stage 6 syllabus - assessment resource centre · chemistry stage 6 syllabus 7 3 continuum of...

Chemistry

Stage 6

Syllabus

Approved September 2002

http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au

© 2002 Copyright Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.

This document contains Material prepared by the Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the State of New South Wales. TheMaterial is protected by Crown copyright.

All rights reserved. No part of the Material may be reproduced in Australia or in any other country by any process, electronic orotherwise, in any material form or transmitted to any other person or stored electronically in any form without the prior writtenpermission of the Board of Studies NSW, except as permitted by the Copyright Act 1968. School students in NSW and teachersin schools in NSW may copy reasonable portions of the Material for the purposes of bona fide research or study. Teachers inschools in NSW may make multiple copies, where appropriate, of sections of the HSC papers for classroom use under theprovisions of the school’s Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) licence.

When you access the Material you agree:• to use the Material for information purposes only• to reproduce a single copy for personal bona fide study use only and not to reproduce any major extract or the entire

Material without the prior permission of the Board of Studies NSW• to acknowledge that the Material is provided by the Board of Studies NSW• not to make any charge for providing the Material or any part of the Material to another person or in any way make

commercial use of the Material without the prior written consent of the Board of Studies NSW and payment of theappropriate copyright fee

• to include this copyright notice in any copy made• not to modify the Material or any part of the material without the express prior written permission of the Board of Studies

NSW.

The Material may contain third party copyright materials such as photos, diagrams, quotations, cartoons and artworks. Thesematerials are protected by Australian and international copyright laws and may not be reproduced or transmitted in any formatwithout the copyright owner’s specific permission. Unauthorised reproduction, transmission or commercial use of suchcopyright materials may result in prosecution.

The Board of Studies has made all reasonable attempts to locate owners of third party copyright material and invites anyonefrom whom permission has not been sought to contact the Copyright Officer, ph (02) 9367 8289, fax (02) 9279 1482.

Published byBoard of Studies NSWGPO Box 5300Sydney NSW 2001Australia

Tel: (02) 9367 8111Fax: (02) 9367 8484Internet: http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au

ISBN 1 74099 439 6

200496

Contents

1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study..............................................................5

2 Rationale for Chemistry in the Stage 6 Curriculum...........................................................6

3 Continuum of Learning for Chemistry Stage 6 Students...................................................7

4 Aim....................................................................................................................................8

5 Objectives..........................................................................................................................8

6 Course Structure................................................................................................................9

6.1 Preliminary Course ................................................................................................9

6.2 HSC Course .........................................................................................................10

6.3 Overview..............................................................................................................11

6.4 Other Considerations...........................................................................................15

7 Objectives and Outcomes................................................................................................16

7.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes......................................................................16

7.2 Key Competencies...............................................................................................18

8 Content: Chemistry Stage 6 Preliminary Course ............................................................19

8.1 Chemistry Skills...................................................................................................19

8.2 The Chemical Earth..............................................................................................22

8.3 Metals..................................................................................................................28

8.4 Water....................................................................................................................33

8.5 Energy..................................................................................................................38

9 Content: Chemistry Stage 6 HSC Course .......................................................................43

9.1 Chemistry Skills...................................................................................................43

9.2 Production of Materials.......................................................................................46

9.3 The Acidic Environment......................................................................................52

9.4 Chemical Monitoring and Management...............................................................57

9.5 Option — Industrial Chemistry ..........................................................................62

9.6 Option — Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation..........................................66

9.7 Option — The Biochemistry of Movement........................................................70

9.8 Option — The Chemistry of Art ........................................................................76

9.9 Option — Forensic Chemistry............................................................................81

10 Course Requirements ......................................................................................................85

11 Post-school Opportunities..............................................................................................86

12 Assessment and Reporting..............................................................................................87

12.1 Requirements and Advice ....................................................................................87

12.2 Internal Assessment.............................................................................................88

12.3 External Examination............................................................................................88

12.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Markin Board Developed Courses ...............................................................................89

12.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks ...............................................90

12.6 HSC External Examination Specifications............................................................92

12.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment ...................................................93

12.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards.............................................94

13 Appendices .....................................................................................................................95

Appendix 1: Glossary.....................................................................................................95

Appendix 2: Biochemical Pathways Flowchart..............................................................96

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus

5

1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study

The purpose of the Higher School Certificate (HSC) program of study is to:

• provide a curriculum structure which encourages students to complete secondary education;

• foster the intellectual, social and moral development of students, in particular developing their:

– knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes in the fields of study they choose

– capacity to manage their own learning

– desire to continue learning in formal or informal settings after school

– capacity to work together with others

– respect for the cultural diversity of Australian society;

• provide a flexible structure within which students can prepare for:

– further education and training

– employment

– full and active participation as citizens;

• provide formal assessment and certification of students’ achievements;

• provide a context within which schools also have the opportunity to foster students’ physicaland spiritual development.


6

2 Rationale for Chemistry in the Stage 6 Curriculum

Chemistry in Science Stage 6 provides students with a contemporary and coherent understanding ofmatter and its interactions. It focuses on investigating the physical and chemical properties ofsubstances, chemical reactions and processes, and the interaction of energy and matter, and attemptsto explain and predict events at the atomic and molecular level.

The study of Chemistry recognises that a study of the nature of materials includes natural and madesubstances, their structures, changes and environmental importance. The history and philosophy ofscience as it relates to the development of the understanding, utilisation and manipulation of chemicalsystems is important in developing current understanding in Chemistry and its applications in thecontexts of technology, society and the environment.

Chemistry in Stage 6 draws upon and builds onto the knowledge and understanding, skills, and valuesand attitudes developed in Stages 4–5 Science. It further develops students’ understanding of scienceas a continually developing body of knowledge, the role of experiment in deciding between competingtheories, the provisional nature of scientific explanations, the interdisciplinary nature of science, thecomplex relationship between evidence and ideas and the impact of science on society.

The study of Chemistry involves the students working individually and with others in practical, fieldand interactive media experiences related to the theoretical concepts considered in the course. It isexpected that students studying Chemistry will apply investigative and problem-solving skills,effectively communicate the theoretical concepts considered in the course and appreciate thecontribution that a study of Chemistry makes to our understanding of the world.

The Chemistry Stage 6 course is designed for those students who have a substantial achievementlevel based on the Stages 4–5 Science course performance descriptors. The subject matter of theChemistry course recognises the different needs and interests of students by providing a structurethat builds upon the foundations laid in Stage 5 yet recognises that students entering Stage 6 have awide range of abilities, circumstances and expectations.


7

3 Continuum of Learning for Chemistry Stage 6 Students

Stages 1–3Science and Technology

Stages 4–5

Science

Stage 5

Science Life Skills

For students withspecial education

needs

Stage 6

Biology Preliminary

Stage 6

Biology HSC

Workplace University TAFE Other

Stag

e 6V

ocational Education

and Training

Exp

erience in

learnin

g ab

ou

t the n

atural an

d m

ade enviro

nm

ent,exp

lorin

g p

hen

om

ena an

dp

atterns o

f events,acq

uirin

g scien

tific skills and

relating

science to

everyday life

Stage 6

Senior ScienceHSC

Stage 6

Science Life SkillsStage 6

Chemistry Preliminary

Stage 6Chemistry

Science HSC


8

4 Aim

To provide learning experiences through which students will:

• acquire knowledge and understanding about fundamental concepts related to matter and itsinteractions, the historical development of those concepts and their application to personal,social, economic, technological and environmental situations

• progress from the consideration of specific data and knowledge to the understanding of modelsand concepts and to the use of generalised terms related to chemistry in their explanations, fromthe collection and organisation of information to problem-solving and from the use of simplecommunication skills to those which are more sophisticated

• develop positive attitudes towards the study of matter and its interactions, the environment andopinions held by others, recognising the importance of evidence and the use of critical evaluationof differing scientific opinions related to various aspects of chemistry.

5 Objectives

Students will develop knowledge and understanding of:

1. the history of chemistry

2. the nature and practice of chemistry

3. applications and uses of chemistry

4. the implications of chemistry for society and the environment

5. current issues, research and developments in chemistry

6. atomic structure, the periodic table and bonding

7. energy

8. chemical reactions, including acid/base reactions and chemical equilibrium

9. carbon chemistry

10. stoichiometry.

Students will develop further skills in:

11. planning investigations

12. conducting investigations

13. communicating information and understanding

14. developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniques

15. working individually and in teams.

Students will develop positive values about and attitudes towards:

16. themselves, others, learning as a lifelong process, chemistry and the environment.


9

6 Course Structure

The Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus has a Preliminary course and a HSC course. The Preliminary andHSC courses are organised into a number of modules. The Preliminary modules consist of corecontent that would be covered in 120 indicative hours.

The HSC course consists of core and options organised into a number of modules. The core contentcovers 90 indicative hours with options covering 30 indicative hours. Students are required tocomplete one of the options.

Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSC courses. Studentswill complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work during the Preliminary and HSC courseswith no less than 35 indicative hours of practical experiences in the HSC course. Practical experiencesmust include at least one open-ended investigation integrating the skills and knowledge andunderstanding outcomes in both the Preliminary and HSC courses.

Practical experiences should emphasise hands-on activities including:

• undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate computer-based and digitaltechnology

• fieldwork

• research using the library

• research using Internet and digital technologies

• the use of computer simulations for modelling or manipulating data

• using and reorganising secondary data

• the extraction and reorganisation of information in the form of flow charts, tables, graphs,diagrams, prose and keys

• the use of animation, video and film resources to capture/obtain information not available inother forms.

6.1 Preliminary Course

120 indicative hours

The Preliminary course incorporates the study of :

• The Chemical Earth (30 indicative hours)

• Metals (30 indicative hours)

• Water (30 indicative hours)

• Energy (30 indicative hours)


10

6.2 HSC Course

120 hours indicative time

The HSC course builds upon the Preliminary course. The Preliminary course contains contentthat is considered assumed knowledge for the HSC course. The HSC course incorporates thestudy of:

a) the core which constitutes 90 indicative hours and includes:

• Production of Materials (30 indicative hours)

• The Acidic Environment (30 indicative hours)

• Chemical Monitoring and Management (30 indicative hours)

b) ONE option, which constitutes 30 indicative hours and may comprise any one of the following:

• Industrial Chemistry

• Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

• The Biochemistry of Movement

• The Chemistry of Art

• Forensic Chemistry.


11

6.3 Overview

The following diagram summarises the relationship between the various elements of the course:

Aim

states the overall purpose of the syllabus

Objectives

define in broad terms, the knowledge and understanding,skills, and values and attitudes

Outcomes

define the intended results of teaching

An independent learner

creative, responsible, scientifically literate, confident, ready to take theirplace as a member of society

Contents of each module

Contextsto increase motivation,conceptual meaning,literacy or confidence

Prescribed Focus Areas Domainidentify emphases that contains knowledge andare applied to what is understanding, skills, and values

being learnt and attitudes to be learnt


12

ContextContexts are frameworks devised to assist students to make meaning of the Prescribed Focus Areasand Domain. Contexts are culturally bound and therefore communicate meanings that are culturallyshaped or defined. Contexts draw on the framework of society in all aspects of everyday life. Thecontexts for each module encourage students to recognise and use their current understanding tofurther develop and apply more specialised scientific understanding and knowledge.

Prescribed Focus AreasThe Prescribed Focus Areas are different curriculum emphases or purposes designed to increasestudents’ understanding of chemistry as an ever-developing body of knowledge, the provisionalnature of scientific explanations in chemistry, the complex relationship between evidence and ideas inchemistry and the impact of chemistry on society.

The following Prescribed Focus Areas are developed in this syllabus:

History of chemistry

Knowledge of the historical background of chemistry is important for an adequate understanding ofthe development of ideas to explain matter and its interactions and the applications of these ideas incurrent technologies. Students should develop knowledge of:

• the developmental nature of our understanding about matter and its interactions

• the part that an understanding of matter and its interactions plays in shaping society

• how our understanding of matter and its interactions is influenced by society.

Nature and practice of chemistry

A study of chemistry should enable students to participate in scientific activities and developknowledge of the practice of chemistry. Students should also develop knowledge of the provisionalnature of explanations about natural phenomena and the complex relationships between:

• existing views and the evidence supporting these

• the process and methods of exploring, generating, testing and relating ideas

• the stimulation provided by technological advances and the constraints imposed onunderstanding in chemistry by limitations of current technology which necessitate thedevelopment of the required technology and technological advances.

Applications and uses of chemistry

Setting the study of chemistry into broader contexts allows students to deal with real problems andapplications. The study of chemistry should increase students' knowledge of:

• the relevance, usefulness and applicability of discoveries and ideas related to chemistry

• how increases in our understanding in chemistry have led to the development of usefultechnologies and systems

• the contributions chemistry has made to society with particular emphasis on Australianachievements.


13

Implications for society and the environment

Chemistry has an impact on our society and the environment and students need to developknowledge of the importance of positive values and practices in relation to society and theenvironment. The study of chemistry should enable students to develop:

• understanding of the impact and the role of chemistry in society and the environment

• skills in decision-making about issues concerning chemistry, society and the environment

• an awareness of the social and environmental responsibility of the chemist.

Current issues, research and developments in chemistry

Issues and developments related to chemistry are more readily known and more information isavailable to students than ever before about current issues, research and developments in chemistry.The syllabus should develop students’ knowledge of:

• areas currently being researched in chemistry

• career opportunities in chemistry and related fields

• interpretation and critique of media coverage of events that require an understanding of someaspect of chemistry.

Domain

Knowledge and understanding

Chemistry presents a particular way of thinking about the world. It encourages students to useinference, deductive reasoning and creativity. It presumes that the interactions within and betweenmatter in the universe occur in consistent patterns that can be understood through careful, systematicstudy.

The course extends the study developed in the Stages 4–5 Science course, particularly in relation toknowledge and understanding of: particle theory of matter; atomic theory; law of conservation ofenergy; properties of solids, liquids and gases; change of state; elements, compounds and mixtures;chemical reactions; and resource use.

The course builds upon the fundamental knowledge of structures and systems in matter as well asinterrelationships between the living and non-living world developed in the Stages 4–5 Science course.

Skills

The Chemistry Stage 6 course involves the further development of the skills that students havedeveloped in the Stages 4–5 Science course through a range of practical experiences in both thePreliminary and HSC courses. The skills developed in Stages 4–5 are fundamental to Stage 6 where amore sophisticated level will be developed.


14

Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSC courses. Studentswill complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work during the Preliminary and HSCcourses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practical experiences in the HSC course. Practicalexperiences have been designed to utilise and further develop students’ expertise in each of thefollowing skill areas:

• planning investigationsThis involves increasing students’ skills in: planning and organising activities; effectively usingtime and resources; selecting appropriate techniques, materials, specimens and equipment tocomplete activities; establishing priorities between tasks; and identifying ways of reducing riskswhen using laboratory and field equipment.

• conducting investigationsThis involves increasing students’ skills in locating and gathering information for a plannedinvestigation. It includes increasing students’ skills in performing first-hand investigations,gathering first-hand data and accessing and collecting information relevant to Chemistry fromsecondary sources using a variety of technologies.

• communicating information and understandingThis involves increasing students’ skills in processing and presenting information. It includesincreasing students’ skills in speaking, writing and using nonverbal communication such asdiagrams, graphs and symbols to convey chemical information and understanding. Throughoutthe course students become increasingly efficient and competent in the use of both technicalterminology and the form and style required for written and oral communication in Chemistry.

• developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniquesThis involves further increasing students’ skills in clarifying issues and problems relevant toChemistry, framing a possible problem-solving process, developing creative solutions,anticipating issues that may arise and devising appropriate strategies to deal with those issuesand working through the issues in a logical and coherent way.

• working individually and in teamsThis involves further increasing students’ skills in identifying a collective goal, defining andallocating roles and assuming an increasing variety of roles in working as an effective member ofa team within the agreed timeframe to achieve the goal. Throughout the course students areprovided with further opportunities to improve their ability to communicate and relateeffectively to each other in a team.


15

Values and attitudes

By reflecting about past, present and future involvement of chemistry with society, students areencouraged to develop positive values and informed critical attitudes. These include a responsibleregard for both the living and non-living components of the environment, ethical behaviour, a desirefor critical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science and recognising theirresponsibility to conserve, protect and maintain the quality of all environments for futuregenerations.

Students are encouraged to develop attitudes on which scientific investigations depend, such ascuriosity, honesty, flexibility, persistence, critical thinking, willingness to suspend judgement,tolerance of uncertainty and an acceptance of the provisional status of scientific knowledge. Studentsneed to balance these with commitment, tenacity, a willingness to take risks and make informedjudgements and, at times, inflexibility. As well as knowing something of and/or about chemistry,students need to value and appreciate chemistry if they are to become scientifically literate persons.

6.4 Other Considerations

Safety IssuesSchools have a legal obligation in relation to safety. Teachers will need to ensure that they complywith the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 (NSW) the Occupational Health and SafetyRegulation 2001, the Dangerous Goods Act 1975 (NSW), the Dangerous Goods Regulation 1978(NSW) and the Hazardous Substances Regulation 1996 (NSW), as well as system and schoolrequirements in relation to safety when implementing their programs.

Schools should refer to the resource package Chemical Safety in Schools (DET, 1999) to assist themin meeting their legislative obligations.

Animal Research ActSchools have a legal responsibility in relation to the welfare of animals. All practical activitiesinvolving animals must comply with the Animal Research Act 1985 (NSW) as described in theAnimals in Schools: Animal Welfare Guidelines for Teachers (2002) produced on behalf of theSchools Animal Care and Ethics Committee (SACEC) by the NSW Department of Education andTraining.


16

7 Objectives and Outcomes

7.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes

Objectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course OutcomesStudents will developknowledge andunderstanding of:

A student: A student:

1. the history ofchemistry

P1. outlines the historicaldevelopment of majorprinciples, concepts and ideasin chemistry

H1. evaluates how majoradvances in scientificunderstanding andtechnology have changed thedirection or nature ofscientific thinking

2. the nature and practiceof chemistry

P2. applies the processes that areused to test and validatemodels, theories and laws ofscience with particularemphasis on first-handinvestigations in chemistry

H2. analyses the ways in whichmodels, theories and laws inchemistry have been testedand validated

3. applications and usesof chemistry

P3. assesses the impact ofparticular technologicaladvances on understanding inchemistry

H3. assesses the impact ofparticular advances inchemistry on thedevelopment of technologies

4. implications forsociety and theenvironment

P4. describes applications ofchemistry which affectsociety or the environment

H4. assesses the impacts ofapplications of chemistry onsociety and the environment

Pre

scri

bed

Foc

us A

rea

5. current issues,research anddevelopments

P5. describes the scientificprinciples employed inparticular areas of research inchemistry

H5. describes possible futuredirections of chemicalresearch

6. atomic structure andperiodic table

P6 explains trends andrelationships betweenelements in terms of atomicstructure and bonding

H6. explains reactions betweenelements and compounds interms of atomic structuresand periodicity

7. energy P7. describes chemical changes interms of energy inputs andoutputs

H7. describes the chemical basisof energy transformations inchemical reactions

8. chemical reactions P8. describes factors thatinfluence the type and rate ofchemical reactions

H8. assesses the range of factorswhich influence the type andrate of chemical reactions

9. carbon chemistry P9. relates the uses of carbon tothe unique nature of carbonchemistry

H9. describes and predictsreactions involving carboncompounds

Dom

ain:

Kno

wle

dge

10. stoichiometry P10. applies simple stoichiometricrelationships

H10. analyses stoichiometricrelationships


17

Objectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course OutcomesStudents will developknowledge andunderstanding of:

A student: A student:

11. planninginvestigations

P11. identifies and implementsimprovements toinvestigation plans

H11. justifies the appropriatenessof a particular investigationplan

12. conductinginvestigations

P12. discusses the validity andreliability of data gatheredfrom first-handinvestigations andsecondary sources

H12. evaluates ways in whichaccuracy and reliabilitycould be improved ininvestigations

13. communicatinginformation andunderstanding

P13. identifies appropriateterminology and reportingstyles to communicateinformation andunderstanding

H13. uses terminology andreporting stylesappropriately andsuccessfully tocommunicate informationand understanding

14. developing scientificthinking andproblem-solving

P14. draws valid conclusionsfrom gathered data andinformation

H14. assesses the validity ofconclusions from gathereddata and information

Dom

ain:

Ski

lls

15. working individuallyand in teams

P15. implements strategies towork effectively as anindividual or as a memberof a team

H15. explains why aninvestigation is bestundertaken individually orby a team

Dom

ain:

Val

ues

& A

ttit

udes

16. themselves, others,learning as a lifelongprocess, chemistryand the environment

P16. demonstrates positive valuesabout, and attitude towards,both the living and non-living components of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire for acritical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science

H16. justifies positive valuesabout and attitude towardsboth the living and non-living components of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire forcritical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science


18

7.2 Key Competencies

Chemistry provides the context within which to develop general competencies essential for theacquisition of effective, higher-order thinking skills necessary for further education, work andeveryday life.

Key competencies are embedded in the Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus to enhance student learning andare explicit in the objectives and outcomes of the syllabus. The key competencies of collecting,analysing and organising information and communicating ideas and information reflect coreprocesses of scientific inquiry and the skills identified in the syllabus assist students to continue todevelop their expertise in these areas.

Students work as individuals and as members of groups to conduct investigations and, through this,the key competencies planning and organising activities and working with others and in teams aredeveloped. During investigations, students use appropriate information technologies and so developthe key competency of using technology. The exploration of issues and investigation of problemscontributes towards students’ development of the key competency solving problems. Finally whenstudents analyse statistical evidence, apply mathematical concepts to assist analysis of data andinformation and construct table and graphs, they are developing the key competency usingmathematical ideas and techniques.


19

8 Content: Chemistry Stage 6 Preliminary Course

8.1 Chemistry Skills

During the Preliminary course it is expected that students will further develop skills in planning andconducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinking andproblem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content through whichskill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to providestudents with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

Preliminary CourseOutcomes

Content

A student: Students:

11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which each aspect may be

researchedb) determine the type of data which needs to be collected and explain the qualitative or

quantitative analysis that will be required for this data to be usefulc) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and the uncertainty that may be

present in the measurement of datad) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data collection or

gathering information that will assist efficient future analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ to describe variables

involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies to ensure that these

variables are kept constant, and demonstrate the use of a controlc) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and information to be collectedd) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explain why a procedure, a

sequence of procedures or repetition of procedures is appropriatee) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of an investigation and identify

strategies to address these issues if necessary

P11. identifies andimplementsimprovements toinvestigationplans

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or combination of

equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental procedures and identifying and

addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations and determining its

suitability and effectiveness for its potential role in the procedure or investigationsd) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing of material

and analysing potentially different results of these two procedures


20


12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when modifications are needed

and analysing the effect of these adjustmentsb) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazards and wastage of

resourcesc) disposing of any waste materials produced carefully and safely during the investigationd) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate technologies

including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and recognisable forms, carrying

out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources including popular scientific journals,

digital technologies and the Internetb) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful information in secondary

sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as well as from written

and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which they are

currently working and information about their research

P12. discusses thevalidity andreliability of datagathered fromfirst-handinvestigationsand secondarysources

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and the relative importance of

the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using appropriate methods, including

computer-assisted analysisd) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information and data in relation to the

area of investigatione) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and data by considering

information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media by comparison with

similar information presented in scientific journals

P13. identifiesappropriateterminology andreporting stylesto communicateinformation andunderstanding

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations thereof, for oral and written

presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using appropriate units for

physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships and presenting

information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information and relationships clearly

and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate to present graphical

information


21


14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions in data and

informationb) justify inferences and conclusionsc) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a prediction or a

proposed solution to a problemd) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to the observationse) make and justify generalisationsf) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or make

predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific principles

14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could be used to solve a

problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions to a particular

problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an identified problem

P14. draws validconclusions fromgathered data andinformation

14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and include correct

use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions, hypotheses and the results

of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationships


22

8.2 The Chemical Earth

Contextual Outline

The Earth includes a clearly identifiable biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. All ofthese are mixtures of thousands of substances and the use of this pool of resources requires theseparation of useful substances. The processes of separation will be determined by the physical andchemical properties of the substances.

In order to use the Earth’s resources effectively and efficiently, it is necessary to understand theproperties of the elements and compounds found in mixtures that make up earth materials. Applyingappropriate models, theories and laws of chemistry to the range of earth materials allows a usefulclassification of the materials and a better understanding of the properties of substances.

This module increases students’ understanding of the nature, practice, applications and uses ofchemistry.

Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understanding

Refer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:

5.7.1a describe features of and the location of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom

5.7.2a identify the atom as the smallest unit of an element and distinguish between atoms andmolecules

5.7.2b describe some relationships between elements using the periodic table

5.7.3a identify that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms rather than creating matter

5.7.3b classify compounds into groups based on common chemical characteristics

5.7.3c construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of chemicalreactions

5.7.3d identify a range of common compounds using their common names and chemical formulae

5.7.3e qualitatively describe reactants and products in decomposition reactions


23

Students learn to: Students:

• construct word and balancedformulae equations of chemicalreactions as they are encountered

• identify the difference betweenelements, compounds andmixtures in terms of particletheory

• identify that the biosphere,lithosphere, hydrosphere andatmosphere contain examples ofmixtures of elements andcompounds

• identify and describe proceduresthat can be used to separatenaturally occurring mixtures of:- solids of different sizes- solids and liquids- dissolved solids in liquids- liquids- gases

• assess separation techniques fortheir suitability in separatingexamples of earth materials,identifying the differences inproperties which enable theseseparations

• describe situations in whichgravimetric analysis supplies usefuldata for chemists and otherscientists

• apply systematic naming ofinorganic compounds as they areintroduced in the laboratory

1. The living andnon-livingcomponents ofthe Earth containmixtures

• identify IUPAC names for carboncompounds as they areencountered

• gather and present informationfrom first-hand or secondarysources to write equations torepresent all chemical reactionsencountered in the Preliminarycourse

• identify data sources, plan, chooseequipment and perform a first-hand investigation to separate thecomponents of a naturallyoccurring or appropriate mixturesuch as sand, salt and water

• gather first-hand information bycarrying out a gravimetric analysisof a mixture to estimate itspercentage composition

• identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to identifythe industrial separation processesused on a mixture obtained fromthe biosphere, lithosphere,hydrosphere or atmosphere anduse the evidence available to:- identify the properties of the

mixture used in its separation- identify the products of

separation and their uses- discuss issues associated with

wastes from the processes used


24


• explain the relationship betweenthe reactivity of an element andthe likelihood of its existing as anuncombined element

• classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals accordingto their physical properties

2. Although mostelements arefound incombinations onEarth, someelements arefounduncombined

• account for the uses of metals andnon-metals in terms of theirphysical properties

• plan and perform an investigationto examine some physicalproperties, including malleability,hardness and electricalconductivity, and some uses of arange of common elements topresent information about theclassification of elements asmetals, non-metals or semi-metals

• analyse information fromsecondary sources to distinguishthe physical properties of metalsand non-metals

• process information fromsecondary sources and use aPeriodic Table to presentinformation about theclassification of elements as:- metals, non-metals and semi-

metals- solids, liquids and gases at 25˚C

and normal atmosphericpressure


25


• identify that matter is made ofparticles that are continuouslymoving and interacting

• describe qualitatively the energylevels of electrons in atoms

• describe atoms in terms of massnumber and atomic number

• describe the formation of ions interms of atoms gaining or losingelectrons

• apply the Periodic Table topredict the ions formed by atomsof metals and non-metals

• apply Lewis electron dotstructures to:- the formation of ions- the electron sharing in some

simple molecules

• describe the formation of ioniccompounds in terms of theattraction of ions of oppositecharge

• describe molecules as particleswhich can move independently ofeach other

• distinguish between moleculescontaining one atom (the noblegases) and molecules with morethan one atom

• describe the formation of covalentmolecules in terms of sharing ofelectrons

3. Elements in Earthmaterials arepresent mostly ascompoundsbecause ofinteractions atthe atomic level

• construct formulae for compoundsformed from:- ions- atoms sharing electrons

• analyse information byconstructing or using modelsshowing the structure of metals,ionic compounds and covalentcompounds

• construct ionic equations showingmetal and non-metal atomsforming ions


26


• identify the differences betweenphysical and chemical change interms of rearrangement ofparticles

• summarise the differences betweenthe boiling and electrolysis ofwater as an example of thedifference between physical andchemical change

• identify light, heat and electricityas the common forms of energythat may be released or absorbedduring the decomposition orsynthesis of substances andidentify examples of thesechanges occurring in everyday life

4. Energy isrequired toextract elementsfrom theirnaturallyoccurring sources

• explain that the amount of energyneeded to separate atoms in acompound is an indication of thestrength of the attraction, orbond, between them

• plan and safely perform a first-hand investigation to show thedecomposition of a carbonate byheat, using appropriate tests toidentify carbon dioxide and theoxide as the products of thereaction

• gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to:- observe the effect of light on

silver salts and identify anapplication of the use of thisreaction

- observe the electrolysis ofwater, analyse theinformation provided asevidence that water is acompound and identify anapplication of the use of thisreaction

• analyse and present informationto model the boiling of water andthe electrolysis of water tracingthe movements of and changes inarrangements of molecules


27


• identify differences betweenphysical and chemical propertiesof elements, compounds andmixtures

• describe the physical propertiesused to classify compounds asionic or covalent molecular orcovalent network

• distinguish between metallic, ionicand covalent bonds

• describe metals asthree-dimensional lattices of ionsin a sea of electrons

• describe ionic compounds in termsof repeating three-dimensionallattices of ions

• explain why the formula for anionic compound is an empiricalformula

• identify common elements thatexist as molecules or as covalentlattices

5. The properties ofelements andcompounds aredetermined bytheir bondingand structure

• explain the relationship betweenthe properties of conductivity andhardness and the structure ofionic, covalent molecular andcovalent network structures

• perform a first-hand investigationto compare the properties ofsome common elements in theirelemental state with theproperties of the compound(s) ofthese elements (eg magnesium andoxygen)

• choose resources and processinformation from secondarysources to construct and discussthe limitations of models of ioniclattices, covalent molecules andcovalent and metallic lattices

• perform an investigation toexamine the physical propertiesof a range of common substancesin order to classify them asmetallic, ionic or covalentmolecular or covalent networksubstances and relate theircharacteristics to their uses


28

8.3 Metals

Contextual Outline

The cultural development of humans has been closely connected with their discovery of materials andinvention of tools to the point where major advances in cultural achievement have been described interms of the materials they learned to use. This has included their use of metals and discoveries ofincreasingly sophisticated methods of extraction of metals from their ores.

Because metals make up the majority of elements, an examination of the physical and chemicalproperties of metals is also an appropriate context in which to consider the organisation of thecommon Periodic Table. The development of a Periodic Table represented a breakthrough in thesystematic organisation and study of chemistry and enabled scientists to predict the discovery offurther elements.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, applications and use of chemistry andcurrent issues, research and developments in chemistry.

Assumed Knowledge



5.7.1b distinguish between elements, using information about the numbers of protons, neutrons andelectrons

5.7.3c construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of chemicalreactions

5.7.1d describe an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure

5.7.2b describe some relationships between elements using the Periodic Table

5.7.3e qualitatively describe reactants and products in the following chemical reactions:

i) corrosionii) acids on metals and acids on carbonatesiii) neutralisation


29


• outline and examine some uses ofdifferent metals through history,including contemporary uses, asuncombined metals or as alloys

• describe the use of common alloysincluding steel, brass and solderand explain how these relate totheir properties

• explain why energy input isnecessary to extract a metal fromits ore

• gather, process, analyse andpresent information fromsecondary sources on the range ofalloys produced and the reasonsfor the production and use ofthese alloys

• analyse information to relate thechronology of the Bronze Age,the Iron Age and the modern eraand possible future developments

1. Metals have beenextracted andused for manythousands ofyears

• identify why there are moremetals available for people to usenow than there were 200 yearsago

• describe observable changes whenmetals react with dilute acid, waterand oxygen

• describe and justify the criteriaused to place metals into an orderof activity based on their ease ofreaction with oxygen, water anddilute acids

• identify the reaction of metalswith acids as requiring the transferof electrons

• outline examples of the selectionof metals for different purposesbased on their reactivity, with aparticular emphasis on currentdevelopments in the use of metals

• perform a first-hand investigationincorporating information fromsecondary sources to determinethe metal activity series

• construct word and balancedformulae equations for thereaction of metals with water,oxygen, dilute acid

• construct half-equations torepresent the electron transferreactions occurring when metalsreact with dilute hydrochloric anddilute sulfuric acids

• outline the relationship betweenthe relative activities of metalsand their positions on the PeriodicTable

2. Metals differ intheir reactivitywith otherchemicals andthis influencestheir uses

• identify the importanceof first ionisation energy indetermining the relative reactivityof metals


30


• identify an appropriate model thathas been developed to describeatomic structure

• outline the history of thedevelopment of the PeriodicTable including its origins, theoriginal data used to construct itand the predictions made after itsconstruction

3. As metals andother elementswere discovered,scientistsrecognised thatpatterns in theirphysical andchemicalproperties couldbe used toorganise theelements into aPeriodic Table

• explain the relationship betweenthe position of elements in thePeriodic Table, and:- electrical conductivity- ionisation energy- atomic radius- melting point- boiling point- combining power (valency)- electronegativity- reactivity

• process information fromsecondary sources to develop aPeriodic Table by recognisingpatterns and trends in theproperties of elements and useavailable evidence to predict thecharacteristics of unknownelements both in groups and acrossperiods

• use computer-based technologiesto produce a table and a graph ofchanges in one physical propertyacross a period and down a group


31


• define the mole as the number ofatoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12(Avogadro’s number)

• compare mass changes in samplesof metals when they combine withoxygen

• describe the contribution ofGay-Lussac to the understandingof gaseous reactions and apply thisto an understanding of the moleconcept

• recount Avogadro’s law anddescribe its importance indeveloping the mole concept

4. For efficientresource use,industrialchemicalreactions mustuse measuredamounts of eachreactant

• distinguish between empiricalformulae and molecular formulae

• process information fromsecondary sources to interpretbalanced chemical equations interms of mole ratios

• perform a first-hand investigationto measure and identify the massratios of metal to non-metal(s) ina common compound andcalculate its empirical formula

• solve problems and analyseinformation from secondarysources to perform calculationsinvolving Avogadro’s number andthe equation for calculating thenumber of moles of a substance:

nm

M=

• process information fromsecondary sources to investigatethe relationship between thevolumes of gases involved inreactions involving a metal andrelate this to an understanding ofthe mole


32


• define the terms mineral and orewith reference to economic andnon-economic deposits of naturalresources

• describe the relationship betweenthe commercial prices of commonmetals, their actual abundancesand relative costs of production

• explain why ores are non-renewable resources

• describe the separation processes,chemical reactions and energyconsiderations involved in theextraction of copper from one ofits ores

5. The relativeabundance andease ofextraction ofmetalsinfluences theirvalue andbreadth of use inthe community

• recount the steps taken to recyclealuminium

• discuss the importance ofpredicting yield in theidentification, mining andextraction of commercial oredeposits

• justify the increased recycling ofmetals in our society and acrossthe world

• analyse information to comparethe cost and energy expenditureinvolved in the extraction ofaluminium from its ore and therecycling of aluminium


33

8.4 Water

Contextual Outline

The first astronauts who viewed the Earth from space commented on the beauty of our water-richblue planet. Earth's position in the solar system enables its retention of water in solid, liquid andgaseous forms on and around its surface. The particular properties of the water molecule assisted theevolution of life and continue to support life processes by maintaining a narrow temperature range onthe Earth’s surface.

The concepts of bonding and intermolecular forces are used to increase understanding of the specialnature of the water molecule. The chemistry of solutions is examined in greater detail.

This module increases students’ understanding of the nature and practice of chemistry and theimplications of chemistry for society and the environment.

Assumed Knowledge



5.7.3e qualitatively describe the reactants and products in precipitation reactions


34


• define the terms solute, solventand solution

• identify the importance of wateras a solvent

• compare the state, percentage anddistribution of water in thebiosphere, lithosphere,hydrosphere and atmosphere

1. Water isdistributed onEarth as a solid,liquid and gas

• outline the significance of thedifferent states of water on Earthin terms of water as:- a constituent of cells and its

role as both a solvent and a rawmaterial in metabolism

- a habitat in which temperatureextremes are less than nearbyterrestrial habitats

- an agent of weathering of rocksboth as liquid and solid

- a natural resource for humansand other organisms

• perform an investigationinvolving calculations of thedensity of water as a liquid and asolid using:

densitymass

volume=

• analyse information by usingmodels to account for thediffering densities of ice and liquidwater

• plan and perform an investigationto identify and describe the effectof anti-freeze or salt on theboiling point of water

• construct Lewis electron dotstructures of water, ammonia andhydrogen sulfide to identify thedistribution of electrons

• compare the molecular structureof water, ammonia and hydrogensulfide, the differences in theirmolecular shapes and in theirmelting and boiling points

• describe hydrogen bondingbetween molecules

• identify the water molecule as apolar molecule

• describe the attractive forcesbetween polar molecules as dipole-dipole forces

• process information fromsecondary sources to graph andcompare the boiling and meltingpoints of water with other similarsized molecules

• identify data and processinformation from secondarysources to model the structure ofthe water molecule and effects offorces between water molecules

• choose equipment and performfirst-hand investigations todemonstrate the followingproperties of water:- surface tension- viscosity

2. The widedistribution andimportance ofwater on Earth isa consequence ofits molecularstructure andhydrogenbonding

• explain the following propertiesof water in terms of itsintermolecular forces:- surface tension- viscosity- boiling and melting points


35


• explain changes, if any, toparticles and account for thosechanges when the following typesof chemicals interact with water:- a soluble ionic compound such

as sodium chloride- a soluble molecular compound

such as sucrose- a soluble or partially soluble

molecular element orcompound such as iodine,oxygen or hydrogen chloride

- a covalent network structuresubstance such as silicon dioxide

- a substance with largemolecules, such as cellulose orpolyethylene

3. Water is animportantsolvent

• analyse the relationship betweenthe solubility of substances inwater and the polar nature of thewater molecule

• perform a first-hand investigationto test the solubilities in water of arange of substances that includeionic, soluble molecular, insolublemolecular, covalent networks andlarge molecules

• process information fromsecondary sources to visualise thedissolution in water of varioustypes of substances and solveproblems by using models to showthe changes that occur in particlearrangement as dissolution occurs


36


• identify some combinations ofsolutions which will produceprecipitates, using solubility data

• describe a model that traces themovement of ions when solutionand precipitation occur

• identify the dynamic nature of ionmovement in a saturateddissolution

• describe the molarity of a solutionas the number of moles of soluteper litre of solution using:

V

nc =

4. Theconcentration ofsalts in waterwill varyaccording totheir solubility,and precipitationcan occur whenthe ions of aninsoluble salt arein solutiontogether

• explain why differentmeasurements of concentrationare important

• construct ionic equations torepresent the dissolution andprecipitation of ionic compoundsin water

• present information in balancedchemical equations and identifythe appropriate phase descriptors(s), (l), (g), and (aq) for allchemical species

• perform a first-hand investigation,using micro-techniques, tocompare the solubility ofappropriate salts in solutionthrough precipitation reactions

• carry out simple calculations todescribe the concentration ofgiven solutions, given masses ofsolute and volumes of solution

• perform a first-hand investigationto make solutions to specifiedvolume-to-volume and mass-to-volume specifications and dilutethem to specified concentrations(cV = constant)

• calculate mass and concentrationrelationships in precipitationreactions as they are encountered


37


• explain what is meant by thespecific heat capacity of asubstance

• compare the specific heatcapacity of water with a range ofother solvents

• explain and use the equation

∆ ∆H mC T= −

• explain how water’s ability toabsorb heat is used to measureenergy changes in chemicalreactions

• choose resources and perform afirst-hand investigation tomeasure the change intemperature when substancesdissolve in water and calculate themolar heat of solution

• process and present informationfrom secondary sources to assessthe limitations of calorimetryexperiments and designmodifications to equipment used

• describe dissolutions which releaseheat as exothermic and giveexamples

• describe dissolutions which absorbheat as endothermic and giveexamples

• explain why water’s ability toabsorb heat is important to aquaticorganisms and to life on earthgenerally

5. Water has ahigher heatcapacity thanmany otherliquids

• explain what is meant by thermalpollution and discuss theimplications for life if a body ofwater is affected by thermalpollution


38

8.5 EnergyContextual Outline

Anthropologists and palaeontologists tell us that one of the important cultural achievements of earlyhumans was the discovery of fire and the invention of ways to use fire. Burning is then one of themost common and oldest chemical reactions. People meet this in their everyday life in such variedways as lighting a match, cooking with gas and using fires.

The arrival of the industrial revolution and the increased need for fuels to power machinery mean thathumans have become increasingly dependent on fuels. Heat is a major product of the burning process.Most burning of fuels in our society is done to produce heat for powering machinery, cooking orproviding warmth. The efficiency with which this is done is becoming of increasing concern tosociety because fossil fuels, which have been the mainstay fuels, are finite and non-renewable.

People are becoming increasingly concerned about the damage done to the Earth’s environment bycareless and inefficient use of fossil fuels. Strategies for the efficient use of fuels can be assessed inthe light of the factors that drive chemical reactions, including combustion. As fossil fuels are carboncompounds, an understanding of the structure and properties of simple carbon compounds assistsunderstanding of the issues associated with the use of these fuels.

This module increases students’ understanding of the applications and uses of chemistry and theimplications of chemistry for society and the environment.

Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:

5.7.3a identify that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms rather than by creating matter

5.7.3b classify compounds into groups based on common chemical characteristics

5.7.3c construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of reactions

5.7.3d identify a range of common compounds using their common names and chemical formulae

5.7.3e qualitatively describe reactants and products in combustion and decomposition reactions

5.11.2a relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances.


39


• outline the role of photosynthesisin transforming light energy tochemical energy and recall the rawmaterials for this process

• outline the role of the productionof high energy carbohydrates fromcarbon dioxide as the importantstep in the stabilisation of thesun’s energy in a form that can beused by animals as well as plants

1. Living organismsmake compoundswhich areimportantsources of energy

• identify the photosyntheticorigins of the chemical energy incoal, petroleum and natural gas

• process and present informationfrom secondary sources on therange of compounds found ineither coal, petroleum or naturalgas and on the location of depositsof the selected fossil fuel inAustralia

• identify the position of carbon inthe Periodic Table and describe itselectron configuration

• describe the structure of thediamond and graphite allotropesand account for their physicalproperties in terms of bonding

• identify that carbon can formsingle, double or triple covalentbonds with other carbon atoms

2. There is a widevariety of carboncompounds

• explain the relationship betweencarbon’s combining power andability to form a variety of bondsand the existence of a largenumber of carbon compounds

• perform a first-hand investigation,analyse information and useavailable evidence to model thedifferences in atomic arrangementof diamond, graphite andfullerenes

• process and present informationfrom secondary sources on theuses of diamond and graphite andrelate their uses to their physicalproperties

• identify data, and choose resourcesfrom secondary sources such asmolecular model kits, digitaltechnologies or computersimulations to model theformation of single, double andtriple bonds in simple carboncompounds


40


• describe the use of fractionaldistillation to separate thecomponents of petroleum andidentify the uses of each fractionobtained

• identify and use the IUPACnomenclature for describingstraight-chained alkanes andalkenes from C1 to C8

• compare and contrast theproperties of alkanes and alkenesC1 to C8 and use the term‘homologous series’ to describe aseries with the same functionalgroup

• explain the relationship betweenthe melting point, boiling pointand volatility of the abovehydrocarbons, and their non-polarnature and intermolecular forces(dispersion forces)

3. A variety ofcarboncompounds areextracted fromorganic sources

• assess the safety issues associatedwith the storage of alkanes C1 toC8 in view of their weakintermolecular forces (dispersionforces)

• perform a first-hand investigationand gather first-hand informationusing the process of fractionaldistillation to separate thecomponents of a mixture such asethanol and water

• plan, identify and gather datafrom secondary sources to modelthe structure of alkanes andalkenes C1 to C8

• process and present informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to identifysafety issues associated with thestorage of alkanes


41


• describe the indicators of chemicalreactions

• identify combustion as anexothermic chemical reaction

• outline the changes in moleculesduring chemical reactions in termsof bond-breaking and bond-making

• explain that energy is required tobreak bonds and energy is releasedwhen bonds are formed

• describe the energy needed tobegin a chemical reaction asactivation energy

• describe the energy profilediagram for both endothermic andexothermic reactions

• explain the relationship betweenignition temperature andactivation energy

• identify the sources of pollutionwhich accompany the combustionof organic compounds and explainhow these can be avoided

4. Combustionprovides anotheropportunity toexamine theconditions underwhich chemicalreactions occur

• describe chemical reactions byusing full balanced chemicalequations to summarise examplesof complete and incompletecombustion

• solve problems and perform afirst-hand investigation tomeasure the change in mass whena mixture such as wood is burnedin an open container

• identify the changes of stateinvolved in combustion of aburning candle

• perform first-hand investigationsto observe and describe examplesof endothermic and exothermicchemical reactions


42


• describe combustion in terms ofslow, spontaneous and explosivereactions and explain theconditions under which theseoccur

• explain the importance ofcollisions between reactingparticles as a criterion fordetermining reaction rates

• explain the relationship betweentemperature and the kineticenergy of particles

• describe the role of catalysts inchemical reactions, using a namedindustrial catalyst as an example

5. The rate ofenergy release isaffected byfactors such astypes of reactants

• explain the role of catalysts inchanging the activation energyand hence the rate of chemicalreaction

• solve problems, identify data,perform first-hand investigationsand gather first-hand data whereappropriate, to observe theimpact on reaction rates of:- changing temperature- changing concentration- size of solid particles- adding catalysts

• process information fromsecondary sources to investigatethe conditions under whichexplosions occur and relate theseto the importance of collisionsbetween reacting particles

• analyse information and use theavailable evidence to relate theconditions under which explosionsoccur to the need for safety inwork environments where fineparticles mix with air

• analyse information fromsecondary sources to developmodels to simulate the role ofcatalysts in changing the rate ofchemical reactions


43

9 Content: Chemistry Stage 6 HSC Course

9.1 Chemistry Skills

During the HSC course it is expected that students will further develop skills in planning andconducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinking andproblem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content through whichskill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to providestudents with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

HSC Course Outcomes Content

Students:

11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which each

aspect may be researchedb) determine the type of data which needs to be collected and explain the

qualitative or quantitative analysis that will be required for this data to beuseful

c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and the uncertaintythat may be present in the measurement of data

d) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data

collection or gathering information that will assist efficient future analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ to describe

variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies to ensure

that these variables are kept constant, and demonstrate the use of a controlc) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and information to be

collectedd) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explain why a

procedure, a sequence of procedures or repetition of procedures is appropriatee) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of an investigation

and identify strategies to address these issues if necessary

A student:

H11. justifies the appropriateness ofa particular investigation plan

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or combination

of equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental procedures and

identifying and addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations and

determining its suitability and effectiveness for its potential role in theprocedure or investigations

d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing ofmaterial and analysing potentially different results of these two procedures


44

12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when modifications

are needed and analysing the effect of these adjustmentsb) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazards and wastage of

resourcesc) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials produced during the

investigationd) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate technologies

including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and recognisable forms,

carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources including popular scientific

journals, digital technologies and the Internetb) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful information in

secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as well as from

written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which

they are currently working and information about their research

H12. evaluates ways in whichaccuracy and reliabilitycould be improved ininvestigations

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and the relative

importance of the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using appropriate methods,

including computer-assisted analysisd) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information and data in relation

to the area of investigatione) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and data by

considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media by

comparison with similar information presented in scientific journals

H13. uses terminology andreporting stylesappropriately andsuccessfully tocommunicate informationand understanding

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations thereof, for oral and

written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using appropriate units

for physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships and presenting

information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information and relationships

clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate to present

graphical information


45

14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions in data and

informationb) justify inferences and conclusionsc) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a prediction or a

proposed solution to a problemd) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to the observationse) make and justify generalisationsf) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or make

predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific principles

14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could be used to

solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions to a particular

problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an identified

problem

H14. assesses the validity ofconclusions from gathereddata and information

14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and include

correct use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions, hypotheses and the

results of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationships


46

9.2 Production of Materials

Contextual Outline

Humans have always exploited their natural environment for all their needs including food, clothingand shelter. As the cultural development of humans continued, they looked for a greater variety ofmaterials to cater for their needs.

The twentieth century saw an explosion in both the use of traditional materials and in the research fordevelopment of a wider range of materials to satisfy technological developments. Added to this was areduction in availability of the traditional resources to supply the increasing world population.

Chemists and chemical engineers continue to play a pivotal role in the search for new sources oftraditional materials such as those from the petrochemical industry. As the fossil organic reservesdwindle, new sources of the organic chemicals presently used have to be found. In addition, chemistsare continually searching for compounds to be used in the design and production of new materials toreplace those that have been deemed no longer satisfactory for needs.

This module increases students’ understanding of the implications of chemistry for society and theenvironment and the current issues, research and developments in chemistry.


47


• construct word and balancedformulae equations of chemicalreactions as they are encountered

• identify the industrial source ofethylene from the cracking ofsome of the fractions from therefining of petroleum

• identify that ethylene, because ofthe high reactivity of its doublebond, is readily transformed intomany useful products

• identify that ethylene serves as amonomer from which polymersare made

• identify polyethylene as anaddition polymer and explain themeaning of this term

• outline the steps in the productionof polyethylene as an example ofa commercially and industriallyimportant polymer

• identify the following ascommercially significantmonomers:

- vinyl chloride- styrene

by both their systematic andcommon names

1. Fossil fuelsprovide bothenergy and rawmaterials such asethylene, for theproduction ofother substances

• describe the uses of the polymersmade from the above monomersin terms of their properties

• gather and present informationfrom first-hand or secondarysources to write equations torepresent all chemical reactionsencountered in the HSC course

• identify data, plan and perform afirst-hand investigation tocompare the reactivities ofappropriate alkenes with thecorresponding alkanes in brominewater

• analyse information fromsecondary sources such ascomputer simulations, molecularmodel kits or multimedia resourcesto model the polymerisationprocess


48


• discuss the need for alternativesources of the compoundspresently obtained from thepetrochemical industry

• explain what is meant by acondensation polymer

• describe the reaction involvedwhen a condensation polymer isformed

• describe the structure of celluloseand identify it as an example of acondensation polymer found as amajor component of biomass

2. Some scientistsresearch theextraction ofmaterials frombiomass toreduce ourdependence onfossil fuels

• identify that cellulose contains thebasic carbon-chain structuresneeded to build petrochemicals anddiscuss its potential as a rawmaterial

• use available evidence to gatherand present data from secondarysources and analyse progress in therecent development and use of anamed biopolymer. This analysisshould name the specificenzyme(s) used or organism usedto synthesise the material and anevaluation of the use or potentialuse of the polymer producedrelated to its properties


49


• describe the dehydration ofethanol to ethylene and identifythe need for a catalyst in thisprocess and the catalyst used

• describe the addition of water toethylene resulting in theproduction of ethanol and identifythe need for a catalyst in thisprocess and the catalyst used

• describe and account for the manyuses of ethanol as a solvent forpolar and non-polar substances

• outline the use of ethanol as a fueland explain why it can be called arenewable resource

• describe conditions under whichfermentation of sugars ispromoted

• summarise the chemistry of thefermentation process

• define the molar heat ofcombustion of a compound andcalculate the value for ethanolfrom first-hand data

• assess the potential of ethanol asan alternative fuel and discuss theadvantages and disadvantages ofits use

3. Other resources,such as ethanol,are readilyavailable fromrenewableresources such asplants

• identify the IUPAC nomenclaturefor straight-chained alkanols fromC1 to C8

• process information fromsecondary sources such asmolecular model kits, digitaltechnologies or computersimulations to model:

- the addition of water toethylene

- the dehydration of ethanol

• process information fromsecondary sources to summarisethe processes involved in theindustrial production of ethanolfrom sugar cane

• process information fromsecondary sources to summarisethe use of ethanol as analternative car fuel, evaluating thesuccess of current usage

• solve problems, plan and performa first-hand investigation to carryout the fermentation of glucoseand monitor mass changes

• present information fromsecondary sources by writing abalanced equation for thefermentation of glucose toethanol

• identify data sources, chooseresources and perform a first-handinvestigation to determine andcompare heats of combustion ofat least three liquid alkanols pergram and per mole


50


• explain the displacement ofmetals from solution in terms oftransfer of electrons

• identify the relationship betweendisplacement of metal ions insolution by other metals to therelative activity of metals

• account for changes in theoxidation state of species in termsof their loss or gain of electrons

• describe and explain galvanic cellsin terms of oxidation/reductionreactions

• outline the construction ofgalvanic cells and trace thedirection of electron flow

4. Oxidation-reductionreactions areincreasinglyimportant as asource of energy

• define the terms anode, cathode,electrode and electrolyte todescribe galvanic cells

• perform a first-hand investigationto identify the conditions underwhich a galvanic cell is produced

• perform a first-hand investigationand gather first-hand informationto measure the difference inpotential of differentcombinations of metals in anelectrolyte solution

• gather and present information onthe structure and chemistry of adry cell or lead-acid cell andevaluate it in comparison to oneof the following:- button cell- fuel cell- vanadium redox cell- lithium cell- liquid junction photovoltaic

device (eg the Gratzel cell)in terms of:- chemistry- cost and practicality- impact on society- environmental impact

• solve problems and analyseinformation to calculate thepotential requirement ofnamed electrochemical processesusing tables of standard potentialsand half-equations


51


• distinguish between stable andradioactive isotopes and describethe conditions under which anucleus is unstable

• describe how transuranic elementsare produced

• describe how commercialradioisotopes are produced

• identify instruments and processesthat can be used to detectradiation

• identify one use of a namedradioisotope:- in industry- in medicine

5. Nuclearchemistryprovides a rangeof materials

• describe the way in which theabove named industrial andmedical radioisotopes are used andexplain their use in terms of theirchemical properties

• process information fromsecondary sources to describerecent discoveries of elements

• use available evidence to analysebenefits and problems associatedwith the use of radioactiveisotopes in identified industriesand medicine


52

9.3 The Acidic Environment

Contextual Outline

Acidic and basic environments exist everywhere. The human body has a slightly acidic skin surface toassist in disease control and digestion occurs in both acidic and basic environments to assist thebreakdown of the biopolymers constituting food. Indeed, microorganisms found in the digestivesystem are well adapted to acidic or basic environments.

Many industries use acidic and basic compounds for a wide range of purposes and these compoundsare found in daily use within the home. Because of this, an awareness of the properties of acids andbases is important for safe handling of materials. Currently, concerns exist about the increased releaseof acidic and basic substances into the environment and the impact of these substances on theenvironment and the organisms within those environments.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature and practice of chemistry, theapplications and uses of chemistry and implications of chemistry for society and the environment.


• classify common substances asacidic, basic or neutral

• identify that indicators such aslitmus, phenolphthalein, methylorange and bromothymol blue canbe used to determine the acidic orbasic nature of a material over arange, and that the range isidentified by change in indicatorcolour

1. Indicators wereidentified withthe observationthat the colour ofsome flowersdepends on soilcomposition

• identify and describe someeveryday uses of indicatorsincluding the testing of soilacidity/basicity

• perform a first-hand investigationto prepare and test a naturalindicator

• identify data and choose resourcesto gather information about thecolour changes of a range ofindicators

• solve problems by applyinginformation about the colourchanges of indicators to classifysome household substances asacidic, neutral or basic


53


• identify oxides of non-metalswhich act as acids and describe theconditions under which they act asacids

• analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table andoutline the relationship betweenposition of elements in thePeriodic Table and acidity/basicityof oxides

• define Le Chatelier’s principle

• identify factors which can affectthe equilibrium in a reversiblereaction

• describe the solubility of carbondioxide in water under variousconditions as an equilibriumprocess and explain in terms of LeChatelier’s principle

• identify natural and industrialsources of sulfur dioxide andoxides of nitrogen

• describe, using equations, examplesof chemical reactions whichrelease sulfur dioxide and chemicalreactions which release oxides ofnitrogen

• assess the evidence which indicatesincreases in atmosphericconcentration of oxides of sulfurand nitrogen

• calculate volumes of gases givenmasses of some substances inreactions, and calculate masses ofsubstances given gaseous volumes,in reactions involving gases at 0˚Cand 100kPa or 25˚C and 100kPa

2. While weusually think ofthe air around usas neutral, theatmospherenaturallycontains acidicoxides of carbon,nitrogen andsulfur. Theconcentrations ofthese acidicoxides have beenincreasing sincethe IndustrialRevolution

• explain the formation and effectsof acid rain

• identify data, plan and perform afirst-hand investigation todecarbonate soft drink and gatherdata to measure the mass changesinvolved and calculate the volumeof gas released at 25˚C and100kPa

• analyse information fromsecondary sources to summarisethe industrial origins of sulfurdioxide and oxides of nitrogen andevaluate reasons for concern abouttheir release into the environment


54


• define acids as proton donors anddescribe the ionisation of acids inwater

• identify acids including acetic(ethanoic), citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic), hydrochloric andsulfuric acid

• describe the use of the pH scale incomparing acids and bases

• describe acids and their solutionswith the appropriate use of theterms strong, weak, concentratedand dilute

• identify pH as -log10 [H+] andexplain that a change in pH of 1means a ten-fold change in [H+]

• compare the relative strengths ofequal concentrations of citric,acetic and hydrochloric acids andexplain in terms of the degree ofionisation of their molecules

3. Acids occur inmany foods,drinks and evenwithin ourstomachs

• describe the difference between astrong and a weak acid in terms ofan equilibrium between the intactmolecule and its ions

• solve problems and perform afirst-hand investigation to use pHmeters/probes and indicators todistinguish between acidic, basicand neutral chemicals

• plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to measure the pHof identical concentrations ofstrong and weak acids

• gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to writeionic equations to represent theionisation of acids

• use available evidence to modelthe molecular nature of acids andsimulate the ionisation of strongand weak acids

• gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to explainthe use of acids as food additives

• identify data, gather and processinformation from secondarysources to identify examples ofnaturally occurring acids and basesand their chemical composition

• process information fromsecondary sources to calculate pHof strong acids given appropriatehydrogen ion concentrations


55


• outline the historical developmentof ideas about acids including thoseof:- Lavoisier- Davy- Arrhenius

• outline the Brönsted-Lowrytheory of acids and bases

• describe the relationship betweenan acid and its conjugate base anda base and its conjugate acid

• identify a range of salts whichform acidic, basic or neutralsolutions and explain their acidic,neutral or basic nature

• identify conjugate acid/base pairs

• identify amphiprotic substancesand construct equations to describetheir behaviour in acidic and basicsolutions

• identify neutralisation as a protontransfer reaction which isexothermic

• describe the correct technique forconducting titrations andpreparation of standard solutions

4. Because of theprevalence andimportance ofacids, they havebeen used andstudied forhundreds ofyears. Over time,the definitions ofacid and basehave beenrefined

• qualitatively describe the effect ofbuffers with reference to a specificexample in a natural system

• gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to tracedevelopments in understandingand describing acid/base reactions

• choose equipment and perform afirst-hand investigation to identifythe pH of a range of salt solutions

• perform a first-hand investigationand solve problems using titrationsand including the preparation ofstandard solutions, and useavailable evidence toquantitatively and qualitativelydescribe the reaction betweenselected acids and bases

• perform a first-hand investigationto determine the concentration ofa domestic acidic substance usingcomputer-based technologies

• analyse information fromsecondary sources to assess the useof neutralisation reactions as asafety measure or to minimisedamage in accidents or chemicalspills


56


• describe the differences betweenthe alkanol and alkanoic acidfunctional groups in carboncompounds

• identify the IUPAC nomenclaturefor describing the esters producedby reactions of straight-chainedalkanoic acids from C1 to C8 andstraight-chained primary alkanolsfrom C1 to C8

• explain the difference in meltingpoint and boiling point caused bystraight-chained alkanoic acid andstraight-chained primary alkanolstructures

• identify esterification as thereaction between an acid and analkanol and describe, usingequations, examples ofesterification

• describe the purpose of using acidin esterification for catalysis

• explain the need for refluxingduring esterification

5. Esterification is anaturallyoccurring processwhich can beperformed in thelaboratory

• outline some examples of theoccurrence, production and uses ofesters

• identify data, plan, selectequipment and perform a first-hand investigation to prepare anester using reflux

• process information fromsecondary sources to identify anddescribe the uses of esters asflavours and perfumes in processedfoods and cosmetics


57

9.4 Chemical Monitoring and Management

Contextual Outline

The state of our environment is an important issue for society. Pollution of air, land and water inurban, rural and wilderness areas is a phenomenon that affects the health and survival of allorganisms, including humans. An understanding of the chemical processes involved in interactions inthe full range of global environments, including atmosphere and hydrosphere, is indispensable to anunderstanding of how environments behave and change. It is also vital in understanding howtechnologies, which in part are the result of chemical research, have affected environments. Thismodule encourages discussion of how chemists can assist in reversing or minimising theenvironmental problems caused by technology and the human demand for products and services.

Some modern technologies can facilitate the gathering of information about the occurrence ofchemicals — both those occurring in natural environments and those that are released as a result ofhuman technological activity. Such technologies include systems that have been developed toquantify and compare amounts of substances.

This module increases students’ understanding of the nature, practice, applications and uses ofchemistry and the implications of chemistry for society and the environment.


• outline the role of a chemistemployed in a named industry orenterprise, identifying the branch ofchemistry undertaken by the chemistand explaining a chemical principlethat the chemist uses

• identify the need for collaborationbetween chemists as they collect andanalyse data

1. Much of the workof chemistsinvolvesmonitoring thereactants andproducts ofreactions andmanagingreactionconditions

• describe an example of a chemicalreaction such as combustion, wherereactants form different productsunder different conditions and thuswould need monitoring

• gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources about the work ofpractising scientistsidentifying:- the variety of chemical

occupations- a specific chemical

occupation for a moredetailed study


58


• identify and describe the industrial usesof ammonia

• identify that ammonia can besynthesised from its component gases,nitrogen and hydrogen

• describe that synthesis of ammoniaoccurs as a reversible reaction that willreach equilibrium

• identify the reaction of hydrogen withnitrogen as exothermic

• explain why the rate of reaction isincreased by higher temperatures

• explain why the yield of product inthe Haber process is reduced at highertemperatures using Le Chatelier’sprinciple

• explain why the Haber process is basedon a delicate balancing act involvingreaction energy, reaction rate andequilibrium

• explain that the use of a catalyst willlower the reaction temperaturerequired and identify the catalyst(s)used in the Haber process

• analyse the impact of increasedpressure on the system involved in theHaber process

2. Chemicalprocesses inindustry requiremonitoring andmanagement tomaximiseproduction

• explain why monitoring of thereaction vessel used in the Haberprocess is crucial and discuss themonitoring required

• gather and processinformation from secondarysources to describe theconditions under which Haberdeveloped the industrialsynthesis of ammonia andevaluate its significance atthat time in world history


59


• deduce the ions present in a samplefrom the results of tests

3. Manufacturedproducts,including food,drugs andhouseholdchemicals, areanalysed todetermine orensure theirchemicalcomposition

• describe the use of atomic absorptionspectroscopy (AAS) in detectingconcentrations of metal ions insolutions and assess its impact onscientific understanding of the effectsof trace elements

• perform first-handinvestigations to carry out arange of tests, including flametests, to identify the followingions:- phosphate- sulfate- carbonate- chloride- barium- calcium- lead- copper- iron

• gather, process and presentinformation to describe andexplain evidence for the needto monitor levels of one ofthe above ions in substancesused in society

• identify data, plan, selectequipment and perform first-hand investigations to measurethe sulfate content of lawnfertiliser and explain thechemistry involved

• analyse information toevaluate the reliability of theresults of the aboveinvestigation and to proposesolutions to problemsencountered in the procedure

• gather, process and presentinformation to interpretsecondary data from AASmeasurements and evaluate theeffectiveness of this inpollution control


60


• describe the composition and layeredstructure of the atmosphere

• identify the main pollutants found inthe lower atmosphere and theirsources

• describe ozone as a molecule able toact both as an upper atmosphere UVradiation shield and a loweratmosphere pollutant

• describe the formation of acoordinate covalent bond

• demonstrate the formation ofcoordinate covalent bonds using Lewiselectron dot structures

• compare the properties of the oxygenallotropes O2 and O3 and account forthem on the basis of molecularstructure and bonding

• compare the properties of the gaseousforms of oxygen and the oxygen freeradical

• identify the origins ofchlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) andhalons in the atmosphere

• identify and name examples ofisomers (excluding geometrical andoptical) of haloalkanes up to eightcarbon atoms

• discuss the problems associated withthe use of CFCs and assess theeffectiveness of steps taken toalleviate these problems

4. Human activityhas causedchanges in thecomposition andthe structure ofthe atmosphere.Chemistsmonitor thesechanges so thatfurther damagecan be limited

• analyse the information available thatindicates changes in atmosphericozone concentrations, describe thechanges observed and explain howthis information was obtained

• present information fromsecondary sources to write theequations to show thereactions involving CFCs andozone to demonstrate theremoval of ozone from theatmosphere

• gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources including simulations,molecular model kits orpictorial representations tomodel isomers of haloalkanes

• present information fromsecondary sources to identifyalternative chemicals used toreplace CFCs and evaluate theeffectiveness of their use as areplacement for CFCs


61


• identify that water quality can bedetermined by considering:- concentrations of common ions- total dissolved solids- hardness- turbidity- acidity- dissolved oxygen and biochemical

oxygen demand

• identify factors that affect theconcentrations of a range of ions insolution in natural bodies of watersuch as rivers and oceans

• describe and assess the effectiveness ofmethods used to purify and sanitisemass water supplies

5. Human activityalso impacts onwaterways.Chemicalmonitoring andmanagementassists inproviding safewater for humanuse and toprotect thehabitats of otherorganisms

• describe the design and composition ofmicroscopic membrane filters andexplain how they purify contaminatedwater

• perform first-handinvestigations to usequalitative and quantitativetests to analyse and comparethe quality of water samples

• gather, process and presentinformation on the range andchemistry of the tests used to:- identify heavy metal

pollution of water- monitor possible

eutrophication ofwaterways

• gather, process and presentinformation on the features ofthe local town water supply interms of:- catchment area- possible sources of

contamination in thiscatchment

- chemical tests available todetermine levels and typesof contaminants

- physical and chemicalprocesses used to purifywater

- chemical additives in thewater and the reasons forthe presence of theseadditives


62

9.5 Option — Industrial Chemistry

Contextual Outline

Industry uses chemical reactions to produce chemicals for use by society. This module develops theideas that some chemicals have been produced to replace naturally occurring chemicals that are nolonger available or are not economically viable. The concepts of qualitative and quantitativeequilibrium are further developed.

Industrial chemical processes cover the full range of reactions but concentration on some case studiesis sufficient to illustrate the range of reactions and the role of chemists and chemical engineersinvolved in these processes. This allows some insight into the qualitative and quantitative aspects ofthe chemical industry and allows a consideration of the analytical processes and monitoring that arenecessary for efficient production.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, applications and uses of chemistry,and current issues, research and developments in chemistry.


1. Industrialchemistryprocesses haveenabledscientists todevelopreplacements fornatural products

• discuss the issues associated withshrinking world resources withregard to one identified naturalproduct that is not a fossil fuel,identifying the replacementmaterials used and/or currentresearch in place to find areplacement for the namedmaterial

• identify data, gather and processinformation to identify and discussthe issues associated with theincreased need for a naturalresource that is not a fossil fueland evaluate the progresscurrently being made to solve theproblems identified

• explain the effect of changing thefollowing factors on identifiedequilibrium reactions– pressure– volume– concentration– temperature

• interpret the equilibrium constantexpression (no units required)from the chemical equation ofequilibrium reactions

2. Many industrialprocesses involvemanipulation ofequilibriumreactions

• identify that temperature is theonly factor that changes the valueof the equilibrium constant (K) fora given equation

• identify data, plan and perform afirst-hand investigation to modelan equilibrium reaction

• choose equipment and perform afirst-hand investigation to gatherinformation and qualitativelyanalyse an equilibrium reaction

• process and present informationfrom secondary sources tocalculate K from equilibriumconditions


63


• outline three uses of sulfuric acidin industry

• describe the processes used toextract sulfur from mineraldeposits, identifying theproperties of sulfur which allow itsextraction and analysing potentialenvironmental issues that may beassociated with its extraction

• outline the steps and conditionsnecessary for the industrialproduction of H2SO4 from its rawmaterials

• describe the reaction conditionsnecessary for the production ofSO2 and SO3

• apply the relationship betweenrates of reaction and equilibriumconditions to the production ofSO2 and SO3

• describe, using examples, thereactions of sulfuric acid acting as:– an oxidising agent– a dehydrating agent

• describe and explain theexothermic nature of sulfuric acidionisation

3. Sulfuric acid isone of the mostimportantindustrialchemicals

• identify and describe safetyprecautions that must be takenwhen using and dilutingconcentrated sulfuric acid

• gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources to describe the steps andchemistry involved in theindustrial production of H2SO4and use available evidence toanalyse the process to predictways in which the output ofsulfuric acid can be maximised

• perform first-hand investigationsto observe the reactions ofsulfuric acid acting as:– an oxidising agent– a dehydrating agent

• use available evidence to relatethe properties of sulfuric acid tosafety precautions necessary forits transport and storage


64


• explain the difference betweengalvanic cells and electrolyticcells in terms of energyrequirements

• outline the steps in the industrialproduction of sodium hydroxidefrom sodium chloride solution anddescribe the reaction in terms ofnet ionic and full formulaeequations

4. The industrialproduction ofsodiumhydroxiderequires the useof electrolysis

• distinguish between the threeelectrolysis methods used toextract sodium hydroxide:– mercury process– diaphragm process– membrane processby describing each process andanalysing the technical andenvironmental difficultiesinvolved in each process

• identify data, plan and perform afirst-hand investigation toidentify the products of theelectrolysis of sodium chloride

• analyse information fromsecondary sources to predict andexplain the different products ofthe electrolysis of aqueous andmolten sodium chloride

• describe saponification as theconversion in basic solution offats and oils to glycerol and saltsof fatty acids

• describe the conditions underwhich saponification can beperformed in the schoollaboratory and compare these withindustrial preparation of soap

• account for the cleaning action ofsoap by describing its structure

• explain that soap, water and oiltogether form an emulsion withthe soap acting as an emulsifier

• distinguish between soaps andsynthetic detergents in terms of:- the structure of the molecule- chemical composition- effect in hard water

5. Saponification isan importantorganicindustrialprocess

• distinguish between anionic,cationic and non-ionic syntheticdetergents in terms of:- chemical composition- uses

• perform a first-hand investigationto carry out saponification andtest the product

• gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources to identify a range of fatsand oils used for soap-making

• perform a first-hand investigationto gather information and describethe properties of a namedemulsion and relate theseproperties to its uses

• perform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the effect of soapas an emulsifier

• solve problems and use availableevidence to discuss, usingexamples, the environmentalimpacts of the use of soaps anddetergents


65

• identify the raw materials used inthe Solvay process and name theproducts

• describe the uses of sodiumcarbonate

6. The Solvayprocess has beenin use since the1860s

• identify, given a flow chart, thesequence of steps used in theSolvay process and describe thechemistry involved in:– brine purification– hydrogen carbonate formation– formation of sodium carbonate– ammonia recovery

• discuss environmental issuesassociated with the Solvay processand explain how these issues areaddressed

• perform a first-hand investigationto assess risk factors and thencarry out a chemical step involvedin the Solvay process, identifyingany difficulties associated with thelaboratory modelling of the step

• process information to solveproblems and quantitativelyanalyse the relative quantities ofreactants and products in eachstep of the process

• use available evidence todetermine the criteria used tolocate a chemical industry usingthe Solvay process as an example


66

9.6 Option — Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

Contextual Outline

Electrochemistry plays an important part in both theoretical and practical chemistry. Since thediscovery of its theoretical basis, knowledge and understanding of the reactions involved have greatlyincreased. Today electrochemistry is used in a wide range of applications, from space travel topacemakers to the mobile phone battery.

The ocean represents a massive electrolyte and the effects of the saline environment can beinvestigated and analysed from the perspective of prevention of corrosion and its effects. Thesalvaging of iron ships that have sunk into deep-water environments requires consideration of theeffects of anaerobic environments on corrosion. Conservation of salvaged artefacts can requireelectrolytic reactions.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, applications and uses of chemistry andcurrent issues, research and developments in chemistry.


• identify the origins of theminerals in oceans as:- leaching by rainwater from

terrestrial environments- hydrothermal vents in mid-

ocean ridges

• outline the role of electrontransfer in oxidation-reductionreactions

• identify that oxidation-reductionreactions can occur when ions arefree to move in liquid electrolytes

1. The chemicalcomposition ofthe oceanimplies itspotential role asan electrolyte

• describe the work of Galvani,Volta, Davy and Faraday inincreasing understanding ofelectron transfer reactions

• process information fromsecondary sources to outline andanalyse the impact of the work ofGalvani, Volta, Davy and Faradayin understanding electron transferreactions

• account for the differences incorrosion of active andpassivating metals

2. Ships have beenmade of metalsor alloys ofmetals

• identify iron and steel as the mainmetals used in ships

• identify the composition of steeland explain how the percentagecomposition of steel candetermine its properties

• describe the conditions underwhich rusting of iron occurs andexplain the process of rusting

• identify data, select equipment,plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to compare the rateof corrosion of iron and anidentified form of steel

• use available evidence to analyseand explain the conditions underwhich rusting occurs

• gather and process informationfrom secondary sources tocompare the composition,properties and uses of a range ofsteels


67


3. Electrolytic cellsinvolve oxidation-reductionreactions

• describe, using half-equations,what happens at the anode andcathode during electrolysis ofselected aqueous solutions

• describe factors that affect anelectrolysis reaction- effect of concentration- nature of electrolyte- nature of electrodes

• plan and perform a first-handinvestigation and gather first-handdata to identify the factors thataffect the rate of an electrolysisreaction

• identify the ways in which a metalhull may be protected including:- corrosion resistant metals- development of surface alloys- new paints

• predict the metal which corrodeswhen two metals form anelectrochemical cell using a list ofstandard potentials

• outline the process of cathodicprotection, describing examples ofits use in both marine and wetterrestrial environments

4. Iron and steelcorrode quicklyin a marineenvironment andmust be protected

• describe the process of cathodicprotection in selected examples interms of the oxidation/reductionchemistry involved

• identify data, gather and processinformation from first-hand orsecondary sources to tracehistorical developments in thechoice of materials used in theconstruction of ocean-goingvessels with a focus on the metalsused

• identify data, choose equipment,plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to compare thecorrosion rate, in a suitableelectrolyte, of a variety of metals,including named modern alloys toidentify those best suited for use inmarine vessels

• plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to compare theeffectiveness of differentprotections used to coat a metalsuch as iron and prevent corrosion

• gather and process information toidentify applications of cathodicprotection, and use availableevidence to identify the reasonsfor their use and the chemistryinvolved


68


• outline the effect of:- temperature- pressureon the solubility of gases and salts

• identify that gases are normallydissolved in the oceans andcompare their concentrations inthe oceans to their concentrationsin the atmosphere

• compare and explain the solubilityof selected gases at increasingdepths in the oceans

5. When a shipsinks, the rate ofdecay andcorrosion may bedependent on thefinal depth of thewreck

• predict the effect of lowtemperatures at great depths onthe rate of corrosion of a metal

• perform a first-hand investigationto compare and describe the rateof corrosion of materials indifferent :- oxygen concentrations- temperatures- salt concentrations

• use available evidence to predictthe rate of corrosion of a metalwreck at great depths in theoceans and give reasons for theprediction made

• explain that ship wrecks at greatdepths are corroded byelectrochemical reactions and byanaerobic bacteria

• describe the action of sulfatereducing bacteria around deepwrecks

6. Predictions ofslow corrosion atgreat depthswere apparentlyincorrect

• explain that acidic environmentsaccelerate corrosion in non-passivating metals

• perform a first-hand investigationto compare and describe the rateof corrosion of metals in differentacidic and neutral solutions


69


• explain that artefacts from longsubmerged wrecks will be saturatedwith dissolved chlorides andsulfates

• describe the processes that occurwhen a saturated solutionevaporates and relate this to thepotential damage to dryingartefacts

• perform investigations and gatherinformation from secondarysources to compare conservationand restoration techniques appliedin two Australian maritimearchaeological projects

• identify the use of electrolysis asa means of removing salt

7. Salvage,conservation andrestoration of objectsfrom wrecks requirescareful planningand understandingof the behaviour ofchemicals

• identify the use of electrolysis asa means of cleaning and stabilisingiron, copper and lead artefacts

• discuss the range of chemicalprocedures which can be used toclean, preserve and stabiliseartefacts from wrecks and, wherepossible, provide an example ofthe use of each procedure


70

9.7 Option — The Biochemistry of Movement

Contextual Outline

Modern athletes are more aware of diet than previous generations, because more is known about thechemistry of the substances in their diet. An increased understanding of the nature of the biochemicalreactions involved in muscular contraction leads to a better and more informed selection of foods.

Biochemists interested in sports performance will continue to seek natural methods of improvingperformance by paying close attention to the chains of enzyme-catalysed reactions occurring in cells.This module provides an overview of the two extremes of exercise and allows discussion of possibledirections of further research.

This module increases students’ understanding of the nature, practice, applications and use ofchemistry and current issues, research and developments in chemistry.


• identify that adenosinetriphosphate is used as an energysource for nearly all cellularmetabolic processes

• explain that the biologicallyimportant part of the moleculecontains three phosphate groups

• identify the role of enzymes ascatalysts in the conversion ofATP to ADP with energy madeavailable for metabolism, given aflow chart of the biochemicalpathways

• explain that biochemical fuelsare broken down to releaseenergy for making ATP

1. ATP is the energycurrency of everyliving cell

• identify mitochondria as the cellorganelles involved in aerobicrespiration and the site of mostATP synthesis

• solve problems and processinformation from a diagram ormodel of the structure of theadenosine triphosphate moleculeto discuss the nature andorganisation of the phosphategroups

• process information fromsecondary sources to locate thesite of each step of respiration inthe cell


71


• identify that carbohydrates arecomposed of carbon, hydrogenand oxygen according to theformula:

Cx (H2O)y

• explain that humans storecarbohydrates as glycogengranules in our muscles and liver

2. Carbohydratesare an importantpart of anathlete’s diet

• identify glucose as the monomerwhich forms the polymerglycogen and describe the processof bond formation between theglucose molecules which producesthe polymer

• choose resources and performfirst-hand investigations tocompare the structures ofglycogen and glucose fromdiagrams or models

• identify that fatty acids includealkanoic acids with the generalformula:

CH3(CH2)nCOOH

• identify that part of the fatty acidmolecule which should mix withwater and explain thisphenomenon

• identify the most common fattyacids in our diet and in our bodystores as the C14-C20 series fromdiagrams or models

• describe glycerol as a triol andidentify its systematic name

• explain that fatty acids are storedas esters of glycerol[triacylglycerols (TAGs)] andaccount for the hydrophobicnature of these esters

3. Fats are alsoimportant fuelsfor cells

• assess the importance of TAGs asan energy dense store for humans

• solve problems, identify resourcesand perform first-handinvestigations to compare thestructures of fatty acids andglycerol from diagrams or models

• use available evidence and processinformation from secondarysources to analyse the structure ofthe glycerol molecule and predictits viscosity and solubility inwater, giving reasons for theirpredictions


72


• describe the composition andgeneral formula for amino acids

• identify the major functionalgroups in an amino acid

• outline the nature of a peptidebond and, using a specificexample, describe the chemistryinvolved in the formation of apeptide bond

• explain, using a named example,the relationship between thechemical features of a proteinand its shape using appropriatediagrams or models

• account for the shape of aprotein molecule in terms of- electrostatic forces- hydrogen bonding forces- hydrophobic forces- disulfide bonds

• process information fromsecondary sources to draw thegeneralised structural formula foran amino acid

• identify data, plan, chooseequipment and perform first-handinvestigations to observe theeffect of changes in pH andtemperature on the reaction of anamed enzyme and use theavailable evidence to relate thisto possible changes in theprimary, secondary and/ortertiary structure of the enzymeinvolved

• process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to discussthe use of models in thedevelopment of understanding ofenzyme function

• account for the process ofprotein denaturation

• identify enzymes as a specialclass of proteins with a bindingsite that is substrate specific

4. Proteins are usedas both structuralmolecules and asenzymes tocatalyse metabolicreactions

• using a named example of anenzyme, explain why theenzyme’s binding site is substratespecific


73


• describe the generalised structureof a skeletal muscle cell

• identify actin and myosin as thelong parallel bundles of proteinfibres which form the contractilefilaments in skeletal muscle

• identify the cause of muscle cellcontraction as the release ofcalcium ions after a nerveimpulse activates the muscle cellmembrane

5. Muscle cells causemovement bycontraction alongtheir length

• identify that the cause of thecontraction movement is theformation of temporary bondsbetween the actin and myosinfibres and explain why ATP isconsumed in this process

• analyse information fromsecondary sources to describe theappearance of type 1 and type 2skeletal muscle cells

• identify the importance of theoxidation of long-chain fattyacids in tissues

• explain that the decompositionof fatty acids occurs by oxidativeremoval of 2-carbon fragments

6. Fats are oxidisedto release energyin cells

• identify the 2-carbon fragmentsas part of acetyl CoA

• process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways to identifyand describe the oxidation of atypical fatty acid to acetyl CoA


74


• identify that the enzymes ofglycolysis are found in cellcytoplasm and that glucose is theraw material for glycolysis

• summarise the energy release inglycolysis and identify the formin which this energy is captured

• identify the end product ofglycolysis as 2-oxopropanoate(pyruvate)

7. Glycolysis, thefirst stage ofrespiration, isthe aerobicdecomposition ofglucose torelease energy

• discuss the role of the oxidationof fatty acids in the inhibition ofthe pyruvate conversion to acetylCoA

• process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways to analysethe total energy output fromglycolysis

• describe the tricarboxylic acid(TCA) cycle as another multi-enzyme system involved inrespiration

• outline the TCA cycle asoxidative decarboxylation withthe addition of acetyl CoA as theenergy source in each cycle

• identify the products of the TCAcycle and explain the role ofoxidation and reduction in thecycle

8. Gentle exerciseuses type 1muscles andinvolves aerobicrespiration

• summarise the role of thecytochrome chain and identifythe location of the chain ofenzymes involved within themitochondrion

• process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways to producea flow chart summarising thesteps in aerobic respiration

• process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways to analysethe total energy output fromglycolysis and compare it with theenergy output from the TCAcycle

• describe the role of oxygen inrespiration


75


• identify NADH and FADH2 ascompounds essential for respiration

• describe the NADH/FADH2oxidation as part of anoxidation–reduction process leadingto ATP production

• construct an equation to summarisethe reduction/oxidation process inATP regeneration

9. ATP used inmusclecontraction iscontinuallyregenerated

• define oxidative phosphorylation asthe process that couples theoxidation of NADH and FADH2 tothe production of ATP

• process information from asimplified flow chart ofbiochemical pathways to analysethe steps in oxidativephosphorylation

• outline the problems associated withthe supply and use of fuels duringsprinting and relate this to thesprinting muscles’ reliance on non-oxygen/non-mitochondrial basedATP production

• explain the relationship between theproduction of 2–hydroxypropanoic(lactic) acid during anaerobicrespiration and the impairment ofmuscle contractions by changes incellular pH

10. Sprinting involvesmusclescontractingpowerfully andrapidly andutilises type 2muscle cells

• solve problems and processinformation from a simplified flowchart of biochemical pathways tosummarise the steps in anaerobicglycolysis and analyse the totalenergy output from this process

• use available evidence and processinformation from a simplified flowchart of biochemical pathways totrace the path of lactic acidformation and compare this withthe process of fermentation

• process information to discuss theuse of multiple naming systems inchemistry using lactic acid(2-hydroxypropanoic acid or2-hydroxypropionic acid) as anexample


76

9.8 Option — The Chemistry of Art

Contextual Outline

Human cultural development has been mapped from prehistoric times by records on walls, inparchments and in sculptures. People have been fascinated by colour throughout time and artistshave searched for pigments to colour their works.

Until the advent of modern chemistry, many pigments were prepared from natural resources and therecipes for these pigments survived over thousands of years. Part of the continued need forrestoration of medieval artworks results from the fading and peeling of pigments that were preparedwithout knowledge of the chemistry of the canvas or the paints.

The advent of fireworks and coloured ‘neon’ lights are other examples of the use of colour. Ourfascination with colour is evident from the numbers of people who gather to watch the night sky lightup during fireworks displays. This module develops the idea that the study of the origins of colour inchemicals led to more advanced theories of atomic structure. These theories have helped us tounderstand, in particular, the chemistry and colours of the transition elements.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature, practice, applications and useof chemistry and the implications of chemistry for society and the environment.


77


• identify the sources of the pigmentsused in early history as readilyavailable minerals

• explain why pigments used needed tobe insoluble in most substances

• outline the early uses of pigmentsfor:- cave drawings- self-decoration including

cosmetics- preparation of the dead for burial

• outline the processes used and thechemistry involved to prepare andattach pigments to surfaces in anamed example of medieval orearlier artwork

• explain that colour can be obtainedthrough pigments spread on a surfacelayer (eg paints) or mixed with thebulk of material (eg glass colours)

• describe paints as consisting of:- the pigment- a liquid to carry the pigment

• describe an historical example toillustrate the relationship betweenthe discovery of new mineraldeposits and the increasing range ofpigments

1. From earliesttimes, people haveused colour todecoratethemselves andtheir surroundings

• analyse the relationship between thechemical composition of selectedpigments and the position of themetallic component(s) of eachpigment in the Periodic Table

• solve problems and perform a first-hand investigation or processinformation from secondarysources to identify minerals thathave been used as pigments anddescribe their chemicalcomposition with particularreference to pigments available andused in traditional art by Aboriginalpeople

• process information fromsecondary sources to identify thechemical composition of identifiedcosmetics used in an ancientculture such as early Egyptian orRoman and use available evidenceto assess the potential health riskassociated with their use

• identify data, gather and processinformation from secondarysources to identify and analyse thechemical composition of anidentified range of pigments


78


• identify Na+, K+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+,and Cu2+ by their flame colour

• explain the flame colour in terms ofelectrons releasing energy as theymove to a lower energy level

• explain why excited atoms only emitcertain frequencies of radiation

• distinguish between the termsspectral line, emission spectrum,absorption spectrum and reflectancespectrum

• describe the development of theBohr model of the atom from thehydrogen spectra and relate energylevels to electron shells

• explain what is meant by n, theprincipal quantum number

• identify that, as electrons return tolower energy levels, they emitquanta of energy which humans maydetect as a specific colour

• outline the use of infra-red and ultra-violet light in the analysis andidentification of pigments and theirchemical composition

2. By the twentiethcentury, chemistswere using arange oftechnologies tostudy the spectra,leading toincreasedunderstandingabout the originsof colours ofdifferent elements

• explain the relationship betweenabsorption and reflectance spectraand the effect of infra-red and ultra-violet light on pigments includingzinc oxide and those containingcopper

• perform first-hand investigationsto observe the flame colour ofNa+, K+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, andCu2+

• gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to analysethe emission spectra of sodium andpresent information by drawingenergy level diagrams to representthese spectral lines

• gather, process and presentinformation to:- describe the methodology

involved in laser microspectralanalysis

- assess the importance of thetechnology in assistingidentification of elements in acompound

- provide examples of thetechnology’s use

• solve problems and use availableevidence to discuss the merits andlimitations of the Bohr model ofthe atom


79


• define the Pauli exclusion principleto identify the position of electronsaround an atom

• identify that each orbital cancontain only two electrons

• define the term sub-shell

• outline the order of filling of sub-shells

• identify that electrons in theirground-state electron configurationsoccupy the lowest energy shells, sub-shells and orbitals available to themand explain why they are able tojump to higher energy levels whenexcited

• explain the relationship between theelements with outermost electronsassigned to s, p, d and f blocks andthe organisation of the PeriodicTable

• explain the relationship between thenumber of electrons in the outershell of an element and itselectronegativity

3. The distribution ofelectrons withinelements can berelated to theirposition in thePeriodic Table

• describe how trends in successiveionisation energies are used topredict the number of electrons inthe outermost shell and the sub-shells occupied by these electrons

• process information fromsecondary sources to analyseinformation about therelationship between ionisationenergies and the orbitals ofelectrons

• process information fromsecondary sources to use Hund’srule to predict the electronconfiguration of an elementaccording to its position in thePeriodic Table


80


• identify the block occupied by thetransition metals in the PeriodicTable

• define the term transition element

• explain why transition metals mayhave more than one oxidation state

• account for colour changes intransition metal ions in terms ofchanging oxidation states

4. The chemicalproperties of thetransition metalscan be explainedby their morecomplicatedelectronicconfigurations

• explain, using the complex ions of atransition metal as an example, whyspecies containing transition metalsin a high oxidation state will bestrong oxidising agents

• process and present informationfrom secondary sources bywriting electron configurationsof the first transition series interms of sub-shells

• perform a first-handinvestigation to observe thecolour changes of a namedtransition element as it changesin oxidation state

• solve problems and processinformation from secondarysources to write half-equationsand account for the changes inoxidation state

• choose equipment, perform afirst-hand investigation todemonstrate and gather first-hand information about theoxidising strength of KMnO4

• explain what is meant by a hydratedion in solution

• describe hydrated ions as examplesof a coordination complex or acomplex ion and identify examples

• describe molecules or ions attachedto a metal ion in a complex ion asligands

• explain that ligands have at least oneatom with a lone pair of electrons

• identify examples of chelated ligands

5. The formation ofcomplex ions bytransition metalions increasesthe variety ofcolouredcompounds thatcan be produced

• discuss the importance of models indeveloping an understanding of thenature of ligands and chelatedligands, using specific examples

• use available evidence andprocess information fromsecondary sources to draw ormodel Lewis structures andanalyse this information toindicate the bonding in selectedcomplex ions involving the firsttransition series

• process information fromsecondary sources to give anexample of the range of coloursthat can be obtained from onemetal such as Cr in different ioncomplexes


81

9.9 Option — Forensic Chemistry

Contextual Outline

A biologist asks for confirmation of a long-held view that two similar groups of organisms haveevolved from a common ancestor in the near past. A physicist wants an explanation for the differentspectra obtained from two apparently similar stars. The earth and environmental scientist wants toknow why trees are growing well at one site and the same species is dying off at a similar site closeby. Local council authorities want to trace the source of the chemical that caused a fish kill in theriver downstream of a park used by the general public.

All of the above and others from palaeontologists to plumbers, from investors in oil to investors injewellery, will ask chemists to identify materials. From engineers faced with identifying the cause ofroad slippage to specialist art restorers, technicians will ask chemists to describe and explain thequalities of molecules involved in their work. The signature shapes, compositions or behaviours ofchemicals are useful tools in solving many problems faced by people in all sectors of our society.

Forensic chemists work within the general field of analytical chemistry. They will be asked to workthrough samples, analyse compounds and mixtures to identify the trends or patterns in evidence anddraw conclusions from a wide range of investigations. The accuracy of the forensic chemist’s analysisis crucial and after the analysis and problem-solving is completed, the forensic chemist must alsohave the skills to select and use reporting styles that appropriately, as well as accurately,communicate the information obtained from the evidence.

This module increases students’ understanding of the applications and uses of chemistry, theimplications of chemistry for society and the environment and current issues, research anddevelopments in chemistry.


• outline precautions that may benecessary to ensure accuracy andprevent contamination of samplesfor analysis

• distinguish between organic andinorganic compounds

• explain that there are differentclasses of carbon compoundsincluding:- hydrocarbons- alkanols- alkanoic acidswhich can be identified bydistinguishing tests

• explain that the inorganicchemical properties of soils andother materials may be usefulevidence

1. The job of theforensic chemistis to identifymaterials andtrace theirorigins

• discuss, using a recent example,how progress in analyticalchemistry and changes intechnology can alter the outcomeof a forensic investigation

• solve problems and use availableevidence to discuss the importanceof accuracy in forensic chemistry

• solve problems and use availableevidence to discuss ethical issuesthat may need to be addressedduring an analytical investigation

• identify data, plan and performfirst-hand investigations todetermine a sequence of tests todistinguish between organic andinorganic compounds

• gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to presentinformation summarising a seriesof distinguishing tests to separate:- the groups of hydrocarbons- acids, bases and neutral saltsin the school laboratory and in theforensic chemist’s laboratory


82


• identify that carbohydrates arecomposed of carbon, hydrogenand oxygen according to theformula :

Cx (H2O)y

• identify glucose as a monomer anddescribe the condensationreactions which produce:- sucrose as an example of a

dissacharide- polysaccharides including

glycogen, starch and cellulose

• describe the chemical differencebetween reducing and non-reducingsugars

2. Analysis oforganic materialcan distinguishplant and animalmaterial

• distinguish between plant andanimal carbohydrates’composition in terms of thepresence of:- cellulose- starch- glycogen

• choose equipment, plan andperform a first-hand investigationto carry out a series ofdistinguishing tests for thecarbohydrates:- reducing and non-reducing

sugars- starch

• use available evidence and performfirst-hand investigations usingmolecular model kits, computersimulations or other multimediaresources to compare thestructures of organic compoundsincluding:- monosaccharides- starch


83


• distinguish between protein usedfor structural purposes and theuses of proteins as enzymes

• identify the major functionalgroups in an amino acid

• describe the composition andgeneral formula for amino acidsand explain that proteins arechains of amino acids

• describe the nature of the peptidebond and explain that proteins canbe broken at different lengths inthe chain by choice of enzyme

• compare the processes ofchromatography andelectrophoresis and identify theproperties of mixtures that allowthem to be separated by either ofthese processes

3. Because proteinsare a majorstructural andmetaboliccomponent of allliving organisms,the analysis ofprotein samplescan be useful inforensicchemistry

• discuss the role of electrophoresisin identifying the origins ofprotein and explain how this couldassist the forensic chemist

• perform first-hand investigationsusing molecular model kits,computer simulations or othermultimedia resources to presentinformation which describes thecomposition and generalisedstructure of proteins

• perform a first-hand investigationand gather first-hand informationabout a distinguishing test forproteins

• perform a first-hand investigationto carry out chromatography toseparate a mixture of organicmaterials such as the pigments inplants

• perform a first-hand investigationand gather first-hand informationto identify the range of solventsthat may be used forchromatography and suggestmixtures that may be separatedand identified by the use of thesesolvents

• perform a first-hand investigationto carry out the electrophoresis ofan appropriate mixture and useavailable evidence to identify thecharacteristics of the mixturewhich allow it to be separated bythis process


84


• outline the structure andcomposition of DNA

• explain why analysis of DNAallows identification of individuals

4. DNA is animportantcompound foundin all livingthings and is amost usefulidentificationmolecule

• describe the process used toanalyse DNA and account for itsuse in:- identifying relationships

between people- identifying individuals

• analyse information to discuss therange of uses of DNA analysis inforensic chemistry and useavailable evidence in discussing theissues associated with its use interms of the ethics ofmaintenance of data banks ofDNA

• explain what is meant by thedestructive testing of material andexplain why this may be aproblem in forensic investigations

• identify, outline and assess thevalue of the following techniquesin the analysis of small samples:- gas-liquid chromatography- high performance liquid

chromatography

5. Much forensicevidence consistsof very smallsamples andsensitiveanalyticaltechniques arerequired

• outline how a mass spectrometeroperates and clarify its use forforensic chemists

• analyse and present informationfrom secondary sources to discussthe ways in which analyticaltechniques may provide evidenceabout samples

• describe the conditions underwhich atoms will emit light

• identify that the emission ofquanta of energy as electronsmove to lower energy levels maybe detected by humans as aspecific colour

• explain why excited atoms in thegas phase emit or absorb onlycertain wavelengths of light

• account for the fact that eachelement produces its signature lineemission spectrum

6. All elementshave identifiableemission spectraand this can beused to identifytrace elements

• discuss the use of line emissionspectra to identify the presence ofelements in chemicals

• identify data, choose equipment,plan, and perform a first-handinvestigation using flame testsand/or spectroscope analysis asappropriate to identify and gatherfirst-hand information to describethe emission spectrum of a rangeof elements including Na and Hg

• process and present informationfrom secondary sources to analyseand identify individual elementspresent in a mixed emissionspectrum and use availableevidence to explain how suchinformation can assist analysis ofthe origins of a mixture


85

10 Course Requirements

For the Preliminary course:

• 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course

• the content in each module must be addressed over the course

• experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in Section 8.1

• practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 45 indicative hours of course time

• at least one open-ended investigation integrating the skills and knowledge and understandingoutcomes must be included in the course.

For the HSC course:

• the Preliminary course is a prerequisite

• the content in each module of the core and one option must be addressed over the course

• experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in Section 9.1

• 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course

• practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 35 indicative hours of course time

• at least one open-ended investigation integrating the skills and knowledge and understandingoutcomes must be included in the course.


86

11 Post-school Opportunities

The study of Chemistry Stage 6 provides students with knowledge, understanding and skills thatform a valuable foundation for a range of courses at university and other tertiary institutions.

In addition, the study of Chemistry Stage 6 assists students to prepare for employment and full andactive participation as citizens. In particular, there are opportunities for students to gain recognitionin vocational education and training. Teachers and students should be aware of these opportunities.

Recognition of Student Achievement in Vocational Education and Training (VET)

Wherever appropriate, the skills and knowledge acquired by students in their study of HSC coursesshould be recognised by industry and training organisations. Recognition of student achievementmeans that students who have satisfactorily completed HSC courses will not be required to repeattheir learning in courses in TAFE NSW or other Registered Training Organisations (RTOs).

Registered Training Organisations, such as TAFE NSW, provide industry training and issuequalifications within the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).

The degree of recognition available to students in each subject is based on the similarity of outcomesbetween HSC courses and industry training packages endorsed within the AQF. Training packagesare documents that link an industry’s competency standards to AQF qualifications. Moreinformation about industry training packages can be found on the National Training InformationService (NTIS) website (www.ntis.gov.au).

Recognition by TAFE NSW

TAFE NSW conducts courses in a wide range of industry areas, as outlined each year in the TAFENSW Handbook. Under current arrangements, the recognition available to students of Chemistry inrelevant courses conducted by TAFE is described in the HSC/TAFE Credit Transfer Guide. Thisguide is produced by the Board of Studies and TAFE NSW and is distributed annually to all schoolsand colleges. Teachers should refer to this guide and be aware of the recognition available to theirstudents through the study of Chemistry Stage 6. This information can be found on the HSC / TAFECredit Transfer website (www.det.nsw.edu.au/hsctafe).

Recognition by other Registered Training Organisations

Students may also negotiate recognition into a training package qualification with another RegisteredTraining Organisation. Each student will need to provide the RTO with evidence of satisfactoryachievement in Chemistry Stage 6 so that the degree of recognition available can be determined.


87

12 Assessment and Reporting

12.1 Requirements and Advice

The information in this section of the syllabus relates to the Board of Studies’ requirements forassessing and reporting achievement in the Preliminary and HSC courses for the Higher SchoolCertificate.

Assessment is the process of gathering information and making judgements about student achievementfor a variety of purposes.

In the Preliminary and HSC courses those purposes include:

• assisting student learning

• evaluating and improving teaching and learning programs

• providing evidence of satisfactory achievement and completion in the Preliminary course

• providing the Higher School Certificate results.

Reporting refers to the Higher School Certificate documents received by students that are used by theBoard to report both the internal and external measures of achievement.

NSW Higher School Certificate results will be based on:

• an assessment mark submitted by the school and produced in accordance with the Board’srequirements for the internal assessment program

• an examination mark derived from the HSC external examinations.

Results will be reported using a course report containing a performance scalewith bands describing standards of achievement in the course.

The use of both internal assessment and external examinations of student achievement allowsmeasures and observations to be made at several points and in different ways throughout the HSCcourse. Taken together, the external examinations and internal assessment marks provide a valid andreliable assessment of the achievement of the knowledge, understanding and skills described for eachcourse.

Standards Referencing and the HSC Examination

The Board of Studies will adopt a standards-referenced approach to assessing and reporting studentachievement in the Higher School Certificate examination.


88

The standards in the HSC are:

• the knowledge, skills and understanding expected to be learned by students — the syllabusstandards

• the levels of achievement of the knowledge, skills and understanding — the performancestandards.

Both syllabus standards and performance standards are based on the aims, objectives, outcomes andcontent of a course. Together they specify what is to be learned and how well it is to be achieved.

Teacher understanding of standards come from the set of aims, objectives, outcomes and content ineach syllabus together with:

– the performance descriptions that summarise the different levels of performance of the courseoutcomes

– HSC examination papers and marking guidelines

– samples of students’ achievement on assessment and examination tasks.

12.2 Internal Assessment

The internal assessment mark submitted by the school will provide a summation of each student’sachievements measured at points throughout the course. It should reflect the rank order of studentsand relative differences between students’ achievements.

Internal assessment provides a measure of a student’s achievement based on a wider range of syllabuscontent and outcomes than may be covered by the external examination alone.

The assessment components, weightings and task-requirements to be applied to internal assessmentare identified on page 91. They ensure a common focus for internal assessment in the course acrossschools, while allowing for flexibility in the design of tasks. A variety of tasks should be used to givestudents the opportunity to demonstrate outcomes in different ways and to improve the validity andreliability of the assessment.

12.3 External Examination

In Chemistry Stage 6 the external examinations include written papers for external marking. Thespecifications for the examination in Chemistry Stage 6 are on page 92.

The external examination provides a measure of student achievement in a range of syllabus outcomesthat can be reliably measured in an examination setting.

The external examination and its marking and reporting will relate to syllabus standards by:

• providing clear links to syllabus outcomes

• enabling students to demonstrate the levels of achievement outlined in the course performancescale

• applying marking guidelines based on established criteria.


89

12.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark in BoardDeveloped Courses

For each course the Board requires schools to submit an assessment mark for each candidate.

The collection of information for the HSC internal assessment mark must not begin prior to thecompletion of the Preliminary course.

The Board requires that the assessment tasks used to determine the internal assessment mark mustcomply with the components, weightings and types of tasks specified in the table on page 91.

Schools are required to develop an internal assessment program which:

• specifies the various assessment tasks and the weightings allocated to each task

• provides a schedule of the tasks designed for the whole course.

The school must also develop and implement procedures to:

• inform students in writing of the assessment requirements for each course before thecommencement of the HSC course

• ensure that students are given adequate written notice of the nature and timing of assessmenttasks

• provide meaningful feedback on students’ performance in all assessment tasks

• maintain records of marks awarded to each student for all assessment tasks

• address issues relating to illness, misadventure and malpractice in assessment tasks

• address issues relating to late submission and non-completion of assessment tasks

• advise students in writing if they are not meeting the assessment requirements in a course andindicate what is necessary to enable the students to satisfy the requirements

• inform students about their entitlements to school reviews and appeals to the Board

• conduct school reviews of assessments when requested by students

• ensure that students are aware that they can collect their Rank Order Advice at the end of theexternal examinations at their school.


90

12.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks

The school assessment advice and the external examination specifications for the Stage 6 sciencecourses are currently under review. The content of this section of the syllabus applies for 2003 only.Any modifications to this section will be distributed in mid-2003.

Preliminary Course

The suggested components, weightings and tasks for the Preliminary course are set out below.

Component Weighting Tasks might include

The Chemical Earth 25 Assignments

Metals 25 Fieldwork studies and reports

Water 25 Model making

Energy 25 Open-ended investigations

Oral reports

Practical tests

Reports

Research projects

Topic tests and examinations

Tasks should assess students’ abilities toconduct first-hand investigations andcommunicate information andunderstanding based on these investigations

Marks 100

There should be a balance between the assessment of:

• knowledge and understanding outcomes and course content,

and

• skills outcomes and course content.


91

HSC Course

The internal assessment mark for Chemistry Stage 6 is to be based on the HSC course only. Finalassessment should be based on a range and balance of assessment instruments.

Component Weighting Tasks could include:

Production Of Materials 25 AssignmentsFieldwork studies and reports

The Acidic Environment 25 Model making

Chemical Monitoring 25 Open-ended investigations

and Management Oral reports

Option 25 Practical tests

Reports

Research projects

Topic tests and examinations

Note:

• No more than 50% weighting may beallocated to examinations and topic tests

• A minimum of 30% weighting must beallocated to tasks that assess students’abilities to conduct first-hand investigationsand communicate information and understandings based on these investigations

Marks 100

There should be a balance between the assessment of:

• knowledge and understanding outcomes and course content,

and

• skills outcomes and content.

One task may be used to assess several components. It is suggested that 3–5 tasks are sufficient toassess the HSC course outcomes.


92

12.6 HSC External Examination Specifications


The written examination in Chemistry will consist of one examination paper of 3 hours duration(plus 5 minutes reading time). The examination paper will consist of TWO sections:

Section I Core (75 marks)

Part A (15 marks)

• There will be FIFTEEN multiple-choice questions.

• All questions will be compulsory.

• All questions will be of equal value.

• Questions will be based on the HSC core modules.

Part B (60 marks)

• Short-answer and extended response question/s.

• Marks for individual questions will be shown on the examination paper.

• All questions will be compulsory.

• Questions will be based on the HSC core modules.

Section II Option (25 marks)

• There will be FIVE questions: one on each of the FIVE HSC options. Each question may consistof several parts.

• Marks for individual parts will be shown on the examination paper.

• Candidates must attempt ONE question only.

• All questions will be of equal value.

HSC Options List

• Industrial Chemistry

• Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

• The Biochemistry of Movement

• The Chemistry of Art

• Forensic Chemistry


93

12.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment


Internal Assessment Weighting External Assessment Weighting

Core Modules

Option

Note: Assessment ofknowledge, understanding, andskills developed throughconducting first-handinvestigations should beincorporated into the coreand option as appropriate.

75

25

A written examination paperconsisting of:

Core Modules• Multiple-choice questions• Short-answer questions• Longer answer question/s

Option• Short-answer questions• Longer answer question/s

75

25

Marks 100 Marks 100


94

12.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards

Student performance in an HSC course will be reported against standards on a course report. Thecourse report contains a performance scale for the course describing levels (bands) of achievement, anHSC examination mark and the internal assessment mark. It will also show, graphically, the statewidedistribution of examination marks of all students in the course.

Each band on the performance scale (except for band 1), includes descriptions that summarise theattainments typically demonstrated in that band.

The distribution of marks will be determined by students’ performances against the known standardsand not scaled to a predetermined pattern of marks.


95

13 Appendices

Appendix 1: Glossary

The following information clarifies terminology used in the syllabus.

Biopolymers These are naturally occurring polymers such as cellulose, starch, andgluten which are already being used in several food and non-food areas.Biopolymers offer unique possibilities for the development of newproducts in a large variety of application areas. A large variety ofnatural polymers is available with special properties and with theadvantage of biodegradability and renewability.

IUPAC names The international Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry provides asystem for the clear communication of chemical nomenclature with anexplicit or implied relationship to the structure of compounds.

Semi-systematic or trivial names also exist, such as methane, propanol,styrene and cholesterol which are so familiar that few chemists realisethat they are not fully systematic. They are retained, and indeed, insome cases there are no better systematic alternatives.

Passivating metals Reactive metals which form an inactive coating as a result of reactionwith substances such as water or oxygen. For example, aluminium hasan inherent oxide film, that occurs naturally tovarying degrees according to the alloy composition. This film is inert,tenacious and re-forms immediately if removed by abrasive action.

Standard Pressure100 kPa

The Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA, 1989)established that the agreed value for standard state pressure is 100 kPa(1 bar). All thermochemical data should be stated at standard statepressure of 100 kPa and a temperature of 25°C. Refer to Aylward, G &Findlay, T, SI Chemical Data, 5th edition, Wiley Press, 2002.


96

Appendix 2: Biochemical Pathways Flowchart

stage 6 syllabus - assessment resource centre · chemistry stage 6 syllabus 7 3 continuum of...

Documents