state of the environment report - biodiversity · as hunting), as pasture grasses or as aquarium...

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5 Biodiversity

IntroducedSpeciesTrends

• Rabbit numbers: a DECLINE since

introduction of Rabbit Haemorrhagic

Disease (RHD, also known as calicivirus)

although the extent of the decline varies

across the State.

• Fox numbers: DOWN in high priority

conservation areas due to large-scale

baiting programs; STILL A PROBLEM in

other parts of the State.

• Feral camel and deer numbers: UP.

• Feral goat numbers: DECLINING across

the State.

• Feral pig numbers: UNKNOWN.

• Mundulla Yellows and Phytophthora

cinnamomi: SPREADING.

• Extent of terrestrial pest plants: INCREASING.

Goal

Minimal impact of pest animals and pest plants onprimary industries, on natural ecosystems, and onpublic safety in South Australia.Animal and Plant Control Commission, StrategicPlan 2001–2003

What are the issues?

Species have been deliberately introduced to Australiafor a wide variety of reasons including for use as gardenplants, domestic or companion animals, for sport (such

as hunting), as pasture grasses or as aquarium species(in the case of some marine species). They have alsobeen introduced accidentally, such as in shipments ofimported grain or in ballast water.

Introduced plants, or weeds, can invade andcompete with native plant species for space, light,water and nutrients and because of their rapid growthrates they can quickly smother native vegetation.Similarly to weeds, many introduced animals competewith and predate on native animals and impact onnative vegetation. They have high reproductive ratesand can tolerate a wide range of habitats. As a resultthey often establish populations very quickly.

Weeds can provide shelter for pest animals,although they can provide food for or become habitatfor native animals. Blackberry, for example, is an idealhabitat for the threatened Southern Brown Bandicoot.This illustrates the complexity of issues associatedwith pest control and highlights the need for controlmeasures to have considered specific conservationoutcomes to be undertaken over time and to beaccompanied by habitat restoration outcomes.

Weeds can also increase the risk of wildfire andcan pose a serious threat to agriculture, forestry andpastoralism.

Introduced fish pose a significant environmentalproblem for inland rivers and streams. Many wereintroduced last century for recreational fishing and havesubsequently spread into inland waterways, where theycompete with native fish for food and habitat and canhave an adverse impact on water quality.

Some native plant and animal species becomepests if they are introduced to areas beyond theirnatural range. For example, the Cootamundra Wattleoriginating from the eastern states is invadingbushland in South Australia.

The aim of pest control is to reduce and maintainpest density at levels where the benefits for specificconservation goals are maximised in comparison tothe costs of control. Pest control is most effective

Weed affected land – Mount Lofty RangesPhoto: Kym Nicolson

KEY FACTS

• Introduced species are

recognised as a leading

cause of biodiversity loss

world-wide.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 105STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 105

where it is conservation outcome-focused – aimed atreducing the impact of pests rather than simplyreducing pest density.

See also chapters on Native Vegetation; andThreatened Species.

Environmental indicators

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Distribution of key terrestrial and marinepest animals and plants (new indicator)

The distribution of pest plant and animal speciesthat are known to be causing significant threats tobiodiversity provides an indication of the extent ofthe impact that these species are having on theenvironment and on native plants and animals.Introduced species compete for resources oftento the detriment of native species.

Rabbit in the Flinders RangesPhoto: Trevor Naismith

FindingsMaking progressNaturally recurring outbreaks of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease (RHD) continue to hold rabbit numbers atgreatly reduced levels across most of the State compared to before the introduction of RHD.

Feral goat and fox numbers in the Flinders Ranges are generally low as a result of activities undertakenduring Operation Bounceback, an ecological restoration program. This is having a positive impact on Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby populations and native vegetation condition.

Biological control agents (insects and fungi) are being dispersed to assist in the management ofBoneseed, Bridal Creeper, Gorse, Horehound, some species of Thistle and Salvation Jane, with positiveresults seen so far for the control of Horehound and Bridal Creeper.

Attention requiredMundulla Yellows and Phytophthora cinnamomi pose a significant threat to our native plants. A majorresearch program is investigating the causes, impact and management of Mundulla Yellows. A ThreatAbatement Plan is being implemented for Phytophthora and there will be follow-up work to monitor itseffectiveness and potential impact on native plants and animals.

Despite control efforts, most terrestrial weeds remain a problem. Feral camel and deer numbers areincreasing and there is, as yet, no coordinated approach to their control.

The impact that introduced fish are having on the ecology of freshwater rivers, streams and the sea ispoorly understood. Lack of understanding of appropriate management actions may risk the survival of somenative fish, native aquatic plants and other aquatic animals and their habitats.

There is limited information on the distribution of Mesquite, which occurs in scattered locations in the FarNorth. This weed has the potential to significantly impact on biodiversity and livestock industries.

What more should we be doing?The Environment Protection Authority recommends that:5.1 The level of research into Mundulla Yellows is maintained and enhanced to determine its cause,

methods of spreading and impact on biodiversity. More research is required on the impact ofPhytophthora cinnamomi on native plants and animals in South Australia. The effectiveness of riskmanagement strategies for Phytophthora cinnamomi should also be monitored.

5.2 As a matter of urgency, integrated management programs for camels and deer be developed andimplemented, incorporating involvement from all stakeholders.

5.3 The Operation Bounceback and Ark on Eyre programs are continued, and that these programs provideintegrated models for all future introduced species management programs.

5.4 Measures are introduced to prevent the plant nursery industry from engaging in the sale of existingweeds, potential weed species and the spread of plant pathogens.

5.5 Programs are established to improve our understanding of the impact that introduced fish are having onthe ecology of freshwater and marine environments.

5.6 Further research is undertaken to determine the extent of Mesquite in order to developmanagement strategies.

INTRODUCED SPECIES

• Number of new incursions of pest plantsand animals and responses (new indicator)

Newly emerging pest plants and animalsprovide an additional threat to biodiversity.

What is the current situation?

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution ofkey terrestrial pest animals

The most significant pest animals in South Australiathat cause damage to the terrestrial environment arerabbits, foxes, feral goats, deer, camels, cats and pigs.

Competition and land degradation by rabbits andferal goats, and predation by the European Red Foxand feral cats have been recognised as key threateningprocesses under the Commonwealth Environment

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5 Biodiversity

Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act1999. National Threat Abatement Plans have beenproduced for these species. See the State of theEnvironment 2003 Supplementary Report for maps ofthe distribution of key terrestrial pest animals.

European Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculusThis species is still Australia’s most widespread anddestructive pest despite the introduction ofMyxomatosis and RHD. Rabbits are found throughoutmost of South Australia.

RHD is now common throughout the Statefollowing its introduction in 1995. It is estimated thatRHD has reduced rabbit numbers in South Australia bymore than 70% since its introduction, although theextent of the decline varies geographically across theState. In high rainfall areas rabbit numbers do notappear to have declined and may have increased(Animal and Plant Control Board, pers. comm.).

Traditional methods of control (poison baits,warren destruction and removal of shelter) areencouraged to enhance the effectiveness of RHD.

European Red Fox Vulpes vulpesThe European Red Fox occurs in most regions of theState. Priority is given to managing fox numbers inselected, high conservation areas. Large-scale baitingprograms, such as those carried out as part ofOperation Bounceback, Ark on Eyre (see chapter onThreatened Species) and West Coast Integrated PestManagement Strategy, have seen a decline innumbers over the last 10 years in the Flinders andGammon Ranges and on parts of the Eyre Peninsula.Fox populations in the semi-arid regions are reducedwhere rabbit populations have been controlled by RHDor warren destruction.

Elsewhere in the State, foxes remain a problem,despite significant baiting programs in some areas.

Feral Goats Capra hircusFeral goats occur in the southern and central areas ofthe State, particularly the Gawler and Flinders Ranges.

Methods for controlling goats include trapping,shooting and mustering. As with foxes, numbers aredeclining in the Flinders and Gammon Ranges and onparts of the Eyre Peninsula due to large-scale trapping,mustering and shooting programs that are beingcarried out in high priority conservation areas1.Elsewhere in the State, numbers are also declining.

Feral Deer Cervidae familyFeral deer occur as populations in remnant vegetationpatches including conservation parks in the South

East, Mid North, Murraylands, Mount Lofty Rangesand Kangaroo Island.

It is believed that numbers have increasedover recent years as a result of escapes and somedeliberate releases from deer farm enterprises,reduced hunting efforts and new habitats inagro-forestry plantations.

Control is generally ad hoc although there havebeen some attempts by Animal and Plant ControlBoards to introduce cooperative control programsinvolving landholders and recreational hunters.

Feral Camels Camelus dromedariusFeral camels occur in the Far North of the State.Following a number of good seasons it is estimated thattheir numbers have doubled over the last eight years.

An aerial survey of camels and other large feralanimals was conducted in 2002 in the Simpson DesertRegion of South Australia (Axford et. al., 2002). The camelpopulation was estimated at over 10,000 animals.

The impact that these animals have on theenvironment is largely unknown. Current control isrelatively ad hoc and largely limited to that done bylandholders, Indigenous landowners and the Departmentfor Environment and Heritage (DEH) in its parks andreserves. Ongoing control activities for camels and otherlarge feral animals include mustering and shooting.The emergence of a camel industry, based on theharvest of camels, may become a significant componentin the management of their population.

Feral Cats Felis catusFeral cats are common in all regions of the State.Numbers have fallen to some extent following theintroduction of RHD, as rabbits are a key source of prey.

It is difficult to achieve effective cat control, asthey do not readily take meat baits used for foxcontrol. In semi-urban areas, individuals from thedomestic cat population are continually recruited tothe feral population. Priority for action is currentlygiven to areas of high conservation value around theState such as the Flinders and Gammon Ranges.

In other areas of the State, feral cats remaina problem.

Feral Pigs Sus ScrofaFeral pigs can be found in the far north-east of theState along the water courses and water holes of theInnamincka Regional Reserve, Warburton Creek andDiamantina River. These populations are temporaryand recede during periods of drought. Feral pigs canalso be found along the upper reaches of the RiverMurray from Renmark to the State border and on thewestern end of Kangaroo Island.

There is no information on the density of feral pigpopulations in South Australia and their impact on theenvironment is not well documented. Soil andvegetation disturbance is associated with feeding andtrampling. They may also be implicated in the spreadof Phytophthora and other weeds.

Feral pigs are the wild animals of principalconcern in Australia in relation to the spread of exoticdiseases, particularly Foot-and-mouth Disease, whichis Australia’s main exotic disease of concern. They canalso act as hosts or vectors of several diseases andparasites that can affect other animals, including

1 Vertebrate pests, such as rabbits, foxes and feral goats,have adapted and spread into most of Australia’sagricultural systems and natural environments. None havebeen eradicated, despite considerable effort. The NationalFeral Animal Control Program (NFACP) is focused onstrategic, sustained best practice management of pestanimals where they are causing actual rather thanperceived damage. The NFACP has two components: anagricultural component administered by the Bureau ofRural Sciences of the Department of Agriculture, Fisheriesand Forestry; and an environmental componentadministered by Environment Australia.

Fox in the Gawler RangesPhoto: Steve Doyle

KEY FACTS

• The European Rabbit is still

our most widespread and

destructive pest animal.

• Positive results have been

achieved for Yellow-footed

Rock-wallaby populations as a

result of feral goat and fox

control in the Flinders Ranges.

• Bridal Creeper is considered

one of the most significant

weed threats to biodiversity in

South Australia.

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 107

domestic livestock and humans. The major diseasesand parasites of concern are Leptospirosis,Melioidosis, Tuberculosis, Sparganosis and Brucellosis(the last is exclusively spread by pigs).

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution ofkey terrestrial pest plants

There are 20 weeds of national significance(WONS) that are regarded as a major threat tobiodiversity, 11 of these have been identified in SouthAustralia. These are Alligator Weed, Athel Pine,Blackberry, Boneseed, Bridal Creeper, Chilean NeedleGrass, Mesquite, Gorse, Parkinsonia, Serrated Tussockand Willows.

Bridal Creeper, Blackberry, Boneseed, Gorse andMesquite are considered the most significant weedthreats to biodiversity in South Australia. See the Stateof the Environment 2003 Supplementary Report formaps of the distribution of key terrestrial pest plants

Bridal Creeper Asparagus asparagoidesand Bridal Veil A. declinatusBridal Creeper is considered one of the mostsignificant weed threats to biodiversity in SouthAustralia. It is a climber that smothers native vegetationand competes for space, light, water and nutrients. It iscommon in all agricultural areas of the State.

Populations of well-established Bridal Creeperare, however, extremely difficult to control and virtuallyimpossible to eradicate. Removal of new infestationsis imperative. Two Bridal Creeper bio-control agentswere released by the CSIRO Division of Entomology in1999/2000 and have now been dispersed to over600 sites across the State. While positive results havebeen observed at a few sites with regard to areduction in plant density, bridal creeper remains asignificant threat.Bridal Veil shares many of the weed characteristics ofBridal Creeper. It is a deciduous climber and producesberries that are spread by birds. As with Bridal Creeperit smothers native vegetation and competes for space,light, water and nutrients. At present Bridal Veil is not aproclaimed plant under the Animal and Plant ControlAct 1986.

Bridal Veil is currently found in scatteredinfestations on southern Eyre Peninsula, YorkePeninsula, Kangaroo Island and Fleurieu Peninsula. Ithas the potential to spread into the Southern LoftyRanges and into the South East.

As yet there is no biological control for Bridal Veil.The hand digging of plants is recommended by somepeople, although care must be taken to remove everytuber and rhizome fragment. This method can alsocause a lot of soil disturbance, which unfortunatelyaids in the establishment of other weeds.

Blackberry Rubus fruticosus agg.In South Australia, Blackberry is principally found in theMount Lofty Ranges, Fleurieu Peninsula, NorthernAgricultural Districts, Lower Eyre Peninsula and LowerSouth East.

Blackberry is an extremely aggressive invadingplant and hard to control. It remains a problemthroughout its range. Blackberry provides ideal habitat

for the Southern Brown Bandicoot. It is thereforeimportant that its eradication is staged andaccompanied by habitat restoration.

Boneseed Chrysanthemoides moniliferasubsp. moniliferaBoneseed is particularly prolific in the Mount LoftyRanges, with isolated patches elsewhere in the State.It has considerable potential to expand its distributionas it proliferates through rapid growth and massiveseed production.

The Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) forAustralian Weed Management released the Tortrix leaf-roller moth as a means of biological control, however,this has established poorly due to high predation andsevere drought conditions.

Boneseed remains a problem in many parts ofthe State, particularly areas that are inaccessible. Theplant is easy to control via hand-pulling and its densityis reducing in some easily accessible areas due to theefforts of volunteer groups such as Friends of Parks.

Gorse Ulex europaeusGorse is found throughout many agricultural areas of theState, but is most prevalent in higher rainfall areas, suchas the Mount Lofty Ranges, Clare Valley and the FleurieuPeninsula. It has the potential to become a serious pestthroughout the southern areas of South Australia.

A spider mite has been released for biologicalcontrol of gorse in the Mount Lofty Ranges and otherbiological control agents are presently undergoingtesting. To date, these have not significantly affectedthe range or density of the weed, which continues tobe a problem.

Mesquite Prosopis spp.Mesquite occurs in scattered locations in SouthAustralia’s arid interior, however, limited data currentlyexist on weed distribution in these areas. It has thepotential to further extend its range in SouthAustralia’s arid regions.

Mesquite forms impenetrable thickets, smotheringnative vegetation and hindering pastoralism. Itspotential cost to biodiversity and livestock industries isvery high. More work is required to determine theextent of this weed in order to inform the developmentof integrated management strategies.

Other environmental weeds inSouth AustraliaThere are a number of other important environmentalweeds in South Australia that are not listed asnationally significant. These include (but notexclusively) African Box-thorn, Briar Roses (Dog Roseand Sweet Briar), Cape Broom, Desert Ash,Hawthorns (May and Azarola), Olives, PerennialVeldtgrass, Phalaris spp. and Willows. All of thesespecies remain an environmental threat.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution ofkey marine pests

Approximately 250 introduced marine species havebeen discovered in Australian waters, with 38recorded in South Australia. There is little informationon the distribution and density of these marine pests.

INTRODUCED SPECIES

Bridal Creeper smothering nativevegetation, Owen, South AustraliaPhoto: John Virtue

Boneseed seedlingPhoto: Kate Blood

Gorse Broom weed pasturePhoto: Kate Blood

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Many of the pests found in Adelaide metropolitancoastal waters have been introduced via ballast wateror on the hulls or anchor ropes of vessels. Aquacultureand mining are two other vectors for introducingmarine pests and diseases. The State now hasextensive commercial and recreational fisheries, andtherefore any invasion would have huge economic andsocial consequences.

The Commonwealth Government currently hasbefore it a nomination for ‘the introduction of marinepests into the Australian marine environment viashipping including the discharge of ballast water and/orhull fouling’ to be listed as a Key Threatening Processunder the Environment Protection and BiodiversityConservation Act 1999.

South Australian marine experts are extremelyconcerned about the risk of spread of both theJapanese Sea Star Asterias amurensis from Port PhilipBay in Victoria (via recreational craft), and the Japaneseseaweed Undaria pinnatifida.

The most significant marine introduced pest inSouth Australia is the invasive seaweed Caulerpataxifolia. Two other significant pests in terms ofdamage to the marine environment are the EuropeanFan Worm and toxic dinoflagellates, which are single-celled microscopic organisms.

Invasive seaweed Caulerpa taxifoliaCaulerpa taxifolia is a form of algae that wasdiscovered in West Lakes and the upper Port River inearly 2002. Likely vectors for its introduction andpotential spread in these areas are through anescaped aquarium specimen or the transport ofinfected recreational equipment.

Caulerpa taxifolia has the potential to spread overlarge areas as it has done in New South Wales, theMediterranean countries and California. It has alsobeen associated with the collapse of fisheriesoverseas. An eradication program for the speciesstarted in June 2002, coordinated by PrimaryIndustries and Resources SA. An eradication plan hasbeen developed by State Government following trialsto determine the most effective control measures.

European Fan Worm/Sabellid Fan WormSabella spallanzaniiThe European Fan Worm is native to the MediterraneanSea. Its distribution in South Australia has not been fullymapped but there are significant populations in upperGulf St Vincent and it has also been reported nearEdithburgh. The species is believed to form densepopulations, out-competing native species for habitat. Itis a fouling organism and may interfere with marineinfrastructure and aquaculture developments.

Toxic dinoflagellates Gymnodinium andAlexandrium spp.These species produce toxins that may accumulate infilter feeders, causing Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning inpredator species and human consumers. Blooms ofthese organisms may clog the gills of marine species ordeplete oxygen from the water, leading to widespreadfish kills. Toxic dinoflagellates impact on the fishing andaquaculture industries through the loss of stock andhave the potential to affect the health of consumers,particularly in the case of infected shellfish.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Distribution ofkey freshwater pests

There are a number of introduced freshwater fishesthat are having a significant impact on freshwaterecosystems in South Australia. These species competewith native fish for food and habitat and can adverselyaffect water quality. There is limited comprehensiveinformation on the distribution and extent of thesespecies and so it is difficult to predict trends.

Those of primary concern are the European Carp,Eastern Gambusia (or Mosquitofish), Redfin (orEuropean) Perch, Rainbow Trout, Brown Trout andTench. Release of any of these species followingcapture is illegal under the Fisheries Act 1982.

The Rainbow and Brown Trouts have establishedpopulations in the Mount Lofty Ranges and Adelaidearea, while the Eastern Gambusia can be found inrivers and streams throughout the State. This specieswas originally introduced in the 1920s to controlmosquitos. It proved relatively ineffective at controllingmosquitos and has now become a significant pest infreshwater rivers and streams.

The Redfin Perch and European Carp are found inrivers and streams of the Murray-Darling Basin. TheRedfin is a heavy predator of native fish. The EuropeanCarp is a particular environmental concern and hasextended its range to almost the whole of the Murray-Darling Basin. Its feeding habits increase turbidity ormuddiness of the water, dislodge aquatic plants andaffect water quality.

For more information see the State of theEnvironment 2003 Supplementary Report.

Other pest species of concernPhytophthora cinnamomi poses a significant threatto biodiversity and is listed under the EnvironmentProtection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 as akey threatening process.

It is known to have spread throughout manyareas in the Mount Lofty Ranges and parts ofKangaroo Island. Phytophthora is a microscopicfungus-like organism that rots the roots of susceptibleplants causing death. It is a common pest of nurseriesand domestic gardens. There is no known means oferadicating Phytophthora. Management strategiesinvolve modifying/adapting human behaviour andminimising the spread to uninfested areas bycontrolling access and adopting hygiene procedures.

Mundulla Yellows is a progressive, slowyellowing and dieback disease of eucalypts and othernative plants, first observed in the vicinity of Mundullain the 1970s. It is characterised by yellowing of theleaves with growth and canopy dieback developingseveral years or decades later. It is always fatal. Todate, there has been no success in re-establishingplants on sites with Mundulla Yellows dieback.

In South Australia, the symptoms of MundullaYellows have been recorded as far west as StreakyBay and as far north as Wilpena Pound. There appearsto be a strong association between the presence sRMundulla Yellow symptoms and roadside vegetationand/or areas that had been disturbed in some wayby humans.

Caulerpa taxifoliaPhoto: PIRSA

Southern Pygmy Perch – a native fishthreatened by altered river flow, habitatdestruction and introduced speciesPhoto: Michael Hammer


PRESSURE INDICATOR: Number ofnew incursions and responses

Significant new incursions, or invasions, of pest plants,animals and pathogens in South Australia over the lastfew years that pose a threat to biodiversity include theinvasive seaweed, Caulerpa taxifolia (see Distribution

of key marine pests), Branched Broomrape andperennial grass weeds such as Chilean Needle Grassand Serrated Tussock2.

Branched Broomrape Orobanche ramosaBranched Broomrape is a parasitic weed native toSouthern and Central Europe. It has invaded theMediterranean countries, Middle East, Central Asiaand Central America. The weed has an adverse impacton yields of specific commercial crops in many ofthese regions.

Branched Broomrape only occurs in a70-kilometre radius zone around the original discoveryclose to Murray Bridge. There are now 389 infestedpaddocks on 167 properties (PIRSA Annual Report,2002) where the broad host range for BranchedBroomrape was confirmed.

The full extent of Broomrape’s effect on Australiannative vegetation is unknown, however, it has beenobserved affecting a small number of native species.There is also a native species of Broomrape Orobanchecernua var. australiana, which is listed as vulnerableunder the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972.

What impact do introducedspecies have?

Some of the environmental, social and economiceffects of introduced species are listed below toillustrate the broader significance for sustainability.Biodiversity loss. Introduced species are recognisedas a leading cause of biodiversity loss world-wide.Impact on native plants and plant communities.

Weeds smother native vegetation and compete forspace, light, habitat, water and nutrients. Rabbits,feral goats and deer prevent plant regeneration byeating seedlings. Feral camels and deer tramplenative vegetation.Impact on native animals. Foxes and feral cats preyon native animals, some of which are alreadyvulnerable due to low population numbers. Mostintroduced animals compete with native animals forfood and habitat.Degraded soil and water resources. Weeds degradewater courses and affect water quality. They also alterthe composition of soil and increase fire hazard. Feralgoats, rabbits, deer, pigs and camels erode soilresources as the result of trampling and overgrazing.Losses in agricultural production. Weeds cost SouthAustralian agriculture an estimated $650 million per year(http://sustainableresources.pir.sa.gov.au). These costsare associated with reduced crop yield, poisoning ofstock, tainting of meat and milk and reduced value ofwool if contaminated with seeds and burrs. The

presence of weeds or weed traces in export producereduces quality and can cause buyer resistance.Impact on rural communities. Introduced speciescan have indirect effects on the livelihoods oflandholders and regional communities.Cultural impact. Aboriginal and recreational use ofnative ecosystems can be compromised by introducedspecies displacing natives.

What are we doing about it?

The Animal and Plant Control Commission (APCC)

is responsible for the administration andimplementation of the Animal and Plant Control Act1986. The APCC oversees and coordinates animal andplant pest control activities throughout the State.

In cooperation with the Commission, regionallybased Animal and Plant Control Boards and/or Soil

Conservation Boards develop coordinated programsfor destroying or controlling key pest animals andplants throughout the State. The Catchment Water

Management Boards are also playing a major role incontrolling introduced species along watercourses.This work will be better integrated with theGovernment’s proposed reform of natural resourcemanagement activities.

There has been some success in controllingcertain pest animals over the last 10 years. Rabbitnumbers have remained relatively low since theintroduction of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease in1995. This has had an effect on fox and feral catpopulations that rely on rabbits as a major food source,and their numbers have dropped correspondingly.

Fox and goat numbers also remain low in thenorthern Flinders, Gammon and Olary Ranges and onthe Eyre Peninsula due to large-scale control programscarried out by the Department for Environment andHeritage as part of Operation Bounceback, the Ark

on Eyre Program (see the chapter on Threatened

Species) and the West Coast Integrated Pest

Management Program, which aims to see sustainedand integrated pest management across the EyrePeninsula. However, the numbers of wild camel and

deer continue to increase.The South Australian Weeds Strategy,

developed in 1998, provides a framework forcoordinated weed management and links directly withthe National Weed Strategy. However, despitecontrol efforts, pest plants remain a threat tobiodiversity.

The University of Adelaide is a partner in theCooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Australian

Weed Management, established in July 2001. TheCRC is working alongside other groups such as theAPCC and the CSIRO to reduce the risks posed bycurrent and new weed species. The move towardsintegrated management of natural resources shouldsee the development of more holistic approaches toweed management.

Biological control programs are beingimplemented for some plant species with positiveresults seen so far for the control of Horehound andBridal Creeper.

Recently emerging introduced species to causeconcern include Mundulla Yellows, Phytophthora

2 See the State of the Environment 2003 SupplementaryReport for more information.

INTRODUCED SPECIES

Redfin – an introduced species thatpreys on small native fish, frogsand invertebratesPhoto: Michael Hammer

Dead Yaccas affected by PhytophthoracinnamomiPhoto: Renate Velzeboer

KEY FACTS

• Prevention and early

containment of serious new

weeds before they become

widespread is the most cost-

effective approach to

weed management.

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cinnamomi and the invasive seaweed Caulerpataxifolia. Caulerpa taxifolia represents a significantthreat to commercial fisheries and the StateGovernment has launched major control programs.

The Department for Environment and Heritage(DEH) has a management framework and educationalprogram in place to reduce the impact ofPhytophthora cinnamomi across the State, althoughmore resources are required to assess theeffectiveness of these programs in terms of haltingthe spread of the disease.

Progress has been made in researching theimpact of Mundulla Yellows on native plant species.A funding partnership has been formed betweenEnvironment Australia and DEH to progress researchinto the causes of Mundulla Yellows, its modes ofspread and potential management strategies. Thiswork commenced in March 2003.

In addition, the issue was taken to the NationalLand and Water Biodiversity Committee by DEH asone of potential significance to biodiversityconservation at the national scale. Subsequently, aMundulla Yellows Task Group was set up in September2002 to determine the current status of research anddevelop a flexible research strategy and appropriaterisk management framework.

There are also a number of community and

non-government based organisations across theState that are addressing the problems introducedspecies cause. These include the Urban ForestBiodiversity Program, Bushcare, Trees for Life andNative Fish Australia.

In terms of minimising the impact of introducedspecies on the marine environment, South Australiahas provided input into the development of national

ballast water management requirements, effectivesince July 2001. Ballast water from internationalvessels is a major source of exotic pests and diseases.The new requirements prevent high-risk ballast waterfrom being discharged into Australian waters to helpreduce the risk of exotic pests or diseases enteringAustralia’s unique marine environment.

For more information on programs and initiativessee the State of the Environment 2003Supplementary Report.

References

Animal and Plant Control Commissionhttp:/sustainableresources.pir.sa.gov.au

Animal and Plant Control Commission (2000).Strategic Plan 2001–2003.

Animal and Plant Control Commission (2001). AnnualReport. APCC, Adelaide.

Axford, G., Holden, C. and Farroway, L. (2002). AerialSurvey of Camels and other Large Feral Animals in theSimpson Desert Region of South Australia.Department for Environment and Heritage, Adelaide.

Primary Industries and Resources South Australia(PIRSA) (2002). Annual Report. South Australia,Adelaide.

Further information

Bush for Life Programwww.treesforlife.org.au/bushcare.html

Bushcarewww.ea.gov.au/land/bushcare/about/index.html

CSIRO Centre for Research on IntroducedMarine Pestshttp://crimp.marine.csiro.au

Environment Australia – Invasive Specieswww.ea.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/index.html

Introduced Marine Pests Programwww.ea.gov.au/coasts/imps

National Weeds Strategywww.weeds.org.au

Native Fish Australiawww.nativefishsa.asn.au

Operation Bouncebackwww.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/

threatened.html

South Australian Animal and Plant Control Commissionhttp://sustainableresources.pir.sa.gov.au

Urban Forest Biodiversity Programwww.urbanforest.on.net/main.htm

West Coast Integrated Pest Management strategywww.ea.gov.au/land/bushcare/projects/

saproj.html

Phytophthora boot-cleaning stationPhoto: Clare Nicolson


Native VegetationTrends

• Broadacre clearance: HALTED except under

regulated conditions.

• Area of land held under Heritage

Agreements: INCREASED 12% (60,749

hectares) since 1998.

• Area of land held in National Parks and

Wildlife Reserves: INCREASED 1.6%

(334,937 hectares) since 1998.

• Revegetation activity: STABLE, no change

since 1998.

Goal

To reverse the long-term decline in the quality andextent of Australia’s native vegetation and ecologicalcommunities and the ecosystem services they provide.The National Objectives and Targets forBiodiversity Conservation 2001–2005 (EnvironmentAustralia, 2002)


Native vegetation is one of our most precious naturalassets. It provides essential habitat for native animalsand underpins the continued persistence and evolutionof our natural ecosystems. Native vegetation plays animportant role in stabilising the soil, making it lessvulnerable to wind and water erosion. It also reducesthe impact associated with climate change byabsorbing greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide,from the atmosphere.

Native vegetation is also important in preventingdryland salinity through its influence on groundwaterlevels. It also provides valuable shelter and windbreaksfor stock and crops.

Since European settlement, native vegetation hasbeen subjected to a range of pressures that haveresulted in its extensive degradation. In urban areas,settlement has led to its destruction and replacementwith introduced plants, buildings and infrastructure. Inthe agricultural areas, clearance and fragmentation ofhabitat have left less than one-third of South Australia’soriginal native vegetation intact. Although extensiveareas of native vegetation remain in the arid zone, theseare in various states of degradation and modification.

Other pressures that have affected the conditionof native vegetation include grazing by sheep, cattle,rabbits, goats and camels; trampling; invasion byweeds such as Bridal Creeper and Blackberry; changedfire regimes; plant pathogens such as Phytophthoracinnamomi and Mundulla Yellows; firewood collection;increasing soil salinity and rising groundwater; alteredwater flows in rivers and streams; and pollution(NLWRA, 2002).

The current system of parks and reserves playsan important role in protecting remnant nativevegetation. In the agricultural zone, 35% of remainingvegetation is preserved either in formal reserves orprivately managed Heritage Agreements. The latter is

an agreement between a private landholder and theState Government to protect areas of nativevegetation in perpetuity. Heritage Agreements nowcover over half a million hectares of native vegetationin South Australia.

In the agricultural lands, a range of revegetationactivities are underway. However, a large proportionof this is for commercial or landcare purposes andthe contribution to biodiversity outcomes is limitedor unknown.

Native vegetation associated with the RiverMurray and its floodplains and wetlands has beenhighly modified due to the effects associated with riverregulation and the extraction of water for irrigationdevelopment. Deteriorating water quality andincreasing water extraction and drainage foragricultural purposes is affecting the health of aquaticvegetation in rivers, streams and wetlands throughoutthe State. Marine vegetation such as seagrass andmangroves are suffering the effects of poor waterquality and increasing coastal development. Thechapters on Rivers, Streams and Wetlands; River

Murray; and the Health of the Marine and Coastal

Environment provide more information on theseissues.

See also chapters on Introduced Species; Land

Use; and Threatened Species.


CONDITION INDICATOR

• Extent and condition of remnant nativevegetation (reported on in the State of theEnvironment Report 1998)

The extent and condition of native vegetation isconsidered to be the best available measurewe currently have of the condition ofecosystem diversity.

RESPONSE INDICATORS

• Area of land held under protected status(reported on in the State of the EnvironmentReport 1998)

An adequate reserve system is necessary toprotect and maintain ecosystem, species andgenetic biodiversity.• Area of revegetation (reported on in the

State of the Environment Report 1998)While revegetated areas do not have the sameenvironmental benefits as uncleared land, theycontribute towards the restoration of manyecological values. It is critical that land isrevegetated with locally occurring native speciesto achieve maximum biodiversity outcomes.


CONDITION INDICATOR: Extentand condition of remnantterrestrial vegetation

Around 85% of the State is covered in nativevegetation, however, the majority occurs in the

Cup Gum (Eucalyptus cosmophylla)Photo: Kym Nicolson

HakeaPhoto: Kym Nicolson

NATIVE VEGETATION

KEY FACTS

• Native vegetation provides

vital habitats for native

animals, prevents soil erosion,

guards against soil salinity

and is the basis for

healthy catchments.

112

5 Biodiversity

Aerial view of denuded land, Maitland,Yorke PeninsulaPhoto: Mapland

FindingsMaking progressVegetation clearance is now subject to much stricter controls as a result of recent (2002) amendments to theNative Vegetation Act 1991. The amendments prohibit broadacre clearance of intact native vegetation andimpose much stricter penalties for illegal clearance.

The last five years have seen the initiation of a number of State Government programs aimed at a moreintegrated and regional approach to the protection and conservation of native vegetation. These include theRegional Biodiversity Planning Program, NatureLinks and the State Revegetation Strategy. These will becomplemented by, and integrated with, the National Action Plan (NAP) for Salinity and Water Quality andNatural Resource Management Planning.

The Pastoral Lease Assessment Program has completed the first round of property based conditionassessment. In the last 14 years the program has established vegetation and soil monitoring points in everypaddock of every pastoral property, representing about 40% of the State.

The Biological Survey Program of South Australia has conducted biological inventories and establishedmonitoring baselines across approximately 75% of the State.

Fire Management Plans or Statements are being prepared for each fire-prone National Park and WildlifeReserve, and assessed against performance indicators. Priority for rehabilitation works will be given to thoseareas most disturbed by fire, or where the disturbance has the greatest potential to impact on reserve values.

Attention requiredScientific and replicable techniques for measuring the condition of all key vegetation communities are yet tobe developed. In light of the many threats to native vegetation, this is a critical shortcoming of the State’sReserve system.

While Heritage Agreements require the protection of native plants and animals, they do not alwaysaddress on-ground and on-going management requirements. Many of our national parks and reserves do nothave formal management plans.

To date, most revegetation efforts using native species have been small scale and not specificallydesigned to meet the needs of biodiversity conservation, particularly in terms of restoring ecologicalprocesses or wildlife habitat on a broad scale. A few large-scale ecological restoration trials are presentlyunderway across the State to determine the best methods for restoring habitat on a broad scale.

The impact on habitat quality and biodiversity associated with the removal of firewood is currently notbeing adequately addressed.

Native vegetation may still be cleared legally in accordance with exemptions in the Regulations to theNative Vegetation Act 1991. New regulations introduced in August 2003 resulted in a tightening of manyexisting exemptions.

What more should we be doing?The Environment Protection Authority recommends that:5.7 A long term monitoring program is developed to scientifically assess the condition of native vegetation

across the State.5.8 The principles of the NatureLinks Program, which aims to restore habitat at the landscape scale, are

incorporated into the natural resource management planning process and associated investmentstrategies. To assist in achieving the objectives of the NatureLinks Program, existing broadscale habitatrestoration trials should be maintained and new trials initiated to cover the varied ecosystems of the State.

5.9 Continued effort is directed to the development and improvement of Regional Biodiversity Plans toinform development planning and natural resource management planning.

5.10 The development and implementation of management plans for Heritage Agreement areas receives ahigher priority, particularly in terms of providing greater support to the managers of HeritageAgreements. There also needs to be greater emphasis on establishing Heritage Agreements in the aridlands of South Australia.

5.11 Effective resourcing for the development and implementation of management plans for National Parksand Wildlife Reserves is given greater priority.

5.12 A firewood strategy is progressed further in order to improve our information base, educate the publicand develop a sustainable firewood industry.

5.13 Additional effort is directed towards the development of strategies for managing fire and fuel loads innative vegetation for both safety and ecological purposes.


pastoral regions and Aboriginal lands. Less than one-third of the original native vegetation occurs in theagricultural areas of the State – most has been clearedfor agricultural and urban development (Map 5.1).

A quarter of the State’s remaining nativevegetation is protected in National Parks and Wildlife(NPW) Reserves and another 10% via HeritageAgreements. The remaining 65% occurs on privateland and is not necessarily subject to any form ofprotection, conservation or management forconservation outcomes.

Some regions have been subjected to moreextensive clearance than others. The Mount LoftyRanges and the South East have been mostsignificantly affected due to their suitability foragricultural development in terms of climate, soil typeand topography. Only around 15% of native vegetationin the Mount Lofty Ranges and 13% of nativevegetation in the South East remains.

South Australia has strictly controlled broadscaleclearance for the past two decades with the NativeVegetation Act 1991 the most recent of a successionof strategies aimed at minimising clearance rates.

Condition of native vegetationThere is now considerable information available on thecurrent condition of native vegetation in the pastoralareas of the State. In some areas, inappropriategrazing practices over the last 150 years have led toland degradation, a loss of productive potential and animpact on biodiversity.

As part of the State Government’s Pastoral LeaseAssessment Program (1990–2000) over 5500permanent photopoint monitoring sites have beenestablished on pastoral properties. These were set upto provide a baseline to monitor the condition of soiland vegetation over time. These monitoring pointsform the basis for the calculation of a land conditionindex (LCI) for each lease in the sheep country southof the Dog Fence. The LCI ranks pastoral leases ashaving high, moderate or low ‘disturbance’ ordeparture from original (pristine) condition. Thecompletion of the rangeland assessment processallows for ongoing monitoring of change in soil andvegetation condition, improved grazing managementand the rehabilitation of degraded areas (see the Stateof the Environment 2003 Supplementary Report formore information).

In the agricultural regions of the State, measuresto assess the condition of native vegetation inHeritage Agreements, other protected areas andunprotected areas are under development. A programto monitor the condition and ecological integrity ofHeritage Agreement areas began in June 2000. Asmall number of areas have been monitored sincethen, and the program will continue subject to theavailability of funding.

Despite this activity, scientific and replicabletechniques for measuring the condition of all keyvegetation communities in agricultural regions are yetto be developed.

Information on the condition of native vegetationis to be collected as part of the NAP for Salinity andWater Quality. In order to fulfil our reportingrequirements under the NAP, a significant injection of

funding will be required from the State Government toenable vegetation condition assessments andmonitoring to be conducted in the agricultural regionsof the State.

Pressures on native vegetation

Vegetation clearanceThe clearance of healthy, intact native vegetation is notallowed in South Australia under requirements of theNative Vegetation Act 1991.

Over the five-year period from 1996/97 to2001/02, a total of 9161 hectares of degraded nativevegetation was approved for clearing. Some of thisarea comprised plots where only scattered trees werecleared. This is equivalent to an area 10 times the sizeof Belair National Park. However, an area of 5299hectares was refused permission for clearance in thesame period.

In turn, a total area of 6233 hectares of naturalregeneration or revegetation was required during thisperiod to offset the losses associated with theclearance. It should be noted that ad hoc revegetationis not an ideal substitute; instead a landscapeapproach towards nature conservation should beadopted that includes the strategic re-establishment ofnative vegetation communities on a broad scale, tomaximise habitat value and connectivity. The NativeVegetation Council appreciates the importance of thisapproach and will increasingly apply the principle inconditions attached to any clearance approvals.

Figure 5.1 shows the number of clearanceapplications received since 1996/97. The declining trendindicates the changing attitude towards the clearance ofnative vegetation and the recognition that applicationsare less likely to receive approval. Applications are nowbeing modified to more realistic levels.

Despite generally strict controls on clearance,native vegetation may still be legally cleared subjectto exemptions included in the Regulations to theNative Vegetation Act 1991. These exemptions wereoriginally designed to permit clearance that wouldreasonably be approved – for example for safetyreasons, the establishment of fuelbreaks, tracks andfenceline clearance.

One such example is the current exemption ofclearance associated with the erection of a building orother structure (e.g. housing developments). This canresult in the loss of intact and healthy areas of nativevegetation and is of particular concern in the MountLofty Ranges (see chapter on Land Use). Changes tothe Regulations have been prepared to reduce thisimpact on substantially intact native vegetation andlarger eucalypt trees.

Despite a strong legislative base to preventvegetation clearance, illegal clearance still continues,particularly where there is the perception that policingis inadequate.

Firewood removalThe impacts of firewood removal on habitat andbiodiversity within South Australia need to beaddressed. Unsustainable activities include thecollection of fallen timber, removal of dead branchesand hollow logs on live trees, and the cutting of

NATIVE VEGETATION

EremophilaPhoto: Kym Nicolson

Bluebush shrubland, WhyallaPhoto: Kym Nicolson

KEY FACTS

• Less than one-third of South

Australia’s original native

vegetation communities

remain in agricultural areas;

the majority is not

formally protected.

SOURCE: DWLBC

Figure 5.1: Number of clearanceapplications in South Australia –1996/97–2001/02

Num

ber o

f app

licat

ions

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1996

/97

1997

/98

1998

/99

1999

/00

2000

/01

2001

/02

YEAR

114

5 Biodiversity

standing dead trees. Remnant woodlands in closeproximity to large urban centres are under thegreatest pressure.

The Native Vegetation Act 1991 prohibits theharvesting of live timber for firewood unless underexceptional conditions. Currently there are nocontrols on the collection of dead timber on privatelyowned land and this is likely to be having an impacton wildlife habitat in South Australia. However, newRegulations will control the clearance of large deadtrees that provide habitat for listed threatenedspecies under the Commonwealth EnvironmentProtection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.The taking or cutting of live timber and the collectionand use of fallen dead timber in parks and reservesfor any purpose is not permitted under the NationalParks and Wildlife Act 1972.

The Department for Environment and Heritagehas developed a draft South Australian Action Plan forFirewood Collection and Use (DEH, unpub.).

Fire managementFire is perhaps the single most significant natural andhuman induced risk factor affecting native vegetationand its ecological health. Bushfires can havedevastating effects on the community and on nativevegetation communities. Poorly managed nativevegetation, from a fire perspective, represents anunacceptable risk to human life and property, as wellas to the health of ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation,grazing pressure, diseases, weed invasion and alandscape shaped by fire over long periods of timemake ecologically sensitive fire management a difficulttechnical task.

Fire Management Plans or Statements are beingprepared for each fire-prone National Park and WildlifeReserve, and being assessed against performanceindicators. Priority for rehabilitation works, such asrevegetation, will be given to those areas mostdisturbed by fire, or where the disturbance has thegreatest potential to impact on reserve values.

What impact does clearing nativevegetation have?

Some of the environmental, social and economiceffects associated with the clearance of nativevegetation are outlined below to illustrate the broadersignificance for sustainability.Loss of habitat for native plants and animals. Thiswill lead to reductions in population sizes and possiblespecies extinctions.Potential loss of genetic resources. The loss of plantspecies will also threaten genetic resources which areof potential value for the development ofpharmaceuticals and agricultural products.Increasing dryland salinity. Deep-rooted perennialvegetation helps to maintain or minimise the rise ofsaline groundwater. Its removal causes groundwaterlevels to rise rapidly bringing naturally occurring saltsto the surface. This is one of the principal causes ofdryland salinity.Increasing greenhouse impact. Plants absorb carbondioxide, a major greenhouse gas, from the

atmosphere. Their removal will mean greaterconcentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmospherethan there would otherwise have been. Continuingdegradation and loss of vegetation also means theloss of future benefits should carbon trading schemesbe initiated (see chapter on Climate Change).Degradation of soil and water resources. Nativevegetation stabilises the soil, preventing wind andwater erosion, and underpins catchment health andgood quality water.Losses in agricultural production. Nativevegetation provides shelter for stock, wind breaksthat prevent damage to crops, and habitat forvaluable crop pest predators.Lost opportunities for leisure and recreation. Nativevegetation is a fundamental component of theAustralian landscape, and must be protected andmanaged in parks, reserves, open spaces andprivate land.


RESPONSE INDICATOR: Area of landheld under protected status

In August 2003, 25.5% of the State was held undersome form of protected status, a rise from 21.4% in1996 (as reported in the State of the EnvironmentReport 1998). This increase was due largely to thecreation of four Indigenous Protected Areas under theCommonwealth Environment Protection andBiodiversity Conservation Act 1999. These areNantawarrina in the northern Flinders Ranges, Yalataon the edge of the Nullarbor Plain and Walalkara andWatarru in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara lands to the north-west of Coober Pedy. Indigenous Protected Areas nowcomprise 3.2% of all land in South Australia.

The vast majority of the State’s protected areas(21.7%) are preserved under the National Parks andWildlife (NPW) Reserve system (Table 5.1), which ismanaged by DEH. The number of NPW Reserves roseto 332 in 2003, 16 more than in 1998. The increase inarea protected rose 1.6% – from 20,998,936 hectaresin 1998 to 21,352,679 hectares in 2003 (Figure 5.2).Despite the increase in area of land protected, thecontribution of this land to conserving importantcommunities, species and their habitats has not beenfully determined.

Map 5.2 shows areas protected under the NPWreserve system in South Australia.

Of the 332 protected areas under the NPWReserve system there is a legal requirement toprepare formal management plans for 282 (areasprotected under the Crown Lands Act 1929 are notlegally required to have management plans). Of these,94 do not yet have a formal management plan. Theabsence of a formal management plan for around one-third of NPW Reserves is of concern.

The Heritage Agreement scheme, launched in1980, was a visionary and progressive move to protectsignificant parts of the State’s biodiversity that layoutside of the formal National Parks and Reservessystem. Since then, over 1300 landholders have

Native vegetation regenerating aftera bushfirePhoto: Kym Nicolson

Cleland Wildlife ReservePhoto: Clare Nicolson

YEAR

Figure 5.2: Number and area of NPWreserves in South Australia – 1972–2003

Num

ber o

f res

erve

s

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

0

5

10

15

20

25

Area

(mill

ions

of h

ecta

res)

SOURCE: DEH

Number of Reserves

Area (millions hectares)

1974

1978

1982

1986

1990

1994

1998

2002


entered into agreements with the State Governmentto protect areas of native vegetation in perpetuity.

In 1998, 503,251 hectares were protected viaHeritage Agreements, and in 2003 this rose to564,000 hectares, a 12% increase. Although HeritageAgreements comprise only 0.6% of the State, in someregions they protect relatively significant proportionsof native vegetation communities.

Most of the Heritage Agreements are scatteredwidely in the agricultural regions of the State. To assistholders of Heritage Agreements with the conservationmanagement of their land, financial grants areprovided to assist with projects like fencing to protectareas from stock damage and other works such asmapping vegetation types, important native speciesand weeds, and repairing damaged land. In addition tothese initiatives, more emphasis on implementingongoing management plans for Heritage Agreementareas to ensure biodiversity conservation in the longterm is required.

RESPONSE INDICATOR: Area ofrevegetation

Information on revegetation activity in SouthAustralia is collected by Rural Solutions SA (part ofPrimary Industries and Resources SA). The definitionof ‘revegetation’ used by Rural Solutions SA is wideand includes a variety of activities ranging from there-establishment of native plants to commercialforestry, the establishment of fodder shrubs andfarm forestry.

Figure 5.3 summarises major revegetationactivity in South Australia from 1999 to 2001 asassessed by Rural Solutions SA (2002). Most of thisactivity was for commercial or land managementpurposes. The planting of Tasmanian Blue Gumplantations in the lower South East for the wood chipindustry comprised a large proportion of totalrevegetation activity, especially in 2000. The increasedgrowth of Blue Gum plantations has raised concernsabout the sustainable use of groundwater resources inthe region (see chapter on Land Use).

Only around one-third of revegetation during thisperiod involved the use of native species.

Programs and policyThere is now a high degree of protection given toremaining native vegetation in South Australia and, inrecognition of the vital role that native vegetationplays in maintaining healthy ecosystems, effortsare increasing.

To ensure the integration of native vegetationissues with property planning and water resourcemanagement, the State Government has establishedthe Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity

Conservation (DWLBC), which brings together keyfunctions relating to these issues. The integration ofnatural resource management activities in SouthAustralia will further enhance these efforts.

In November 2002 the Native Vegetation

(Miscellaneous) Amendment Act 2002 was passed.The Act allows for a number of changes that reflect theGovernment’s commitment to further improveprotection for the State’s native vegetation. Theseinclude an end to broadacre clearance and increased

penalties for unauthorised clearance (including fines ofup to $100,000). The Native Vegetation (Miscellaneous)Amendment Act 2002 also provides for revegetation

works that mimic a naturally occurring plantcommunity, and for incentives to be provided whichencourage landholders to revegetate in this way.Under the Act, revegetated areas must conform withthe requirements of regional biodiversity plans andpre-European vegetation mapping.

Most recorded revegetation activity in the Statehas been for commercial or land managementpurposes, with a relatively small proportion involvingthe re-establishment of native vegetation. The State

Revegetation Strategy (2001), the second for theState, indicates that efforts will continue to place anemphasis on the economic and ecological implicationsof revegetation activity.

While there is now a high degree of protection fornative vegetation, many areas are isolated and indanger of further fragmentation and degradation viapressures such as pests and wildfire. In the past therehas not been enough emphasis on managing theState’s remaining native vegetation as a whole. Thereis now increasing recognition that effective biodiversityconservation requires strategic planning and action ona large scale over long periods.

1 Total area of the state is 98,515,752 hectares.2 Inland reserves under the National Parks and Wildlife Act1972; the Wilderness Protection Act 1992 and the CrownLand Act 1929.

NATIVE VEGETATION

Mount Monster Conservation Park,South EastPhoto: Kym Nicolson

Little Para River revegetation project,Salisbury HeightsPhoto: Waterwatch SA

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Figure 5.3: Nature of major revegetationactivity in South Australia – 1999–2001

Hect

ares

(000

’s)

1999 2000 2001

Note: Indigenous refers to locally occurringnative native species; Non-indigenousrefers to native, but non-locally occurring,species. Figures exclude ‘Broombrush’,‘Other Products’ and ‘Pines’ categories.The former two are too small to graph andthe establishment of plantation pine trees in2001 cannot be compared to 1999 and 2000.The 1999 and 2000 data includes second andsubsequent rotations, 2001 data only includesnew areas of pines.

SOURCE: RURAL SOLUTIONS SA, 2002

Blue Gums

Tagasaste (Fodder)

Saltbush (Fodder)

Farm Forestry

Native Grasses

Non-indigenous Trees and Shrubs

Indigenous Trees and Shrubs

YEAR

Table 5.1: Terrestrial protected areas of South Australia – Summary (August 2003)

Category Number of Number of Area (hectares) Percentage with Percentagereserve types protected areas mining access State protected1

National Parks andWildlife Reserves2 7 332 21,352,679 78 21.7

Forestry Reserves 2 199 26,109 0 0.03

Indigenous land owners 1 4 3,143,527 100 3.2

Private land owners(Heritage Agreements) 1 1277 564,000 100 0.6

Total 11 1812 25,086,315 95 25.5

Source: DEH

116

5 Biodiversity

The State Government has establishedNatureLinks a major initiative that takes a long termand landscape-based approach to biodiversityconservation across the land and sea. NatureLinksinvolves managing the State’s reserve system as aseries of ‘ecological cores’. Partnerships with

landholders and others will be established to ensurethat surrounding areas are managed and developed,via restoration and revegetation, as ‘links’ thuscreating connected habitat across the landscape.Projects being implemented according to NatureLinksprinciples will build on existing major initiativesincluding the State’s network of parks and reserves,large scale ecological restoration projects such asOperation Bounceback (see chapter on Threatened

Species), revegetation initiatives and programs formarine planning and Marine Protected Areas.

To support the NatureLinks objectivesecological restoration trials are being conducted inregional areas to determine the most appropriatemethods for restoring habitat. These will lead,ultimately, to the development of ecologicalrestoration guidelines tied to scientificallysupportable measures of the contribution ofrestoration efforts to biodiversity conservation.

The Large Scale Habitat Re-establishment

Working Group was formed in 2002. Its objective isto consider and scope the issues in relation to large-scale habitat re-establishment. The group comprisesrepresentatives from the University of Adelaide, DEHand DWLBC. Its focus is on the provision of strategicdirection for ecological restoration through large-scalehabitat reinstatement, encompassing issues such asplanning and legislation, resourcing, socio-politicalconsiderations and technical principles.

The Biological Survey Program of SouthAustralia commenced in 1971 with the intention ofproviding a systematic survey of South Australia’s floraand fauna. The program’s goal is to achieve a completesurvey and map coverage of the state by 2015. Thequality and coverage of the information collected aspart of the Biological Survey will give South Australiaone of the most complete inventories of native floraand fauna in Australia.

Regional Biodiversity Plans are being developedas part of our commitment to the National Strategy forthe Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity 1996.These plans provide a regional approach for theconservation and management of biodiversity, as wellas considering land management and agricultural goals.Local communities have been involved in theirpreparation, particularly in identifying issues andpriorities and developing strategies for achieving on-ground action. The Plans are important for providingregional biodiversity information upon which to basenatural resource management and planning decisions.

Community participation plays a major role inbiodiversity conservation. Bushcare is a key programof the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) that places a strongemphasis on community participation and ownership.South Australian Bushcare projects involve habitatrestoration for the Brush-tailed Bettong and the

conservation and sustainable management of nativegrasslands in the Mid North.

For more information on policy and programssee the State of the Environment 2003Supplementary Report.

References

Department for Environment and Heritage(unpublished). Draft South Australian Action Plan forFirewood Collection and Use. Government of SouthAustralia, Adelaide.

Environment Australia (2002). National Objectives andTargets for Biodiversity Conservation 2001–2005.Environment Australia, Canberra.

National Land and Water Resources Audit (NLWRA)(2002). Australian Terrestrial Biodiversity Management2002. Land and Water Australia, Commonwealth ofAustralia.

Rural Solutions SA (2002). Re-establishment ofvegetation in South Australia – 2001. A Report for theDepartment for Water, Land and BiodiversityConservation Revegetation Program.

Further Information

Australia’s Native Vegetationwww.ea.gov.au/land/vegetation/index.html

Biological Surveyswww.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/

biosurveys.html

Bushcarewww.ea.gov.au/land/bushcare

Conserving Biodiversity – Native Vegetationwww.environment.sa.gov.au/parks/

native_education.html

National Parks and Wildlife SAwww.parks.sa.gov.au

Native Vegetation Management in Australiawww.ea.gov.au/land/vegetation/management/

index.html

Landcarewww.landcaresa.org.au

PultenaeaPhoto: Kym Nicolson


Whyalla

Renmark

Adelaide

Port Pirie

Coober Pedy

Port Lincoln

Port Augusta

Mount Gambier

Native Forest Reserve

Conservation Park

Conservation Reserve

Game Reserve

National Park

Recreation Park

Regional Reserve

Wilderness Protection Area

Indigenous Protected Area

Major Waterbody

Whyalla

Renmark

Adelaide

Port Pirie

Port Lincoln

Port Augusta

Mount Gambier

Native Vegetation(inc. some native grassland)

Cleared/modified native vegetation

Major Waterbody

NPWSA Reserve

Agricultural Region Boundary (approx.)

Major Road

Map 5.1: Remnant native vegetation cover across the agricutural zone of South AustraliaSOURCE: DEH

NATIVE VEGETATION

Map 5.2: Areas protected under the NPW reserve system in South AustraliaSOURCE: DEH

118

5 Biodiversity

ThreatenedSpeciesTrends

• The number of plants and animals and

ecological communities at risk: INCREASING

particularly at the regional level.

• Recovery efforts: have INCREASED

significantly across the State but remain

less than is required to minimise the

potential for species loss.

Goal

The South Australian Government has a policycommitment to ‘no species loss’. In line with this, thegoal from the Draft Strategy for the Recovery ofThreatened Species in South Australia (unpublished) is:To enable South Australia’s species and ecologicalcommunities threatened with extinction to survive andthrive in their natural habitats and to retain theirgenetic diversity and potential for evolutionarydevelopment, and prevent additional species andecological communities from becoming threatened.


Threatened species are those considered to be at riskof extinction in the wild. Around one-quarter of allspecies recorded in South Australia are considered tobe threatened.

The historical loss of habitat and fragmentationprior to clearance controls being enacted in SouthAustralia is one of the most significant threats to ournative plants and animals. Most of the agriculturalzone has been cleared of native vegetation, and muchof the remaining vegetation is in small, isolatedpatches, prone to disturbance and degradation.

Other threatening processes include competitionand land degradation by rabbits, feral goats andcamels, inappropriate livestock grazing regimes,predation by feral cats and foxes, dieback caused byplant diseases such as the root rot fungusPhytophthora cinnamomi, invasion by weeds,degradation of water bodies, loss of drought refuges,altered fire regimes and climate change caused byhuman-generated emissions of greenhouse gases.Many of these threats are State-wide while othersaffect particular regions such as the pastoral oragricultural zones.

In South Australia the term ‘threatened species’refers to species classified as either rare, endangered orvulnerable on Schedules 7, 8 and 9 respectively of theNational Parks and Wildlife (NPW) Act 1972.Endangered species are under the most threat andlikely to become extinct in the near future unless thecircumstances and factors threatening their survivalcease to occur. Vulnerable species are those likely tomove into the endangered category in the near futureunless the circumstances and factors threatening theirsurvival cease to occur. Rare species are those that are

the least threatened, but at some risk due to their lownumbers, restricted distribution or observed decline.

Species are also listed as threatened at thenational level under the Environment Protection andBiodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999. Theseplants and animals tend to receive priority forconservation activities because they are threatened atboth the national and State level.

See also chapters on Introduced Species; andNative Vegetation.


CONDITION INDICATOR

• Number of extinct, endangered andvulnerable species and ecologicalcommunities (reported on in the State ofthe Environment Report 1998)

The number of species considered extinct,endangered or vulnerable is the best availablesurrogate for the loss of species. However, it isnot an ideal measure and care must be takenwith its interpretation. There is an emergingtrend to monitor threatened communities,however, at this stage more work is required todevelop methodology for monitoring threatenedcommunities.

RESPONSE INDICATOR

• Number of recovery plans prepared andimplemented (reported on in the State ofthe Environment Report 1998)

The number of recovery plans prepared and,more importantly, implemented provides anindication of the extent and effectiveness of ourresponse to the decline in species diversity.


CONDITION INDICATOR: Number ofextinct, endangered and vulnerablespecies and ecological communities

In South Australia 1041 of the approximately 4350species recorded in the State (or 24%) are listed asthreatened at the State level: 785 plant, 88 mammal,127 bird, 39 reptile and 2 amphibian species (Table5.2). It is known that 23 mammal, 2 bird and 26 plantspecies are presumed to have become extinct inSouth Australia since European settlement.

For information on the status of species on aregional basis see the State of the Environment 2003Supplementary Report.

A review of the official listing of threatenedspecies in South Australia (the Threatened SpeciesSchedules of the NPW Act 1972) was completed in2000, the first review since 1991. This review hasresulted in an increase in the total number ofthreatened plant and animal species occurring in SouthAustralia from 778 in 1991 to 1041 in 2000.1 The 2000

1 The 1998 State of the Environment Report reported onnumbers contained in the 1991 Schedules and this makesit difficult to report on trends.

The stomach contents of this averagesized female cat revealed an unusuallylarge number of native and introducedanimals including 33 reptiles, one housemouse and one Zebra FinchPhoto: John Read

KEY FACTS

• Around 24% of all plants and

animals recorded in South

Australia are listed as

threatened.


THREATENED SPECIES

Osborn’s Eyebright (Euphrasia osbornii)Photo: D. Kraehenbuehl

FindingsMaking progressWe have seen a number of success stories in terms of the recovery of threatened plants and animalsranging from captive breeding programs to the re-establishment of populations in the wild. Recoverysuccess stories include the Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby, Kangaroo Island Glossy Black Cockatoo, Brush-tailed Bettong, Greater Bilby and Greater Stick-nest Rat. Although these are still listed as threatened, eachspecies has experienced an increase in numbers as a result of recovery actions.

A list of marine species of conservation concern in South Australia is being developed. This is the firsttime for the State and addresses a key target identified in the Marine and Estuarine Strategy for SouthAustralia 1998.

Attention requiredAround one-quarter of all South Australian species are considered to be threatened. In particular, 63% ofSouth Australia’s mammals are at risk.

Many species are declining at a regional level, but they often receive inadequate funding or attentionbecause they do not rate highly on national or State listings. There is a risk that while we focus ourinvestment on the recovery of nationally threatened species, many more will become extinct regionallyand across the State. To address this, the Government is in the process of developing a No SpeciesLoss strategy.

The threats to our native species persist. Until these are addressed on a wide scale and over the longterm, species will continue to decline.

What more should we be doing?The Environment Protection Authority recommends that:5.14 Policy, program development and regulatory frameworks that focus on biodiversity provide for major,

large-scale habitat restoration in key regions and be integrated into broader natural resourcemanagement programs.

5.15 A higher priority is given to the recovery and management of species declining at the regional level.

Schedule has undergone review and updatedSchedules will be in place by September 2004.Freshwater fish have been included in the schedulesfor the first time.

This increase in numbers does not necessarilymean that we now have 263 more threatened plantsand animals, although some new ones have beenadded to the list. Other factors that have influencedthe number include taxonomic revisions (which canresult in one species being split into many) andrecords of new plants and animals previouslyunrecorded in South Australia.

With improved information and knowledge, anumber of new species have now been identified as ofconservation concern. In particular, a betterunderstanding of the distribution and abundance of theState’s birds has led to a substantial increase in thenumber of bird species considered to be threatened.Similarly, more is now known of the status of reptiles toenable the assessment of the conservation status of allspecies for the 2000 Schedule review.

No species were removed from the 2000 list ofthreatened species due to population recovery.However, a small number have had their conservation

Table 5.2: Species listed as threatened in South Australia – 2000

Plants Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians(as a % of total (as a % of total (as a % of total (as a % of total (as a % of totalnumber recorded number recorded number recorded number recorded number recordedin South Australia in South Australia in South Australia in South Australia in South Australia– 3500) – 1400) – 460) – 227) – 26)

Endangered* 144 (3%) 41 (29%) 20 (4%) 6 (3%) 0

Vulnerable 212 (6%) 14 (10%) 44 (10%) 8 (4%) 1 (4%)

Rare 429 (12%) 33 (24%) 63 (14%) 25 (11%) 1 (4%)

Total 785 (22%) 88 (63%) 127 (28%) 39 (17%) 2 (8%)

* Includes species considered extinct in South Australia.

Source: Department for Environment and Heritage – as listed on the 2000 revision of Schedules 7, 8 and 9 of theNPW Act 1972.

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5 Biodiversity

status downgraded (that is, from endangered tovulnerable) as the consequence of recovery efforts,including the Brush-tailed Bettong and the CapeBarren Goose.

Work is currently proceeding to assess theconservation status of marine species occurring inSouth Australia. The development of a list of marinethreatened species was identified as a key target inthe Marine and Estuarine Strategy for South Australia,to be achieved by 2000.

Regionally threatened speciesThere are many species and communities that, whilestill relatively secure across the State, are threatenedwith extinction in one or more regions of the State.Other species and communities are declining at rapidrates but do not yet meet State or Commonwealthcriteria for listing as threatened.

Many bird species in the Mount Lofty Rangesface such a situation. Loss of native vegetation andfragmentation of the remaining vegetation has placedmany of the region’s bird species at risk. It is predictedthat unless drastic action is taken to restore habitat ona large scale and reduce other threats, approximatelyhalf of the birds in the Mount Lofty Ranges willbecome regionally extinct (Paton et. al., 2003).

Nationally threatened speciesoccurring in South AustraliaA total of 185 species that occur in South Australia arethreatened at the national level, this is around 31% ofall nationally threatened species (EPBC Act 1999)(Table 5.3).

Nationally threatenedecological communitiesAn ecological community is a group of interactingspecies that have adapted to particular conditions ofsoil, topography, water availability and climate.A number of ecological communities are consideredthreatened with extinction. The CommonwealthGovernment has recognised the need to protect andrecover these communities through enabling theirlisting as threatened under the EPBC Act 1999.

There are currently three ecological communitiesoccurring in South Australia that are listed asendangered under the Act:• Buloke Woodlands of the Riverina and Murray-

Darling Depression Bioregions;• the community of native species dependent on

natural discharge of groundwater from the GreatArtesian Basin;

• swamps of the Fleurieu Peninsula.

There are also three ecological communities thatoccur in South Australia under consideration for listingin the Act :• natural temperate grasslands;• Peppermint Box (Eucalyptus odorata) grassy

woodland;• Iron Grass (Lomandra effusa – L. multiflora ssp.

dura) tussock grassland.

What impact does losing species have?

Some environmental, social and economic effectsassociated with the loss of species are outlined below.Loss of biodiversity. Any loss of native plants andanimals contributes towards a loss of biodiversity.Biodiversity underpins the processes that makelife possible.Loss of untapped genetic potential. The geneticmaterial in plants and animals can deliver social,economic and environmental benefits via thebiotechnology industry. This includes the developmentof disease-resistant crops and drugs to fight diseases.Impact on tourism. Our native plants and animalsprovide a focal point for tourism, which produces asignificant economic return for the State.Impact on cultural identity. Many Australians place ahigh value on native plants and animals, whichcontribute to recreation activities and a sense ofcultural identity and spiritual enrichment.Impact on Indigenous culture. Many native plantsand animals are central to Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander cultures.Ethical issues. It can be argued that we do not havethe right to exploit or cause the extinction of anyspecies we share this planet with.


RESPONSE INDICATOR: Number ofrecovery plans prepared andimplemented

A recovery plan is a document that outlines themanagement actions required for the ‘recovery’ of aparticular threatened species. The plan providesdetails on how to minimise or eradicate the threatsand risks to these species. It also identifiesknowledge gaps and research needs. At present,most recovery plans are written for nationallythreatened species, which tend to receive thehighest priority for recovery plan development.

Female Southern Emu Wren,Mount CompassPhoto: Deb Hopton

KEY FACTS

• Over 63% of South Australia’s

mammals are listed as

threatened at the State level;

31% are threatened at the

national level.

• Approximately 50% of the

birds in the Mount Lofty

Ranges are likely to become

regionally extinct unless

action is taken to restore

habitat on a broad scale.

• More effort must be made to

prevent the loss of species at

the regional level.

Table 5.3: Number of nationally threatened species occurring in South Australia

Status Plants Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians

Extinct 2 15 1 0 0

Endangered 35 9 10 2 0

Vulnerable 60 19 23 8 1

Total 97 43 34 10 1

Source: DEH


Table 5.4 summarises the current status ofrecovery plans and other recovery actions. Thisindicates that 21 species have formal recovery plansapproved under State and Commonwealth legislation,most of which are being implemented to somedegree. The plants and animals subject to theserecovery plans are listed in Table 5.5.

A further 112 species have recovery plans inpreparation and 64 species have no formal recoveryplans but are subject to a range of recovery actionsincluding research and monitoring, or on-groundactions such as habitat protection.

The number of threatened species subject torecovery action has increased substantially since the40 reported in the State of the Environment Report1998. However, due to the large number of recoveryactions identified, funding shortfalls often mean thataction cannot be implemented to the extent requiredfor species recovery.

Policy and programsThe State Government is in the process of developinga No Species Loss strategy. There are a number ofprograms currently underway that are contributing topreventing the decline of species at the regional level.

The Department for Environment and Heritage isimplementing NatureLinks, a program to protectthreatened species at regional and State levels.

THREATENED SPECIES

Ecological restoration is the long term aim ofNatureLinks (see the chapter on Native Vegetation).

The Birds for Biodiversity Program is acollaborative program underway in the Mount LoftyRanges. This program is addressing the recovery ofover 80 declining bird species and sub-species andtheir habitats, and is jointly funded and supported byDEH, Environment Australia and managed by theConservation Council of South Australia. Birds forBiodiversity is working in partnership to achieve birdrecovery in the region through the integration oftargeted research, planning, extension and on-groundworks, within an adaptive management framework.The program is also seeking to address many existingknowledge constraints to recovery and restorationgoals through a learning approach to implementation.

Operation Bounceback, coordinated by theDepartment for Environment and Heritage, is a verysuccessful ecological restoration program that has beenoperating in the Flinders and Olary Ranges since 1992.A dramatic reduction in grazing pressure has beenachieved through the control of rabbits, feral goats andkangaroos. Combined with the virtual elimination offoxes and the suppression of feral cat populations, thishas enabled the recovery of native species andecological communities (see Case Study). This successhas led to Operation Bounceback being extended to the

Kangaroo Island DunnartSandhill Dunnart

ReptilesPygmy BluetongueStriped Snake LizardGreat Desert Skink

Orange-bellied ParrotGlossy Black Cockatoo(Kangaroo Island subspecies)Swift ParrotBlack-eared MinerSouthern Emu Wren (MountLofty Ranges subspecies)MalleefowlRed-tailed Black Cockatoo(South-eastern subspecies)

Spiny Everlasting Daisy (Acanthocladiumdockeri)Spalding Blown Grass (Agrostis limitanea)Pink-lip Spider Orchid (Caladenia behrii)Large-club Spider Orchid (Caladeniamacroclavia)Woolcock’s Spider Orchid (Caladeniawoolcockiorum)Pterostylis despectansHalbury Greenhood (Pterostylis Halbury)Hindmarsh Valley Greenhood (Pterostylisbryophila)

Source: DEH

Table 5.4: Status of species recovery in South Australia – 2002

Completed Recovery plan Recovery plan Other recoveryrecovery plan being implemented in preparation actions underway

Mammals 2 1 1 25

Birds 7 7 52* 7

Reptiles 3 2 0 8

Fish 0 0 17 0

Amphibians 0 0 0 8

Plants 9 9 42 16

Total 21 19 112 64

* Being prepared as part of the Birds for Biodiversity Program (see ‘What are we doing about it?’ in this chapter).

Source: DEH

Table 5.5: Threatened species in South Australia that have recovery plans – 2002

Mammals Birds Plants

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5 Biodiversity

122

Winning the conservation battle

CASE STUDY – Yellow-footedRock-wallabyThe Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby is listed asvulnerable at the national and State levels. Arecovery program was established in the early1990s as part of Operation Bounceback in theFlinders and Olary Ranges. Extensive fox, rabbitand feral goat control programs combined withreduction in rabbit numbers via RabbitHaemorrhagic Disease has achieved a substantialand sustained increase in Rock-wallaby numbers(Figure 5.4). The slight drop in numbers during2002 is believed to be due to drought conditions.

Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby,Flinders RangesPhoto: T. Robinson

CASE STUDY – South AustralianGlossy Black Cockatoo (KangarooIsland subspecies)The South Australian Glossy Black Cockatoo iscurrently listed as endangered at the national andState levels. It now breeds only on KangarooIsland. A recovery program commenced in 1995with involvement from the local community,business organisations and Government. Recoveryaction has involved the protection of nest sites, theerection of artificial nest hollows and the provisionof incentives for the protection and revegetation ofpotential nesting and feeding tree species. As aresult numbers of Glossy Black Cockatoos haveincreased from an estimated 162 birds in 1993 toan estimated 260–280 birds in 2002 (Figure 5.5).

Glossy Black Cockatoo,Binnies Track, PenneshawPhoto: L. Pedler

Figure 5.4: Estimated population size forthe Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby in theFlinders Ranges National Park (FRNP)Blinman area – 1993–2002

Estim

ated

num

ber o

f ind

ivid

uals

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Outside FRNP(Limited Goat/Fox Control)

Inside FRNP (Fox/Goat Control)

Outside and inside FRNP(combined)

SOURCE: DEHwww.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/yellow_foot.html

1993

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

YEAR

SOURCE: DEHwww.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/glossyblack.html

Figure 5.5: Estimated population sizefor the South Australian GlossyBlack-Cockatoo – 1993–2002

Estim

ated

num

ber o

f bird

s

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1993

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

YEAR


Gammon Ranges National Park and other landholdingsin the Northern Flinders Ranges region.

The Ark on Eyre Program, launched in 1999,focuses on biodiversity projects across Eyre Peninsula.The program serves as a promotional banner to thelocal community and has built a high profile forregional conservation programs through increasedcommunity awareness and involvement. It contributesto and links a number of projects including threatenedflora and fauna recovery and the new initiative ‘Eastmeets West’, which aims to manage the east-westbiogeographic link across the north of Eyre Peninsulato Western Australia.

A series of Regional Biodiversity Plans havebeen developed to identify priorities to protect andrestore regionally threatened species. The BiodiversityPlans identify conservation priorities for major regionsof the State and provide guidance on conservationactions that can be undertaken. The Plans are preparedin consultation with the local community, includinglandholders and community groups, as well as withinput from experts.

A range of species recovery programs are beingimplemented across the State facilitated by cooperativeefforts from all levels of Government and thecommunity. The efforts that are made in this regarddeserve recognition. Many of these programs are in theearly stages of development but have had successfulresults in terms of increasing population numbers. Oneof these is the recovery program for the SouthAustralian Glossy Black Cockatoo (see Case Study).

Despite the various programs and initiativesunderway, the risks to our native species remain.Unless there is a major commitment to reinstate andmanage habitats for the future on a large scale,species and communities will continue to decline.

For more information on programs and initiativessee the State of the Environment 2003Supplementary Report.

KEY FACTS

• Unless there is a major

commitment to reinstate

habitat and address other

threats on a large scale,

species and ecological

communities will continue

to decline.

• Cooperative efforts from

community groups and all

levels of Government are

having positive on-ground

results for some species.

THREATENED SPECIES

References

Department for Environment and Heritage(unpublished). Draft Strategy for Recovery ofThreatened Species in South Australia. Government ofSouth Australia, Adelaide.

Paton, D.C., Rogers, D.J. and Harris, W. (2003).‘Birdscaping the environment: restoring the woodlandsystems of the Mt Lofty region, South Australia’. InLunney, D. (ed.) Conservation of Australia’s ForestFauna (2nd edition). Royal Zoological Society of NewSouth Wales, Sydney.

Further information

Ark on Eyre and Operation Bouncebackwww.biodiversity.sa.gov.au/ecocons.html

Regional Biodiversity Planswww.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/

bioplans.html#regional

Threatened Species in South Australiawww.environment.sa.gov.au/reporting/

biodiversity.html

Threatened Species Networkwww.wwf.org.au

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