changing circumstances.

Despite the apparent simplicity of this list of requirements for good management, most systems fall short of this ideal situation.


Another important area is MCS of fisheries, forwhich technical assistance, training and equipmentis needed. The main components of MCS assis-tance would be preparation of new legislation,design of monitoring systems (data collection/analysis, onboard observers, port inspectors, etc.),assessment of surveillance needs and Organizationof suitable systems, training of inspectors andcommunication equipment. The assistance couldbe broken down into individual projects, butshould be delivered as a package for consistencyand effectiveness.

Legal assistance to draft new laws, by-laws andregulations, and suitable arrangements for fishingrights is required. Although considerable legalexpertise is available in the Region, internationalassistance is required for drafting enabling legisla-tion for accession to international conventions andagreements in support of improved fisheries andenvironmental management.

Sudan, Yemen and Somalia require assistance toimprove fish handling and processing so as to meetthe stringent criteria of developed markets such asthe EU. Development assistance in implementingHACCP systems and generally improving fishhandling, processing and packaging with regard tohygiene and quality standards will be required forat least for the short-term. It is envisaged that oncethe benefits of improved quality and thereforeprices are more widely acknowledged, commercialpressures will lead to private investment inimproved quality control.

12

References

Abdellatif,. E. M. 1993. Factors Threatening theMarine and Coastal Environment of the RedSea in Sudan, A Call for Attention. Environ-ment Conservation Society. Khartoum.Sudanese. 31 pp.

Aglen, A.J.G. and S. Tilseth. 1981. Reports onSurveys with R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansen. A Sur-vey of Mesopelagic Fish Resources in theGulf of Oman and the Gulf of Aden. Instituteof Marine Research. Bergen. 37 pp (Mimeo).

Anon. 1988. Sudan Red Sea Artisanal FisheriesDevelopment Project. Report of the FAO/ADBCP Investment Center 43/88-AF-SUD32.

Anon. 1993. Identification Study for Sudan RedSea Fisheries. Ministry of Economic Plan-ning and Investment, Project PreparationUnit. Republic of Sudan.

Awad, H. 1995. Oil Pollution in the Red Sea: AState of the Art Assessment. PERSGA/IOC/UNEP Workshop on Oceanographic Inputsinto Coastal Zone Management in the RedSea and Gulf of Aden. Oct. 12, 1995. Jeddah.

Badawi, H. and others. 1996. Stock Assessmentof Red Sea Fisheries. Final Report. Instituteof Oceanography and Fisheries (IOF). Cairo.

Barrania, A. 1992. Exploited RenewableResources in Egyptian Waters: Their Contri-bution to National Economy and FactorsAffecting Their Development. Egypt’s Bio-

logical Diversity Programme Workshop.United Nations Environment Programme.Cairo, 9-12 Nov. 1992.

Barrania, A. 1997. Strategic Action Plan for theRed Sea and Gulf of Aden. National Fisher-ies Report: Egypt.

Barrania, A. 2000. Report on Fisheries Statisti-cal Data in Egypt. Prepared for the PER-SGA/SAP First Working Group Meeting onStandardization of Living Marine ResourcesStatistical Data (Fisheries). Fisheries Train-ing Institute, Aden, Yemen. 29 April-2 May,2000.

Barratt, L. and P. Medley. 1988. Report of Mis-sion to Djibouti. Assessment of the AquariumReef Fishery in Djibouti. Report prepared forthe Exploration of Tropical Fish ResourcesProject. FAO FI:TCP/DJI/6755(A).

Brandford, J.R. 1979. Biological Aspects of the1978-79 GDM Shr imp Survey in theSudanese Red Sea. ODA. United Kingdom.46 pp.

CIDA. 1995. Preliminary Environmental Assess-ment: Sudan Integrated Fisheries Project.Canadian Internat ional DevelopmentAgency. Halifax. 50 pp.

Chakraborty, D. 1984. Manual for StatisticalEnumerators for Identification of StatisticalItems Relating to Commercial Fisheries: Red

99


Sea and Gulf of Aden. FAO. RAB/81/002/MAN/4. 86 pp.

El Hag, A.D.G. 1994. “Seaweed Studies at Sanga-neb Atoll.” In: Krupp, F., M. Türkay, A.G.D.El Hag and D. Nasr (eds.). Comparative Eco-logical Analysis of Biota and Habitats in Lit-toral and Shallow Sublittoral Waters of theSudanese Red Sea. Forschungsinstitut Senck-enberg, Frankfurt and Faculty of Marine Sci-ence and Fisheries, Port Sudan: 15-20.

El Hag, E.A. 1995. “Ecological Imbalance inSuakin Ecosystem.” Sudan Notes and Records64: 159-164.

El Naiem, A.G. 1988. A Final Report on Grading,Predation and Grow–out Culture Methods ofthe Mother of Pearl Oysters in the Red Sea.Annual Report, Sudan IDRC Oyster CultureResearch Project, Phase II. Red Sea FisheriesResearch Section. Port Sudan, Sudan.

El Naiem, A.G. 1990. Grow-out Culture Materialfor Pearl Oysters at Dongonab Bay. AnnualReport, Sudan IDRC Oyster Culture ResearchProject, Phase II. Red Sea Fisheries ResearchSection. Port Sudan, Sudan.

EL Naiem, A.G. and others. 1988. Testing NewCulture Materials for Growing out Oysters atDongonab Bay (September 1987 – April1988). Annual Report, Sudan IDRC OysterCulture Research Project, Phase II. Red SeaFisheries Research Section. Port Sudan,Sudan.

Elder, D. 1987. Sectoral Report on Marine Pro-tected Areas and Reserves. Coastal andMarine Environmental Problems of Somalia.UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies 84(Annex V): 111-130.

Eltayeb, M.M. 1999. Some Aspects of SudaneseKokian (Tectus dentatus) Fisheries and Habi-tats. Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment ofthe requirements for the degree of M.Sc. Cen-ter for Developing Areas Research, Depart-ment of Geography, Royal Holloway College,University of London.

Esseen, M. 1996. The Red Sea Shrimp Fishery:Current Status and Recommendations for

Future Management. MSRRC, Fourth Fisher-ies Development Project. Aden, Yemen.

Esseen, M. 1996a. MSRRC Research Plan. FourthFisheries Development Project. Report no.MEP-YE-074. MacAlister, Elliott and Part-ners. Aden, Yemen.

Esseen, M. 1996b. The Red Sea Shrimp Fishery:Current Status and Recommendations forFuture Management. Fourth Fisheries Devel-opment Project. Report no. MEP-YE-095.MacAlister, Elliott and Partners. Aden,Yemen.

Esseen, M. 1997a. The Rock Lobster Fishery ofHadhramaut and Al Mahara Governorates:Current Status and Recommendations forFuture Management. Fourth Fisheries Devel-opment Project. Report no. MEP-YE-103.MacAlister, Elliott and Partners. Aden,Yemen.

Esseen, M. 1997b. The Artisanal Fisheries of theRed Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Fourth FisheriesDevelopment Project. Report no. MEP-YE-105. MacAlister, Elliott and Partners. Aden,Yemen.

Fallatah, A.R.A and M.A. Gazzaz. 2000. Reporton Fisheries Statistical Data in Saudi Arabia.Prepared for the PERSGA/SAP First WorkingGroup Meeting on Standardization of LivingMarine Resources Statistical Data (Fisheries).Fisheries Training Institute, Aden, Yemen. 29April-2 May, 2000.

FAO. 1995. Towards a Strategy for AgriculturalDevelopment in Somalia, from Relief, Rehabil-itation and Reconstruction to Development.Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations. Rome. 168 pp.

FAO. 2000. Data Base of Global Fishery Statis-tics. FAO. Rome.

Farah, O.M. 2000. Sudanese Marine Fisheries Sta-tistical Data. Prepared for the PERSGA/SAPFirst Working Group Meeting on Standardiza-tion of Living Marine Resources StatisticalData (Fisheries). Fisheries Training Institute,Aden, Yemen. 29 April-2 May, 2000.


Feidi, I.H. 1981. Project Proposals to SupportRegional Fisheries Development (Red Sea andGulf of Aden). RAB/77/008/19, 49 pp.

FRC/IDRC. 1985. Sudan IDRC Oyster CultureResearch Project. Phase II Proposal. Fisher-ies Research Center. Khartoum. 26 pp.

Gabar, A.S. 1995. Pathological Studies on thePearl Oyster Pinctada Margaritifera culti-vated in Dongonab Bay (Red Sea) with Spe-cial Reference to the Recent Mass Mortality.Under publication.

Gasperetti, J., Stimson, A.F., Miller, J.D., Ross,J.P. and Gasperetti, P.R. 1993. “Turtles ofArabia.” Fauna of Saudi Arabia 13: 170-367.

Gulland, J.A. (ed.). 1971. The Fish Resources ofthe Ocean. Fishing News (Books) Ltd. Surrey,United Kingdom. 255 pp.

Kedidi, S.M., T. Abushusha and K. Allam. 1984.Description of the Artisanal Fishery at Tuw-wal Saudi Arabia: Catches, Efforts andCatches Per Unit Effort. Survey conductedduring 1981-82. Project for Development ofFisheries in Areas of the Red Sea and Gulf ofAden. UNDP/FAO RAB/81/002/1:17. Cairo.

Kesteven, G.L., O. Nakken, and T. Stromme.1982. The Small Pelagic and Demersal FishResources of the Northwest Arabian Sea. Fur-ther Analysis of the Results of the R/V Dr.Fridtjof Nansen Survey 1975-1976. Reports onsurveys with the R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansen.Institute of Marine Research. Bergen. 55 pp.

Khalaf, M.A. 2000. Fishery Statistical Report ofJordan. Prepared for the PERSGA/SAP FirstWorking Group Meeting on Standardizationof Living Marine Resources Statistical Data(Fisheries). Fisheries Training Institute, Aden,Yemen. 29 April-2 May, 2000.

Khalil, A.S. and F. Krupp. 1994. “Fishes in theMangrove Ecosystem.” In: Comparative Eco-logical Analysis of Biota and Habitats in Lit-toral and Shallow Sublittoral Waters of theSudanese Red Sea. F. Krupp, M. Türkay,A.G.D. El Hag, and D. Nasr (eds.). Fors-chungsinstitut Senckenberg, Frankfurt andFaculty of Marine Science and Fisheries, PortSudan: 83-89.

Khalil, A.S.M. 1994. Fishes in the Mangrove Eco-system of the Suakin Area, Sudanese Red Sea:Population Ecology, Community Structureand Species Diversity. M.Sc thesis. Universityof Khartoum. 126 pp.

Krupp, F. 1990. “Sanganeb - Ein Unterwasser-Nationalpaerk im Roten Meer.” Natur undMuseum 120: 405-409.

Krupp, F., M. Türkay, A.G.D. El Hag, and D.Nasr. (eds) 1994. Comparative EcologicalAnalysis of Biota and Habitats in Littoral andShallow Sublittoral Waters of the SudaneseRed Sea. Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg,Frankfurt and Faculty of Marine Science andFisheries, Port Sudan. 89 pp.

Künzel, T., A. Darar, and J.M. Vakily. 1996. Pro-jekt: Meeresfischbestande vor Djibouti (PN90.2058.7-01.100). Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.

Lintner, S.F., S. Arif and M. Hatziolos. 1995. TheExperience of the World Bank in the Legal,Inst i tut ional and Financial Aspects ofRegional Environmental Programs: PotentialApplication of Lessons Learned for theROPME and PERSGA Programs. BackgroundPapers from the Sea to Sea Conference, Jed-dah.

MAW (Ministry of Agriculture and Water, SaudiArabia). 1987. Marine Fish Productions fromthe Traditional Fisheries in the Kingdom ofSaudi Arabia during October 85-September86. 104 pp.

MAW. 1996. Fisheries Statistics of Saudi Arabia,1995. 111+123 pp.

MAW. 1998. Fisheries Statistics of Saudi Arabia,1997.

MEP (MacAlister Elliott and Partners Ltd.). 1992.Assessment of the Exploitable Fish Stocks inthe Water Adjacent to the Republic of Yemen.Fourth Fisheries Development Project. Reportno. MEP-YE-025. MacAlister, Elliott andPartners.

MEP. 1994a. Review of Fisheries Law of theRepublic of Yemen. Fourth Fisheries Develop-


ment Project. Report no. MEP-YE-038.MacAlister, Elliott and Partners.

MEP. 1994b. Marine Resources Situation. FourthFisheries Development Project. Report no.MEP-YE-039. MacAlister, Elliott and Part-ners.

MEP. 1994c. Recommendations on Quality Con-trol Activities. Fourth Fisheries DevelopmentProject. Report no. MEP-YE-040. MacAlister,Elliott and Partners.

MEP. 1994d. The Role of the Ministry of FishWealth and the Organization Structure andStaffing Necessary to Carry Out That Role.Fourth Fisheries Development Project. Reportno. MEP-YE-042. MacAlister, Elliott andPartners.

MEP. 1994e. Draft Code of Recommended Prac-tices for the Onshore Processing of Fresh andFrozen Fish and Shellfish in Yemen. FourthFisheries Development Project. Report no.MEP-YE-046. MacAlister, Elliott and Part-ners.

MEP. 1994f. Draft Code of Recommended Prac-tices for the Onboard Processing of Fresh andFrozen Fish and Shellfish in Yemen. FourthFisheries Development Project. Report no.MEP-YE-048. MacAlister, Elliott and Part-ners.

MEP. 1995. Coastal Habitat Survey, Phase I: Pre-liminary Habitat Classification and an Assess-ment of the Coast’s Resources, Users andImpacts . Fourth Fisheries DevelopmentProject. Report no. MEP-YE-067. MacAlister,Elliott and Partners.

MEP. 1999. Republic of Yemen: Fisheries SectorReview. Fourth Fisheries DevelopmentProject. Report no. MEP-YE-108. MacAlister,Elliott and Partners.

MEPA. 1987. (Meteorology and EnvironmentalProtection Administration) Saudi ArabiaAssessment of Coastal Zone ManagementRequirements. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. (7 Vol-umes)

MEPA. 1989. An Assessment of the ConservationStatus of Marine Turtles in Saudi Arabia (2

volumes). MEPA Coastal and Marine Man-agement Series Reports No. 9.

MEPA. 1989a. The Status and Conservation of theDugongs in the Saudi Arabian Region. MEPACoastal and Marine Management SeriesReports No. 10.

MEPA. 1989b. Environmental Protection Stan-dards. MEPA Document 1409-01.

Mergner H., 1971. “Structure, Ecology and Zona-tion of the Red Sea Reefs (in comparison withSouth Indian and Jamaica reefs).” In: Symp.Zool. Soc. London, 28, 141 – 161.

Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Development(Somalia), 2000. Outline Report on FisheriesStatistical Data, Republic of Somaliland. Pre-pared for the PERSGA/SAP First WorkingGroup Meeting on Standardization of LivingMarine Resources Statistical Data (Fisheries).Fisheries Training Institute, Aden, Yemen. 29April-2 May, 2000.

Ministry of Fisheries, Ports and Marine Transport(Somalia). 2000. Report on Fisheries Statisti-cal Data, Northeast Regions of Somalia, Punt-land State of Somalia. Prepared for thePERSGA/SAP First Working Group Meetingon s tanda rd iza t ion o f L iv ing Mar ineResources Statistical Data (Fisheries). Fisher-ies Training Institute, Aden, Yemen. 29 April-2 May, 2000.

Mishrigi, S.Y. 1990-1993. Annual Reports 1990/1991-1992/1993. Marine Fisheries Adminis-tration, Port Sudan.

Mishrigi, S.Y. 1993. Identification Study forSudan Red Sea Fisheries. Republic of Sudan.Ministry of Economic Planning and Invest-ment, Project Preparation Unit. Khartoum. 240pp.

Mishrigi, S.Y., 1993. Identification Study forSudan Red Sea Fisheries, Ministry of Eco-nomic Planning and Investment, Project Prep-aration Unit. Khartoum, Sudan. 214 pp.

Musa, S.B., 1991. Surface Run-off in the Red SeaProvince. RESAP Technical Paper No.5.Khartoum University Press. 29 pp.


Nichols, P.V. 1997. Monitoring, Control and Sur-vei l lance: S i tuat ion and Proposal forImprovement. April 1996 (partially revisedMay 1997). Fourth Fisheries DevelopmentProject. Report no. MEP-YE-079. MacAlister,Elliott and Partners.

O’Riordan, B.J. 1982. A Report on the Collectionof Catch and Effort Data on the Sudanese RedSea Coast. ODA. 95 pp.

Olsen, D.A., M.J. Abdulrazzak, S. Elgowhary, A.Khan and S. Al-Kouli. 1996. Management ofGrowth in the Coastal Zone: Jeddah, Kingdomof Saudi Arabia. MEPA Technical Report.

Peacock, N.A. and K. Alam. 1980. Final Report:The Fishery Resource Survey of the SaudiArabia Red Sea, February 1977-October1979. Field Report. Fisheries DevelopmentProject, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (40): 28 pp.

PERSGA. 1997j. PERSGA Regional FisheriesWorkshop: Summary Review of the Saudi Ara-bian Red Sea Fisheries. 28-30 April 1997. Jed-dah.

PERSGA. 1997a. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. National Fish-eries Report: Republic of Sudan. Jeddah.

PERSGA. 1997b. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. CountryReport: Republic of Sudan. Jeddah.

PERSGA. 1997c. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. CountryReport: Republic of Djibouti. Jeddah.

PERSGA. 1997d. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. CountryReport: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Jeddah.

PERSGA. 1997e. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. National Fish-eries Report: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Jed-dah.

PERSGA. 1997f. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. CountryReport: Somalia. Jeddah.

PERSGA. 1997g. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. National Fish-eries Report: Somalia. Jeddah.

PERSGA. 1997h. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. National Fish-eries Report: Republic of Yemen. Jeddah.

PERSGA. 1997i. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. CountryReport: Republic of Yemen. Jeddah.

PERSGA. 1998. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. World Bank.Washington, DC.

PERSGA. 2001. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Volume II.Country Reports (consolidated). World Bank.Washington, DC.

PERSGA. 2001. Strategic Action Programme forthe Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Volume III.Navigation Risk Assessment and ManagementPlan. World Bank. Washington, DC.

Pitcher, T.J. and D.B. Preikshot. 1999. Rapfish: ARapid Appraisal Technique to Evaluate theSustainability Status of Fisheries. FisheriesResearch.

Preikshot, D.B. and D. Pauly. 1999. “A Multivari-ate Interdisciplinary Assessment of SmallScale Tropical Fisheries.” In: Fisheries StockAssessment Models. Alaska Sea Grant. Fair-banks.

Reynolds, J.E., J. Appleton, M.S. Bellemans, A.Bonzon, L.C. Christy, T. Scovazzi and M.Vandeputte. 1993. Assistance to FisheriesDevelopment Planning and Resources Man-agement: Eritrea. The Fisheries of Eritrea,Part II: Proposed National Fisheries Strategyand Development Programme. FAO. Rome.

Rushdie, A. I., A. Ba’ssa and A. Babagi. 1991.Preliminary Investigations of Oil PollutionAlong the Red Sea Coast of Yemen. Proceed-ings of the Seminar on the Status of the Envi-ronment in the Republic of Yemen. EPC.

Rushdie, A. I., M.M. Abubakr and H.M. Hebba.1994. Marine Habitats of the Red Sea at AlUrj-Al Salif and Dhubab-Yakhtul Areas: TheirEcology, Environment and Management Rec-ommendations. Department of Oceanography,Sana’a University and UNDP. 117 pp.


Sadek, S. and A. El Gamal. 1997. Egyptian Aquac-ulture with Special Emphasis on Mariculturein Regard to Status, Constraints and Potential.Island and Tropical Aquaculture, EuropeanAq. Soc. Martinique, May 4-9, 1997.

Saeed, S.S. 1999. Preliminary Survey on the Statusof Shark Stocks. Conservation and SustainableUse of the Biodiversity of Socotra Archipel-ago. Hariri and Associates. Yemen.

Sanders, M.J. and G.R. Morgan. 1989. Review ofthe Fisheries of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 034. FAO.Rome.

Sanders, M.J. and S.M. Kedidi. 1984a. Catches,Fishing Efforts, Catches Per Fishing Effortand Fishing Locations for the Gulf of Suez andEgyptian Red Sea Coast Trawl Fishery During1979-1982. UNDP/FAO. RAB/81/002/22. 53pp.

Sanders, M.J. and S.M. Kedidi. 1984b. StockAssessment for the Gold Stripe, Sardinellagibbosa, caught by Purse Seine from the Gulfof Suez and more Southern Red Sea Waters.UNDP/FAO. RAB/81/002/27. 29 pp.

Sanders, M.J. and S.M. Kedidi. 1984c. StockAssessment for the Round Scad, Decapterusmarudsi, Caught by Purse Seine and Trawlfrom the Gulf of Suez and More Southern RedSea Whalers. UNDP/FAO. RAB/81/002/26:41 pp.

Sanders, M.J. and S.M. Kedidi. 1981. SummaryReview of Red Sea Commercial Fisheries.Catches and Stock Assessments includingMaps of Actual and Potent ial FishingGrounds. UNDP/FAO. RAB/77/008/19. 49pp.

Sanders, M.J. and S.M. Kedidi. 1984d. StockAssessment for the Brush Tooth LizardfishSaurida Undosquamis Caught by Trawl in theGulf of Suez. RAB/83/023/05.

Sanders, M.J. and S.M. Kedidi. 1984e. StockAssessment for the Spotted Sardinella (Sar-dinella sirm) Caught by Purse Seine Adjacentto the Border between Egypt and Sudan.UNDP/FAO. RAB/83/023/04. 28 pp.

Sanders, M.J. and S.M. Kedidi. 1984f. SummaryReport of Stock Assessment, with ManagementImplications, Concerning the Egyptian RedSea Fisheries. RAB/83/023/09.

Schröder, J.H. 1981. “Man versus the Reef inSudan: Threats, Destruction, Protection.” Pro-ceedings of the Fourth International CoralReef Symposium, Manila 1: 253-257.

Schröder, J.H. and D. Nasr. 1983. “The FringingReefs of Port Sudan, Sudan: I. Morphology -Sedimentology - Zonation.” Essener Geogra-phische Arbeiten 6: 29-44.

Schröder, J.H., D. Nasr, and F.M.M. Idris. 1980.“Coral Reef Conservation in the Sudanese RedSea.” Proceedings of the Symposium on theCoastal and Marine Environment of the RedSea, Gulf of Aden and Tropical WesternIndian Ocean. Volume 1: 163-178. Universityof Khartoum. Khartoum, Sudan.

Sheppard, C.R.C. and S. Wells. 1988. Directory ofCoral Reefs of International Importance. Vol.2: Indian Ocean Region. IUCN, Gland andUNEP, Nairobi. 389 pp.

Subeir O., M. Khanbash and M. Esseen. 1997. TheRock Lobster Fishery of Hadhramaut and AlMahara; Current Status and Recommenda-tions for Future Management. MSRRC.Yemen.

UNDP/GEF, 1997. Conservation and SustainableUse of Biodiversity of Socotra Archipelago.Project Document. YEM/96/G32/B/1G/31.

Valle, S.V. and H.R. Ahmed. 1993. PreliminaryStock Assessment of the Cuttlefish (Sepiapharaonis) in the Gulf of Aden. MSRRC.Yemen.

Valle, S.V. and others. 1993. Actual Situation andStock Assessment for the Rock Lobster (Panu-lirus homarus) in the Gulf of Aden. MSRRC.Yemen.

Vine, P.J. and M.P. Vine. 1980. “Ecology ofSudanese Coral Reefs with Particular Refer-ence to Reef Morphology and Distribution ofFishes.” Proceedings of Symposium on theCoastal Marine Environment of the Red Sea,Gulf of Aden and Tropical Western Indian


Ocean, Volume 1. University of Khartoum,Khartoum, Sudan.

Watt, I. 1995. Coastal Habitat Survey of the Gulfof Aden. Phase II: Socotra Archipelago.Fourth Fisheries Development Project. Reportno. MEP-YE-072. MacAlister, Elliott andPartners.

Watt, I. 1996. Coastal Habitat Survey of The Gulfof Aden, Phase II: South Coast of Yemen.Fourth Fisheries Development Project. Reportno. MEP-YE-082. MacAlister, Elliott andPartners.

Yusef, M.D. and N.E. Kassem. 1999. Establish-ment of Fishermen’s Cooperative Societies onSocotra Island. Conservation and SustainableUse of the Biodiversity of Socotra Archipel-ago. Hariri and Associates. Yemen.

Appendix A

Main Target Species in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

English name Species or family nameA. Invertebrate speciesCuttlefish Sepia pharaonisDeep Sea lobster Puerulus sewelliDeep Sea shrimp Parapenaeopsis spp.Pearl oyster Pinctada margaritiferaRock lobster Panulirus homarus; P. versicolorTrochus Tectus dentatus, Trochus virgatusShrimps Penaeus latisulcatus, P. japonicus, P. semisulcatus, P. monodon, Metapenaeus spp.Sea cucumber Holothuria scabra and Actinopyga sp.B. Finfish speciesAnchovy Stolephorus sp.Barracuda Sphyraena jello, S. barracudaBlack marlin Makaira indicaBlue marlin Makaira mazaraStriped marlin Tetrapturus audaxBlack spot shark Carcharhinus sealeiBlacktip reef shark Carcharhinus melanopterusBlacktip shark Carcharhinus limbatusBluefin tuna or kawakawa Euthynnus affinisBream All species of family SparidaeCatfish Arius thallasinusCobia Rachycentron canadumCroaker ScianidaeDolphin fish Coryphaena hippurusEmperor All species of family Lethrinidae; especially Lethrinus nebulosus; L. mahsena, L. lent-

jan.Frigate mackerel Auxis thazardGoat fish Family MullidaeGoldspot herring Herklotsicthys punctatusGrouper All species of family Serranidae; especially Epinephelus chlorostigma; E. summana;

E. areolatus; E. tauvina; Plectropomus maculatus; P. areolatus; P. pessulifera; Vari-ola louti.

Grunt Pomadasys spp.Guitarfish RhinobatidaeHalfbeak Hemirhamphus spp.Hammerhead Shark Sphyrna zygaenaHorse mackerel Trachurus indicus, Decapterus maruddsiIndian mackerel Rastrelliger kanagurtaJacks, trevallies All species of family CarangidaeKingfish (Spanish mackerel) Scomberomorus commersoniLittle tuna Euthynnus affinisLizardfish Saurida undosquamisLongspine bream Argyrops spinifer, Evynnis cardinalis, Sparus majir

107


Longtail tuna Thunnus tonggolMojarras Family GerridaeMullet Mugil robustus; M. cephalus, M. capito, Valamugil seheliNeedlefish or ‘longtoms’ All species of the family BelonidaeOceanic whitetip shark Carcharhinus longimanusPacific mackerel Scomber japonicusParrotfish All fishes of family Scaridae; Scarus ghobban, S. hareed.Pomfret Pampus argenteusPristis Pectinata SawsharkQueenfish Corinemus spp.Rabbit fish All species of the family Siganidae; such as Siganus oramin, S. rivulatus.Red mullet Upeneus asymmetricus; U. tiagula; U. vittatus.Ribbonfish Trichiurus sp.Round herring Etrumeus teresSailfish Istiophorus gladiusSand bar shark Carcharhinus plumbeusSailfish Istiophorus platypterusSardines Sardinella longiceps; Sardinella sirm; Sardinella gibbosaScalloped hammerhead shark Sphyrna lewiniScavenger / emperor Lethrinus spp.Shortfin mako shark Isurus oxyrinchusSilvertip shark Carcharhinus albimarginatusSkipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamisSnapper All species of family Lutjanidae, such as Lutjanus bohar, Aprion virescens, Pristipo-

moides spp.Threadfin bream Nemipterus japonicusTiger shark Galeocerdo cuvierUnicorn fish Naso unicornisWhitetip Triaenodon obesusWolf herring Chirocentrus sp.Yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares

English name Species or family name

Appendix B

Artisanal Fisheries Profile, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Notes: ‘n.a.’ – Data not available. Gear: LL – long-line; GN – gill nets; HL – hand line; BG – beach gleaners; TR – trawl; TN – trammel net; SN – small surround net; CN – Cast nets; Sh.N – shark tangle; nets; TP – traps; BS – Beach seine; ST – set nets; SP – spears.

No.Fisher-

men Huris Sanbuks Total

Vessels Principal Gear Reference Year (Source)

Artisanal Fisheries: Red Sea

Jordan 230 100 HL, LL, TP, GN, SP

1999(Khalaf, 2000).

Egypt 9,024 n.a. n.a. 820 HL, LL 1997(PERSGA 1997)

Saudi Arabia 4,100 5,428 HL, GN 1997(MAW, 1998)

Sudan 209 125 226 460 HL, ST, 1997(PERSGA 1997)

Eritrea N.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Yemen 16,000 1,610 620 2,230 SN, GN, TR, HL 1997(PERSGA 1997)

Sub-total Red Sea 29,563 1,735 846 9,038Artisanal Fisheries: Gulf of Aden

Djibouti 270 90 - 90 HL, GN, CN 1996(PERSGA 1997c)

Yemen 19,700 n.a. n.a. 5,800 SN, GN, TR, HL 1997(MEP 1999)

Somalia 8,000 1,050 420 522 Sh.N, HL, GN, LL, TP, BS

2000(Ministry of Fisher-

ies, Ports and Marine Transport 2000; Ministry of

Fisheries and Coastal Develop-

ment, 2000) Sub-total Gulf of Aden 27,970 1,140 420 6,412PERSGA Region and Eritrea total 57,533 2,875 1,266 15,450

109

Appendix C

Industrial Fisheries Profile, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Notes: ‘n.a.’ – data not available.

Est. no.Fisher-

men

No.vessels: Reference

Year (source) Purse Seine

Trawl Long-line

Hand Liners

NotSpecified

Total Vessels

Industrial Fishing: Red SeaJordan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1999

(Khalaf, 2000).Egypt 7,535 83 173 - 245 932 1,433 1995

(Barrania 1997)Saudi Arabia 35 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 130 1997

(MAW 1998)Sudan <100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 1997

(PERSGA 1997)

Eritrea n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.Yemen n.a. n.a. 78 n.a. n.a. n.a. 78 1997

(PERSGA 1997)

Sub-total Red Sea 7,570 83 251 - 245 932 1,641Industrial Fishing: Gulf of AdenDjibouti 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1996

(PERSGA 1996)

Yemen 350 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 65 1997(PERSGA 1997)

Somalia <100 0 0 0 0 0 0Sub-total Gulf of Aden

450 4 20 - - - 65

PERSGA Region and Eritrea total

7,908 87 271 - 245 932 1,706

110

Appendix D

FAO Landings Statistics for Main Species, 1988-1997

It sh

ould

be

note

d th

at in

som

e ca

ses

FAO

dat

abas

e fig

ures

diff

er fr

om e

stim

ates

pro

vide

d by

nat

iona

l exp

erts

. FAO

dat

a fo

r Sau

di A

ra-

bia

incl

udes

cat

ches

take

n in

the

Gul

f and

dat

a fo

r Som

alia

incl

ude

catc

hes

take

n fro

m th

e In

dian

Oce

an (s

outh

ern)

coa

st.

. Cou

ntry

Spec

ies

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

. Inv

erte

brat

e sp

ecie

syp

tC

uttle

fish,

bob

tail

squi

ds

7714

322

117

212

828

648

656

039

941

423

7ed

Sea

)M

arin

e cr

abs

- -

- -

- -

-10

,049

<0.

54

149

Nat

antia

n de

capo

ds

455

582

594

759

435

614

572

763

644

639

436

udi A

rabi

aC

uttle

fish,

bob

tail

squi

ds

427

2020

3935

353

308

578

598

1,5

61M

arin

e cr

abs

282

9627

2916

925

61,

126

1,0

35 1

,060

1,3

7144

8O

ctop

us

- -

- -

- -

- -

-1

<0.

5Pe

naei

d sh

rimps

5

,016

5,4

00 3

,415

2,14

43,

163

2,65

84,

282

5,9

41 7

,423

7,0

11 8

,316

Trop

ical

spi

ny lo

bste

rs

146

55

68

2321

1318

701

dan

ed S

ea)

Pear

l oys

ter s

hells

.

..

1323

1413

310

1013

itrea

Cut

tlefis

h, b

obta

il sq

uids

.

..

..

..

.51

<0.

53

Pena

eus

shrim

ps

..

..

..

1513

2 <

0.5

9Sp

iny

lobs

ters

.

..

..

..

.1

12

Tect

us s

hells

..

..

. -

- -

- -

224

Vario

us s

quid

s .

..

..

.13

15 <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

ibou

tiTr

opic

al s

piny

lobs

ters

#8

71

<0.

5 <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

Vario

us s

quid

s <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

<0.

5 <

0.5

men

Cut

tlefis

h, b

obta

il sq

uids

2

,169

2,1

70 3

,352

2,12

269

590

630

6 1

,313

1,8

84 8

,657

8,4

40N

atan

tian

deca

pods

86

9094

104

101

108

..

..

.Pe

naeu

s sh

rimps

27

321

915

218

389

358

722

981

665

601

590

Sea

cucu

mbe

rs

2930

6314

048

6563

6060

6060

Trop

ical

spi

ny lo

bste

rs

969

970

1,7

041,

500

839

1,02

147

539

034

548

247

0m

alia

Cep

halo

pods

72

734

635

265

050

055

060

057

055

050

055

0Tr

opic

al s

piny

lobs

ters

50

055

054

355

050

045

040

038

040

040

040

0TA

L10

,609

10,6

3610

,543

8,39

16,

735

7,32

99,

449

22,4

0214

,085

20,7

6722

,609

. Fin

fishe

s, b

y m

ajor

gro

upin

gs (S

ourc

e: F

AO

Sta

tistic

s, 2

000)

rdan

Empe

rors

(=Sc

aven

gers

).

..

..

..

..

.2

ed S

ea)

Fusi

liers

..

..

..

..

..

15M

arin

e fis

hes

22

220

3045

6075

9010

03

Scad

s.

..

..

..

..

.20

Spin

efee

t (=R

abbi

tfish

es)

..

..

..

..

..

10Tu

nas

..

..

..

..

..

70yp

tBa

rracu

das

--

--

--

-12

31

-ed

Sea

)C

hub

mac

kere

l16

427

841

281

018

545

33,

041

1,92

62,

042

2,39

281

0D

emer

sal p

erco

mor

phs

9912

,194

7,13

116

,101

5,56

25,

600

12,0

92.

..

.Em

pero

rs (=

Scav

enge

rs)

..

..

..

.42

942

557

457

7G

roup

ers

1899

78-

5833

424

738

764

768

972

2In

dian

mac

kere

l.

..

..

..

1,36

31,

151

1,91

465

2Ja

cks,

trev

allie

s2,

927

2,54

55,

849

6,91

94,

841

14,3

6111

,823

..

..

Liza

rdfis

hes

854

1,93

22,

884

4,77

65,

820

6,07

34,

845

4,69

64,

151

5,11

77,

994

111

A Eg (R Sa Su (R Er Dj

Ye So TO B Jo (R Eg (R


Mar

ine

fishe

s18

,003

19,2

4717

,230

8,89

619

,170

13,5

97-

7,33

110

,542

16,5

2012

,797

Mea

gre

8848

31-

--

158

45<0

.5<0

.519

Mul

lets

28-

10-

--

-31

6759

352

Nar

row

-bar

red

Span

ish

mac

kere

l16

4986

-19

1-

1,24

21,

297

8,88

08,

503

9,93

3N

eedl

efis

hes

..

..

..

.12

348

3217

Porg

ies,

sea

brea

ms

1250

86.

..

.4,

012

2,42

82,

175

1,28

2Sa

rdin

ella

s5,

415

6,19

84,

307

2,86

01,

613

3,76

32,

973

2,82

26,

833

5,63

94,

973

Shar

ks, r

ays,

ska

tes,

etc

.18

699

6129

3069

137

122

180

135

Snap

pers

, job

fishe

s.

..

..

.4,

875

5,05

34,

044

5,16

58,

784

Spin

efee

t (=R

abbi

tfish

es)

..

..

..

.18

512

812

917

5Sp

otte

d se

abas

s.

..

..

..

101

235

36St

riped

bon

ito-

--

--

--

131

318

755

841

Surm

ulle

ts (=

Red

mul

lets

)27

614

699

658

366

868

977

71,

077

716

744

439

Saud

i Ara

bia

Ange

lfish

es-

--

--

--

--

-16

Barra

cuda

s1,

917

1,96

01,

843

1,80

11,

913

1,99

02,

249

1,06

51,

251

1,24

61,

352

Blue

sea

chu

b-

--

--

--

--

8<0

.5C

aran

gids

4,95

45,

379

4,18

24,

251

4,44

44,

920

5,73

04,

547

5,52

45,

125

5,17

3C

lupe

oids

-18

641

633

334

636

939

125

920

156

02,

329

Cob

ia23

5835

3352

4871

124

155

155

100

Dem

ersa

l per

com

orph

s.

..

..

..

740

5034

Empe

rors

(=Sc

aven

gers

)7,

511

7,77

56,

453

6,51

37,

715

8,28

17,

524

6,59

87,

314

6,90

44,

773

Flat

fishe

s31

3026

2630

3042

5158

7589

Flat

head

s-

--

--

--

--

-12

1G

oatfi

shes

1010

99

1010

5265

8373

228

Gro

uper

s, s

eaba

sses

5,88

95,

827

5,07

24,

625

5,73

15,

752

5,70

73,

514

4,20

74,

403

4,97

8G

runt

s, s

wee

tlips

284

367

226

303

254

351

489

814

1,06

31,

014

2,55

4In

dian

mac

kere

l89

91,

727

1,57

91,

579

1,65

81,

741

3,24

03,

069

1,54

91,

990

2,07

8In

do-P

acifi

c sa

ilfis

h-

--

--

--

--

-3

Liza

rdfis

hes

824

6969

7276

195

195

172

188

215

Mar

ine

fishe

s3,

997

3,11

63,

733

4,34

84,

578

4,32

53,

074

1,48

01,

205

820

817

Milk

fish

--

--

--

1013

713

070

83M

ojar

ras

(=Si

lver

-bid

dies

)5

864

44

516

433

736

043

853

9M

ulle

ts-

202

2214

314

511

229

400

320

369

527

Nee

dlef

ishe

s-

--

--

-46

132

496

111

393

Pela

gic

perc

omor

phs

..

..

..

..

..

.Pe

rcoi

ds19

021

015

316

618

324

217

683

777

790

646

9Po

rgie

s, s

eabr

eam

s81

865

369

273

584

51,

064

1,91

01,

469

1,72

22,

481

2,79

6Q

ueen

fishe

s.

..

..

.15

431

234

938

529

7R

ainb

ow ru

nner

--

--

--

--

-41

598

Ray

s, s

tingr

ays,

man

tas

--

--

--

--

--

4Se

a ca

tfish

es23

151

192

192

201

212

226

303

302

366

319

Seer

fishe

s9,

362

9,24

38,

662

8,76

89,

872

10,3

7410

,851

6,27

95,

277

5,63

45,

491

Shar

ks, r

ays,

ska

tes,

etc

.64

269

638

3840

4212

546

739

854

31,

527

Silv

er p

omfre

t-

--

--

-5

4131

1660

Cou

ntry

Spec

ies

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998


Snap

pers

, job

fishe

s3,

048

2,75

72,

423

2,77

12,

712

3,01

93,

054

1,66

21,

704

2,14

82,

391

Snub

nose

pom

pano

--

--

--

--

--

4Sp

adef

ishe

s-

--

--

--

--

-1

Spin

efee

t(=R

abbi

tfish

es)

444

865

1,06

386

81,

385

1,38

81,

887

2,34

12,

779

2,17

31,

823

Surg

eonf

ishe

s-

--

--

-68

113

238

173

252

Swor

dfis

h-

--

--

--

--

-2

Ther

apon

per

ch-

--

--

--

--

-20

5Th

read

fin b

ream

s-

--

--

-21

221

131

8730

5Tr

igge

rfish

es, d

urgo

ns-

--

--

--

--

268

Tuna

-like

fish

es28

831

927

251

734

371

392

31,

190

1,09

11,

339

628

Wra

sses

, hog

fishe

s, e

tc.

..

..

..

.16

510

810

566

Suda

nM

arin

e fis

hes

1,20

01,

200

1,50

01,

500

2,00

02,

500

4,00

04,

000

4,50

05,

000

5,50

0(R

ed S

eaEr

itrea

Barra

cuda

s.

..

..

.37

109

185

2157

Batfi

shes

..

..

..

--

-<0

.51

Bige

yes

..

..

..

<0.5

5<0

.5-

-C

aran

gids

..

..

..

4869

781

513

184

Cob

ia.

..

..

.2

1038

26

Empe

rors

(=Sc

aven

gers

).

..

..

.21

71,

010

767

9010

4Fl

athe

ads

..

..

..

1814

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

Goa

tfish

es.

..

..

.61

72

11

Gro

uper

s.

..

..

.14

8314

195

117

Gru

nts,

sw

eetli

ps.

..

..

.61

469

367

1347

Gui

tarfi

shes

, etc

..

..

..

.3

1<0

.5<0

.5-

Indi

an h

alib

ut.

..

..

.9

48

1<0

.5In

dian

mac

kere

l.

..

..

.40

7558

2<0

.5

Indo

-Pac

ific

sailf

ish

..

..

..

--

-<0

.51

Kaw

akaw

a.

..

..

..

..

.6

Lefte

ye fl

ound

ers

..

..

..

--

-<0

.51

Liza

rdfis

hes

..

..

..

651

166

35

<0.5

Long

tail

tuna

..

..

..

..

..

22M

acke

rel-l

ike

fishe

s.

..

..

.7

34.

.5

Mar

ine

fishe

s.

..

..

475

451

456

211

215

212

Milk

fish

..

..

..

<0.5

2<0

.52

3M

ulle

ts.

..

..

..

.3

42

Span

ish

mac

kere

l.

..

..

..

.18

117

418

2Po

rgie

s, s

eabr

eam

s.

..

..

.12

2212

<0.5

<0.5

Que

enfis

hes

..

..

..

..

84

.R

ainb

ow ru

nner

..

..

..

..

3-

<0.5

Req

uiem

sha

rks

..

..

..

136

1513

17Se

a ca

tfish

es.

..

..

.52

609

<0.5

149

Snap

pers

..

..

..

4320

528

121

929

4Sn

appe

rs, j

obfis

hes

..

..

..

2<0

.543

5969

Cou

ntry

Spec

ies

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998


Spin

efee

t (=R

abbi

tfish

es)

..

..

..

--

<0.5

<0.5

1Th

read

fin b

ream

s.

..

..

.92

820

64

15<0

.5Tr

igge

rfish

es, d

urgo

ns.

..

..

.9

1<0

.5<0

.5<0

.5Tu

na-li

ke fi

shes

..

..

..

..

429

81D

jibou

tiBa

rracu

das

159

1012

1314

1516

2019

20C

aran

gids

5319

1713

1415

1618

2019

20G

roup

ers

101

9583

7784

9298

107

110

104

105

Jack

s, tr

eval

lies

-5

3<0

.5<0

.5<0

.5<0

.5<0

.5<0

.5<0

.5<0

.5M

arin

e fis

hes

110

2718

89

1011

1210

910

Mul

lets

71

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

Porg

ies,

sea

brea

ms

4337

2928

3134

3639

4038

40Se

erfis

hes

2637

5748

5257

6167

6561

60Sn

appe

rs, j

obfis

hes

5914

312

155

6065

6976

8076

80Tu

na-li

ke fi

shes

3211

2011

1213

1415

1514

15

Yem

enBa

rracu

das

1,10

263

41,

766

1,87

32,

670

3,27

92,

716

2,35

61,

813

1,90

01,

850

Dem

ersa

l per

com

orph

s3,

329

3,00

03,

836

4,25

84,

131

4,00

04,

000

5,38

35,

022

5,25

05,

120

Empe

rors

(=Sc

aven

gers

)2,

909

3,67

02,

256

3,39

93,

275

5,47

84,

390

3,21

42,

437

2,55

02,

490

Frig

ate

and

bulle

t tun

as58

2122

2423

2525

2020

2020

Gro

uper

s, s

eaba

sses

1,02

31,

761

1,58

41,

376

2,03

82,

487

2,40

02,

260

1,74

31,

820

1,77

0G

runt

s, s

wee

tlips

7211

674

313

569

754

1,14

71,

813

1,31

81,

380

1,35

0In

dian

hal

ibut

170

121

134

327

368

8942

297

472

476

074

0In

dian

mac

kere

l5,

363

5,82

06,

542

7,30

16,

567

6,00

06,

500

6,95

875

279

077

0In

dian

oil

sard

ine

..

..

..

..

4,12

04,

310

4,20

0Ja

ck a

nd h

orse

mac

kere

ls82

382

085

594

992

199

099

04,

412

1,38

01,

440

1,40

0Ja

cks,

trev

allie

s34

581

555

612

550

917

448

043

141

343

042

0Ka

wak

awa

1,31

51,

252

1,56

91,

601

1,61

550

41,

164

1,22

61,

183

1,24

01,

210

Long

tail

tuna

552

563

1,27

665

11,

324

1,70

72,

291

2,20

41,

887

1,97

01,

920

Mul

lets

364

280

311

834

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

391

380

400

390

Nar

row

-bar

red

Span

ish

mac

kere

l2,

273

2,27

33,

118

3,20

72,

551

3,09

23,

255

3,04

73,

521

3,68

03,

580

Pela

gic

perc

omor

phs

44,3

7440

,000

43,1

1743

,564

36,1

3438

,104

35,6

6452

,407

59,3

4462

,304

60,7

40R

ays,

stin

gray

s, m

anta

s-

--

--

--

156

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

Sea

catfi

shes

413

154

206

532

1,36

41,

411

1,04

31,

697

1,70

01,

780

1,74

0Se

erfis

hes

295

446

465

516

500

538

538

500

500

520

510

Shar

ks, r

ays,

ska

tes,

etc

.70

41,

329

639

2,74

96,

067

6,53

76,

455

4,48

04,

878

5,10

04,

970

Skip

jack

tuna

<0.5

1213

1413

1414

1588

9090

Snap

pers

, job

fishe

s1,

006

1,26

866

91,

428

1,81

53,

575

2,66

02,

006

1,46

01,

530

1,49

0Sw

ordf

ish

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

<0.5

Thre

adfin

, dw

arf b

ream

s1,

840

3,11

82,

092

2,37

74,

279

3,59

23,

718

3,17

02,

504

2,62

02,

550

Tuna

-like

fish

es48

262

273

303

294

316

316

300

300

310

300

Yello

wfin

tuna

1,25

266

769

577

174

880

480

480

080

084

082

0So

mal

iaM

arin

e fis

hes

16,5

0018

,450

20,0

0022

,000

20,0

0018

,000

16,0

0015

,000

14,8

0014

,500

14,8

00TO

TAL

156,

113

172,

914

170,

201

181,

362

180,

750

194,

754

195,

020

192,

831

202,

377

214,

970

216,

458

Cou

ntry

Spec

ies

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Appendix E

Landing Facilities for Fishing Vessels in the Red Sea
La
ndin

g Si

te

Faci

lity

Workshops/ repair

Cold storage

Ice plant

Electricity

Forklift

Freshwater

Fuel oil

Derrick/ Crane

Boat-building/repair

Auction facilities

Quay/ pier

Fish processing

Slipway

JOR

DAN

Sidr

aEG

YPT

Atak

a Po

rt (S

uez)

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XSa

kala

(Gha

rdaq

ah)

XX

XG

hard

aqah

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

Safa

gaX

XX

XQ

usei

rX

XX

XX

XSh

alat

een

XSA

UD

I AR

ABIA

No

deta

ils o

f lan

ding

s si

tes

avai

labl

eSU

DAN

Moh

amm

ed G

olX

Port

Suda

nX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XSu

akin

fish

ing

harb

our

XER

ITR

EAM

assa

wa

Asm

ara

Assa

bD

JIBO

UTI

Boul

aos

Esca

leTa

djou

raO

bock

YEM

ENR

ed S

ea c

oast

:H

odei

da p

ort

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

Khob

ha h

arbo

urG

ulf o

f Ade

n co

ast:

Fuku

mX

XX

XX

XX

XX

Aden

por

tX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

Zing

ibar

Shuq

raX

XX

XX

XX

XBi

r Ali

XX

XX

XX

XX

115


N

ote:

In S

omal

ia m

ost o

f the

se fa

cilit

ies

have

bee

n de

stro

yed

durin

g th

e ci

vil s

trive

and

are

no

long

er o

pera

tiona

l.

Muk

alla

, Kal

f por

tX

XX

XX

XX

Shih

rX

XX

XX

XX

Xal

-Ham

iX

XX

XX

XX

Xal

-Qar

nX

XX

XX

XX

XQ

usay

air

XX

XX

XX

XX

Mus

aini

’aX

XX

XX

XX

XSa

yhut

XX

XX

XX

XX

Nis

htun

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XSO

MAL

IABe

reda

XX

XX

XX

Xabo

XX

XX

XX

XX

Qan

dala

XX

XX

XX

XX

Bosa

soX

XX

XX

XX

XLa

as Q

oray

XX

XX

XX

XX

Berb

era

XX

XX

XX

XX

Land

ing

Site

Faci

lity

Workshops/ repair

Cold storage

Ice plant

Electricity

Forklift

Freshwater

Fuel oil

Derrick/ Crane

Boat-building/repair

Auction facilities

Quay/ pier

Fish processing

Slipway

Appendix F

Socio-economic Indicators

JORDANLand area 88,884 km2 Continental shelf (to 200

m)<100 km2

Length of coastline 27 km Population 5.7 million (1993)Employment in primary catch-ing sector

230 fishermen (2000) Employment in second-ary sector

n.a

Public sector employment: management and research

n.a. Public sector employ-ment: training, extension and services

n.a.

Annual fish production 450 mt (1999) Value of fisheries exports Negligible.Gross domestic product USD 6.105 billion (1993) GNP per capita n.a.Fisheries contribution to GDP Negligible. Per capita fish consump-

tion2.7 kg/year (1998)

EGYPTLand area 1.01 million km2 Continental shelf (to 200

m)8,400 km2

Length of coastline 1,800 km (Red Sea coast)

Population 61.4 million (1998)

Employment in primary catch-ing sector

18,000 fishermen (1995) Employment in second-ary sector

At least 10,000 - processing, mar-keting and ancillary services (1995)


400 (1995) Public sector employ-ment: training, extension and services

53 (1995)

Annual fish production 58,000 mt (1998 – Red Sea)

Value of fisheries exports USD 12.2 million (1998)

Gross domestic product USD 84.3 billions (1998) GNP per capita USD 1,290 (1998)Fisheries contribution to GDP n.a. Per capita fish consump-

tion4-6 kg/year (1999)

SAUDI ARABIASource: PERSGA 1997

Land area 2.25 million km2 Continental shelf (to 200 m)

77,859 km2

Length of coastline 1,840 km Population 20.7 million (1998)Employment in primary catch-ing sector


At least 6,700 (processing, market-ing and ancillary services (1997) including Saudi and non-Saudi workers.


- Public sector employ-ment: training, extension and services

n.a.

Annual fish production – Red Sea only

26,000 mt (1998) Value of fisheries exports USD 4.8 million (1998)

Gross domestic product USD 125.8 billion (1998) GNP per capita n.a.Fisheries contribution to GDP 0.13% (1999) Per capita fish consump-

tion 8.0 kg/year (1993)

117


SUDANSource: PERSGA (1997)

Land area 2.51 million km2 Continental shelf (to 200 m)

9,800 km2 (800 km2 deep water trawling grounds, 9,000 km2 artisa-nal grounds)

Length of coastline 853 km Population 28.3 million (1998); 685,000 (Red Sea State, 1993 census)



At least 104 - processing, marketing and ancillary services (1994)



n.a.

Annual fish production 1,500 mt (1998) Value of fisheries exports n.a.Gross domestic product USD n.a. (1998) GNP per capita: USD 290 (1998)Fisheries contribution to GDP Negligible (<1%, 1997) Per capita fish consump-

tion 1.2 –2.0 kg/year (1997)

DJIBOUTISource: PERSGA Country report: Djibouti. (1996)

Land area 23,200 km2 Continental shelf (to 200 m)

2,280 km2

Length of coastline 370 km Population 650,000 (1998)Employment in primary catch-ing sector

n.a. Employment in second-ary sector

n.a.



n.a.

Annual fish production 450 mt. (1998) Value of fisheries exports negligible (1998)Gross domestic product USD 0.51 billion (1998) GNP per capita n.a. (1998)Fisheries contribution to GDP Negligible (1996) Per capita fish consump-

tion 1.8 kg/year (1992)

YEMENSources: MEP (1997). Fourth Fisheries Project: Fish Sector Review. MFW 2000.

Land area 527,970 km2 Continental shelf (to 200 m)

Gulf of Aden shelf – 20,255 km2; Red Sea shelf – 11,200 km2.

Length of coastline 2,200 km (Red Sea and Gulf of Aden)




At least 10,000 - processing, mar-keting and ancillary services. (1997)



2,030 (1997)

Annual fish production 128,600 mt (1998) Value of fisheries exports USD 11.1 million. (1996)Gross domestic product USD 5.4 billion (1998) GNP per capita USD 300 per capita (1998)Fisheries contribution to GDP 1.4% (1996) Per capita fish consump-

tion 40 kg/year (1997)

SOMALIALand area 627,340 km2 Continental shelf (to 200

m)8,400 km2 (northern coast only)

Length of coastline 1,300 km (northern coast)




n.a.



n.a.

Annual fish production 4,000 mt (1998) Value of fisheries exports USD 1.5 million (1998)Gross domestic product n.a. (1998) GDP per capita: n.a. (1998)Fisheries contribution to GDP 2% (1997) Per capita fish consump-

tion0.25 kg (1996)

Appendix G

National InstitutionsInvolved in Fisheries and Environmental Management

Name of Authority Main FunctionJORDANMarine Science Station, Aqaba. Fisheries and marine research.Ministry of Agriculture. Policy and management.EGYPTEgyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) Monitoring and protection of the marine environment.Egyptian Organization for Standardization (EOS) Maintenance of standards for domestic products, provides

training in compliance with national standards.General Authority for Fish Resource Development (GAFRD) Fisheries management, development and conservation;

enforcement, MCS, data collection, training and exten-sion; aquaculture development.

National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF) Primary research institute for marine fisheries.Ministry of Defence With Frontier Guard Corp, issue fishing permits and moni-

tor vessel activities, crewing levels etc.Ministry of Health Examination of agricultural and fisheries foodstuffs in

regard to chemical and biological safety levels.Ministry of Scientific Research Supervises the IOF and its two research stations in Suez

and Ghardaqah.Ministry of Supply and Trade Supervision of fish quality and monitoring landings quotas

in Suez, Red Sea and South Sinai Governorate. Ministry of Supply and Trade, Dept. of Food Inspection and Quality control.

Quality assurance for all agricultural, food (including sea-food) and industrial products.

Ministry of Supply and Trade, General Organization for Con-trol of Export and Import (GOCEI)

Concerned with Quality control of all agricultural and industrial exports.

SAUDI ARABIAFaculty of Marine Sciences of King Abdulaziz University. Involved in research activities.Fisheries Research Center, Jeddah Involved in research activities.MEPA (Meteorology and Environmental Protection Adminis-tration)

Jurisdiction for prevention of pollution in the territorial sea including effluent from landfill, pollution monitoring; juris-diction for oil spill response; responsible for setting stan-dards for the environment.

Ministry of Agriculture Responsible for fishery management, agricultural devel-opment, development of groundwater resources and sea-water desalination

Ministry of Agriculture and Water: Dept. of Fisheries Affairs Management and administration: marine fisheries, aquac-ulture and the marine environment, licensing, regulations, credit facilities for fishermen, imported fishing and farming equipment and research; Responsible for management of national parks; landfills;

Ministry of Agriculture, Sweet Water Conversation Corpora-tion (SWCC), Ministry of Petroleum (Saudi Aramco, oil com-panies), Ministry of Municipalities and Rural Affairs (Sewage Authority), Ministry of Industry and Electricity (SCECO and industrial cities) and RCJY

Control activities that emit pollutants into the Territorial Sea

Ministry of Defence Jurisdiction of military activities within the Territorial SeaMinistry of Industry and Electricity Responsible for industrial development and electricity

generationMinistry of Municipal and Rural Affairs Responsible for municipal development, flood water man-

agement and disposal of wasteMinistry of Petroleum Jurisdiction over oil production and marine mineral extrac-

tion activities in the Territorial Sea

119


Ministry of Transport Responsibility for Marine Navigation in the Territorial SeaNCWCD Responsible for management of protected areas Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu Responsible for industrial development within the two

industrial cities; also responsible (under a Memorandum of Understanding with MEPA) for environmental manage-ment in those cities

Saudi Coast Guard Jurisdiction between the border of the Territorial Sea (12 miles offshore) and 10 km inland

Sea Ports Authority Responsibility for ports Sea Ports Authority Responsibility for ports SUDANMarine Fisheries Administration under the Red Sea State (Ministry of Animal Wealth).

Manages the fisheries sector and controls the observation of fisheries regulations.

Ministry of Animal Wealth In overall charge of animal production and fisheries.Red Sea University, Port Sudan. Marine Research and education.The Marine Fisheries Research Center (MoAW) Provides scientific information for the management of

fisheries resources. Field station at Dongonab and 2 labo-ratories at Port Sudan. Over the last 15 years, it has been concentrating on pearl system production.

The Wildlife Research Center (MoAW). In charge of providing the scientific background for wildlife conservation and management.

University of Khartoum, Suakin Marine Laboratory Biological research and training.University of Khartoum, Faculty of Economic and Social Studies

Research on resources and development

University of Khartoum, Institute of Environmental Studies Research on environmental issues.DJIBOUTIInter-ministerial coordination, Commission on the Protection of the Marine Fauna and the Sea Bottom.

Maritime conservation.

Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulics Direction de l'Elevage et des Pêches (DEP), Directorate of Stock-farming and Fish-eries

Fisheries administration and management.

Ministry of Tourism Office National du Tourisme et de l'Arti-sanat (O.N.T.A. National Office for Tourism, Arts and Crafts)

Tourism development

Ministry of Transport and Telecommunications, Direction des Affaires Maritimes (D.A.M., Directorate of Maritime Affairs)

Maritime transport.

National Council of the Sea According to a decree of 5 July this is presided over by the Prime Minister. Policy towards the marine sector.

Presidency of the Republic Institut Supérieur d'Etudes et de Recherche Scientifiques et Techniques (I.S.E.R.S.T., Insti-tute of Higher Studies, Scientific and Technical Research)

Research and postgraduate training.

Primature, Service de l'Aménagement et de l'Environnement (S.A.E., Service for Management and Environment):

Environmental conservation

YEMENCoastal Fisheries Corporation – MFW Catching, processing and exporting rock lobsterEnvironmental Protection Council (EPC) Council of ministers with responsibility for environmental

matters. coordinates and monitors environmental protec-tion and conservation policy.

Fisheries Manpower Development Center (FMDC) - MFW Manpower training; extension services,Marine Science and Resources Research Center (MSRRC) – MFW

Fisheries and oceanographic research

Ministry of Fish Wealth (MFW) Fisheries management and administration; fisheries legis-lation, fish quality control.

National Corporation for Services and Fish Marketing – MFW

Fish purchase and marketing, services (fuel, ice, cold stores), extension services, market operations, fishing port management, fish storage and processing, manage-ment of vessel repair facilities.

Name of Authority Main Function


Note: Since the civil strive these institutions are no longer functioning.

SOMALIAMinistry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development and management of fisheries resources;

production, planning, research, marketing, personnel and administration.

Ministry of Marine Transport and Ports Development of maritime transport and the improvement of port facilities; environmental control of coastal areas, including ports, prevention of marine pollution and safety of navigation; implementation of the Maritime Code, other laws and regulations related to the marine environment, and implementation of regional and international conven-tions.

Ministry of Minerals and Water Resources Two main responsibilities included the development of mineral resources including mining and geological survey, and the development of water resources.

Ministry of Tourism Was in charge of establishing MPAs. Legislation, follow-ing the Kenyan model, has been prepared for a network of protected areas.

National Marine Affairs Committee Oversees the overall development of the fisheries sector. Committee chaired by Ministry of Marine Transport and Ports and members included following ministries: Miner-als and Water Resources, Fisheries and Marine Resources, Foreign Affairs, Education and Defence.

National Range Agency (Ministry of Livestock, Forestry and Range)

Was responsible for National Parks.

Somali Ports Authority and the Somali Shipping Agency (Min. Marine Transport and Ports)

Port and shipping matters.

Name of Authority Main Function

Appendix H

Fisheries Overview for the PERSGA States

Djibouti

PRESENT SITUATION

Fisheries are entirely artisanal in Djibouti. Activity is concentrated north and south of the Gulf of Tad-joura. The north area has no ice or cold storage facilities and is distant from Djibouti city and therefore isthe most productive area. Living marine resources are largely under-exploited, however in over-exploita-tion is reported in areas near the capital including Doralé, Khor Ambado, Arta Plage and the islands ofMusha, Maskali and Waramous. The pressure on these areas is due to a combination of extensive sportfisheries and artisanal fisheries. These are at the same time the areas where reef destruction is most severecaused by dynamite fishing and anchors of boats on reefs.

Shark resources are heavily fished. An unknown amount of illegal shark fishing by unlicensed national andforeign boats takes place for production of fins for the east-Asian shark-fin market. Illegal capture ofmarine turtles and the collection of turtle eggs is wide spread.

A new National Maritime Law and appropriate regulations are required. It is important to strengthenenforcement of existing regulations relating to the management of coastal and marine areas and resources.The enforcement of legislation related to the management of coastal and marine areas is currently weak. Anational Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan is urgently needed. Institutions involved in the man-agement of coastal and marine resources and in law enforcement need assistance in this regard. Mangrovesare currently under threat and in need of protection. A management programme is also required for theexisting MPAs (Parc Territorial de Musha, Réserve Intégrale des Maskali-Sud). Areas for additionalMPAs could include the Sawabi Islands, Ras Bir and the mangrove of Godoriya.

A framework for visitors to coral reef areas is needed including guidelines and mooring boats in coralareas. Management and conservation of living marine resources are of prime importance for Djibouti,however current monitoring of fishing activities and tourist activities is lacking.

No fisheries management plans are currently in force. Fish stock assessment is not undertaken. A studyconducted on the collection and export of ornamental fish for the aquarium trade has been completed andindicates potential for this industry.

An environmental data base containing information on biological resources is required. Fisheries data col-lection systems are needed in support of fisheries management and enforcement activities. Institutionsinvolved in applied research need strengthening.

In 1990 a sub-regional contingency plan for the Gulf of Aden was developed. An oil spill response mutualaids center was established for Djibouti, Yemen and Somalia. In 1992, the Maritime Administration issuedrules for the management of MPAs. The exploitation of reef associated species was strictly regulated. Newfisheries regulations were introduced in 1994 with regard to a sustainable development of this resource. In1996, Djibouti became a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

122


INSTITUTIONS AND FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS

The Ministry of Agriculture and Development is responsible for fisheries through the Direction del'Elevage et des Pêches. The Institut Supérieur d'Etudes et de Recherche Scientifiques et Techniques(ISERST) undertakes applied research and provides scientific training. The Service de l'Aménagement etde l'Environnement (SAE) is the responsible agency for environmental affairs and conservation.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Fisheries and environmental legislation is well developed in Djibouti. The economic and social orien-tation law of 1990-2000 (150/AN/91 2½ L of 10 February 1991) and the orientation plan for economic andsocial development projects of 1991-1995 (law 207/AN/92 2½ L of 14 May 1992) indicate that the Gov-ernment of the Republic of Djibouti is committed to the protection of marine fisheries and the environ-ment.

The present fisheries law was drafted before independence, with the exception of some useful but insuffi-cient general dispositions, which are part of the Code of the Maritime Administration. These are, amongothers, the articles 148, 149 and 220 to 225 enacted by law 212/AN/82, and the articles 16 to 19 of law no.52/AN/78 of 18 January 1979. According to these regulations, certain fishing techniques, such as the useof explosives and poisons, are illegal. They determine the conditions for the exploitation of fisheryresources including fishing zones and closed seasons. They also include sanctions in case of violation ofthese regulations by fishermen.

National regulations on the protection of the marine environment include provisions on marine pollution,protection of endangered species and the creation of protected areas. Djibouti is also a signatory to theCITES Convention. Decree 80-62/PR/MCTT of 25 May 1980 provides for the protection of the seabottomand the marine fauna. The capture of marine mammals and turtles is illegal, as well as the trade with orexport of these animals. It is also forbidden to collect turtle eggs. According to this decree spearfishing isalso illegal in Djibouti.

Marine Protected Areas are currently restricted to the ‘Parc territorial de Musha’ and the ‘Réserve intégralede Mascali.’ Musha parc was first established by regulation 72-1363/SG/CG of 20 September 1972, whichprohibits the collection of corals and molluscs. Further on decree 80/062/PR/MCTT of 25 May 1980extended the protection to the Maskali reserve. This latter one was modified by decree 85/103/PR/AG of28 October 1985 to strengthen conservation of these areas. Only artisanal fisheries of edible species isallowed in these zones. A number of regulations provide for the protection of the coastal zone.

Conscious of the importance to protect the marine environment and to fight all kinds of pollution, a num-ber of international conventions have been signed. The United Nations convention on the Law of the Seawas approved by law of 11 June 1985. At the regional level, Djibouti has signed an agreement with Yemenand Somalia on the establishment of a sub-regional center to combat oil pollution in the Gulf of Aden. Oilspill response facilities are stored at Djibouti. Yemen and Djibouti are currently negotiating a bilateralagreement regarding the use of this equipment.

Jordan

PRESENT SITUATION

With only 27 kilometers of coastline and around 100 artisanal fishing vessels, Jordan’s fisheries sectoris very small. Collection of fisheries statistics and most development interest ceased in 1985 with the lossof access to the fishing grounds in neighboring states. Since 1985 Jordan’s artisanal fishery has undergonea sharp decline. Production in 1999 was estimated at around 450 metric tons, mostly comprising varioustunas and small shoaling pelagic species.



Fisheries policy and management is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture. Fisheriesresearch is the responsibility of the Marine Science Station at Aqaba. A number of Jordanian universitiesalso undertake ad hoc marine and fisheries research. There is no formal training or extension services pro-vided for the sector. Financial support is available through commercial banks in the same way as any othereconomic activity.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Law no. 25 is the basic law which sets forth the organization of fisheries in Jordan. No specificresources are devoted to MCS of the sector given its small size.

Egypt

PRESENT SITUATION

Fish is a traditional and important component of the Egyptian diet and contributes around 20 percent tothe national diet of animal protein. Artisanal fishing is concentrated in the Gulf of Suez. The industrial;fleets comprises shrimp and demersal fish trawlers and purse seiners targeting small pelagics species. Totaldomestic harvest in 1998 was around 546,000 metric tons, mostly originating in the Nile, Mediterranean,northern lakes inland fisheries and fish farms. Only about 10 percent (around 58,000 metric tons) comesfrom Red Sea marine fisheries. nearly 90 percent of Red Sea catches are landed in Ataka Port near Suez,principally bound fresh on ice for the Cairo market.

The sector accounted for around 7 percent of the total value of agricultural production in 1996. Employ-ment accounts for 3.7 percent of total agricultural workers just under half being involved in marine fisher-ies. exports are small, only 2,137 metric tons in 1998. Exports have been static during the 1990s. Thecountry is a major importer of fish, with 24 percent of national consumption being imported in 1998 theform of small pelagics.

Egypt’s main institutional constraint is the shortage of qualified staff. While control of the artisanal fisher-ies especially in the Gulf of Suez is a concern, the focus of fisheries management attention is the activitiesof industrial trawlers targeting shallow water shrimp and demersal fish species in the Gulf of Suez and alsoin neighboring waters. Offshore patrol vessels, coupled with onboard observers are needed to patrol theseactivities. However, because of the severe shortages of qualified manpower and funds, Egypt requires botha clear economic justification for such a large investment, and an assured capability to operate and main-tain such activities.

Assistance is required in the design and application of more effective fisheries and environmental manage-ment systems, primarily through training of staff and technical assistance. cooperation and liaison with theindustrial trawl, purse seine and industries will be necessary. The existing fisheries data collection andanalysis system require upgrading and extension. Also no fish stock assessment has been conducted sincethe eighties. Whether the fisheries sector warrants the purchase of dedicated vessels for fisheries researchand fisheries surveillance and enforcement should be addressed through the benefits such a vessel wouldbring in relation to operational costs. The industrial shrimp fishery could be a primary subject for the appli-cation of high tech monitoring using satellite based vessel monitoring systems (VMS), although the techni-cal expertise and hardware required would require donor assistance to procure.

A national licensing scheme is in operation. This could usefully be extended to artisanal fisheries. Co-man-agement systems should be examined whereby local communities could greatly assist in managing theirown resources.

cooperation with Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Sudan on crustacean, molluscan and coastal finfish fisheriesand tuna and shark fishing should be supported.



GAFRD of Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for fisheries and aquaculture management, develop-ment, MCS, enforcement of regulations, data collection, training and extension. Training is provided forfisheries managers and fishermen from cooperatives. Training workshops focus on fishing technology,fisheries management, project preparation and appraisal, fish culture, cooperative management and legisla-tion. The Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries and the universities have long experience in developingtraining and extension programmes. Study tours are arranged in a regular basis to the United States, south-east Asia, Italy and elsewhere.

Fisheries research is conducted by a number of institutes, but the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheriesis the focal institute primarily involved in fisheries research. The Red Sea branch of the IOF operates fieldstations at Suez and Ghardaqah with well equipped laboratories for physical and chemical oceanography,marine and fisheries biology, pollution monitoring and mariculture (shrimps). Egypt has no fisheriesresearch vessel. Universities involved in fisheries research include Suez Canal University and the Univer-sity of Alexandria.

Law enforcement is the responsibility of GAFRD in cooperation with the Frontiers Corp (Ministry ofDefence). No information is available on the level or efficiency of MCS and enforcement activities. TheFrontier Guard Corps is based at the fishing ports and main landing centers. They issue permits to fishingvessels and record trip lengths, area fished and names of fishermen on each boat. The Ministry of ScientificResearch supervises the IOF that, in turn, supervises the two research stations at Suez and Ghardaqah.

A number of institutions are involved in fish inspection and quality control. The Department of Inspectionand Quality Control and the General Organization for Control of Export and Import (Ministry of Supplyand Trade) are responsible for quality assurance of all agriculture food (including sea products) and indus-trial products. Laboratories are maintained at all airports and provincial centers.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Law no. 124 (Fisheries) of 1983 sets forth the Organization and provides for the regulation of fisheriesand aquaculture. Main articles prescribe allowable grounds and gear, technical measures such as allowablemesh sizes, minimum allowable size, and provides for protection of the environment from pollution. LawNo. 4 (Environmental Protection) provides for the management and conservation of the environment. Itprovides for water pollution land, air and water protection and sets forth the terms of reference for theEgyptian Environmental Affairs Agency. The EEAA has power to set principles and procedures for Envi-ronmental Impact Assessment’s for development projects.

Saudi Arabia

PRESENT SITUATION

Saudi Arabia has a sizeable artisanal and industrial fishery. All vessels are owned by Saudi nationalsand crewed entirely by immigrant fishermen. Landings from the Red Sea in 1997 comprised 17,420 metrictons for the artisanal fleet and 8,405 metric tons. for the industrial fleet (comprising trawlers targetingshrimp and demersal species on the Farasan Bank, and pelagic purse seiners. The Saudi Fishing companydominated the Red Sea industrial fishery. Catches from the Red Sea have exceeded those taken from theGulf in recent years. Contribution of fisheries to GDP is very small, around 0.13 percent. The Kingdomimports around 50,000 metric tons of fish per year to meet national demand.

A well developed fisheries data collection system in place which allows well defined statistics for nationalfishing activities. However, stock assessment research is not undertaken. Saudi Arabia’s fishing groundsextend all along the coast and its industrial vessels operate over considerable distances throughout the Red


Sea. Consequently there are more extensive patrol requirements but little in the way of MCS is undertaken.Patrol vessels and aircraft are currently unavailable for fisheries surveillance.

Saudi Arabia hosts the PERSGA Secretariat and SAP Programme Management Unit. As a regional power,it is in a position to assist other states to cooperate on fisheries data transfer and management issues onimportant shared fisheries, such as demersal fishes, pelagics and shrimps with a view to reaching practicalarrangements for the control of these fisheries. Joint surveillance patrols with Egypt and Yemen and com-mon fisheries research methodologies and shared databases would be very beneficial. The operation offisheries patrol vessels and aircraft to ensure cost-effective and comprehensive surveillance is complicatedby the lack of clear jurisdiction over marine waters and political realities.

Saudi Arabia’s lead role in the formation and hosting of PERSGA underlines its potential important posi-tion in the development of regional marine fisheries conservation initiatives on transboundary stocks, suchas tuna and sharks.


A Deputy Minister at the Ministry of Agriculture and Water heads the Department of Fisheries Affairsassisted by a General Supervisor and three Director General for marine fisheries, aquaculture and marineenvironment. The Department is in charge of all matters related to the development of fisheries. Thisincludes management, licensing, regulations, MCS and research.

The Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA) is the central environmentalagency in Saudi Arabia. It has not, however, been given the extensive enforcement and regulatory author-ity found in European or north American environmental agencies. Instead, Saudi Arabia has chosen to dis-tinguish between the setting of environmental criteria such as standards, and actual operationalmanagement. Thus operational agencies such as the Ministry of Petroleum, Ministry of Agriculture andMinistry of Industry and Electricity retain actual regulatory control over activities carried out under theirrespective mandates, while MEPA sets environmental performance standards, monitors the activities ofoperational agencies and serves as a central coordinator for environmental management.

MEPA is also the lead agency for coastal zone management. However, institutional authority for central-ized coastal zone management planning has not been fully achieved. Instead, each individual agency oper-ates under its own specific mandate and numerous overlaps and potential conflicts abound. Day-to-daycoordination mechanisms and central planning authority specific to the coastal zone are lacking. A draftproposal for development of a national coastal zone management plan was submitted and approved forfinal promulgation by the Ministerial Committee for Environment in July 1997.

Applied research studies are designed and executed by the Marine Research Center of Jeddah. Other aca-demic studies relating to fish biology, oceanography and marine ecology were conducted by researchers ofthe Faculty of Marine Sciences of King Abdulaziz University. National researchers have undertaken train-ing in various countries for long term and short term training in order to improve their skills in differentfisheries disciplines. On the job training is also in use according to the available international expertise.There are approximately 15 enumerators collecting basic catch data at sites along the coast. No fisheriesoffshore surveillance and enforcement is conducted.

The conservation activities of the marine environment mainly involves the supervision of the regulationsapplication in respect to the following: (a) fishing gears specifications including banning of drifting netsand monofilament nets; (b) the implementation of a closed season for shrimps between April and Julyevery year and (c) closing of nursery areas for fishing and the control of land reclamation and sea dredgingalong the coast. The marine environment protection also involves the collaboration with MEPA to the con-trol of pollution generated by different sources.


The government provides credit to fishermen and investors in marine fishing and aquaculture in addition toother assistance such as free tax import of fishing and farming equipment, land at a low cost for fish farm-ing.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Ministry of Agriculture and Water is the main body responsible for fishery management, managementof national parks, jurisdiction for fishery activities under Royal Decree No 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406 andRoyal Decree No M/9, dated 27/3/1408. The Saudi Coast Guard has jurisdiction between the border of theTerritorial Sea (12 miles offshore) and 10 kilometers inland (Royal Decree No 33, dated 27/7/1377).MEPA is responsible for environmental standards and for carrying out a program of environmental impactassessment; designated coastal zone management agency under Royal Decree No 7/M/8903, dated 2/14/1401)

A code for fishing regulations has been prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water since the earlyeighties. The code is revised and updated regularly according to the prevailing situations.

Somalia

PRESENT SITUATION

Somalia, one of the poorest countries in Africa, is currently suffering from the effects of the civil warthat broke out in 1988 and resulted in a collapse of the central government and a breakdown of the nationaleconomy. The conflict led to the destruction of dwellings, water points, crops, industrial installations, loot-ing of livestock and the planting of millions of land mines. A major proportion of the rural population hasbeen displaced. In May 1991, former British Somaliland declared itself independent and a government wasinstalled, but the ‘Republic of Somaliland’, which controls the western part of the northern coastline, is notrecognized internationally. The remainder of the northern coast is known as ‘Puntland’.

Fisheries, along with the rest of the economy, has suffered. Fishing along Somalia’s northern coastline isentirely artisanal. Reliable data are not available. In 1998 production was estimated at between 2,000-4,000 metric tons. Sharks are the main target group, for food and for production of dried shark fins forexport. Rock lobster fishing and trolling for yellowfin and other tunas is also undertaken.

The international community is assisting in rehabilitation and reconstruction. FAO, in collaboration withother international agencies and NGO's, is currently operating relief and rehabilitation programmes (FAO1995). In the present situation there are no fisheries or environmental initiatives, but even before the col-lapse of government such initiatives were hampered by a lack of knowledge on resources and habitats, alack of legislation, training and monitoring capacities.


Control of the fisheries sector by the Ministry of Fisheries discontinued following the collapse of theGovernment of Somalia in 1990. The country has no national policy for the exploitation of marineresources. In the present situation there is no fisheries management or support for the sector. Laws and reg-ulations are not enforced and the national institutions are of no relevance. Here below the status in 1988 issummarized:

A National Marine Affairs Committee had been established to oversee the overall development of the sec-tor. Chaired by the Ministry of Marine Transport and Ports its members included the ministries of Mineralsand Water Resources, Fisheries and Marine Resources, Foreign Affairs, Education and Defence. The Min-istry of Marine Transport and Ports was responsible for environmental control of coastal areas, includingports, prevention of marine pollution and safety of navigation. The implementation of the Maritime Code,other laws and regulations related to the marine environment, and implementation of regional and interna-


tional conventions were under the responsibilities of this ministry. The Ministry of Fisheries and MarineResources was established in 1977 with the objective of developing and managing Somalia's untappedfisheries resources. It received support by staff from the Soviet Union and later on by FAO. It is the FocalPoint for PERSGA.

The Ministry of Tourism was in charge of establishing MPAs. Legislation, following the Kenyan model,has been prepared for a network of protected areas.

Since the outbreak of civil strife, hardly any fisheries development work has been carried out. In theabsence of government, Regional and District Councils and Councils of Elders take up the role of principalcoordinating organizations for the inflow of aid to their respective jurisdictions. International agencies andNGOs work in coordination with the Councils of Elders in the development of a sustainable institutionalbase. Institutional coordination is achieved through the District and Regional Councils to ensure a reason-able level of public accountability. In the case of research, extension or credit accountability has to beestablished (FAO 1995).

One of the institutions of the ‘Republic of Somaliland’ is the Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Develop-ment. Created in 1993, this ministry aims to encourage public and private investment for the exploitationof marine resources; increasing fisheries production within the MSY; protection of the coastline and seafrom environmental degradation; initiation and development of research and training facilities for the fish-eries sector; and the development of employment opportunities in the marine sector.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Basic marine fisheries legislation is contained in the Maritime Code of 1959. In 1983 the Ministry ofFisheries and Marine Resources issued a joint venture guideline and in 1985 the National Fisheries Law.

Somalia has signed the Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Trans-boundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa (1993). It has ratified the fol-lowing Conventions and Protocols which are relevant to the marine environment: the Convention for theProtection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern AfricanRegion (1988); the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(1985); the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1986); the ProtocolConcerning cooperation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the Eastern AfricanRegion (1988); the Protocol Concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the Eastern AfricanRegion (1988); the Protocol Concerning Regional cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil and otherHarmful Substances in Cases of Emergency (1988); the Regional Convention for the Conservation of theRed Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (1988); and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea(1989).

Sudan

PRESENT SITUATION

Sudan’s fisheries include artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial sectors. Most artisanal craft arelocally made, employing traditional methods. The level of mechanization is low. Handlining and gill net-ting for reef associated species accounts for 80 percent of the annual catch of 1,500 metric tons. The indus-trial sector comprises pelagic purse seiners and shrimp trawlers. Their catches are however very low, dueto poor fleet management and restricted trawling grounds. Fish landed close to Port Sudan are marketedfresh on ice to the local market. The contribution of fisheries to GNP is negligible, the backbone of thelocal economy being marine transport (national shipping and Sudan Line).

Sudan’s fisheries policy is to try and improve the standard of living for coastal communities that dependheavily on fisheries for a livelihood. According to the National Strategy 199202002, Sudan is committed to


the pursuit of sustainable development and environmentally sound resource management. However theauthorities are faced with a contracting public service and budget, the loss of large numbers of experiencedstaff, obsolete facilities for fisheries management, poor physical infrastructure and high illiteracy rates inthe artisanal fishermen.

Data collection is poorly organized. Very little stock assessment or applied marine research is conducted.No surveillance activities are conducted. The fisheries legislation is not effectively enforced.

At the local level, mechanisms to involve fishing association and communities in the management processare required. The fishermen face considerable hardship, including lack of access to affordable credit, lackof fish handling and processing facilities, unpaved roads and poor communications. There are no harboursor sheltered areas along large stretches of the coast except Suakin fishing harbour, although some coastallagoons and sheltered bays or ‘marsas’ form natural harbours and landing places. Maintenance and repairworkshops are very scarce. What few ice plants and cold stores there are suffer from water shortages andelectricity shortages. Basic living conditions are generally bad and clean drinking water is a scarce com-modity. The lack of ice making facilities outside of Port Sudan results in heavy pressure on resources thatcan be marketed without preservation such as trochus, pearl shell, bêche-de-mer. Fish catches in remoteareas (Halaib in the north and Aqiq in the south) are consequently dried or wet salted. Credit is not avail-able to many fishermen to allow investment in intermediate-technology fishing craft which would allowexploitation of the known more distant fishing grounds to the north and south or Port Sudan and thusrestricts fishing to the narrow coastal area.

A review of existing policies and support for the artisanal fisheries sector is urgently required. MCS islacking and thus Sudan’s waters are poached by vessels from a number of other states. The Ministry ofDefence is in charge of Naval Forces, which are responsible for MCS. The police share maritime protec-tion responsibility. However a lack of equipment, finance and training impairs effective MCS and enforce-ment in Sudan. The Fisheries Administration performs enforcement of regulations and local ordinances(regulation of landing sites, fish markets etc.) from its Port Sudan head office and field offices. Level ofenforcement is ad hoc on land and virtually non-existent at sea because of lack of patrol vessels, trainedpersonnel, equipment and finance. However increase reports of offenders being apprehended indicates animprovement in surveillance in recent years.

Training needs include fish handling and processing, support for cooperatives and the services they cansupply especially credit lines, and marketing. Illiteracy rates are high, thus public awareness campaigns arerequired aimed at educating fishermen of the need for and long-term benefits of fisheries management andresource conservation. Government officials require assistance in planning and policy formulation. Mostof the available fisheries resources are best exploited by artisanal craft and methods. Artisanal fishing isthus of paramount socio-economic importance in the rural areas. The best prospects for future develop-ment probably lie in revitalizing artisanal fisheries through rehabilitating previous programmes and infra-structure that have proved successful in the past.


The Ministry of Animal Wealth is in overall charge of animal production and fisheries. The MarineFisheries Administration is the main department responsible for fisheries resource management, scientificresearch and extension services. The MFRC has a field station at Dongonab and two laboratories in PortSudan. In the past 10 years research has focused solely on pearl oyster culture. Since the conclusion of theSudan-ODA and Sudan-FAO projects, the Marine Fisheries Administration has not been particularlyactive in fisheries development and extension services. NGOs active in environmental matters include theSudanese Environment Conservation Society (Port Sudan and Suakin), the Sea Friends Association (PortSudan) and OXFAM United Kingdom/Ireland (Port Sudan and Tokar). The Sudan Marine ConservationCommittee (SMCC) is a semi-NGO and plays an important role in awareness raising and forming legisla-tion.


The Red Sea University at Port Sudan undertakes marine research and education. The Faculty of MarineScience and Fisheries offers undergraduate courses in marine and fisheries sciences. The Marine ResearchInstitute conducts oceanographic and marine environment research. The University of Khartoum has a lab-oratory and several research and training activities on Red Sea fisheries. Suakin Marine Laboratory under-takes marine biological research and trains undergraduates from University of Khartoum and otheruniversities. The Institute of Environmental Studies conducts environmental research and supervises grad-uate students in freshwater and marine environments. The Faculty of Economic and Social Studies has sev-eral departments that conduct research on resources and development including coastal and marine areas.The University of Juba offers fisheries, natural resource and environmental studies.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The main law governing resource exploitation and environment is the Marine Fisheries Ordnance of1937 (amended in 1975 and 1978). The Ordnance provides powers for police, custom officers, Navy offic-ers and port authorities to board, search and detain any vessel suspected of violating the fisheries law.However there is virtually no fisheries MCS in the country, and reliance is made on Sudan Line for intelli-gence of marine industrial fishing activity. The Ordnance provides for the establishment of closed/restricted fishing areas, fisheries licensing and prohibits collection of shells, aquarium fishes and coral. Itprescribes minimum allowable sizes for fish species and allowable methods of fishing.

The legislative framework requires updating. A maritime law for Sudan has been drafted by the MaritimeAdministration but its status is unclear.

Yemen

PRESENT SITUATION

With a total catch in 1998 of around 128,000 metric tons Yemen is by far the largest marine fish pro-ducer in the Region mostly comprising small coastal pelagics and yellowfin tuna. Eighty two per cent ofthis was taken by the large artisanal sector. Fish is an important constituent to the national diet, with percapita consumption at around 40 kilograms per year. Industrial fisheries for cuttlefish and artisanal fishingfor rock lobster in the Gulf of Aden have traditionally been important earners of exports revenues. Fisher-ies contributed 1.4 percent to GDP in 1994 However the present ban of fish to the European market,imposed by the European Commission in July 1998 because of inadequate quality control and hygienemeasures, has negatively impacted on export revenues.

Despite the importance of the fisheries sector, problems include a shortage of operating funds for govern-ment management, research and regulatory agencies, poorly paid and trained staff, and inadequate equip-ment, including vessels, vehicles, and communications equipment. There has been no significantassessment of fish and invertebrate stocks since the 1980s, which undermine attempts to implement fisher-ies management. Yemen’s research vessel R/V Ibn Majid is beyond its economic life. The R/V Donafarequires many repairs and in any case is too small to undertake regional survey work. Information systemscurrently lack Organization and integration. A GIS system is operational and biological survey equipmentis available at the Marine Science and Resources Research Center in Aden, procured under the FourthFisheries Development Project.

The fisheries policy framework requires strengthening into a cohesive set of principles and measureswhich could guide resource management and allocation decisions in a transparent and manageable manner.

Yemen’s main high value fisheries for cuttlefish and rock lobster along the Gulf of Aden coast are concen-trated along the coast considerably reducing the cost of patrol requirements. However a lack of equipmentand finance means that fisheries MCS and enforcement of regulations and licence conditions is virtuallynon-existent. The Red Sea demersal shrimp and fish fisheries are more disparate, and are more complex to


police and control. Considerable progress has been made in implementing a vessel registration system,especially for the Red Sea artisanal fleet.

Training is needed in all aspects of fisheries management, including data collection, analysis, stock assess-ment methodologies, management planning, MCS operations and enforcement. The Fisheries TrainingInstitute (FTI) in Aden lacks basic teaching facilities and expertise. Creation of an integrated fisheriesinformation system would support management operations and MCS cost accounting leading to financiallysustainable MCS.

Significant poaching by unlicensed foreign trawlers and purse seiners is reported, especially in the areaeast of Mukalla on the Gulf of Aden. The importance of the valuable shrimp stocks in Yemen’s Red Seaarea to the artisanal fleet is being undermined by fishing by industrial trawlers, mainly from Egypt andSaudi Arabia, operating either under licence or illegally. Licensed national cuttlefish trawlers habituallyoperate close to shore in this area targeting spawning aggregations of cuttlefish. These vessels ignorelicence conditions that prohibit trawling in shallow waters, causing damage to the spawning ground,destruction of eggs attached to substrate and damage to fishing gear belonging to artisanal fishermen.

Closer cooperation is required with near neighbors, Saudi Arabia and Egypt in the Red Sea on the assess-ment and management of shared stocks, especially prawns, demersal fish and pelagics. Shark fisheries areof particular importance and require special attention, due to the particular biological characteristics ofsharks. Yemen and Somalia share important stocks such as rock-lobster and yellowfin tuna. Charteringsurveillance assets for joint patrols of the Red Sea could be cost-effective. MCS assets are not available.


The Ministry of Fish Wealth is responsible for fisheries management, resources utilization, conserva-tion and protection of fish resources, implementation of programmes for fisheries, development of anational strategy for the management of coastal resources and environment, issues licenses for industrialand semi-industrial fishing vessels, legislation in its fields of competence, monitoring of environmentalproblems and education, training and awareness building with regard to the environment. The Departmentof Inspection and Control is responsible for fisheries MCS. Fisheries statistics are collected by the MarineScience and Resources Research Center and collated by the Ministry of Fish Wealth Statistics Unit. Anational fisheries advisory committee is charged with providing management and policy advice to the Min-ister, but has had little impact in improving fisheries management. Fisheries research is carried out at theMSRRC (Ministry of Fish Wealth). There is one institute for fisheries training, the Fisheries Training Insti-tute. Fisheries credit facilities are provided by the Cooperative and Agricultural Credit Bank. This has beenhighly successful in funding an expansion of artisanal fisheries, especially in the Gulf of Aden with almost100 percent record of repayments and is a model of success in providing finance to the fisheries sector,especially to disadvantaged and poorest fishermen.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Law no 24 of 1979 is the main fisheries legislation. It provides for licenses, stipulates the powers ofinspectors and observers, lists serious infringements and offences and sets penalties. It also provides forvarious regulations for fishing by foreign vessels in Yemeni waters, rules and terms for licenses, meshsizes and management measures for artisanal fisheries. During 1996, some minor amendments were madein the area of licensing. However, the law and regulations are not comprehensive and do not provide a sat-isfactory basis for fisheries management. Penalties for infringements are too low to act as an effectivedeterrence. The powers of authorized officers is not defined. The Fisheries Law requires strengtheningwith the incorporation of internationally recognized norms, especially the FAO Code of Conduct forResponsible Fisheries. A complete review of the legal framework was undertaken in 1994 under the FourthFisheries Development Project, but these have not been acted upon. Yemen’s maritime boundaries with itsneighbors have not yet been resolved.

Appendix I

Fisheries and Environmental Legislation in Force

Law, Ordinance, Regulation Concerned Agency Year (in force)JORDAN

Law no. 25 for the Organization of Fishing Council of Ministers 1943EGYPT

Law No. 124 (Fisheries): Regulation of fisheries and aquaculture

GAFRD 1983

Law No. 4 (Environmental Protection): Protection of environment and conservation.

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA)

1990

SAUDI ARABIACouncil of Ministers decision No 157: Jurisdiction for prevention of Pollution in the Territorial Sea

MEPA dated 20/11/1411

Royal Decree 7/B/13307: Jurisdiction for oil spill response (coordination mechanism established)


Royal Decree No 33 on Jurisdiction between the border of the Territorial Sea (12 miles offshore) and 10 kilometers inland

Saudi Coast Guard dated 27/7/1377

Royal Decree No 7/505M, Responsibility for ports Sea Ports Authority dated 28/3/1406:Royal Decree No 7/505M: Jurisdiction for fishery activities

MAW dated 28/3/1406

Royal Decree No 7/505M: Jurisdiction for preven-tion of pollution including effluent from landfill ports.


Royal Decree No 7/505M: Responsible for fishery management

MAW dated 28/3/1406

Royal Decree No 7/505M: Responsibility for ports Sea Ports Authority dated 28/3/1406Royal Decree No 7/M/8903: Responsible for setting standards for the environment and for carrying out a program of environmental impact assessment; designated coastal zone management agency

MEPA dated 2/14/1401)

Royal Decree No M/22: Responsible for manage-ment of protected areas

NCWCD dated 12/9/1406)

Royal Decree No M/9,: to enforce a moratorium on landfill ports

MAW dated 27/3/1408

Royal Decree No M/9: Responsible for fishery man-agement

MAW dated 27/3/1408

SUDANAmendments to Marine Fisheries Regulations Marine Fisheries Administra-

tion1975, 1978

Amendments to Marine Fisheries Regulations Marine Fisheries Administra-tion

1975, 1978

Environmental Health Act Ministry of Health and Local Councils

1975

Environmental Policy Act HCENR and Attorney General Draft proposal 1996

Marine Fisheries Ordinance Marine Fisheries Administra-tion

1937

Sudan Marine Conservation Committee Regula-tions

Ministry of Environment and Tourism

1975, 1995

132


Sudan Maritime Law Maritime Administration Draft proposal 1996

DJIBOUTICITES Convention Maritime Administration ?Decree 80/062/PR/MCTT extended the protection to the Maskali reserve. This latter one was modified by decree 85/103/PR/AG of 28 October 1985 to strengthen conservation of these areas. Only arti-sanal fisheries of edible species is allowed in these zones.

Maritime Administration 1980

Decree 80-062/PR/MCTT on protection of the seabottom and the marine fauna, establishment of South Maskali Islands Integral Reserve

MCTT 1980

Decree 85/103/PR/AG on MPAs Maritime Administration 1985Decree 89-085/PR/AE on oil spill response Maritime Administration 1990Decree 89-085/PR/PM on passage of foreign ves-sels


Economic and social orientation law of 1990-2000 (150/AN/91 2º L of 10 February 1991)


Law 137/AN/85, on hydrocarbon pollution Maritime Administration 1985Law 212/AN/82, fisheries regulations Maritime Administration 1982Law 52/AN/78 article 16-19, fisheries regulations Maritime Administration 1979Law 76-599 on ship based pollution Maritime Administration 1976Law 76-600 on pollution caused by combustion Maritime Administration 1976Law 9/AN/82, on hydrocarbon pollution Maritime Administration 1982Law no. 64/83, which includes the approval of four international conventions on maritime navigation


Law no. 94/AN/89 2º L approves the London Con-ventions of 1971, 73 and 69


Law of 11 June 1985 approves the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.


Regulation 72-1363/SG/CG establishes Musha Parc and prohibits the collection of corals and mol-luscs.


Regulation 72-1363/SG/CG, establishment of Musha Territorial Park


Regulation 90-0534/MPAM on passage of foreign vessels


YEMENEnvironment Protection Law Environmental Protection

Council 1995

Free Zone Law (Law No. 4) Free Zone Authority 1993Law No. 10 Maritime Law MFW 1988Law No. 2 on Amendment of Law No. 8 of 1970 MFW 1972Law No. 24 on Organizing Fishing and Exploitation of Aquatic Living Organisms and their Protection issued on 22/10/79 Published in the Gazette No. 50 on 13/12/79

MFW 1979

Law No. 45 on Territorial Sea, EEZ, Continental Shelf and other Sea Areas - Gazette issue 51 on 22/12/1977. This law was issued on 17/12/1977

MFW 1977

Law No. 6 concerning the Protection of the Marine Environment against Pollution

MFW 1980

Law No. 8 on Territorial Water and the Continental Shelf of the Republic of South Yemen 9/2/70 Pub-lished in the Gazette issue 14 on 2/4/1970

MFW 1970

Maritime Law for the Republic of Yemen (Presiden-tial Decree No. 5)

Public Corporation for Mari-time Affairs

1995

Law, Ordinance, Regulation Concerned Agency Year (in force)


Ministerial Decree for Specifications of Fishing Ves-sels and Gear (No. 101)

Ministry of Fish Wealth 1995

Presidential Resolution on Fishing, Exploitation and Protection of Living Aquatic Resources (Law No. 42)

Ministry of Fish Wealth 1991

Presidential Resolution on the Territorial Sea, Adja-cent Waters, the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf (Law No. 37)

Ministry of Defence, MFW 1991

Prime Ministerial Decree No. 4 of 1996 establishing Socotra as a protected area

Ministry of Planning and Devel-opment

1996

Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollu-tion (Presidential Decree No. 11)

Public Corporation for Mari-time Affairs

1993

SOMALIAConvention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environ-ment of the Eastern African Region;

In abeyance 1988

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora;

In abeyance 1985

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Spe-cies of Wild Animals;

In abeyance 1986

Fisheries Law No. 13 Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources

1985

Joint venture guideline and the National Fisheries Law

Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources

1985

Law on Somali territorial sea and ports, No. 37 Ministry of Marine Transport and Ports

1972

Maritime Code (Basic marine fisheries legislation) Ministry of Marine Transport and Ports

1959

Protocol Concerning cooperation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the Eastern African Region

In abeyance 1988

Protocol Concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the Eastern African Region;

In abeyance 1988

Protocol Concerning Regional cooperation in Com-bating Pollution by Oil and other Harmful Sub-stances in Cases of Emergency

In abeyance 1988

Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment

In abeyance 1988

Sewage and Drainage Law No. 3 Water Development Agency 1983Tourism Development Act Ministry of Tourism 1984United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea In abeyance 1989

Law, Ordinance, Regulation Concerned Agency Year (in force)

status of the living marine resources in the red sea and … of considerable socio-economic...

Documents