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Springer Texts in Statistics

Advisors:George Casella Stephen Fienberg Ingram Olkin

E.L. Lehmann Joseph P. Romano

Testing StatisticalHypothesesThird Edition

With 6 Illustrations

E.L. Lehmann Joseph P. RomanoProfessor of Statistics Emeritus Department of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics Stanford UniversityUniversity of California, Berkeley Sequoia HallBerkeley, CA 94720 Stanford, CA 94305USA USA

[email protected]

Editorial Board

George Casella Stephen Fienberg Ingram OlkinDepartment of Statistics Department of Statistics Department of StatisticsUniversity of Florida Carnegie Mellon University Stanford UniversityGainesville, FL 32611-8545 Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3890 Stanford, CA 94305USA USA USA

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ISBN 0-387-98864-5 Printed on acid-free paper.

2005, 1986, 1959 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without thewritten permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, Inc., 233 Spring Street, NewYork, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis.Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, com-puter software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is for-bidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even ifthey are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or notthey are subject to proprietary rights.

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Dedicated to the Memory of

Lucien Le Cam (1924-2000) and John W. Tukey (1915-2000)

Preface to the Third Edition

The Third Edition of Testing Statistical Hypotheses brings it into consonancewith the Second Edition of its companion volume on point estimation (Lehmannand Casella, 1998) to which we shall refer as TPE2. We wont here comment onthe long history of the book which is recounted in Lehmann (1997) but shall usethis Preface to indicate the principal changes from the 2nd Edition.

The present volume is divided into two parts. Part I (Chapters 110) treatssmall-sample theory, while Part II (Chapters 1115) treats large-sample theory.The preface to the 2nd Edition stated that the most important omission is anadequate treatment of optimality paralleling that given for estimation in TPE.We shall here remedy this failure by treating the difficult topic of asymptoticoptimality (in Chapter 13) together with the large-sample tools needed for thispurpose (in Chapters 11 and 12). Having developed these tools, we use them inChapter 14 to give a much fuller treatment of tests of goodness of fit than waspossible in the 2nd Edition, and in Chapter 15 to provide an introduction tothe bootstrap and related techniques. Various large-sample considerations thatin the Second Edition were discussed in earlier chapters now have been moved toChapter 11.

Another major addition is a more comprehensive treatment of multiple testingincluding some recent optimality results. This topic is now presented in Chapter9. In order to make room for these extensive additions, we had to eliminate somematerial found in the Second Edition, primarily the coverage of the multivariatelinear hypothesis.

Except for some of the basic results from Part I, a detailed knowledge of small-sample theory is not required for Part II. In particular, the necessary backgroundshould include: Chapter 3, Sections 3.13.5, 3.83.9; Chapter 4: Sections 4.14.4;Chapter 5, Sections 5.15.3; Chapter 6, Sections 6.16.2; Chapter 7, Sections7.17.2; Chapter 8, Sections 8.18.2, 8.48.5.

viii Preface

Of the two principal additions to the Third Edition, multiple comparisonsand asymptotic optimality, each has a godfather. The development of multiplecomparisons owes much to the 1953 volume on the subject by John Tukey, amimeographed version which was widely distributed at the time. It was officiallypublished only in 1994 as Volume VIII in The Collected Works of John W. Tukey.

Many of the basic ideas on asymptotic optimality are due to the work of LeCam between 1955 and 1980. It culminated in his 1986 book, Asymptotic Methodsin Statistical Decision Theory.

The work of these two authors, both of whom died in 2000, spans the achieve-ments of statistics in the second half of the 20th century, from model-freedata analysis to the most abstract and mathematical asymptotic theory. In ac-knowledgment of their great accomplishments, this volume is dedicated to theirmemory.

Special thanks to Noureddine El Karoui, Matt Finkelman, Brit Katzen, MeeYoung Park, Elizabeth Purdom, Armin Schwartzman, Azeem Shaikh and themany students at Stanford University who proofread several versions of the newchapters and worked through many of the over 300 new problems. The supportand suggestions of our colleagues is greatly appreciated, especially Persi Diaco-nis, Brad Efron, Susan Holmes, Balasubramanian Narasimhan, Dimitris Politis,Julie Shaffer, Guenther Walther and Michael Wolf. Finally, heartfelt thanks go tofriends and family who provided continual encouragement, especially Ann Marieand Mark Hodges, David Fogle, Scott Madover, David Olachea, Janis and JonSquire, Lucy, and Ron Susek.

E. L. LehmannJoseph P. Romano

January, 2005

Contents

Preface vii

I Small-Sample Theory 1

1 The General Decision Problem 31.1 Statistical Inference and Statistical Decisions . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Specification of a Decision Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3 Randomization; Choice of Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.4 Optimum Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.5 Invariance and Unbiasedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.6 Bayes and Minimax Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.7 Maximum Likelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.8 Complete Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171.9 Sufficient Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2 The Probability Background 282.1 Probability and Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.2 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.3 Statistics and Subfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.4 Conditional Expectation and Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . 362.5 Conditional Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412.6 Characterization of Sufficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442.7 Exponential Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

x Contents

2.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3 Uniformly Most Powerful Tests 563.1 Stating The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563.2 The NeymanPearson Fundamental Lemma . . . . . . . . . . 593.3 p-values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633.4 Distributions with Monotone Likelihood Ratio . . . . . . . . . 653.5 Confidence Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.6 A Generalization of the Fundamental Lemma . . . . . . . . . 773.7 Two-Sided Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813.8 Least Favorable Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833.9 Applications to Normal Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.9.1 Univariate Normal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863.9.2 Multivariate Normal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4 Unbiasedness: Theory and First Applications 1104.1 Unbiasedness For Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104.2 One-Parameter Exponential Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114.3 Similarity and Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154.4 UMP Unbiased Tests for Multiparameter Exponential Families 1194.5 Comparing Two Poisson or Binomial Populations . . . . . . . 1244.6 Testing for Independence in a 2 2 Table . . . . . . . . . . . 1274.7 Alternative Models for 2 2 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304.8 Some Three-Factor Contingency Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324.9 The Sign Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1354.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1394.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

5 Unbiasedness: Applications to Normal Distributions 1505.1 Statistics Independent of a Sufficient Statistic . . . . . . . . . 1505.2 Testing the Parameters of a Normal Distribution . . . . . . . 1535.3 Comparing the Means and Variances of Two Normal Distribu-

tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1575.4 Confidence Intervals and Families of Tests . . . . . . . . . . . 1615.5 Unbiased Confidence Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1645.6 Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1685.7 Bayesian Confidence Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1715.8 Permutation Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1765.9 Most Powerful Permutation Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775.10 Randomization As A Basis For Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815.11 Permutation Tests and Randomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845.12 Randomization Model and Confidence Intervals . . . . . . . . 1875.13 Testing for Independence in a Bivariate Normal Distribution . 1905.14 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1925.15 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Contents xi

6 Invariance 2126.1 Symmetry and Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2126.2 Maximal Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2146.3 Most Powerful Invariant Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2186.4 Sample Inspection by Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2236.5 Almost Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2256.6 Unbiasedness and Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2296.7 Admissibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2326.8 Rank Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396.9 The Two-Sample Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2426.10 The Hypothesis of Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2466.11 Equivariant Confidence Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2486.12 Average Smallest Equivariant Confidence Sets . . . . . . . . . 2516.13 Confidence Bands for a Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . 2556.14 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2576.15 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

7 Linear Hypotheses 2777.1 A Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2777.2 Linear Hypotheses and Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2817.3 Tests of Homogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2857.4 Two-Way Layout: One Observation per Cell . . . . . . . . . . 2877.5 Two-Way Layout: m Observations Per Cell . . . . . . . . . . . 2907.6 Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2937.7 Random-Effects Model: One-way Classification . . . . . . . . . 2977.8 Nested Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3007.9 Multivariate Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3047.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3067.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

8 The Minimax Principle 3198.1 Tests with Guaranteed Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3198.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3228.3 Comparing Two Approximate Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . 3268.4 Maximin Tests and Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3298.5 The HuntStein Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3318.6 Most Stringent Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3378.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3388.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

9 Multiple Testing and Simultaneous Inference 3489.1 Introduction and the FWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3489.2 Maximin Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3549.3 The Hypothesis of Homogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3639.4 Scheffes S-Method: A Special Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3759.5 Scheffes S-Method for General Linear Models . . . . . . . . . 3809.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3859.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

xii Contents

10 Conditional Inference 39210.1 Mixtures of Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39210.2 Ancillary Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39510.3 Optimal Conditional Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40010.4 Relevant Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40410.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40910.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

II Large-Sample Theory 417

11 Basic Large Sample Theory 41911.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41911.2 Basic Convergence Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

11.2.1 Weak Convergence and Central Limit Theorems . . . 42411.2.2 Convergence in Probability and Applications . . . . . . 43111.2.3 Almost Sure Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

11.3 Robustness of Some Classical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44411.3.1 Effect of Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44411.3.2 Effect of Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44811.3.3 Robustness in Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

11.4 Nonparametric Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45911.4.1 Edgeworth Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45911.4.2 The t-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46211.4.3 A Result of Bahadur and Savage . . . . . . . . . . . . 46611.4.4 Alternative Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

11.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46911.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

12 Quadratic Mean Differentiable Families 48212.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48212.2 Quadratic Mean Differentiability (q.m.d.) . . . . . . . . . . . . 48212.3 Contiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49212.4 Likelihood Methods in Parametric Models . . . . . . . . . . . 503

12.4.1 Efficient Likelihood Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50412.4.2 Wald Tests and Confidence Regions . . . . . . . . . . . 50812.4.3 Rao Score Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51112.4.4 Likelihood Ratio Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

12.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51712.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

13 Large Sample Optimality 52713.1 Testing Sequences, Metrics, and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . 52713.2 Asymptotic Relative Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53413.3 AUMP Tests in Univariate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54013.4 Asymptotically Normal Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54913.5 Applications to Parametric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553

13.5.1 One-sided Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55313.5.2 Equivalence Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559

Contents xiii

13.5.3 Multi-sided Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56413.6 Applications to Nonparametric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567

13.6.1 Nonparametric Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56713.6.2 Nonparametric Testing of Functionals . . . . . . . . . . 570

13.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57413.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582

14 Testing Goodness of Fit 58314.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58314.2 The Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

14.2.1 Simple Null Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58414.2.2 Extensions of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test . . . . . . 589

14.3 Pearsons Chi-squared Statistic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59014.3.1 Simple Null Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59014.3.2 Chi-squared Test of Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59414.3.3 Composite Null Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

14.4 Neymans Smooth Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59914.4.1 Fixed k Asymptotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60114.4.2 Neymans Smooth Tests With Large k . . . . . . . . . 603

14.5 Weighted Quadratic Test Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60714.6 Global Behavior of Power Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61614.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62214.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

15 General Large Sample Methods 63115.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63115.2 Permutation and Randomization Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632

15.2.1 The Basic Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63215.2.2 Asymptotic Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636

15.3 Basic Large Sample Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64315.3.1 Pivotal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64415.3.2 Asymptotic Pivotal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64615.3.3 Asymptotic Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647

15.4 Bootstrap Sampling Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64815.4.1 Introduction and Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64815.4.2 The Nonparametric Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65315.4.3 Further Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65515.4.4 Stepdown Multiple Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658

15.5 Higher Order Asymptotic Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66115.6 Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66815.7 Subsampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673

15.7.1 The Basic Theorem in the I.I.D. Case . . . . . . . . . . 67415.7.2 Comparison with the Bootstrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67715.7.3 Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680

15.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68215.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690

A Auxiliary Results 692A.1 Equivalence Relations; Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692

xiv Contents

A.2 Convergence of Functions; Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 693A.3 Banach and Hilbert Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696A.4 Dominated Families of Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698A.5 The Weak Compactness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700

References 702

Author Index 757

Subject Index 767

Part I

Small-Sample Theory

1The General Decision Problem

1.1 Statistical Inference and Statistical Decisions

The raw material of a statistical investigation is a set of observations; these arethe values taken on by random variables X whose distribution P is at leastpartly unknown. Of the parameter , which labels the distribution, it is assumedknown only that it lies in a certain set , the parameter space. Statistical infer-ence is concerned with methods of using this observational material to obtaininformation concerning the distribution of X or the parameter with which it islabeled. To arrive at a more precise formulation of the problem we shall considerthe purpose of the inference.

The need for statistical analysis stems from the fact that the distribution of X,and hence some aspect of the situation underlying the mathematical model, is notknown. The consequence of such a lack of knowledge is uncertainty as to the bestmode of behavior. To formalize this, suppose that a choice has to be made betweena number of alternative actions. The observations, by providing information aboutthe distribution from which they came, also provide guidance as to the bestdecision. The problem is to determine a rule which, for each set of values of theobservations, specifies what decision should be taken. Mathematically such a ruleis a function , which to each possible value x of the random variables assigns adecision d = (x), that is, a function whose domain is the set of values of X andwhose range is the set of possible decisions.

In order to see how should be chosen, one must compare the consequences ofusing different rules. To this end suppose that the consequence of taking decision dwhen the distribution of X is P is a loss, which can be expressed as a nonnegativereal number L(, d). Then the long-term average loss that would result fromthe use of in a number of repetitions of the experiment is the expectation

4 1. The General Decision Problem

E[L(, (X))] evaluated under the assumption that P is the true distribution ofX. This expectation, which depends on the decision rule and the distributionP, is called the risk function of and will be denoted by R(, ). By basing thedecision on the observations, the original problem of choosing a decision d withloss function L(, d) is thus replaced by that of choosing , where the loss is nowR(, ).

The above discussion suggests that the aim of statistics is the selection ofa decision function which minimizes the resulting risk. As will be seen later,this statement of aims is not sufficiently precise to be meaningful; its properinterpretation is in fact one of the basic problems of the theory.

1.2 Specification of a Decision Problem

The methods required for the solution of a specific statistical problem dependquite strongly on the three elements that define it: the class P = {P, } towhich the distribution of X is assumed to belong; the structure of the space Dof possible decisions d; and the form of the loss function L. In order to obtainconcrete results it is therefore necessary to make specific assumptions about theseelements. On the other hand, if the theory is to be more than a collection ofisolated results, the assumptions must be broad enough either to be of wideapplicability or to define classes of problems for which a unified treatment ispossible.

Consider first the specification of the class P. Precise numerical assumptionsconcerning probabilities or probability distributions are usually not warranted.However, it is frequently possible to assume that certain events have equal prob-abilities and that certain other are statistically independent. Another type ofassumption concerns the relative order of certain infinitesimal probabilities, forexample the probability of occurrences in an interval of time or space as thelength of the internal tends to zero. The following classes of distributions arederived on the basis of only such assumptions, and are therefore applicable in agreat variety of situations.

The binomial distribution b(p, n) with

P (X = x) =

(n

x

)px(1 p)nx, x = 0, . . . , n. 0 p 1. (1.1)

This is the distribution of the total number of successes in n independent trialswhen the probability of success for each trial is p.

The Poisson distribution P () with

P (X = x) =x

x!e , x = 0, 1, . . . , 0 < . (1.2)

This is the distribution of the number of events occurring in a fixed interval oftime or space if the probability of more than one occurrence in a very shortinterval is of smaller order of magnitude than that of a single occurrence, and ifthe numbers of events in nonoverlapping intervals are statistically independent.Under these assumptions, the process generating the events is called a Poisson

1.2. Specification of a Decision Problem 5

process. Such processes are discussed, for example, in the books by Feller (1968),Ross (1996), and Taylor and Karlin (1998).

The normal distribution N(, 2) with probability density

p(x) =12

exp[ 1

22(x )2

], < x, < , 0 < . (1.3)

Under very general conditions, which are made precise by the central limit the-orem, this is the approximate distribution of the sum of a large number ofindependent random variables when the relative contribution of each term tothe sum is small.

We consider next the structure of the decision space D. The great variety ofpossibilities is indicated by the following examples.

Example 1.2.1 Let X1, . . . , Xn be a sample from one of the distributions (1.1)(1.3), that is let the Xs be distributed independently and identically accordingto one of these distributions. Let be p, , or the pair (, ) respectively, and let = () be a real-valued function of .

(i) If one wishes to decide whether or not exceeds some specified value 0,the choice lies between the two decisions d0 : > 0 and d1 : 0. In specificapplications these decisions might correspond to the acceptance or rejection of alot of manufactured goods, of an experimental airplane as ready for flight testing,of a new treatment as an improvement over a standard one, and so on. The lossfunction of course depends on the application to be made. Typically, the loss is 0if the correct decision is chosen, while for an incorrect decision the losses L(, d0)and L(, d1) are increasing functions of | 0|.

(ii) At the other end of the scale is the much more detailed problem of ob-taining a numerical estimate of . Here a decision d of the statistician is a realnumber, the estimate of , and the losses might be L(, d) = v()w(|d |),where w is a strictly increasing function of the error |d |.

(iii) An intermediate case is the choice between the three alternatives d0 : < 0, d1 : > 1, d2 : 0 1, for example accepting a new treatment,rejecting it, or recommending it for further study.

The distinction illustrated by this example is the basis for one of the princi-pal classifications of statistical methods. Two-decision problems such as (i) areusually formulated in terms of testing a hypothesis which is to be accepted orrejected (see Chapter 3). It is the theory of this class of problems with which weshall be mainly concerned here. The other principal branch of statistics is thetheory of point estimation dealing with problems such as (ii). This is the subjectof TPE2. The intermediate problem (iii) is a special case of a multiple decisionprocedure. Some problems of this kind are treated in Ferguson (1967, Chapter 6);a discussion of some others is given in Chapter 9.

Example 1.2.2 Suppose that the data consist of samples Xij , j = 1, . . . , ni,from normal populations N(i, 2), i = 1, . . . , s.

(i) Consider first the case s = 2 and the question of whether or not there isa material difference between the two populations. This has the same structureas problem (iii) of the previous example. Here the choice lies between the three


decisions d0 : |2 1| , d1 : 2 > 1 + , d2 : 2 < 1 , where ispreassigned. An analogous problem, involving k + 1 possible decisions, occursin the general case of k populations. In this case one must choose between thedecision that the k distributions do not differ materially, d0 : max |j i| ,and the decisions dk : max |j i| > and k is the largest of the means.

(ii) A related problem is that of ranking the distributions in increasing orderof their mean .

(iii) Alternatively, a standard 0 may be given and the problem is to decidewhich, if any, of the population means exceed the standard.

Example 1.2.3 Consider two distributionsto be specific, two Poisson distri-butions P (1), P (2)and suppose that 1 is known to be less than 2 but thatotherwise the s are unknown. Let Z1, . . . , Zn be independently distributed, eachaccording to either P (1) or P (2). Then each Z is to be classified as to whichof the two distributions it comes from. Here the loss might be the number of Zsthat are incorrectly classified, multiplied by a suitable function of 1 and 2. Anexample of the complexity that such problems can attain and the conceptual aswell as mathematical difficulties that they may involve is provided by the effortsof anthropologists to classify the human population into a number of homoge-neous races by studying the frequencies of the various blood groups and of othergenetic characters.

All the problems considered so far could be termed action problems. It wasassumed in all of them that if were known a unique correct decision wouldbe available, that is, given any , there exists a unique d for which L(, d) = 0.However, not all statistical problems are so clear-cut. Frequently it is a questionof providing a convenient summary of the data or indicating what informationis available concerning the unknown parameter or distribution. This informationwill be used for guidance in various considerations but will not provide the solebasis for any specific decisions. In such cases the emphasis is on the inferencerather than on the decision aspect of the problem. Although formally it can stillbe considered a decision problem if the inferential statement itself is interpreted asthe decision to be taken, the distinction is of conceptual and practical significancedespite the fact that frequently it is ignored.1An important class of such problems,estimation by interval, is illustrated by the following example. (For the more usualformulation in terms of confidence intervals, see Sections 3.5, 5.4 and 5.5.)

Example 1.2.4 Let X = (X1, . . . , Xn) be a sample from N(, 2) and let a de-cision consist in selecting an interval [L, L] and stating that it contains . Supposethat decision procedures are restricted to intervals [L(X), L(X)] whose expectedlength for all and does not exceed k where k is some preassigned constant.An appropriate loss function would be 0 if the decision is correct and would oth-erwise depend on the relative position of the interval to the true value of . Inthis case there are many correct decisions corresponding to a given distributionN(, 2).

1For a more detailed discussion of this distinction see, for example, Cox (1958), Blyth(1970), and Barnett (1999).

1.2. Specification of a Decision Problem 7

It remains to discuss the choice of loss function, and of the three elementsdefining the problem this is perhaps the most difficult to specify. Even in thesimplest case, where all losses eventually reduce to financial ones, it can hardlybe expected that one will be able to evaluate all the short- and long-term con-sequences of an action. Frequently it is possible to simplify the formulation bytaking into account only certain aspects of the loss function. As an illustrationconsider Example 1.2.1(i) and let L(, d0) = a for () 0 and L(, d1) = b for() > 0. The risk function becomes

R(, ) ={

aP{(X) = d0} if 0,bP{(X) = d1} if > 0, (1.4)

and is seen to involve only the two probabilities of error, with weights whichcan be adjusted according to the relative importance of these errors. Simi-larly, in Example 1.2.3 one may wish to restrict attention to the number ofmisclassifications.

Unfortunately, such a natural simplification is not always available, and in theabsence of specific knowledge it becomes necessary to select the loss functionin some conventional way, with mathematical simplicity usually an importantconsideration. In point estimation problems such as that considered in Example1.2.1(ii), if one is interested in estimating a real-valued function = (), it iscustomary to take the square of the error, or somewhat more generally to put

L(, d) = v()(d )2. (1.5)

Besides being particularly simple mathematically, this can be considered as anapproximation to the true loss function L provided that for each fixed , L(, d)is twice differentiable in d, that L(, ()) = 0 for all , and that the error is notlarge.

It is frequently found that, within one problem, quite different types of lossesmay occur, which are difficult to measure on a common scale. Consider oncemore Example 1.2.1(i) and suppose that 0 is the value of when a standardtreatment is applied to a situation in medicine, agriculture, or industry. Theproblem is that of comparing some new process with unknown to the standardone. Turning down the new method when it is actually superior, or adopting itwhen it is not, clearly entails quite different consequences. In such cases it issometimes convenient to treat the various loss components, say L1, L2, . . . , Lr,separately. Suppose in particular that r = 2 and the L1 represents the moreserious possibility. One can then assign a bound to this risk component, that is,impose the condition

EL1(, (X)) , (1.6)

and subject to this condition minimize the other component of the risk. Example1.2.4 provides an illustration of this procedure. The length of the interval [L, L](measured in -units) is one component of the loss function, the other being theloss that results if the interval does not cover the true .


1.3 Randomization; Choice of Experiment

The description of the general decision problem given so far is still too narrow incertain respects. It has been assumed that for each possible value of the randomvariables a definite decision must be chosen. Instead, it is convenient to permit theselection of one out of a number of decisions according to stated probabilities, ormore generally the selection of a decision according to a probability distributiondefined over the decision space; which distribution depends of course on whatx is observed. One way to describe such a randomized procedure is in terms ofa nonrandomized procedure depending on X and a random variable Y whosevalues lie in the decision space and whose conditional distribution given x isindependent of .

Although it may run counter to ones intuition that such extra randomiza-tion should have any value, there is no harm in permitting this greater freedomof choice. If the intuitive misgivings are correct, it will turn out that the op-timum procedures always are of the simple nonrandomized kind. Actually, theintroduction of randomized procedures leads to an important mathematical sim-plification by enlarging the class of risk functions so that it becomes convex. Inaddition, there are problems in which some features of the risk function such asits maximum can be improved by using a randomized procedure.

Another assumption that tacitly has been made so far is that a definite experi-ment has already been decided upon so that it is known what observations will betaken. However, the statistical considerations involved in designing an experimentare no less important than those concerning its analysis. One question in par-ticular that must be decided before an investigation is undertaken is how manyobservations should be taken so that the risk resulting from wrong decisions willnot be excessive. Frequently it turns out that the required sample size dependson the unknown distribution and therefore cannot be determined in advance asa fixed number. Instead it is then specified as a function of the observations andthe decision whether or not to continue experimentation is made sequentially ateach stage of the experiment on the basis of the observations taken up to thatpoint.

Example 1.3.1 On the basis of a sample X1, . . . , Xn from a normal distributionN(, 2) one wishes to estimate . Here the risk function of an estimate, forexample its expected squared error, depends on . For large the sample containsonly little information in the sense that two distributions N(1, 2) and N(2, 2)with fixed difference 2 1 become indistinguishable as , with the resultthat the risk tends to infinity. Conversely, the risk approaches zero as 0,since then effectively the mean becomes known. Thus the number of observationsneeded to control the risk at a given level is unknown. However, as soon as someobservations have been taken, it is possible to estimate 2 and hence to determinethe additional number of observations required.

Example 1.3.2 In a sequence of trials with constant probability p of success,one wishes to decide whether p 12 or p > 12 . It will usually be possible to reach adecision at an early stage if p is close to 0 or 1 so that practically all observationsare of one kind, while a larger sample will be needed for intermediate values ofp. This difference may be partially balanced by the fact that for intermediate

1.4. Optimum Procedures 9

values a loss resulting from a wrong decision is presumably less serious than forthe more extreme values.

Example 1.3.3 The possibility of determining the sample size sequentially isimportant not only because the distributions P can be more or less informativebut also because the same is true of the observations themselves. Consider, forexample, observations from the uniform distribution over the interval ( 12 , +12 ) and the problem of estimating . Here there is no difference in the amountof information provided by the different distributions P. However, a sampleX1, X2, . . . , Xn can practically pinpoint if max |Xj Xi| is sufficiently closeto 1, or it can give essentially no more information then a single observation ifmax |Xj Xi| is close to 0. Again the required sample size should be determinedsequentially.

Except in the simplest situations, the determination of the appropriate samplesize is only one aspect of the design problem. In general, one must decide notonly how many but also what kind of observations to take. In clinical trials, forexample, when a new treatment is being compared with a standard procedure,a protocol is required which specifies to which of the two treatments each of thesuccessive incoming patients is to be assigned. Formally, such questions can besubsumed under the general decision problem described at the beginning of thechapter, by interpreting X as the set of all available variables, by introducingthe decisions whether or not to stop experimentation at the various stages, byspecifying in case of continuance which type of variable to observe next, and byincluding the cost of observation in the loss function.

The determination of optimum sequential stopping rules and experimentaldesigns is outside the scope of this book. An introduction to this subject isprovided, for example, by Siegmund (1985).

1.4 Optimum Procedures

At the end of Section 1.1 the aim of statistical theory was stated to be thedetermination of a decision function which minimizes the risk function

R(, ) = E[L(, (X))]. (1.7)

Unfortunately, in general the minimizing depends on , which is unknown.Consider, for example, some particular decision d0, and the decision procedure(x) d0 according to which decision d0 is taken regardless of the outcomeof the experiment. Suppose that d0 is the correct decision for some 0, so thatL(0, d0) = 0. Then minimizes the risk at 0 since R(0, ) = 0, but presumablyat the cost of a high risk for other values of .

In the absence of a decision function that minimizes the risk for all , themathematical problem is still not defined, since it is not clear what is meantby a best procedure. Although it does not seem possible to give a definition ofoptimality that will be appropriate in all situations, the following two methodsof approach frequently are satisfactory.

The nonexistence of an optimum decision rule is a consequence of the possibil-ity that a procedure devotes too much of its attention to a single parameter value


at the cost of neglecting the various other values that might arise. This suggeststhe restriction to decision procedures which possess a certain degree of impar-tiality, and the possibility that within such a restricted class there may exist aprocedure with uniformly smallest risk. Two conditions of this kind, invarianceand unbiasedness, will be discussed in the next section.

Instead of restricting the class of procedures, one can approach the problemsomewhat differently. Consider the risk functions corresponding to two differentdecision rules 1 and 2. If R(, 1) < R(, 2) for all , then 1 is clearly preferableto 2, since its use will lead to a smaller risk no matter what the true value of is. However, the situation is not clear when the two risk functions intersectas in Figure 1.1. What is needed is a principle which in such cases establishes apreference of one of the two risk functions over the other, that is, which introducesan ordering into the set of all risk functions. A procedure will then be optimum ifits risk function is best according to this ordering. Some criteria that have beensuggested for ordering risk functions will be discussed in Section 1.6.

R(,)

Figure 1.1.

A weakness of the theory of optimum procedures sketched above is its de-pendence on an extraneous restricting or ordering principle, and on knowledgeconcerning the loss function and the distributions of the observable randomvariables which in applications is frequently unavailable or unreliable. These diffi-culties, which may raise doubt concerning the value of an optimum theory restingon such shaky foundations, are in principle no different from those arising in anyapplication of mathematics to reality. Mathematical formulations always involvesimplification and approximation, so that solutions obtained through their usecannot be relied upon without additional checking. In the present case a checkconsists in an overall evaluation of the performance of the procedure that thetheory produces, and an investigation of its sensitivity to departure from theassumptions under which it was derived.

The optimum theory discussed in this book should therefore not be understoodto be prescriptive. The fact that a procedure is optimal according to someoptimality criterion does not necessarily mean that it is the right procedure touse, or even a satisfactory procedure. It does show how well one can do in thisparticular direction and how much is lost when other aspects have to be takeninto account.

1.5. Invariance and Unbiasedness 11

The aspect of the formulation that typically has the greatest influence on thesolution of the optimality problem is the family P to which the distributionof the observations is assumed to belong. The investigation of the robustnessof a proposed procedure to departures from the specified model is an indis-pensable feature of a suitable statistical procedure, and although optimality(exact or asymptotic) may provide a good starting point, modifications are of-ten necessary before an acceptable solution is found. It is possible to extend thedecision-theoretic framework to include robustness as well as optimality. Supposerobustness is desired against some class P of distributions which is larger (possi-bly much larger) than the give P. Then one may assign a bound M to the risk tobe tolerated over P . Within the class of procedures satisfying this restriction, onecan then optimize the risk over P as before. Such an approach has been proposedand applied to a number of specific problems by Bickel (1984) and Kempthorne(1988).

Another possible extension concerns the actual choice of the family P, themodel used to represent the actual physical situation. The problem of choosinga model which provides an adequate description of the situation without beingunnecessarily complex can be treated within the decision-theoretic formulationof Section 1.1 by adding to the loss function a component representing the com-plexity of the proposed model. Such approaches to model selection are discussedin Stone (1981), de Leeuw (1992) and Rao and Wu (2001).

1.5 Invariance and Unbiasedness2

A natural definition of impartiality suggests itself in situations which are sym-metric with respect to the various parameter values of interest: The procedure isthen required to act symmetrically with respect to these values.

Example 1.5.1 Suppose two treatments are to be compared and that each isapplied n times. The resulting observations X11, . . . , X1n and X21, . . . , X2n aresamples from N(1, 2) and N(2, 2) respectively. The three available decisionsare d0 : |2 1| , d1 : 2 > 1 + , d2 : 2 < 1 , and the loss is wij ifdecision dj is taken when di would have been correct. If the treatments are to becompared solely in terms of the s and no outside considerations are involved,the losses are symmetric with respect to the two treatments so that w01 = w02,w10 = w20, w12 = w21. Suppose now that the labeling of the two treatments as1 and 2 is reversed, and correspondingly also the labeling of the Xs, the s,and the decisions d1 and d2. This changes the meaning of the symbols, but theformal decision problem, because of its symmetry, remains unaltered. It is thennatural to require the corresponding symmetry from the procedure and ask that(x11, . . . , x1n, x21, . . . , x2n) = d0, d1, or d2 as (x21, . . . , x2n, x11, . . . , x1n) = d0,d2, or d1 respectively. If this condition were not satisfied, the decision as towhich population has the greater mean would depend on the presumably quite

2The concepts discussed here for general decision theory will be developed in morespecialized form in later chapters. The present section may therefore be omitted at firstreading.


accidental and irrelevant labeling of the samples. Similar remarks apply to anumber of further symmetries that are present in this problem.

Example 1.5.2 Consider a sample X1, . . . , Xn from a distribution with density1f [(x )/] and the problem of estimating the location parameter , say themean of the Xs, when the loss is (d )2/2, the square of the error expressedin -units. Suppose that the observations are originally expressed in feet, andlet X i = aX with a = 12 be the corresponding observations in inches. In thetransformed problem the density is 1f [(x )/] with = a, = a.Since (d )2/2 = (d )2/2, the problem is formally unchanged. Thesame estimation procedure that is used for the original observations is thereforeappropriate after the transformation and leads to (aX1, . . . , aXn) as an estimateof = a, the parameter expressed in inches. On reconverting the estimate intofeet one finds that if the result is to be independent of the scale of measurements, must satisfy the condition of scale invariance

(aX1, . . . , aXn)a

= (X1, . . . , Xn) .

The general mathematical expression of symmetry is invariance under a suit-able group of transformations. A group G of transformations g of the samplespace is said to leave a statistical decision problem invariant if it satisfies thefollowing conditions:

(i) It leaves invariant the family of distributions P = {P, }, that is, forany possible distribution P of X the distribution of gX, say P , is also inP. The resulting mapping = g of is assumed to be onto3 and 1:1.

(ii) To each g G, there corresponds a transformation g = h(g) of the decisionspace D onto itself such that h is a homomorphism, that is, satisfies therelation h(g1g2) = h(g1)h(g2), and the loss function L is unchanged underthe transformation, so that

L(g, gd) = L(, d).

Under these assumptions the transformed problem, in terms of X = gX, =g, and d = gd, is formally identical with the original problem in terms ofX, , and d. Given a decision procedure for the latter, this is therefore stillappropriate after the transformation. Interpreting the transformation as a changeof coordinate system and hence of the names of the elements, one would, onobserving x, select the decision which in the new system has the name (x),so that its old name is g1(x). If the decision taken is to be independent ofthe particular coordinate system adopted, this should coincide with the originaldecision (x), that is, the procedure must satisfy the invariance condition

(gx) = g(x) for all x X, g G. (1.8)

Example 1.5.3 The model described in Example 1.5.1 is invariant also underthe transformations X ij = Xij + c,

i = i + c. Since the decisions d0, d1, and d2

3The term onto is used in indicate that g is not only contained in but actuallyequals ; that is, given any in , there exists in such that g = .

1.5. Invariance and Unbiasedness 13

concern only the differences 2 1, they should remain unchanged under thesetransformations, so that one would expect to have gdi = di for i = 0, 1, 2. It is infact easily seen that the loss function does satisfy L(g, d) = L(, d), and hencethat gd = d. A decision procedure therefore remains invariant in the presentcase if it satisfies (gx) = (x) for all g G, x X.

It is helpful to make a terminological distinction between situations like thatof Example 1.5.3 in which gd = d for all d, and those like Examples 1.5.1and 1.5.2 where invariance considerations require (gx) to vary with g. In theformer case the decision procedure remains unchanged under the transformationsX = gX and is thus truly invariant; in the latter, the procedure varies with gand may then more appropriately be called equivariant rather than invariant.Typically, hypothesis testing leads to procedures that are invariant in this sense;estimation problems (whether by point or interval estimation), to equivariantones. Invariant tests and equivariant confidence sets will be discussed in Chapter6. For a brief discussion of equivariant point estimation, see Bondessen (1983); afuller treatment is given in TPE2, Chapter 3.

Invariance considerations are applicable only when a problem exhibits certainsymmetries. An alternative impartiality restriction which is applicable to othertypes of problems is the following condition of unbiasedness. Suppose the problemis such that for each there exists a unique correct decision and that each decisionis correct for some . Assume further that L(1, d) = L(2, d) for all d wheneverthe same decision is correct for both 1 and 2. Then the loss L(, d) dependsonly on the actual decision taken, say d, and the correct decision d. The loss canthus be denoted by L(d, d) and this function measures how far apart d and d

are. Under these assumptions a decision function is said to be unbiased withrespect to the loss function L, or L-unbiased, if for all and d

EL(d, (X)) EL(d, (X))where the subscript indicates the distribution with respect to which the ex-pectation is taken and where d is the decision that is correct for . Thus isunbiased if on the average (X) comes closer to the correct decision than to anywrong one. Extending this definition, is said to be L-unbiased for an arbitrarydecision problem if for all and

EL(, (X)) EL(, (X)). (1.9)

Example 1.5.4 Suppose that in the problem of estimating a real-valued param-eter by confidence intervals, as in Example 1.2.4, the loss is 0 or 1 as the interval[L, L] does or does not cover the true . Then the set of intervals [L(X), L(X)]is unbiased if the probability of covering the true value is greater than or equalto the probability of covering any false value.

Example 1.5.5 In a two-decision problem such as that of Example 1.2.1(i), let0 and 1 be the sets of -values for which d0 and d1 are the correct decisions.Assume that the loss is 0 when the correct decision is taken, and otherwise isgiven by L(, d0) = a for 1, and L(, d1) = b for 0. Then

EL(, (X)) ={

aP{(X) = d0} if 1,bP{(X) = d1} if 0,


so that (1.9) reduces to

aP{(X) = d0} bP{(X) = d1} for 0,with the reverse inequality holding for 1. Since P{(X) = d0}+P{(X) =d1} = 1, the unbiasedness condition (1.9) becomes

P{(X) = d1} aa+b for 0,P{(X) = d1} aa+b for 1 .

(1.10)

Example 1.5.6 In the problem of estimating a real-valued function () withthe square of the error as loss, the condition of unbiasedness becomes

E[(X) ()]2 E[(X) ()]2 for all , .On adding and subtracting h() = E(X) inside the brackets on both sides, thisreduces to

[h() ()]2 [h() ()]2 for all , .If h() is one of the possible values of the function , this condition holds if andonly if

E(X) = () . (1.11)

In the theory of point estimation, (1.11) is customarily taken as the definition ofunbiasedness. Except under rather pathological conditions, it is both a necessaryand sufficient condition for to satisfy (1.9). (See Problem 1.2.)

1.6 Bayes and Minimax Procedures

We now turn to a discussion of some preference orderings of decision proceduresand their risk functions. One such ordering is obtained by assuming that in re-peated experiments the parameter itself is a random variable , the distributionof which is known. If for the sake of simplicity one supposes that this distributionhas a probability density (), the overall average loss resulting from the use ofa decision procedure is

r(, ) =

EL(, (X))() d =

R(, )() d (1.12)

and the smaller r(, ), the better is . An optimum procedure is one thatminimizes r(, ), and is called a Bayes solution of the given decision problemcorresponding to a priori density . The resulting minimum of r(, ) is calledthe Bayes risk of .

Unfortunately, in order to apply this principle it is necessary to assume notonly that is a random variable but also that its distribution is known. Thisassumption is usually not warranted in applications. Alternatively, the right-handside of (1.12) can be considered as a weighted average of the risks; for () 1 inparticular, it is then the area under the risk curve. With this interpretation thechoice of a weight function expresses the importance the experimenter attachesto the various values of . A systematic Bayes theory has been developed which

1.6. Bayes and Minimax Procedures 15

interprets as describing the state of mind of the investigator towards . For anaccount of this approach see, for example, Berger (1985a) and Robert (1994).

If no prior information regarding is available, one might consider the max-imum of the risk function its most important feature. Of two risk functions theone with the smaller maximum is then preferable, and the optimum proceduresare those with the minimax property of minimizing the maximum risk. Sincethis maximum represents the worst (average) loss that can result from the useof a given procedure, a minimax solution is one that gives the greatest possibleprotection against large losses. That such a principle may sometimes be quite un-reasonable is indicated in Figure 1.2, where under most circumstances one wouldprefer 1 to 2 although its risk function has the larger maximum.

R(,)

2

1

Figure 1.2.

Perhaps the most common situation is one intermediate to the two just de-scribed. On the one hand, past experience with the same or similar kind ofexperiment is available and provides an indication of what values of to ex-pect; on the other, this information is neither sufficiently precise nor sufficientlyreliable to warrant the assumptions that the Bayes approach requires. In suchcircumstances it seems desirable to make use of the available information withouttrusting it to such an extent that catastrophically high risks might result if it isinaccurate or misleading. To achieve this one can place a bound on the risk andrestrict consideration to decision procedures for which

R(, ) C for all . (1.13)[Here the constant C will have to be larger than the maximum risk C0 of the min-imax procedure, since otherwise there will exist no procedures satisfying (1.13).]Having thus assured that the risk can under no circumstances get out of hand,the experimenter can now safely exploit his knowledge of the situation, whichmay be based on theoretical considerations as well as on past experience; he canfollow his hunches and guess at a distribution for . This leads to the selectionof a procedure (a restricted Bayes solution), which minimizes the average risk(1.12) for this a priori distribution subject to (1.13). The more certain one is of, the larger one will select C, thereby running a greater risk in case of a poorguess but improving the risk if the guess is good.

Instead of specifying an ordering directly, one can postulate conditions that theordering should satisfy. Various systems of such conditions have been investigated


and have generally led to the conclusion that the only orderings satisfying thesesystems are those which order the procedures according to their Bayes risk withrespect to some prior distribution of . For details, see for example Blackwell andGirshick (1954), Ferguson (1967), Savage (1972), Berger (1985a), and Bernardoand Smith (1994).

1.7 Maximum Likelihood

Another approach, which is based on considerations somewhat different fromthose of the preceding sections, is the method of maximum likelihood. It hasled to reasonable procedures in a great variety of problems, and is still playinga dominant role in the development of new tests and estimates. Suppose fora moment that X can take on only a countable set of values x1, x2, . . . , withP(x) = P{X = x}, and that one wishes to determine the correct value of ,that is, the value that produced the observed x. This suggests considering foreach possible how probable the observed x would be if were the true value.The higher this probability, the more one is attracted to the explanation that the in question produced x, and the more likely the value of appears. Therefore,the expression P(x) considered for fixed x as a function of has been calledthe likelihood of . To indicate the change in point of view, let it be denotedby Lx(). Suppose now that one is concerned with an action problem involvinga countable number of decisions, and that it is formulated in terms of a gainfunction (instead of the usual loss function), which is 0 if the decision taken isincorrect and is a() > 0 if the decision taken is correct and is the true value.Then it seems natural to weight the likelihood Lx() by the amount that canbe gained if is true, to determine the value of that maximizes a()Lx()and to select the decision that would be correct if this were the true value of .Essentially the same remarks apply in the case in which P(x) is a probabilitydensity rather than a discrete probability.

In problems of point estimation, one usually assumes that a() is independentof . This leads to estimating by the value that maximizes the likelihood Lx(),the maximum-likelihood estimate of . Another case of interest is the class oftwo-decision problems illustrated by Example 1.2.1(i). Let 0 and 1 denote thesets of -values for which d0 and d1 are the correct decisions, and assume thata() = a0 or a1 as belongs to 0 or 1 respectively. Then decision d0 or d1 istaken as a1 sup1 Lx() < or > a0 sup0 Lx(), that is as

sup0

Lx()

sup1

Lx()> or b, and hence max Xi is sufficient for .

An alternative criterion of Bayes sufficiency, due to Kolmogorov (1942), pro-vides a direct connection between this concept and some of the basic notionsof decision theory. As in the theory of Bayes solutions, consider the unknownparameter as a random variable with an a priori distribution, and assume

1.10. Problems 21

for simplicity that it has a density (). Then if T is sufficient, the conditionaldistribution of given X = x depends only on T (x). Conversely, if () = 0 forall and if the conditional distribution of given x depends only on T (x), thenT is sufficient for .

In fact, under the assumptions made, the joint density of X and is p(x)().If T is sufficient, it follows from (1.20) that the conditional density of givenx depends only on T (x). Suppose, on the other hand, that for some a prioridistribution for which () = 0 for all the conditional distribution of given xdepends only on T (x). Then

p(x)()p(x)() d

= f[T (x)]

and by solving for p(x) it is seen that T is sufficient.Any Bayes solution depends only on the conditional distribution of given

x (see Problem 1.8) and hence on T (x). Since typically Bayes solutions togetherwith their limits form an essentially complete class, it follows that this is alsotrue of the decision procedures based on T . The same conclusion had alreadybeen reached more directly at the beginning of the section.

For a discussion of the relation of these different aspects of sufficiency in moregeneral circumstances and references to the literature see Le Cam (1964), Royand Ramamoorthi (1979) and Yamada and Morimoto (1992). An example of astatistic which is Bayes sufficient in the Kolmogorov sense but not according tothe definition given at the beginning of this section is provided by Blackwell andRamamoorthi (1982).

By restricting attention to a sufficient statistic, one obtains a reduction ofthe data, and it is then desirable to carry this reduction as far as possible. Toillustrate the different possibilities, consider once more the binomial Example1.9.1. If m is any integer less than n and T1 =

mi=1 Xi, T2 =

ni=m+1 Xi,

then (T1, T2) constitutes a sufficient statistic, since the conditional distributionof X1, . . . , Xn given T1 = t1, T2 = t2 is independent of p. For the same reason, thefull sample (X1, . . . , Xn) itself is also a sufficient statistic. However, T =

ni=1 Xi

provides a more thorough reduction than either of these and than various othersthat can be constructed. A sufficient statistic T is said to be minimal sufficient ifthe data cannot be reduced beyond T without losing sufficiency. For the binomialexample in particular,

ni=1 Xi can be shown to be minimal (Problem 1.17). This

illustrates the fact that in specific examples the sufficient statistic determined byinspection through the factorization criterion usually turns out to be minimal.Explicit procedures for constructing minimal sufficient statistics are discussed inSection 1.5 of TPE2.

1.10 Problems

Section 1.2Problem 1.1 The following distributions arise on the basis of assumptionssimilar to those leading to (1.1)(1.3).


(i) Independent trials with constant probability p of success are carried out untila preassigned number m of successes has been obtained. If the number of trialsrequired is X + m, then X has the negative binomial distribution Nb(p, m):

P{X = x} =(

m + x 1x

)pm(1 p)x, x = 0, 1, 2 . . . .

(ii) In a sequence of random events, the number of events occurring in any timeinterval of length has the Poisson distribution P (), and the numbers of eventsin nonoverlapping time intervals are independent. Then the waiting time T ,which elapses from the starting point, say t = 0, until the first event occurs, hasthe exponential probability density

p(t) = e , t 0.Let Ti, i 2, be the time elapsing from the occurrence of the (i 1)st eventto that of the ith event. Then it is also true, although more difficult to prove,that T1, T2, . . . are identically and independently distributed. A proof is given,for example, in Karlin and Taylor (1975).(iii) A point X is selected at random in the interval (a, b), that is, the proba-bility of X falling in any subinterval of (a, b) depends only on the length of thesubinterval, not on its position. Then X has the uniform distribution U(a, b) withprobability density

p(x) = 1/(b a), a < x < b.

Section 1.5Problem 1.2 Unbiasedness in point estimation. Suppose that is a continuousreal-valued function defined over which is not constant in any open subset of, and that the expectation h() = E(X) is a continuous function of forevery estimate (X) of (). Then (1.11) is a necessary and sufficient conditionfor (X) to be unbiased when the loss function is the square of the error.[Unbiasedness implies that 2()2() 2h()[()()] for all , . If isneither a relative minimum nor maximum of , it follows that there exist points arbitrarily close to both such that () + () and 2h(), and hencethat () = h(). That this equality also holds for an extremum of follows bycontinuity, since is not constant in any open set.]

Problem 1.3 Median unbiasedness.(i) A real number m is a median for the random variable Y if P{Y m} 12 ,P{Y m} 12 . Then all real a1, a2 such that m a1 a2 or m a1 a2satisfy E|Y a1| E|Y a2|.(ii) For any estimate (X) of (), let m() and m+() denote the infimumand supremum of the medians of (X), and suppose that they are continuousfunctions of . Let () be continuous and not constant in any open subset of. Then the estimate (X) of () is unbiased with respect to the loss functionL(, d) = |()d| if and only if () is a median of (X) for each . An estimatewith this property is said to be median-unbiased.

1.10. Problems 23

Problem 1.4 Nonexistence of unbiased procedures. Let X1, . . . , Xn be indepen-dently distributed with density (1/a)f((x )/a), and let = (, a). Thenno estimator of exists which is unbiased with respect to the loss function(d )k/ak. Note. For more general results concerning the nonexistence ofunbiased procedures see Rojo (1983).

Problem 1.5 Let C be any class of procedures that is closed under the transfor-mations of a group G in the sense that C implies gg1 C for all g G. Ifthere exists a unique procedure 0 that uniformly minimizes the risk within theclass C, then 0 is invariant.7 If 0 is unique only up to sets of measure zero, thenit is almost invariant, that is, for each g it satisfies the equation (gx) = g(x)except on a set Ng of measure 0.

Problem 1.6 Relation of unbiasedness and invariance.(i) If 0 is the unique (up to sets of measure 0) unbiased procedure with uniformlyminimum risk, it is almost invariant.(ii) If G is transitive and G commutative, and if among all invariant (almostinvariant) procedures there exists a procedure 0 with uniformly minimum risk,then it is unbiased.(iii) That conclusion (ii) need not hold without the assumptions concerning G

and G is shown by the problem of estimating the mean of a normal distributionN(, 2) with loss function ( d)2/2. This remains invariant under the groupsG1 : gx = x + b, < b < and G2 : gx = ax + b, 0 < a < , < b < .The best invariant estimate relative to both groups is X, but there does not existan estimate which is unbiased with respect to the given loss function.[(i): This follows from the preceding problem and the fact that when is unbiasedso is gg1.(ii): It is the defining property of transitivity that given , there exists g suchthat = g. Hence for any ,

EL(, 0(X)) = EL(g, 0(X)) = EL(, g10(X)).

Since G is commutative, g10 is invariant, so that

R(, g10) R(, 0) = EL(, 0(X)).]

Section 1.6Problem 1.7 Unbiasedness in interval estimation. Confidence intervals I =(L, L) are unbiased for estimating with loss function L(, I) = (L)2+(L)2provided E[ 12 (L + L)] = for all , that is, provided the midpoint of I is anunbiased estimate of in the sense of (1.11).

Problem 1.8 Structure of Bayes solutions.(i) Let be an unobservable random quantity with probability density (), andlet the probability density of X be p(x) when = . Then is a Bayes solution

7Here and in Problems 1.6, 1.7, 1.11, 1.15, and 1.16 the term invariant is used inthe general sense (1.8) of invariant or equivalent.


of a given decision problem if for each x the decision (x) is chosen so as tominimize

L(, (x))( | x) d, where ( | x) = ()p(x)/

()p(x) d is

the conditional (a posteriori) probability density of given x.(i) Let the problem be a two-decision problem with the losses as given in Example1.5.5. Then the Bayes solution consists in choosing decision d0 if

aP{ 1 | x} < bP{ 0 | x}

and decision d1 if the reverse inequality holds. The choice of decision is immaterialin case of equality.(iii) In the case of point estimation of a real-valued function g() with loss functionL(, d) = (g() d)2, the Bayes solution becomes (x) = E[g() | x]. Wheninstead the loss function is L(, d) = |g() d|, the Bayes estimate (x) is anymedian of the conditional distribution of g() given x.[(i): The Bayes risk r(, ) can be written as

[

L(, (x))( | x) d] p(x) dx,where p(x) =

()p(x) d.

(ii): The conditional expectation

L(, d0)( | x) d reduces to aP{ 1 | x},and similarly for d1.]

Problem 1.9 (i) As an example in which randomization reduces the maximumrisk, suppose that a coin is known to be either standard (HT) or to have heads onboth sides (HH). The nature of the coin is to be decided on the basis of a singletoss, the loss being 1 for an incorrect decision and 0 for a correct one. Let thedecision be HT when T is observed, whereas in the contrary case the decision ismade at random, with probability for HT and 1 for HH. Then the maximumrisk is minimized for = 13 .(ii) A genetic setting in which such a problem might arise is that of a couple, ofwhich the husband is either dominant homozygous (AA) or heterozygous (Aa)with respect to a certain characteristic, and the wife is homozygous recessive (aa).Their child is heterozygous, and it is of importance to determine to which genetictype the husband belongs. However, in such cases an a priori probability is usuallyavailable for the two possibilities. One is then dealing with a Bayes problem, andrandomization is no longer required. In fact, if the a priori probability is p thatthe husband is dominant, then the Bayes procedure classifies him as such if p > 13and takes the contrary decision if p < 13 .

Problem 1.10 Unbiasedness and minimax. Let = 0 1 where 0, 1are mutually exclusive, and consider a two-decision problem with loss functionL(, di) = ai for j(j = i) and L(, di) = 0 for i(i = 0, 1).(i) Any minimax procedure is unbiased. (ii) The converse of (i) holds providedP(A) is a continuous function of for all A, and if the sets 0 and 1 have atleast one common boundary point.[(i): The condition of unbiasedness in this case is equivalent to sup R() a0a1/(a0 + a1). That this is satisfied by any minimax procedure is seen by com-parison with the procedure (x) = d0 or = d1 with probabilities a1/(a0 +a1) anda0/(a0 + a1) respectively.(ii): If 0, is a common boundary point, continuity of the risk function impliesthat any unbiased procedure satisfies R(0) = a0a1/(a0 + a1) and hence supR(0) = a0a1/(a0 + a1).]

1.10. Problems 25

Problem 1.11 Invariance and minimax. Let a problem remain invariant rel-ative to the groups G, G, and G over the spaces X , , and D respectively.Then a randomized procedure Yx is defined to be invariant if for all x and g theconditional distribution of Yx given x is the same as that of g1Ygx.(i) Consider a decision procedure which remains invariant under a finite groupG = {g1, . . . , gN}. If a minimax procedure exists, then there exists one thatis invariant. (ii) This conclusion does not necessarily hold for infinite groups,as is shown by the following example. Let the parameter space consist ofall elements of the free group with two generators, that is, the totality offormal products 1 . . . n (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) where each i is one of the elementsa, a1, b, b1 and in which all products aa1, a1a, bb1, and b1b have beencanceled. The empty product (n = 0) is denoted by e. The sample point X isobtained by multiplying on the right by one of the four elements a, a1, b, b1

with probability 14 each, and canceling if necessary, that is, if the random factorequals 1n . The problem of estimating with L(, d) equal to 0 if d = and equalto 1 otherwise remains invariant under multiplication of X, , and d on the leftby an arbitrary sequence m . . . 21(m = 0, 1, . . .). The invariant procedurethat minimizes the maximum risk has risk function R(, ) 34 . However, thereexists a noninvariant procedure with maximum risk 14 .[(i): If Yx is a (possibly randomized) minimax procedure, an invariant minimaxprocedure Y x is defined by P (Y x = d) =

Ni=1 P (Ygix = g

i d)/N .

(ii): The better procedure consists in estimating to be 1 . . . k1 when 1 . . . kis observed (k 1), and estimating to be a, a1, b, b1 with probability 14 each incase the identity is observed. The estimate will be correct unless the last elementof X was canceled, and hence will be correct with probability 34 .]

Section 1.7Problem 1.12 (i) Let X have probability density p(x) with one of the values1, . . . , n, and consider the problem of determining the correct value of , sothat the choice lies between the n decisions d1 = 1, . . . , dn = n with gaina(i) if di = i and 0 otherwise. Then the Bayes solution (which maximizes theaverage gain) when is a random variable taking on each of the n values withprobability 1/n coincides with the maximum-likelihood procedure. (ii) Let Xhave probability density p(x) with 0 1. Then the maximum-likelihoodestimate is the mode (maximum value) of the a posteriori density of given xwhen is uniformly distributed over (0, 1).

Problem 1.13 (i) Let X1, . . . , Xn be a sample from N(, 2), and consider theproblem of deciding between 0 : < 0 and 1 : 0. If x =

xi/n and

C = (a1/a0)2/n, the likelihood-ratio procedure takes decision d0 or d, as

nx

(xi x)2< k or > k,

where k =

C 1 if C > 1 and k =

(1 C)/C if C < 1.


(ii) For the problem of deciding between 0 : < 0 and 1 : 0 thelikelihood ratio procedure takes decision d0 or d, as

(xi x)2n20

< or > k,

where k is the smaller root of the equation Cx = ex1 if C > 1, and the largerroot of x = Cex1 if C < 1, where C is defined as in (i).

Section 1.8Problem 1.14 Admissibility of unbiased procedures.(i) Under the assumptions of Problem 1.10, if among the unbiased proceduresthere exists one with uniformly minimum risk, it is admissible. (ii) That in generalan unbiased procedure with uniformly minimum risk need not be admissible isseen by the following example. Let X have a Poisson distribution truncated at0, so that P{X = x} = xe/[x!(1 e)] for x = 1, 2, . . . . For estimating() = e with loss function L(, d) = (de)2, there exists a unique unbiasedestimate, and it is not admissible.[(ii): The unique unbiased estimate 0(x) = (1)x+1 is dominated by 1(x) = 0or 1 as x is even or odd.]

Problem 1.15 Admissibility of invariant procedures. If a decision problemremains invariant under a finite group, and if there exists a procedure 0that uniformly minimizes the risk among all invariant procedures, then 0 isadmissible.[This follows from the identity R(, ) = R(g, gg1) and the hint given inProblem 1.11(i).]

Problem 1.16 (i) Let X take on the values 1 and + 1 with probability12 each. The problem of estimating with loss function L(, d) = min(| d|, 1)remains invariant under the transformation gX = X + c, g = + c, gd = d+ c.Among invariant estimates, those taking on the values X 1 and X + 1 withprobabilities p and q (independent of X) uniformly minimize the risk. (ii) That theconclusion of Problem 1.15 need not hold when G is infinite follows by comparingthe best invariant estimates of (i) with the estimate 1(x) which is X + 1 whenX < 0 and X 1 when X 0.

Section 1.9Problem 1.17 In n independent trials with constant probability p of success,let Xi = 1 or 0 as the ith trial is a success or not. Then

ni=1 Xi is minimal

sufficient.[Let T =

Xi and suppose that U = f(T ) is sufficient and that f(k1) = =

f(kr) = u. Then P{T = t | U = u} depends on p.]

Problem 1.18 (i) Let X1, . . . , Xn be a sample from the uniform distributionU(0, ), 0 < < , and let T = max(X1, . . . , Xn). Show that T is sufficient,

1.11. Notes 27

once by using the definition of sufficiency and once by using the factorizationcriterion and assuming the existence of statistics Yi satisfying (1.17)(1.19).(ii) Let X1, . . . , Xn be a sample from the exponential distribution E(a, b) withdensity (1/b)e(xa)/b when x a ( < a < , 0 < b). Use the factorizationcriterion to prove that (min(X1, . . . , Xn),

ni=1 Xi) is sufficient for a, b, assuming

the existence of statistics Yi satisfying (1.17)(1.19).

Problem 1.19 A statistic T satisfying (1.17)(1.19) is sufficient if and only if itsatisfies (1.20).

1.11 Notes

Some of the basic concepts of statistical theory were initiated during the firstquarter of the 19th century by Laplace in his fundamental Theorie Analytiquedes Probabilites (1812), and by Gauss in his papers on the method of least squares.Loss and risk functions are mentioned in their discussions of the problem of pointestimation, for which Gauss also introduced the condition of unbiasedness.

A period of intensive development of statistical methods began toward the endof the century with the work of Karl Pearson. In particular, two areas were ex-plored in the researches of R. A. Fisher, J. Neyman, and many others: estimationand the testing of hypotheses. The work of Fisher can be found in his books(1925, 1935, 1956) and in the five volumes of his collected papers (19711973).An interesting review of Fishers contributions is provided by Savage (1976), andhis life and work are recounted in the biography by his daughter Joan FisherBox (1978). Many of Neymans principal ideas are summarized in his Lecturesand Conferences (1938b). Collections of his early papers and of his joint paperswith E. S. Pearson have been published [Neyman (1967) and Neyman and Pear-son (1967)], and Constance Reid (1982) has written his biography. An influentialsynthesis of the work of this period by Cramer appeared in 1946. Further conceptswere introduced in Lehmann (1950, 1951ab). More recent surveys of the moderntheories of estimation and testing are contained, for example, in the books byStrasser (1985), Stuart and Ord (1991, 1999), Schervish (1995), Shao (1999) andBickel and Doksum (2001).

A formal unification of the theories of estimation and hypothesis testing, whichalso contains the possibility of many other specializations, was achieved by Waldin his general theory of decision procedures. An account of this theory, whichis closely related to von Neumanns theory of games, is found in Walds book(1950) and in those of Blackwell and Girshick (1954), Ferguson (1967), and Berger(1985b).

2The Probability Background

2.1 Probability and Measure

The mathematical framework for statistical decision theory is provided by thetheory of probability, which in turn has its foundations in the theory of measureand integration. The present chapter serves to define some of the basic concepts ofthese theories, to establish some notation, and to state without proof some of theprincipal results which will be used throughout Chapters 39. In the remainderof this chapter, certain special topics are treated in more detail. Basic notions ofconvergence in probability theory which will be needed for large sample statisticaltheory are deferred to Section 11.2.

Probability theory is concerned with situations which may result in differentoutcomes. The totality of these possible outcomes is represented abstractly bythe totality of points in a space Z. Since the events to be studied are aggregatesof such outcomes, they are represented by subsets of Z. The union of two setsC1, C2 will be denoted by C1 C2, their intersection by C1 C2, the complementof C by Cc = Z C, and the empty set by 0. The probability P (C) of an eventC is a real number between 0 and 1; in particular

P (0) = 0 and P (Z) = 1 (2.1)

Probabilities have the property of countable additivity,

P(

Ci)

=

P (Ci) if Ci Cj = 0 for all i = j. (2.2)

Unfortunately it turns out that the set functions with which we shall be con-cerned usually cannot be defined in a reasonable manner for all subsets of Zif they are to satisfy (2.2). It is, for example, not possible to give a reasonabledefinition of area for all subsets of a unit square in the plane.

2.1. Probability and Measure 29

The sets for which the probability function P will be defined are said to bemeasurable. The domain of definition of P should include with any set C itscomplement Cc, and with any countable number of events their union. By (2.1),it should also include Z. A class of sets that contains Z and is closed undercomplementation and countable unions is a -field. Such a class is automaticallyalso closed under countable intersections.

The starting point of any probabilistic considerations is therefore a space Z,representing the possible outcomes, and a -field C of subsets of Z, representingthe events whose probability is to be defined. Such a couple (Z, C) is calleda measurable space, and the elements of C constitute the measurable sets. Acountably additive nonnegative (not necessarily finite) set function definedover C and such that (0) = 0 is called a measure. If it assigns the value 1 to Z,it is a probability measure. More generally, is finite if (Z) < and -finite ifthere exist C1, C2, . . . in C (which may always be taken to be mutually exclusive)such that Ci = Z and (Ci) < for i = 1, 2, . . . . Important special cases areprovided by the following examples.

Example 2.1.1 (Lebesgue measure) Let Z be the n-dimensional Euclideanspace En, and C the smallest -field containing all rectangles1

R = {(z1, . . . , zn) : ai < zi bi, i = 1, . . . , n}.

The elements of C are called the Borel sets of En. Over C a unique measure can be defined, which to any rectangle R assigns as its measure the volume of R,

(R) =n

i=1

(bi ai).

The measure can be completed by adjoining to C all subsets of sets of measurezero. The domain of is thereby enlarged to a -field C, the class of Lebesgue-measurable sets. The term Lebesgue-measure is used for both when it is definedover the Borel sets and when it is defined over the Lebesgue-measurable sets.

This example can be generalized to any nonnegative set function , which isdefined and countably additive over the class of rectangles R. There exists then,as before, a unique measure over (Z, C) that agrees with for all R. Thismeasure can again be completed; however, the resulting -field depends on andneed not agree with the -field C obtained above.

Example 2.1.2 (Counting measure) Suppose the Z is countable, and let Cbe the class of all subsets of Z. For any set C, define (C) as the number ofelements of C if that number is finite, and otherwise as +. This measure issometimes called counting measure.

In applications, the probabilities over (Z, C) refer to random experiments orobservations, the possible outcomes of which are the points z Z. When record-ing the results of an experiment, one is usually interested only in certain of its

1If (z) is a statement concerning certain objects z, then {z : (z)} denotes the setof all those z for which (z) is true.

30 2. The Probability Background

aspects, typically some counts or measurements. These may be represented by afunction T taking values in some space T .

Such a function generates in T the -field B of sets B whose inverse image

C = T 1(B) = {z : z Z, T (z) B}

is in C, and for any given probability measure P over (Z, C) a probability measureQ over (T , B) defined by

Q(B) = P (T 1(B)). (2.3)

Frequently, there is given a -field B of sets in T such that the probabilityof B should be defined if and only if B B. This requires that T 1(B) Cfor all B B, and the function (or transformation) T from (Z, C) into2(T , B) isthen said to be C-measurable. Another implication is the sometimes convenientrestriction of probability statements to the sets B B even though there mayexist sets B / B for which T 1(B) C and whose probability therefore could bedefined.

Of particular interest is the case of a single measurement in which the functionof T is real-valued. Let us denote it by X, and let A be the class of Borel setson the real line X . Such a measurable real-valued X is called a random variable,and the probability measure it generates over (X , A) will be denoted by P X andcalled the probability distribution of X. The value this measure assigns to a setA A will be denoted interchangeably by P X(A) and P (X A). Since theintervals {x : x a} are in A, the probabilities F (a) = P (X a) are defined forall a. The function F , the cumulative distribution function (cdf) of X, is nonde-creasing and continuous on the right, and F () = 0, F (+) = 1. Conversely,if F is any function with these properties, a measure can be defined over theintervals by P{a < X b} = F (b) F (a). It follows from Example 2.1.1 thatthis measure uniquely determines a probability distribution over the Borel sets.Thus the probability distribution P X and the cumulative distribution function Funiquely determine each other. These remarks extend to probability distributionsover n-dimensional Euclidean space, where the cumulative distribution functionis defined by

F (a1, . . . , an) = P{X1 a1, . . . , Xn an}.

In concrete problems, the space (Z, C), corresponding to the totality of possi-ble outcomes, is usually not specified and remains in the background. The realstarting point is the set X of observations (typically vector-valued) that are be-ing recorded and which constitute the data, and the associated measurable space(X , A), the sample space. Random variables or vectors that are measurable trans-formations T from (X , A) into some (T , B) are called statistics. The distributionof T is then given by (2.3) applied to all B B. With this definition, a statisticis specified by the function T and the -field B. We shall, however, adopt theconvention that when a function T takes on its values in a Euclidean space, unlessotherwise stated the -field B of measurable sets will be taken to be the class of

2The term into indicates that the range of T is in T ; if T (Z) = T , the transformationis said to be from Z onto T .

2.2. Integration 31

Borel sets. It then becomes unnecessary to mention it explicitly or to indicate itin the notation.

The distinction between statistics and random variables as defined here isslight. The term statistic is used to indicate that the quantity is a function ofmore basic observations; all statistics in a given problem are functions definedover the same sample space (X , A). On the other hand, any real-valued statisticT is a random variable, since it has a distribution over (T , B), and it will bereferred to as a random variable when its origin is irrelevant. Which term is usedtherefore depends on the point of view and to some extent is arbitrary.

2.2 Integration

According to the convention of the preceding section, a real-valued function fdefined over (X , A) is measurable if f1(B) A for every Borel set B on thereal line. Such a function f is said to be simple if it takes on only a finite numberof values. Let be a measure defined over (X , A), and let f be a simple functiontaking on the distinct values a1, . . . , am on the sets A1, . . . , Am, which are in A,since f is measurable. If (Ai) < when ai = 0, the integral of f with respectto is defined by

f d =

ai(Ai). (2.4)

Given any nonnegative measurable function f , there exists a nondecreasingsequence of simple functions fn converging to f . Then the integral of f is definedas

f d = limn

fn d, (2.5)

which can be shown to be independent of the particular sequence of fns chosen.For any measurable function f its positive and negative parts

f+(x) = max[f(x), 0] and f(x) = max[f(x), 0] (2.6)are also measurable, and

f(x) = f+(x) f(x).If the integrals of f+ and f are both finite, then f is said to be integrable, andits integral is defined as

f d =

f

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