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Perimortem Trauma in the

Atacama Desert and SocialViolence During the Late FormativePeriod (2500–1700 Years BP)

V. G. STANDEN,a* B. T. ARRIAZA,a,b,c C. M. SANTORO,a,b,c

A . ROMEROa,d AND F. ROTHHAMMER a,b,c

a Departamento de Antropologı a, Universidad de Tarapaca , Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile b Instituto Alta Investigacio ´ n, Universidad de Tarapaca ´ , Antofagasta 1520, Arica, Chile c Centro de Investigaciones del Hombre en el Desierto, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile d Consejo de Monumentos Nacionales, Arica, Chile

ABSTRACT This paper describes a case of a mass grave containing three naturally mummified adults withmultiple traumas to the skeletal and soft tissues, buried in an isolated and informal grave in oneof the valleys that traverses the Atacama Desert, north of Chile. These traumas do not appearto be indicative of post-depositional alterations. Instead, we hypothesise that the observedmarks correspond to lethal perimortem trauma, the result of acts of extreme violence broughtto bear on the three individuals. Three radiocarbon dates from the site identify that the burialoccurred circa 2000 BP in the Azapa Valley, which corresponds to an epoch of importantcultural changes linked to the development of farming communities that broke away from anancient marine hunter–gatherer cultural tradition. Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: mummified soft tissue injures; bone fractures; lethal trauma; Andean

bioarchaeology

Introduction

The study of skeletal remains with evidence oftrauma provides first hand information aboutintentional violence among prehistoric humansocieties (Ortner & Putschar, 1981; Merbs, 1989;Larsen, 1997, 2002; Walker, 2001). In Americanprehistory, there is evidence of trauma and

intentional violence in diverse geographicalregions and at different levels of socialorganisation (Lovejoy & Heiple, 1981; Walker,1989, 1997, 2001; Jurmain, 1991; Milner et al.,1991; Turner et al., 1993; Jurmain & Bellifemine,

1997; Lambert, 1997; Costa et al., 1998; Neveset al., 1999; Standen & Arriaza, 2000; Kuckelman,et al., 2002; Tung, 2003; Lessa & Mendonca,2004; Lessa & Mendonca, 2007; Torres-Rouffet al., 2005; Torres-Rouff & Costa-Junqueira,2006; Sutter & Verano, 2007, amongst others).These studies primarily focus on antemortembone healed trauma such as depression fractures

in the cranium and parry fractures. Comparing adistinct series of skeletons with healed traumamakes it easier to minimise biases and diagnosticerrors (Walker, 1997).

In contrast, identifying perimortem humantrauma is one of the most problematic types oftrauma to recognise in bioarchaeological con-texts. This is partly due to the limitations in thearchaeological record which make it difficult to

International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)Published online 6 July 2009 in Wiley Online Library(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1095

* Correspondence to: Departamento de Antropologı a, Universidad

de Tarapaca , Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile.e-mail: [email protected]

Copyright# 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 12 November 2008Revised 30 March 2009

Accepted 2 April 2009



distinguish between intentional perimortemtrauma and unintentional postmortem trauma.We must consider that different taphonomicprocesses affect skeletons during the periodbetween the time of death and excavation in abioarchaeological context (Binford, 1981; Milner

& Smith, 1989; White, 1992; Turner et al., 1993;Ubelaker & Adams, 1995).

On the other hand, although less frequent inbioarchaeological records, soft tissue preser-vation of human remains substantially increasesthe possibility of identifying perimortem trauma.It also opens up the possibility of discussing thescenario surrounding, and the causes of trauma.Soft tissue helps to maintain the fractured bonefragments in situ, avoiding the dispersal ofanatomical elements from their primary contextand thus facilitating subsequent interpretation.But, most important, perimortem soft tissueinjuries show particular characteristics that makeit possible to identify and differentiate them frompostmortem damage.

This report describes three naturally mummi-fied human males found in a mass grave that wasexposed during improvement of a rural road. Thebodies have multiple traumas which appear tohave taken place in a scenario of extremeviolence. The results of our bioarchaeologicalanalyses include: (a) the identification and

description of the perimortem fractures at the

level of the cranium and postcranium; (b) X-rayanalyses to strengthen our case study, allowing usto decipher the exact position of the fragments ofbone and the pattern of the perimortem fractures,as well as the identification of possible healedfractures, which would suggest repeated acts of

violence; (c) a macroscopic observation of thesoft tissue, with the aim of identifying anddistinguishing perimortem injuries from post-mortem damage and possible scalping and skinwounds; (d) an interpretation of the interment inthe archaeological context and discussion of apossible explanatory social context that couldhave caused this violent episode.

Material and methods

The material presented here is from a mass gravefound in the Azapa Valley from AZ-146, a site atSan Juan in the Cerro Moreno area situated 15 kminland from the Pacific Ocean (Figure 1). Theextraction of sand and gravel material in a terrace4 m above the southern edge of the riverunearthed prehistoric domestic activity and amass grave. In the domestic area, an 80 cm deepprofile showed cultural stratigraphic deposits 20–80 cm thick containing maize, ashes, lithicdebitage, domestic ceramic fragments and a

few pieces of Choromytilus chorus shells from the

Figure 1. Location of AZ-146 mass grave within the Azapa Valley and Formative sites.

Copyright# 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)

694 V. G. Standen et al.



Pacific Ocean. The mass grave was a depressionmeasuring 130Â 170 cm in diameter and 100 cmdeep, which contained three well-preservedhuman corpses; the result of natural mummifica-tion. The corpses were found near the surface ofthe grave, lying on a layer of branches (possibly

Magnoliopsida sp. and Tessaria absinthioides), andwrapped in plant fibre mats (Thypha angustifoliaand Scirpus sp.). Remains of twined mats werefound attached to the mummified skin. Thesemats were all of different thicknesses and,together with the presence of vegetal cords,suggested that each body was wrapped and tiedup individually.

Radiographic analysis

We used an EZy-Rad, Focus 1.2 mm, Model R20X-ray machine to X-ray the three bodies in thesupine position, as they were found. The aim ofthis radiological analysis was: (a) to estimate ageat death; (b) to identify the cranial andpostcranial fractures; (c) to evaluate the severityof the fractures; (d) to verify if the fractures linkedto the soft tissue injures had signs of boneregeneration; (e) to verify the presence ofprojectile points or other foreign objects; (f) toidentify old fractures that may have already

healed and (g) to make a general evaluation of theskeletons’ pathological conditions.

Age and sex

The presence of soft tissue (on body 2 and body3 and partially on body 1) prevented a directobservation of skeletal anatomy for an estimationof age. However, the individuals’ anatomical partswere all fully articulated. Radiological images ofthe mummies enabled us to observe whether

the skeletons had completed the process of bonematurity, the state of the cranial sutures, thepresence of vertebral osteophytes and other age-related degenerative processes. The evaluation ofthese anatomical features allowed us to estimatethe age of each individual. Sex did not present amajor identification problem due to the presenceof mummified soft tissue including the genitalia ofthe three corpses.

Perimortem trauma: bones and soft tissue

Perimortem bone trauma occurs at or around thetime of death, and analysis makes it possible toidentify the circumstances that could have causedthis trauma. However, one should pay particular

attention to the differential diagnoses betweenintentional perimortem fractures from postmor-tem fractures. The latter are often the result ofnon-intentional post-depositional taphonomicprocesses that affect the body (Binford, 1981;Milner & Smith, 1989; White, 1992; Turneret al., 1993; Ubelaker & Adams, 1995). Somecommon agents that cause bone postmortemdamage are: (a) stone blocks that are frequentlyplaced on top of the deceased for ritual orother purposes, (b) the activity of predatoryanimals, (c) disturbances caused by plantroots, (d) exposure to heat, (e) diagenesis andeven (f) poor excavation and storage practices.

In this study case, we had the opportunity tocarefully examine the external surface of threenaturally mummified injured bodies. We lookedfor open skin injuries, punctures, cuts, mixedlesions and the degree of severity, in order toevaluate damage to vital organs. The number ofinjuries, cut trajectories, location and anatomicalsegments affected were also evaluated. Thesevariables are vital for the interpretation of

perimortem soft tissue injuries caused by closerange intentional violence (e.g. face-to-facecombat) or long range impact projectiles (e.g.bolas and lithic projectile points).

Dating the bodies

Samples of mummified muscle tissues wereextracted from each body for standard radio-carbon dating and sent to Beta Analytic Inc.(Florida). Muscle tissue was sampled from the left

gluteus in body 1, from the left humerus in body2 and from the left gluteus in body 3. The resultsidentified the remains to be about 2000 years old(Table 1), which corresponds to the LateFormative Period in the northern Chile culturalsequence, and in particular for the Azapa Valley.The conventional radiocarbon dates from body2 and body 3 show them to be contemporaneous,whereas body 1 is dated as 340 years earlier. The


Lethal Trauma in the Prehistoric Atacama Desert 695



chronological difference of 30 years for thecalibrated dates could suggest that body 1 was notcontemporaneous with the two others. This is,however, less likely the case because thearchaeological context indicates that the corpseswere buried closely together. We suggest that thechronological difference may be the consequenceof technical artefact. This impression is backed upby a second radiocarbon date of body 1, onnaturally mummified muscle tissue, which nota-bly reduces the chronological original difference(Table 1).

Results

Age, sex and position of the interments

All three bodies are estimated to be between25 and 35 years old, based on epiphyseal fusion oflong bones, the lack of degenerative changes(osteophytes and arthrosis) and the absence ofthe total obliteration of the cranial sutures. Thepresence of preserved genitalia confirms that allthree bodies were also males.

The bodies were found fully articulated in allanatomical segments. Body 1 was found lying onhis back in an extended position; head rotatedtowards the left and chin resting on his left

clavicle. The upper extremities were parallel tothe trunk, with the left arm in a forced twistedposition and the hands semi-grasped. The lowerextremities were in severe forced flexion, with thehips abducted and externally rotated, with theknees flexed (Figures 2a–b). Body 2 was foundlying on his back in an extended position, hishead was slightly rotated towards the left with theupper extremities parallel to the trunk and the

hands semi-grasped. The lower left extremity wasextended and the hip slightly abducted. Theright lower extremity was flexed at the knee(Figures 3a–b). Body 3 was found lying on hisback in an extended position with the headslightly flexed and rotated towards the left. Theupper extremities were extended next to thethorax, the forearms slightly bent with the righthand over the pubis and the left flexed and restingon the abdomen. The lower extremities were in aforced position, the left flexed and abducted, andthe right with the hip extended and knee flexed.The plantar surfaces of the feet were in contactwith each other (Figures 4a–b).

The rotated position of the skulls, which issimilar in the three bodies, seems to be the resultof intentional blows to the skulls, which will be

discussed below. The same is true regarding theflexion of the extremities; they were possiblyforced into that position before rigor mortis setin. During the Formative period, bodies found incemeteries were typically buried in a flexed orsemiflexed position (Santoro, 1980; Mun oz,2004), which contrasts with the burial positionof the interment described here.

Bones and soft tissue trauma

The three mummified corpses showed severecranial and postcranial trauma to the skeletonsand in two of them soft tissue injuries were foundwhich are characterised below. To distinguishintentional bone fracture from postmortemtaphonomic alteration we identified the normalpatterns described in the literature (Lovejoy &Heiple, 1981; Ubelaker & Adams, 1995; Jurmain

Table 1. Radiocarbon conventional and calibrated date for each body coming from the mass grave AZ-146

Body No. Radiocarbonage (years BP)

Conventional 2 Sigmacalibration (years BP)

Beta AnalyticInc. lab sample No.

Body 1 2370Æ60 2450Æ60 2740–2340 Beta-218168Body 1a 2110Æ40 2240Æ240 2340–2150 Beta-246690

Body 2 2080Æ

60 2110Æ

60 2310–2230 Beta-1892472190–1930Body 3 2080Æ60 2130Æ60 2320–1960 Beta-218169

a A new muscle sample was taken and radiocarbon dated to double check the date ranges. The archaeological contextsuggested the bodies were contemporaneous and the new date (Beta 246690) corroborated this premise.





Figure 2. (a) Body 1 with the skull totally crushed, perhaps by a club blow. (b) The radiograph image shows acompound fracture affecting all cranial bones. Circle with solid line shows a probable perimortem oblique fracture onright ulna and radius. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.





Figure 3. (a)Body 2 with multiple traumas. Theface was hit probably with a stone club resulting in a compound fracture.The circles with solid lines show intentional cutting of the soft tissue and perimortem wounds. (b) The radiograph imageshows a craniofacial disjunction and severe damage to the facial bones, they are completely fragmented. The dashedline circle showsa probable perimortem transverse fractureto the left humerus. This figure is available in colour online atwileyonlinelibrary.com.





& Bellifemine, 1997; Lambert, 1997; Walker,1997; Kuckelman et al., 2002).

For the soft tissue injures we rely mostly on ourobservations and decades of experience workingwith mummified human bodies coming from theAtacama Desert. Specifically, we looked for threediagnostic features that differentiate intentional

soft tissue injures from postmortem damage:(a) perimortem soft tissue lesions show well-defined edges and the characteristic pattern ofretraction of a fresh injury, preserved by naturalmummification process of the corpses. In con-trast, postmortem damage in mummified softtissue shows no pattern of retraction, instead the

Figure 4. (a) Body 3 with multiple traumas to the head and face, probably caused by a stone club blow, the circles withsolid lines show a probably intentional perimortem wound in the abdominal region, the left hand is resting on the openwound. (b) The radiographic image shows a compound fracture to the skull. In addition, there are probably perimortemfractures to the left ulna and radius and an oblique linear fracture to the left femur and tibia (dashed circle). This figure isavailable in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.





dry tissue tends to have a random pattern; (b) in aperimortem lesion the colour of the injured areashows no difference in colour with the rest of themummified soft tissue, because the woundmummified simultaneously with the whole body.In contrast, postmortem damage to mummified

soft tissue shows clear differences in colour.Often the exposed area has a lighter tone;(c) compound bone fracture and related injuredmummified soft tissue.

Body 1

ConservationSoft tissue and bone parts of the anterior chestarea are poorly preserved (Figure 2a). The skin,the sternal end of the ribs and the distal half of thesternum are not present. The internal organs ofthe thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities havenot been preserved. Furthermore, there is a loss ofskin and part of the muscle tissue from the righthumerus and the lower extremities, leaving theanterior aspect of the bones exposed. Conversely,the soft tissue of the skull, upper arms, feet(including the nails) and the complete back of thebody are all well preserved. There is still a smallamount of hair on the scalp. Finally, there areremains of the plant fibre mat attached to the sole

of the right foot and the back of the right hand.

Unintentional postmortem alterationsAs there are no signs of cuts to the ribs, sternum,right humerus or either femurs that would suggestthat they were defleshed, it is unlikely that thealterations described above are the result ofintentional perimortem activity. On the otherhand, the left femur shows a concoidal fracture inthe upper third of the diaphysis. The surface ofthe fractured bone is lighter than the rest of thebone, suggesting a recent postmortem fracture.

Intentional perimortem traumaAn X-ray image shows that all cranial vault boneshave compound fractures, with displacement ofthe bone fragments, including a fragment of theleft parietal, which has punctured the scalp(Figures 5a–c). There are multiple linear fracturesfacing different directions. In the radiographic

image, a severe craniofacial disjunction can beobserved around the eye sockets (Figure 5b).Inside the cranial vault, there are fragments offrontal bone resulting from the force of the blowsthat caused this injury.

The pattern of the fractures suggests that the

cranium was possibly crushed with a blunt objectsuch as a club or mace (Figure 6), swung withforce, which caused the left side of the cranium tocollapse by the blow. As far as the postcranialskeleton is concerned, the radiological imageshows an oblique fracture of the mid shaft of theright radius and ulna (Figure 2b). The bones donot show signs of tissue regeneration, alsosuggesting a perimortem fracture.

Soft tissue injuries

The left eye socket is totally destroyed, and thereis serious damage to the skin of the frontal.

Body 2

ConservationThe soft tissue in this body is very well preserved,with the exception of the loss of skin in themedial side of the left leg and the missing toesfrom the left foot. The hair is well preserved,although the scalp has become detached. Thereare no noticeable signs of intentional hair cuttingor scalping. The hair is combed and tied backwith a cord. A needle made of plant fibre isembedded in the hair. Lastly, remains of a plantfibre mat used to wrap the corpse are attached tothe skin on the back of the body.

Unintentional postmortem alterationsThe absence of left metatarsals could be due totaphonomic processes including eolic erosion.The small white areas on the bones could be the

result of sun bleaching and indicate the foot wasexposed to the environment. This also suggeststhat the toes were not cut off nor was the legdefleshed intentionally.

Intentional perimortem traumaA craniofacial disjunction can be observed, witha compound fracture above the frontomalar,





frontomaxillary and frontonasal sutures(Figures 7a–b). There are also lineal fractures tothe frontal and right parietal. The radiologicalimage showed that the facial bones are totally

shattered and crushed. The mandible shows twofractures, one compound fracture at a symphysismenti level, with a complete bone fracture, andanother to the right side, as well as the loss of the

Figure 5. (a) Body 1, the crushed skull shows severe damage around the left eye andfrontal bone.The circle with a solidline shows a fragment of bone. (b) Radiograph of the crushed skull. (c) Detail of the right parietal emerging through theskin caused by a compound fracture. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.





upper right maxillary incisors. As in the case ofBody 1, the pattern of fractures suggests that theright side of the face was ‘crushed’ with a bluntobject, such as a mace. There is a fracture tothe postcranial skeleton in the mid shaft of theleft humerus, with a transverse orientation(Figure 3b). The same colouring of the rest ofthe bone and the bevel edges of the fracture, withno signs of bone regeneration, suggests aperimortem fracture (the absence of soft tissuein this location made it possible to observe bonefragments of the humerus).

Soft tissue injuriesThe scalp shows five sharp wounds, all with asimilar oval pattern. The skin edges are retractedinwards, towards the surface of the bone,exposing some bony segments. The dimensions

of the injuries (length and width) are as follows:left frontal side, 1.5Â0.4 cm; left parietal, threeinjuries of 3.0Â 0.4 cm, 2.5Â 0.5 cm, and2.0Â 0.5 cm, respectively; left temporal, 3.0Â1.0 cm (Figure 7c). The concentration of thelesions and the similarity of the wounds wouldindicate that they were produced by a sharpweapon; possibly a knife or spear with sharp lithicblades. Only one of these injuries also shows afracture to the left parietal bone. There is anotherinjury to the face near the left ear, perhaps anattempt was made to cut off the ear.

The thorax presents a sharp wound orientedcrania-caudally of 20 cm long by 0.6–1.0 cm

wide. The borders of the lesion are retracted,affecting skin and muscles. Another sharp woundis located in the left armpit fold, measuring 7.0 cmlong by 0.3–0.5 cm wide. The edges of the woundare also retracted affecting skin and muscles andexposing some ribs. An oval perforating wound is

located on the anterior face of the left thigh,below the inguinal fold, measuring 4.0Â 3.0 cm,affecting skin and muscle layers.

Body 3

ConservationThis body is excellently preserved (Figure 4a),apart from the upper side of the right thigh and atear in the skin under the chin. There is still some

hair attached to the scalp and the remains of theplant fibre mat, which the body was wrapped in.

Unintentional postmortem alterationsThe absence of cut marks to the femur suggeststhat the missing skin to the thigh was unlikely theresult of intentional activity to deflesh the bodies.Also, the discontinuity of soft tissue in the chinarea probably resulted from post-excavationdamage rather than from an intentional cut.The weight and movements of the head duringrecovery and/or transportation likely caused the

tear.

Intentional perimortem traumaA craniofacial disjunction can be observed abovethe brow ridges of the frontal and the frontomalarsutures. There is a loss of frontal bone due to acompound fracture that exposed part of theencephalic mass. The bones from the face havecompletely shattered and moved into the cranialvault (Figures 8a–b). The upper lip and nose werealso displaced inwards, resulting in a total facial

collapse. The radiographic image shows a linearfracture to the frontal and another running from

Figure 6. Stone club found in the nearby contemporaryAZ-71 site from the Formative Period. This could havebeen the kind of object used to strike and crush the headsof the individuals studied. This figure is available in colouronline at wileyonlinelibrary.com.

———————————————————————————————————— "Figure 7. (a) Body 2, flattened face with a craniofacial disjunction and compound fractures to the mandible and left eyesocket as well as generalised perimortem damage to the soft tissue. (b) Radiograph of the crushed skull. (c) The solidcircle shows five similar intentional perimortem sharp superficial oval wounds, with retracted skin around the edges (oneof which is a fracture to the parietal). The dashed circle clearly shows postmortem, unintentional damage. This figure isavailable in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.





the left temporal and parietal to the occipital(Figure 8b). As in the cases of body 1 and body 2,the fractures suggest that the left side of the faceand forehead were crushed with a blunt object,such as a mace (Figure 6).

The radiographic image of the postcranialskeleton shows a transverse fracture of the leftradius and ulna, at mid shaft (Figure 4b). Theabsence of bone regeneration suggests that thiscould be perimortem. There is also an obliquelinear fracture of the left femur and tibia (knee),possibly caused by over-flexing the extremity, but

its origin cannot be determined.

Soft tissue injuryThe body shows an injury to the lower abdominalregion. The left hand is covering an orifice8.0Â 7.0 cm (Figure 4a). A stone knife or spearcould have torn the abdominal cavity, but

there are no signs of extruding bowels or damageto them.

Discussion and conclusions

The mass grave at AZ-146 contains three youngmen buried naked, wrapped in plant fibre mats,without offerings, which differ from contempora-neous funerary treatment of the late Formativeperiod (ca. 2000 BP). They show similar patterns

of intentional perimortem traumatic lesions, forwhich the precise anatomical and osteologicalevidence can be summarised as follows: (a) severecompound fractures of the three crania whichare turned towards the left, possibly from theimpact of a blunt object exerted on the rightside; (b) simple fractures of the upper extremities;(c) multiple wounds to the soft tissue of the scalp,thorax and to the extremities of body 2 and body

Figure 8. (a) Body 3, this skull shows a fracture to the frontal and right parietal and significant bone loss. The upper lipand nose were displaced cranially. (b) Radiograph of the crushed skull. This figure is available in colour online atwileyonlinelibrary.com.





3 (the trunk skin and soft tissue of body 1 ismissing).

These features allow us to suggest a case ofperimortem alteration based on the followingcriteria: the multiple lesions to the soft tissue ofskin show a characteristic pattern of retraction

preserved by natural mummification of thecorpses. This kind of skin reaction cannot becaused by postmortem agents. There are alsosevere displacements of the upper lip and nosetowards the cranial cavity, as a consequence of astrong strike that crushed the heads of theindividuals. Along with the cranial injuries, armsand lower extremities present forced twistedpositions and severe forced flexion. The absenceof bone regeneration indicates that the individ-uals did not remain alive after they werewounded.

Compound fractures and skin injuries pre-served by natural mummification allow us todiscuss possible explanations for these perimor-tem trauma. First, these features cannot beexplained as post-depositional alteration. In ourresearch experience, we have observed a largequantity of naturally mummified bodies from thehyperarid zone of northern Chile, and theirpatterns of alteration are not comparable withwhat we have described here.

Among farmers living in the Azapa Valley

during the late Formative period (2500–1700 years BP), nearly 17% (21/119) of theskeletons show signs of healed intentional bonetrauma, which mostly affected males (Standenet al., 2000). However, these individualswere interred and given formal burials con-taining offerings such as ceramics, textiles, metalobjects and elaborate head dresses (Focacci &Erices, 1972; Santoro, 1980; Mun oz, 2004;Romero et al., 2004). Healed adult cranial traumawas also common among archaic coastalChinchorro hunter–gatherers and fishermen

(9000–3600 years BP), showing a higher preva-lence; almost 25% (17/69) (Standen & Arriaza,2000). Moreover, isolated cases of lethal traumaprobably caused by projectile points and har-poons have been identified for the same periodalong the coast of Arica (Aufderheide, 1990;Aufderheide & Rodrı guez-Martı n, 1998) and alsoin Ilo in southern Peru (Guille n, 1999). Amongthe archaic people lethal violence did not result in

cultural exclusion from burial and funeral rites;those killed were buried with all their culturalparaphernalia and in the same cemeteries as theirancestors.

In sum, we think that the bioarchaeologicalcontext and the characteristics of bone trauma

and soft tissue wounds support the hypothesisthat this was the result of an extreme act ofviolence. We suggest that this would have been aface-to-face attack as no injuries can be observedon the backs of the corpses. This strategy ofattack is characteristic of small-scale, pre-statesocieties, without structures for major politicalintegration (Turney-High, 1971; Carneiro, 1994;Keeley, 1996; Otterbein, 2004). As far as weknow, this is the first case of a collective act ofextreme lethal violence found in our Andeanregion.

Although, we think that this was somethinglike an ambush committed by individualsbelonging to a different social group from thatof the victims, we recognise that this statementneeds further research beyond the scope of thisreport. This should include dietary analyses andDNA testing to validate the idea that the victimsbelonged to a coastal group, whereas those whocarried out the killings were from a group offarmers from the Azapa Valley. Evidence to makethis suggestion comes from a fragment of a

temporal bone, found near the mass grave, thatshows signs of severe external auditory exostosis,a characteristic trait of the coastal populationsthat inhabited Arica (Standen et al., 1997) and theresults of a recent extensive craniometric analysisthat strongly suggest a genetic microdifferentia-tion between the coastal groups and the AzapaValley farmers (Rothhammer & Cocilovo, 2008).

Acknowledgements

FONDECYT Grant 1095006 and Convenio deDesempen o UTA-Mecesup/2. The authors wouldlike to thank Octavio Lagos for taking the pic-tures and Leticia Latorre for processing the radio-graphic images at the Museo Arqueolo gico de laUniversidad de Tarapaca . They also thank JuliaWignall and Gwyn Madden for translating thetext from Spanish into English and thank JamesWatson for editorial suggestions.





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